FAULKNER * KEPNER * PITKIN : I B R.AFLY OF THL U N IVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 973 ,ON :'* Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. University of Illinois Library 17198? GCT 29 li M 15 1985 L161 H41 U. S. A. An American History for the Upper Grades .... . . Harold U. Faulkner Dwight W. Morrow Professor of History Smith College Tyler Kepner Director of Social Studies Brookline Public Schools Broohline, Massachusetts Victor E. Pitkin Head of Social Studies Department Reading High School Reading, Massachusetts Drawings by James Daugherty Harper & Brothers Publishers New York and London U. S. A. Copyright, 1945, by Harper & Brothers Printed in the United States of America All rights in this book are reserved. It may not be usedjor dramatic, motion- or talking-picture purpose? without written authorization from the holder oj these rights. Nor may the book or part thereof be reproduced in any manner whatsoever without permission in writing except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address: Harper & Brothers, 49 East 33rd Street, New York 16, N. T. c-w I ' ~" *\ *? r 3- ' Contents Preface ix Unit One The Peoples of Europe Open Up the New World 1. An Awakening Old World Discovers a Strange New World 6 2. Settlers Follow in the Path of Explorers 23 3. Europeans Establish Different Ways of Living in the Americas 41 Unit Two The New World Separates from the Old 4. The American Revolution Paves the Way for Free Na- tions in America 64 5. The Latin-American Colonies Break the Chains that Bind Them to Europe 81 Unit Three The Idea of Democracy Takes Root and Grows in Ameri- can Soil 6. The Seeds of Representative Government Are Brought from England and Planted Here 106 7. The New Constitution Binds the States Together into a Strong Central Government 122 8. In the Early Days of the Republic, Democracy Means Dif- ferent Things to Different Men 138 9. Our American Neighbors Make Progress toward Democ- racy 155 Unit Four The Peoples of the Americas Push Back the Frontier 10. Pioneers, Diplomats, and Soldiers Carry the Flag to the Pacific 176 11. Courageous Settlers Move into the Heart of the Continent 193 12. The Moving Frontier Creates New Problems for the Peo- ples of America 208 Unit Five Changing Agriculture Produces Serious National Problems 13. Science and Machines Lead to a Revolution in Agriculture 228 14. Differences in Agricultural Ways of Life Set the Stage for the War Between the States 24 1 15. Hard Times in the South and West Stir the Farmers to Action 257 Unit Six The Machine Age Creates a New Way of Life 16. The Industrial Revolution Ushers in the Machine Age 278 17. The Misuse of Power by Big Business Leads to Govern- ment Regulation 291 18. The Machine Age Forces Labor to Organize into Unions 306 19. Our Country Grows Smaller as Man Conquers Distance 321 vi CONTENTS Unit Seven We a Nation of Immigrants Turn to the Better Things of Life 20. We Are a People Eager to Improve Our Way of Life 344 21. We Develop a Growing Interest in Our Music, Art, and Theater 358 22. Peoples from Many Lands Help Make the U. S. A. a Great Country 374 Unit Eight American Democracy Marches On to Aid the Common Man 23. Government in a Democracy Operates Through Political Parties 396 24. Political Bosses and Powerful Groups Sometimes Control Our Political Parties 410 25. The National Government Responds to the Demand for More Democracy 424 26. The States and the Cities Become Laboratories for Demo- cratic Experiments 437 Unit Nine As the World Grows Smaller, the United States Realizes Its Duties as a Leader in World Affairs 27. We Find Ourselves the Center of a World Slowly Growing Smaller 460 28. The United States and Its Neighbors Slowly Reach a Better Understanding 476 29. Events Force Us to Take an Increasing Interest in the Far East 493 30. Step by Step We Begin to Take Our Place in the Affairs of the World 507 Unit Ten A Rapidly Changing World Creates New Problems and Forces the Americas to Look to the Future 31. The New Deal Seeks New Solutions to Long-standing Problems 528 32. The Americas Join the United Nations in Defense of Freedom 545 33. Living Together in Today's World Places New Responsi- bilities on All Nations 560 Appendix I. The Declaration of Independence 579 II. The Constitution of the United States of America 582 III. Our Presidents: Their Terms and Parties 602 IV. The States of the Union 603 V. A Bookshelf 604 Index 607 Maps Trade Routes to Asia in the Late 1400's 9 Early Spanish and Portuguese Explorers 16 Early Explorers of North America 20 Latin-American Centers of Settlement before Jamestown 27 English Colonies and Their Neighbors 38 Latin-American Trade in Early Colonial Times 43 The Revolution in the North 73 The Western Campaign 74 Battlegrounds of the South 78 Revolt in Latin America 89 Latin America after the Revolutions 95 Latin America Today 1 60 Growth of the United States 180 Texan Revolution and the Mexican War .189 Alaska 191 Wagon Roads to the West 196 Main Indian Reservations 203 Our Northern Neighbors 205 Overland Routes to the Pacific 210 Grand Coulee Region 219 Agricultural Regions 232 Slavery Splits the Union 248 War Between the States 250 Industrial Areas 283 TV A A Great Experiment 303 Lawful Ages for Child Workers in Factories and Stores, 1944 317 Mainland Water Routes, 1860 323 Main Transcontinental Railroads 327 Proposed Postwar American Airlines 330 Where Recent Immigrants Have Settled 378 Negroes in United States, 1940 382 Trends in Presidential Voting 404 Election of 1912 431 Votes for Women before 19th Amendment 434 War of 1812 467 First World War 474 Caribbean Region 482 vii viii MAPS, CHARTS AND GRAPHS Inter-American Conferences 486 Boundary Settlements without War 490 The Far East in the 1860's 495 Our Pacific Possessions in 1940 497 Extent of Japanese Conquests 504 Defense of the Americas 549 United Nations World War Strategy 555 United States Today 578 Charts and Graphs Three Cornered Trade 51 Division of Power between Federal and State Governments 131 Checks and Balances 132 Bill of Rights 135 Our Two Party System 145 Canada in the British Commonwealth 167 Growth of Towns and Cities 289 A Corporation at Work 292 How a Holding Company Controls 297 Workers Turn to Unions 311 Two Ways of Organizing Labor 314 The Work Week Grows Shorter 318 Travel Time: Stage Coach to Plane 331 Trend of Public School Enrollments 347 Rise and Fall of Immigration 376 How a Party Organizes 398 The Merit System Grows 418 Pressure Groups at Work 420 Mayor-Council Government 447 Commission Government 448 City-Manager Government 449 Our Diplomatic Service 461 The Making of a Treaty 463 League of Nations and World Court 515 Prosperity and Depression 530 Employment and Unemployment 531 American Workers and Social Security, 1 940 542 The title of this textbook U. S. A. has both historical and contemporary significance. The record of the Second Continental Congress reveals that the symbol "U. S. A." was officially used as a govern- ment label before the words "United States" were so used. By congres- sional action in the summer of 1776, the public inspector was authorized to brand each cask of approved gunpowder with the letters "U. S. A." Meanwhile, several weeks earlier, the Declaratign of Independence had sanctioned the first official use of the term "United States of America." Today that term takes on fresh meaning, as we consider anew our rela- tionships with other Americans and our responsibilities in the Western Hemisphere. Too long have we thought of ourselves as simply the United States. We are, in emphatic fact, the United States of America. The young people of junior high school age will, a decade hence, be a considerable force, numerically and spiritually, in determining the atti- tude of this nation toward both domestic and world problems. For quite obvious reasons training for that responsible role must not be left wholly to the senior high school. Instruction in the social studies in grades seven and eight especially in the history of our country should, therefore, be gauged more carefully to the needs of the age which we are ap- proaching. This textbook in the history of the U. S. A. is written to meet the needs of the postwar junior high school generations. This end is sought through a studied effort to reach three major goals: (1) a presentation both inter- esting and meaningful to young people, who have a right to expect that history can be both; (2) an understanding of our country's development political, economic, social, and cultural as a basis of justifiable hope for the future; and (3) an orientation that recognizes the far-reaching effects of the Second World War, the place of this nation amgng her neighbors in this hemisphere and throughout the world, and our obliga- tions to face the realities of peace. To achieve the first goal of making this volume interesting and mean- ingful to young people, several devices have been employed. The content has been organized in ten comprehensive units. As every teacher knows, the march of time at an ever-increasing tempo adds constantly to the stuff of which history courses of study and textbooks are made. To strike a reasonable balance between orthodox details and the new is a major problem. The increasing popularity of unitary history as a means of or- ganizing historical events into manageable teaching materials needs no emphasis here. Nor has a more logical organization been devised as a basis for omitting materials a necessary process if both interest and meaning are to be maintained. ix x U.S.'A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Certain phases of our history have been either omitted or minimized. No attempt, for example, is made to discuss tariff, monetary, or bank- ing history, or the details of political reconstruction in the 1860's and 1 870's. Some other aspects are de-emphasized. Presidential elections, mili- tary details in contrast to general strategy, and the slavery controversy, for instance, are curtailed. Although the indiscriminate use of dates has been avoided, special effort has been made to develop a time sense both in the content and in the educational equipment. In the content one de- vice has been to relate happenings to key events, such as the American Revolution or the War Between the States. In the educational equipment of each chapter one section is devoted to "red-letter" years, and the activ- ities of each unit provide for time lines or similar time-sense exercises. Several unique features are introduced to create reading interest and to motivate learning. The first is the introductory incident for each chap- ter an episode which is not only interesting in itself but which usually is sufficiently comprehensive to orient the entire chapter. A second im- portant interest-creating feature is the unit biography. For each unit a 1,000-word biography of a character representative of the times is in- cluded as an integral part of the story. These ten men and women, through their lives and activities, should be an inspiration to all, for di- verse types of leaders are presented. In the third place, the human interest approach is taken whenever circumstances permit. Fourth, special effort has been made to keep the presentation simple in structure, vocabulary, and educational equipment, without sacrificing worthwhile and mean- ingful history. Not only is the educational equipment planned to offer interesting and constructive activities conducive to the learning process, but it is designed to emphasize the unitary concept. The Bookshelf in Appendix V is representative of every conceivable taste and interest. Finally, the animated maps, graphs, and charts, the unit drawings, and other illustrations have been specially designed or selected with interest and essential meaning constantly in mind. As one example of this effort, attention is directed to the two-page spread introducing each unit. These were drawn by James Daugherty, whose accomplishments as an illustra- tor and writer of children's books won him the Newbery Medal in 1939. To introduce this distinguished contemporary illustrator and his work to the readers of this textbook is a contribution second only to Mr. Daugh- erty's delightful interpretations of our history. The second major goal of this book is to develop an understanding of our country's growth in all of its important aspects. A glance at the table of contents will indicate that this has been done, with proper regard for balance. Although the democratic theme has been fully presented with special reference to practical politics historically developed, this has not been done at the expense of our economic, social, and cultural growth. Nor, as is pointed out below, has it sacrificed a necessary treatment of our foreign relations. A broad survey of the colonial period is. however, re- PREFACE xi tained for four reasons. First, increasingly the senior high school either omits or greatly de-emphasizes the period. Second, because of this fact upper grade United States history can profitably assume the responsibil- ity and thus establish one important means of differentiation between the two levels of instruction. Third, the significance of our democratic ori- gins increases in a world of competitive ideologies. Finally, our colonial beginnings merit emphasis as the basis fqr a way of life. Throughout this volume the. past is related to the present, and a justifiable hope for the future is either implicit or explicit. The third general goal of this history is to help young people better to understand the place of the U. S. A. among her neighbors, with special reference to the postwar years. This goal is approached in several ways. First, there is greater emphasis upon Latin America and Canada than has yet characterized United States history textbooks. Nor is this interest in our "near" neighbors confined to our foreign relations. The colonial his- tory of our neighbors is studied as a foundation for differing ways of liv- ing; their subsequent political and economic developments are presented as far as practicable. Our foreign relations have carried us into every quarter of the globe, including the Far East. Such relations must not be ignored at the junior high -school level. If our young people are to have intelligent attitudes in the postwar period, they must know that histori- cally We evolved from isolation to world awareness. They must know that machinery for world peace is not new, and that our participation in world affairs is likewise not a new departure. In brief, it is vitally important that they see the Second World War and our place among our world neighbors in historical perspective. For only thus can all qf us recognize our national obligations in the postwar world and face the realities of peace. Many of the chapters of this book were used experimentally in mimeo- graphed form in the grammar and junior high schools of several school systems in 194344. The book as a whole has materially benefited from the criticisms received, and the authors gratefully acknowledge the help- ful suggestions made by Miss Ruth E. Funk, Edward Devotion School, Brookline, Massachusetts; Miss Mary C. Howley, Central Junior High School, New Britain, Connecticut; and Mr. Neil C. Robinson, Parker Junior High School, Reading, Massachusetts. In this connection we also wish to acknowledge the special interest and co-operation of Dr. Elbridge C. Grover, Superintendent of Schools in Reading. Certain parts of the manuscript were kindly read by persons especially competent to pass upon accuracy and interpretation. We are indebted to Senator Robert M. LaFollette, Jr., of Wisconsin, for his helpful criticisms on the biographical treatment of his father; to Mr. Richard M. Perdew, Senior High School, Bronxville, New York (formerly of the Division of Inter-American Affairs of the Office of Education, Washington, D. C.), for constructive reading of Latin-American content; and to Mr. Theodore xii U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY F. M. Newton, Educational Supervisor, Canadian Wartime Information Board, for valuable comments on the Canadian portions. We wish to thank Mr. John A. Lomax for his kind permission to re- print the chorus of "Git Along, Little Dogies" from his Cowboy Songs published by The Macmillan Company; the University of Minnesota Press for verses from "Goodbye, My Party, Goodbye"; The Macmillan Company for brief excerpts from Hart, Contemporaries, Volume II, and from Bryce, American Commonwealth, Volume II; and Harcourt, Brace & Company for excerpts from the Lincoln Steffens letter to Theodore Roosevelt, from The Letters of Lincoln Steffens, copyright 1938, by Har- court, Brace & Company, Inc. The intelligent and enthusiastic co-operation of Miss Mary Allen Hood, Miss Irene Allemano, and Mr. Frank E. Tudor has produced animated charts and maps in keeping with the spirit of the text. We thank them for their interest as well as for their craftsmanship. Acknowledgment is also gratefully made of the courteous services rendered by the librarian and staff of the Brookline Public Library. Especially do we wish to recog- nize the assistance of Miss Dorothea K. Wetherell, whose invaluable bib- liographic recommendations will benefit countless young people. Finally, we acknowledge the helpful assistance and constant encouragement of Ethel W. Faulkner, Helen R. Kepner, and Margaret H. Pitkin. H.U.F. T. K. V. E. P. U. S. A. Unit One The Peoples of Europe Open Up the New World 1. An Awakening Old World Discovers a Strange New World 2. Settlers Follow in the Path of Explorers 3. Europeans Establish Different Ways of Living in the Americas Just as the people of the world have learned in our own day to use the air, so Europeans in the 1400's learned to use the ocean. Searching for better routes to the Far East, bold explorers sailed around Africa. On the same search Columbus discovered America. Other explorers soon fol- lowed, opening new ocean highways to all parts of the world. These ocean highways gave Europe a chance to spread out in all direc- tions. They made possible an active trade with every corner of the world. They also allowed the peoples of Europe to expand into the newly dis- covered lands. In America the settlers established a New Spain, a New France, a New Netherland and a New England. The colonies of Spain and England proved the most successful. Today the Spanish language, religion and way of life remain in most of Central and South America. English settlers spread their language and way of life over most of North America. Cf *->-.. ICT 7?, 7. RfUli IWJ \ It, I,. I ."?. Chapter 1. An Awakening Old World Discovers a Strange New World ; . Washington, Moscow, London, Chungking only a few hours apart! Leaders of the United Nations during the Second World War flew easily from capital to capital to confer with one another. Lengthy trips were made in a few hours with safety and comfort. So small is the world today that there are no two places more than 60 hours apart. Have you ever read about the first voyage around the world 400 years ago? Here is how one member of Magellan's expedition describes that part of it from South America to the Philippine Islands. "Wednesday, the 28th of November, 1520, we came forth out of the strait and entered into the Pacific Sea, where we remained three months and twenty days without taking in provisions. We ate only old biscuit reduced to powder, and full of grubs and stinking from the dirt of rats, and we drank water that was yellow and stinking. We also ate the ox-hides which were under the main-yard. They were very hard on account of the sun t rain and wind. We left them for four or five days in the sea, and then we put them a little on the fire, and so ate them. . . . But this misfortune was the worst: the upper and lower gums of most of our men grew so much that they could not eat, and in this way so many suffered that nineteen died. "During those three months and twenty days we went in an open sea f while we ran 4000 leagues in the Pacific Sea. This was well named Pacific, for during the same time we met with no storm, and we saw no land except two small uninhabited islands, in which we found only birds and trees. . . . And if our Lord and His Mother had not aided us in giving us good weather we should all have died of hunger in this very vast sea. And I think that never man will undertake to perform such a voyage" [again] . Magellan's companion was wrong. Others have followed on the sea and in the air. Today it seems easy, but Magellan's voyage was one of the greatest feats of navigation and discovery in world history. AN OLD WORLD DISCOVERS A NEW WORLD 7 Europeans Venture Forth there was little interest in science j JL TT L or literature and but little exchange into the Unknown of goods or ideas among the peoples of Europe. Europe stirs to a new interest in After 1100 Europe very slowly be- learning. Great events in history, gan to rega i n some o f t h e knowl- such as the discovery of America, edge that had been lost Kings and do not just happen. Other events knights of western Europe set out make them possible. Columbus and on Crusades or expeditions to res- Magellan, for example, could hard- cue the reg i on O f Palestine from the ly have sailed the unknown seas Turks. The people on these expedi- without a compass to guide them. tions returned with a knowledge of This valuable instrument was in- a higher civilization. Trade be- vented by the Chinese at least 500 tween Europe and the countries in years before Magellan set out on his t h e eastern Mediterranean sprang famous voyage around the world. up aga i n . AS a result Europe en- Magellan also used another valu- j oyed new pro ducts from the East, able instrument, an astrolabe. This Knowledge and ideas began to helped tell him how far north or spread. south he might be. The astrolabe One part of Roman life which was the result of a thousand years of was not j ost during the Middle Ages widening knowledge of mathemat- was the Christian church. What- ics and the position of the stars. ever knowledge remained of an- As we look back over history, we c i ent t i mes was largely in the hands find that the development of man- o f t h e monks of the Catholic kind has been a long and painful church. Few others could read or process. About 6,000 years ago peo- wr i te . As Europe stirred with new pie living along the eastern shore of interest in learning, the monks dug the Mediterranean first learned to out o i d Roman and Greek manu- use metals, build houses, and ex- scripts and copied them. Universi- press themselves in a crude form of ties were founded to study ancient writing. Gradually over hundreds knowledge. In the middle of the of years these people added to their HOO's printing was invented, which knowledge until it reached its high- was one of the great events in world est development among the ancient history. Even before Columbus dis- Greeks and Romans. Conquering covered America, educated Europe- Roman armies spread much of this a ns were again giving serious knowledge into Britain, France and thought to the problems of religion, Germany. government and science. A new age Finally Rome was conquered by was born, the tribes from the north. Much of the splendid knowledge of Greece Europe's interest in the Far Eastern and Rome was lost. It was a period trade leads to a search for better which historians have called the routes. During the best days of the "Middle Ages." It was a time when Roman Empire trade had been ac- 8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY live in the seacoast cities of the her necessities and many of her lux- Mediterranean. This trade had de- uries. clined during the Middle Ages. The If you look at the map (see page Crusades, however, brought Europe 9), you will see the routes by which again into touch with the outside these goods reached Europe. The world. As one expedition after an- northern routes followed long over- other made its way to Palestine, land trails from China. Spices from Europeans discovered new ways of the East Indies went to India and living, different foods and new and then found their way to the Medi- finer goods. terranean ports either by the Red They also discovered that people Sea or the Tigris and Euphrates of the eastern Mediterranean were valleys. From the ports on the east- importing from unknown regions ern Mediterranean traders carried still farther to the east many highly them to Venice, Genoa, and other desirable things. As the news of Italian ports. Then they were dis- these products got back to' western tributed to western and northern Europe, the demand for them in- Europe. creased. Old trade routes with the These routes were not only long East were opened again and the but they were expensive. Many of flow of oriental or eastern goods to the products had to be carried hun- European markets expanded. dreds of miles overland by camels More than anything else, per- or horses. The merchants were in haps, Europe wanted the spices of constant danger of robbery and oft- the East. Pepper from India; cloves, en had to pay bribes to petty chief- cinnamon, and nutmegs from the tains. What made the difficulties East Indies ("Spice Islands"); and even greater was the fact that in ex- sugar from Arabia helped to make change for Eastern products Europe eatable the coarse food of the Mid- could offer only woolen goods, iron, die Ages. So desirable was pepper copper and precious metals. Except that it was considered a fitting gift for the precious metals these goods from one king to another. Prom were bulky. All were heavy and not Asia also came drugs useful for heal- suited to long distance overland ing, as well as dyes, such as indigo, transportation. Europe badly need- necessary in cloth making. ed new and cheaper routes to the Besides new products, Europe ob- East, tained others of better workman- ship, material and design than any- Portuguese navigators lead in the thing made in Europe. These in- search for new trade routes. The eluded glass, knives, dishes, and a search for better and cheaper routes great variety of woven goods. Rich to the Far East was the most impor- shawls, tapestries, and rugs, which tant influence in the explorations adorned the castles of the wealthy of the 1400's. But it was not the on- nobles, were also in great demand, ly reason that sent explorers along By the end of the Middle Ages Eu- the African coast or westward to rope brought from the East some of America. Some were interested in AN OLD WORLD DISCOVERS A NEW WORLD TRADE ROUTES TO ASIA IN THE LATE 1400's Scale of Miles 500 1000 I50O 2000 ~ Northern Route l ( Middle Kou te \^ Southern Route fame and glory. Others were eager to carry the Christian religion to the natives of Africa and America. All were in search of gold and riches. Then, too, the kings and merchants of western Europe de- sired to break the control of Italian merchants over the oriental trade. Of all the countries in western Europe, Portugal was the one best situated to start Europe on a career of exploration and conquest. Her merchants had developed a sea trade in wine, fruit, and vegetable oils with the natives to the north. Portugal was located on the south- western tip of Europe where she looked south along the western coast of Africa and westward across the Atlantic. Fortunately Portugal produced a,n able and powerful man who de- voted a long life to promoting ex- ploration. Prince Henry, "the Navi- gator," was the son of one Portu- guese king and the brother of an- other, and he had the wealth and power to carry on his work. On the southwestern point of Portugal he established a school for navigators and map-makers. From here Prince Henry sent one expedition after another to explore the African coast and the islands of the nearby ocean. Two of his cap- tains rediscovered and colonized the Madeira and the Azores Islands. By the time Prince Henry died his sea captains had sailed down the Af- rican coast beyond Cape Verde al- most to the equator (see the map above). After Prince Henry's death other captains kept pushing south. Fi- nally Bartholomew Diaz (Dee'-ahs) reached the tip of Africa. Diaz ac- curately called it the Cape of Storms, but the Portuguese king renamed it the Cape of Good Hope. A few years later Vasco da Gama 10 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY sailed around the Cape and up the that learned men as far back as the eastern coast of Africa. In 1498 he ancient Greeks believed that the reached India after many hardships world was round. If this was so, and and adventures. Other navigators if the Indies were east of Europe, followed and soon Portugal had a why not reach them by sailing west- string of trading ports and colonies ward? stretching from Europe to the Spice Like most men who accomplish Islands. great deeds, Columbus's early life Like the old routes to the Far was one of long and hard prepara- East, the new one was also long. tion. Born in the Italian seaport But it was easier and cheaper. Mer- town of Genoa, he went to sea at the chants dealing in oriental goods age of 14. Soon he found his way to soon deserted the trading cities of Portugal, the nation most inter- Italy for the bustling harbor of Lis- ested in navigation and voyages to bon, Portugal. The center of the faraway lands. During his early world's trade shifted from the Medi- years he sailed to the British Isles terranean to the Atlantic. The great and probably as far west as Iceland, trading cities of the future were to There he may have heard of the be those that looked out on the At- Norse voyages to Greenland hun- lantic Ocean. The great European dreds of years earlier. He also sailed nations of the future were to be south along the coast of Africa and those that could make use of the lived for some time on the island of new ocean routes and explore un- Madeira. Throughout this period known lands. he spent much time in the study of geography, mathematics and navi- gation, and became an expert map- The Great Exploration Gets ma A ker u ^7 TI7 e y ears went by Columbus Under Way became more and more certain that he could reach the Indies by sailing Under the Spanish flag Columbus west. This became the one over- takes up the search for new routes, powering ambition of his life. To While Portuguese navigators were make such an expedition he needed seeking a new route to India by financial help. He sought aid from sailing around the coast of Africa, the rulers of Portugal, France and another experienced sea captain be- England, but without success. At lieved that a shorter way to India the Spanish Court he spent six years could be found by sailing due west. ' trying to interest the king and Unlike millions of ignorant people queen. of his time, Christopher Columbus Ferdinand and Isabella, however, was sure that the world was round, were too occupied in the affairs of He had watched eclipses of the Spain to give much attention. They moon and he had often sailed by did refer his plan to two commit- the stars. Columbus was a serious tees, both of which turned it down, student of navigation and he knew Disappointed and discouraged, Co- AN OLD WORLD DISCOVERS A NEW WORLD 11 Columbus when he landed on Watling Island in the Bahamas raised the flag of Spain and took possession of the new land in behalf of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. The date of his landing, October 12, is now celebrated as Columbus Day. (Culver Service) lumbus decided to leave Spain. He had already started for France, when the queen suddenly decided to help him and sent a messenger to call him back. Having finally made up her mind, the queen and her friends raised the necessary money (around $14,000). Columbus was given the title "Admiral of the Ocean Seas," and made governor of any new lands discovered. He was also grant- ed one-tenth of "all the pearls, pre- cious stones, gold, silver, spices and other merchandise" he might find. Columbus discovers a New World. At Palos, Columbus prepared three little ships one of which was only 60 tons and enlisted 100 men. Al- though many of his sailors grew frightened as they sailed day after day on an unknown ocean, the Ad- miral kept his fleet on the westward course. The long search finally end- ed on the night of October 1 1 , when Columbus believed he saw in the distance a light "like a little wax candle rising and falling." The next morning October 12, 1492 the fleet found itself in sight of one of the Bahamas in the West Indies (see map, page 16). Certain that he had found one of the outlying islands of the Indies, Columbus sailed around for several months before returning to Spain. At this time he discovered Cuba, Espafiola (Es-pah-nyo'-la, present Haiti and Santo Domingo) and 12 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY other islands of the West Indies. Spain to explore and conquer the The great admiral made three more vast colonial empire which reached voyages to the New World during from California to Cape Horn. Avhich time he skirted the coast of When we remember the small num- Central America and the northern her of Spaniards and the large coast of South America. The object amount of territory, this was an of these expeditions, as on his first amazing accomplishment. It is a voyage, was to find a new route to story of small bands of Spanish sol- the Indies. Until the day of his diers, moving into one unknown re- death Columbus believed he had gion after another, to conquer discovered the fringes of the conti- bands of Indians who far outnum- nent of Asia. bered them. After defeating the In- Although Columbus discovered dians, they established Spanish rule, the New World, it was named after forced the natives to accept Christi- an Italian merchant and explorer, anity, and gradually introduced AmericusVespucius(Ves-pyu'-shus). other elements of Spanish civiliza- This man, who was a great adver- tion. tiser, made several voyages to the Of all the conquerors none added New World, and wrote many letters more to the Spanish empire than regarding the land he claimed to Cortes, and no one faced more diffi- have discovered. One of these fell cult or unusual conditions. Her- into the hands of a German pro- nando Cortes (Air-nahn'-doh Kor- fessor of geography in a French uni- lace"), a son of one of the lesser Span- versity who was preparing a new ish nobles, came to America as a edition of an old geography. He young man in search of fame and labeled the coast of South America fortune. He took part in the con- "Amerike." Later map-makers fol- quest of Cuba where he won a mili- lowed his example until finally the tary reputation. When in the early two new continents were called 1500's the governor of Cuba organ- America, ized an expedition to conquer the Like the people who now inhabit mainland, he placed it under the America, the name of the new con- command of Cortes, tinents springs from many nations. Cone's was, indeed, a born mili- It comes from an Italian navigator, tary leader. Of good build, he was sailing under the flag of Portugal skillful with weapons both on horse- and was put on the map by a Ger- back and on foot. Morever, he had man geographer in a French uni- a mind quick to take in the details versity. It became the name of a new of a new situation, and able to make land, parts of which were claimed decisions and act on them. He was at one time or another by many shrewd, confident of the future, and European nations. had rare powers to persuade other men. Above all, as one of his com- Corte's, the Spaniard, conquers panions wrote, "he had what is most Mexico. It took almost 100 years important of all, courage and after the discovery of Columbus for spirit." After Hernando Cortes conquered Mexico he ruled as governor for a number of years, exploring the country and sending expeditions to conquer nearby regions. He was then in high favor with his king, who granted him a coat of arms (upper left hand corner) and loaded him with honors. Later Cortes fell into disfavor and died almost forgotten. This picture shows him at the height of his power dressed in the armor of the time. (Pan American Union) 14 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY CORTES ENTERS MEXICO. The ex- but this time an absolute refusal pedition under Cortes consisted of and a demand that Cortes leave the 1 1 vessels, between 400 and 500 sol- country. diers, 14 cannon and a small band Cortes now determined to march of horsemen. This was a tiny army inland and conquer the country, to conquer an Indian nation of hun- When some of his followers op- dreds of thousands of people. But posed, he destroyed all his ships but Cortes started out with certain ad- one. Retreat was impossible, and vantages. The Indians had never his men had to follow him whether seen horses or firearms and were they liked it or not. completely terrorized when they The next move of Cortes was to saw them. Moreover, the Spaniards win over the nearby tribes. He fought in heavy armor which large- learned that they were restless un- ly protected them from the spears der the control of the Aztecs and and arrows of the Indian warriors, resented the heavy taxes which they Beyond all else, the Aztec (As- had to pay. The Spanish leader tek') Indians, who lived in Mexico, played upon their unrest. He pre- were confused by their own relig- sented himself as their friend and ion. A story had come down of a invited them to aid him in conquer- great hero, a god with a beard and ing the hated Montezuma. This a white face, who had once ruled method of divide and conquer was over them and taught them many an old game which many an invader useful things. For some unknown has played. reason he had departed eastward, THE SPANIARDS CAPTURE MEXICO but had promised that sometime CITY. Having won over some of the either he or his descendants would nearby Indians, Cortes began the return to rule over them. Could 250-mile march up through the Cortes be the white god who was mountains to the high plateau of returning? Montezuma (Mon-tay- Central Mexico. On his way he was zoo'-mah), king of the Aztecs, and forced to fight the rough tribe of his priests were uncertain whether Tlascalans (Tlahs-kah'-lahns). He to receive Cortes or oppose him. defeated them and they then joined The Spaniards landed in 1519, him as allies. Montezuma had at a point where Vera Cruz now hoped to halt Cortes, but failed. He stands (see map, page 16). Immedi- then about-faced and invited the ately Cone's sent greetings to Mon- Spanish army to his capital. They tezuma, asking permission to visit entered the city and were quartered him. The Indian king returned the in luxurious buildings, greetings and sent rich presents in- In the days of the Aztecs the City eluding an engraved gold plate "as of Mexico was a large and splendid large as a carriage wheel." But he city, equal, said Cortes, to anything failed to invite the Spanish leader in Spain. But it was a dangerous to meet him. Cortes sent a second place for a handful of foreign con- messenger demanding an interview, querors to be in. It was built on two More presents from the Aztec king, islands in a large lake, cut by many AN OLD WORLD DISCOVERS A NEW WORLD 15 canals and connected with the sur- the Spaniard learned how to con- rounding country by highways, quer the Indian. Firm leadership and quick action might easily have defeated the Span- Other Spaniards seek treasure in iards. the New World. Cortes was only Unfortunately for the Indians, it one of many Spaniards who sought was Cortes and not Montezuma who fame and fortune in the New had these qualities. When Cortes World. From Cuba and Espanola realized the danger he was in, he expedition after expedition went boldly Avent to the palace of Monte- forth seeking new lands. Balboa zuma and took the Aztec king pris- with a band of explorers crossed the oner. He then removed the king to Isthmus of Panama (1513) and his own quarters where he kept him looked down on the Pacific. Ten as a hostage. years after Cortes conquered Mex- Cortes remained in the City of ico, Francisco Pizarro (Frahn-sees'- Mexico for six months. Then he ko Pee-sah'-roh) set out from Pana- learned that the governor of Cuba ma to explore and conquer the re- had sent a new expedition to cap- gion of Peru. As in Mexico, good ture his army and put an end to his leadership and hard fighting won operations. Leaving part of his force success and riches, and the Inca in the city, Cortes set out for Vera (Een'-kah) Indians became subject Cruz. There he overcame the new to Spain (see map, page 16). invaders and persuaded them to The same year that Balboa first join forces with him. saw the Pacific, Ponce de Leon While Cortes was absent from the (Pohn'-say day Lay-ohn') sailed city, his commanding officer had so northward and discovered Florida, outraged the Indians that they rose Later he returned and unsuccess- in revolt. Cortes rescued his troops fully tried to found a settlement, and attempted to pacify the Indi- He was the first Spaniard to explore ans, but it was too late. They turned any of the region of the present on the Spaniards and drove them United States, from the city with terrible loss. Ponce de Leon was soon fol- Seven days later the battered lowed, however, by many others. Spanish soldiers had to fight an- One of these, Hernando de Soto other battle. With the aid of their (Air-nahn'-doh dee Soh'-toh), set Tlascalan allies, however, they out in search of new Indians to rob fought off the Aztec warriors. Then and new empires to conquer. In- Corts sat down to besiege the city, stead of rich nations such as those Aided by reinforcements from the of the Aztecs and the Incas, de Soto West Indies, and after months of found only primitive Indians. The fighting, he finally fought his way chief result of the expedition was again into the city. In two years a the knowledge gained of the region handful of Spaniards had overcome bordering on the Gulf of Mexico the strongest and richest Indian na- and the discovery of the Mississippi tion in the New World. In Mexico (see map, page 16). ANTIC (S.O U T H A M E EARLY SPANISH ! PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS Strait of Magetl Scale of Miles 500 1000 1500 AN OLD WORLD DISCOVERS A NEW WORLD 17 De Soto died during the expedi- tion started, one finally completed tion. His followers tried to reach the voyage to Europe. It was the Mexico by marching overland first trip around the world (1519- through what is now Arkansas and 22), and for the first time Europeans Texas, but failed. Returning to the gained some knowledge of the size Mississippi, they sailed down the of the earth. It also proved beyond river and finally reached a Mexican doubt that America was not part of coast town. After almost four years Asia, of exploration in an unknown country and constant warfare with The Portuguese take possession of the Indians, about half of the origi- Brazil. After Columbus discovered nal band of 600 were still alive. No America, the Pope believed that he greater proof could be found of the could prevent confusion and con- remarkable strength, persistence, flict by alloting to Spain and Portu- and courage of these early Spanish gal their share in the newly found explorers. lands. Acting as an umpire, he drew Rumors reached the Spanish in a line on the globe north and south Mexico of rich cities to the north, giving Portugal lands east of the Finally Coronado with a well- line and Spain all of the lands west equipped expedition set out to find (see map, page 16). The two nations them. But the fabled Seven Cities approved this arrangement by sign- of Cibola turned out to be only the ing a treaty. Neither the line nor pueblos of the Zufii (Zoo'-nyee) In- the treaty, however, solved the con- dians. Coronado's expedition is flicting claims of the two nations, famous chiefly as the first white ex- A few years later a famous Portu- ploration of what is now New Mex- guese explorer, Pedro Alvares Ca- ico, Oklahoma, and Kansas. By the bral (Pay'-droh Ahl-vahr'-es Kah- middle 1500's the Spaniards had ex- brahl'), while on a trip to India, plored many areas in the southern steered westward and touched the region of what is now the United shores of Brazil. He sent a ship to States. That region remained part Portugal reporting to the king that of the Spanish Empire until Mexico new lands had been claimed in his won her independence. name. Since the Pope's line cut In the meantime a Spanish expe- across the present country of Brazil, dition, headed by a Portuguese, Cabral's discovery added weight to Ferdinand Magellan, worked its Portugal's claim to these lands, way around the tip of South Amer- In the years that followed neither ica. After terrible sufferings, some France nor Spain paid much atten- of which we described at the be- tion to the Pope's line. Both at- ginning of the chapter, they made tempted to trespass and settle on the long voyage across the Pacific. Portugal's lands in Brazil. In the They discovered the Philippine Is- three-cornered conflict, however, lands, where Magellan was killed in Portugal finally won out. The roots a battle with the natives. Of the of Brazil, therefore, go back to Por- five vessels with which the expedi- tugal rather than to Spain. i8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Business of Exploration and carried the Christian religion ri i' 7i /r v to the far distant interior. In 1673 Continues over Many Years Louis Joliet (Zhol _ yay0 , a fur trad . er, and Father Marquette (Mahr- The French also take an interest in kef), a Jesuit priest, voyaged down the New World. The other nations the Mississippi to the mouth of the of western Europe did not intend Arkansas. A few years later La Salle that Spain and Portugal should and his band floated down the Fa- reap all the benefits of the newly ther of Waters to the mouth and discovered lands. France, England took possession of the valley in the and other countries also sent expe- name of France, ditions of discovery. Later all of La Salle was followed by others them attempted to found colonies, who founded the first French settle- The first Frenchmen to see the ment on the Gulf of Mexico where New World were probably fisher- Biloxi, Mississippi now stands. An- men who by 1 500 were casting their other great explorer, Cadillac, es- nets off the coast of Newfoundland tablished a post at the important and drying their catch on nearby point of Detroit. Thus the French islands. Not until \ 524 did the king early laid claim to a great empire send Verrazano to seek a new route in America. This empire spread to the Indies. He was followed by from Nova Scotia on the east, west- Jacques Cartier (Zhak' Kahrt-yay'), ward along the St. Lawrence to the who on one of his three voyages dis- Great Lakes, and south down the covered the St. Lawrence River (see Mississippi Valley to the Gulf of map, page 20). Mexico. Other Frenchmen followed to fish and trade in furs, but no perma- The British seek a northern route nent settlement was made for many to the Orient. Partly because of her years after Cartier. It was Samuel de geographical position in the north Champlain who really founded the of Europe, England was particu- French empire in America. He larly interested in reaching the Far built forts and planted settlements East by a northern route. In 1497 in Nova Scotia in 1604 and four the English king directed John years later founded Quebec. Cham- Cabot, an Italian sea captain living plain spent years in exploring the in England, to go in search of un- St. Lawrence westward, pushing discovered lands. Cabot explored northwest along the Ottawa River the coast of Nova Scotia, Newfound- and south as far as Lake Champlain land or Labrador, but, of course, (see map, page 20). failed to find Asia. The only result After Champlain a host of able of his voyage was to give England a French explorers pushed up the St. claim to North America by right of Lawrence from Quebec toward the discovery. Cabot's reward for this Great Lakes, then southward into famous voyage was a gift of a mere the Mississippi Valley. They took 10 ($50.00) from the -king (see possession of the land for France map, page 20). Jacques Carder, sent by the king of France to search for a passage to the Far East, explored the northeastern coast of North America. He landed on Cape Gaspe near the mouth of the St. Lawrence and, as shown above, in this picture by Howard Pyle, took possession of the land in the name of the French king. Carder made at least two more exploring voyages to America. On one of them he sailed up the St. Law- rence as far as Montreal. (Harper's Magazine) 20 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY EARLY EXPLORERS NORTH AMERICA Scale of Miles 250 500 750 IMO T L A JV T I C .*.. O C E A England at the time of Cabot was too poor to promote exploration actively. It was more than 50 years later before she again took up search for new routes to the East. By this time it was known that America was not Asia, and the prob- lem was to find a way through or around the continent by what was then usually described as a "North- west Passage." One of England's bravest seamen, Martin Frobisher, made three voy- ages in search of such a passage. He discovered Baffin's Land and might have gone farther but for the dis- covery of ore which was believed to contain gold and which side- tracked his efforts. A few years later John Davis led several expeditions in the path of Frobisher. He sailed into Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay, but failed to find a route through the network of seas, inlets, and bays. Until well into the 1600's explor- ers and settlers were on the lookout either for a Northwest Passage or an all-sea route around the north. It was on one of these exploring expe- ditions that Henry Hudson discov- ered the bay that bears his name. Finally, explorers realized that no water passage through the continent existed and they became convinced that an Arctic route was impossible. Not until modern times did new explorers try again. Roald Amund- sen (1903-06) at last achieved suc- cess. He was the first to sail from the Atlantic to the Pacific on a route north of the continent of North America. AN OLD WORLD DISCOVERS A NEW WORLD zi Bold men still explore unknown ditions. Men like William Beebe lands. Amundsen's discovery of the explore under the seas; others go Northwest Passage 400 years after up 70,000 feet to explore air cur- Cabot was an explorer's feat. Under rents and sun rays. Scientists are favorable conditions a skilled navi- constantly tapping the earth to un- gator might do it, but the route is cover new sources of materials, useless for trade. It may, however, Explorations like the Byrd Ant- become important in furnishing arctic expeditions are often helped weather bases for polar air routes, by aerial navigation. Pilots and ae- Like the work of other explorers, rial photographers sometimes go Amundsen's voyage nevertheless ahead and make photographic maps added something to world knowl- of the country. They can easily fly edge. It also made clear that even over areas otherwise difficult for after 400 years there are still areas men to explore. When the expedi- in America that are practically un- tion is under way, airplanes are also known. These areas are not only on useful in keeping explorers in close the Arctic or Antarctic fringes of contact with their base, the continents. There are also jun- Since the days of Prince Henry, gles and mountains in the interior courageous and skillful sailors from of South America which white men Portugal, Spain and the other na- have never entered. tions of western Europe hav e sailed Exploration continues today, but the unknown seas. They have not so crudely as in the early times, opened new routes to the Far East, Today explorers are primarily sci- made known the African continent enlists. They go on expeditions to and discovered the two Americas, study all information which they From da Gama and Columbus to can obtain about the soil, the vege- Amundsen and Byrd, they have sur- table and animal life in sea and on veyed the paths of the unknown to land, the climate and weather con- lay the foundations of America. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Can you use each of these words or terms in a sentence? Show that you understand the meaning or importance of each. 1. Middle Ages 3. Spice Islands 5. "Pope's Line" 2. Crusades 4. Aztecs and Incas 6. Northwest Passage WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1492: What day of this year is today a holiday in 37 of our states, several Latin-American republics, and in some Spanish and Italian cities? Why? 1497: Why should this date be included in a discovery time line? 1519: Tell why this is a most important year in Spanish-Mexican events. 1519-22: This date should be known to all the world. Why? 1604: What event and French explorer can you tie to this date? 22 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What European group played a very important part in awakening Europe from the sleep of the Middle Ages (p. 7)? 2. Why did Europe need new and better routes to the East (p. 8)? 3. Portugal led Europe in search for new routes to the East. Why was Portu- gal the leader (p. 9)? 4. Why was the New World called America and not Columbia (p. 12)? 5. Cortes had certain qualities of leadership which made him a great explorer and conqueror. What were these qualities (pp. 12-15)? 6. What was the "divide and conquer" method used by Cone's to defeat Montezuma (p. 14)? 7. In addition to Cortes, name four Spanish explorers and the regions each explored (pp. 15-17). 8. Why was Magellan's trip around the world important (p. 17)? 9. Name the three most important French explorers. What region did each explore (p. 18)? 10. Why was John Cabot's voyage worth more than a reward of $50.00 (p. 18)? 11. How does exploration today differ from that of early times (p. 21)? 12. Summary Question: Spain, Portugal, France, and England each tried to get a good part of the "Strange New World." Where was the most impor- tant claim established by each? Chapter 2. Settlers Follow in the Path of Explorers .... . SIR THOMAS SMITH: Gentlemen, His Majesty, King James, has granted us a charter to trade and settle in America. Two companies have been formed under this Virginia charter and you have all bought shares. As Treasurer of the Virginia Company I have called you together to discuss how we shall go about this project. The meeting is now open. FIRST SHAREHOLDER: This company is interested chiefly in profits. We are eager to find gold and precious stones. We want to discover a route through the continent to the Far East, if there is one. We also desire to trade with the natives for furs and any valuable things which they have. SECOND SHAREHOLDER: That is true, but some of us are also interested in converting the natives to Christianity. THIRD SHAREHOLDER: And while this is being done we must establish a great English colony in the New World to oppose Spain and increase English power. SIR THOMAS SMITH: Yes, this is what we want to do. How shall it be done? FIRST SHAREHOLDER: We must begin by planting a settlement. This will be a center from which we can explore and trade. It will take much money and skillful planning. We will have to send tools and weapons, and food to keep the settlers alive until they can support themselves. SECOND SHAREHOLDER: How can we get men willing to endure the hardships and risk their lives in a strange land? THIRD SHAREHOLDER: We must advertise throughout England. Let us show young men how they may find adventure and win glory and wealth. We will have to hire poor men to work for the company. But we can prom- ise them land after a certain number of years. Let us urge upon all, par- ticularly on the grounds of patriotism, the need of planting an English colony in America. I think we can get enough volunteers. SIR THOMAS SMITH: I will follow your instructions. We will organize an expedition, call for volunteers and found a settlement in Virginia. I hope this will mean profits for all and glory for England. 24 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Desire of European dian labor continued to work the T\T i f IT/ jii J i old mines and open up new ones. Nations for Wealth and Dudng the 1 50 y^rs after the con- Power Leads to Rivalry in quest Spain imported from America Settlement . 18 > 000 tons of silver (present value about $200,000,000) and 200 tons ot gold ($170,000,000). This was great European powers seek to increase wealth for those years. their strength through the wealth Discoveries of new lands and the of new land's. Portuguese explorers planting of colonies overseas greatly opened up the new routes to India increased the commerce in many of and the Spice Islands; Spanish ex- the products of the East so prized plorers discovered America. As a re- in Europe. They also introduced suit, these nations reaped the first Europe to new products. America profits from the new discoveries, contributed corn, the potato, and Portugal set up trading posts not other foods. Tea was brought from only along the coasts of Africa, but China and cocoa from America, also in the rich and thickly settled Coffee, already known to Europe- lands of the Far East. Some of these ans, now became a leading drink, regions she still controls after 400 As West Indian plantations were years. The profits from this trade established, sugar became impor- made Portugal for a brief period a tant in the European diet. New great and important nation. medicines, such as quinine from Unlike the Portuguese discover- Peru, reached Europe, as well as ies, those of Spain were in lands that tobacco and many other products, were thinly populated. Moreover, When the other nations of west- the Indians of the Americas, except ern Europe saw the vast wealth for those in Mexico and Peru, lived flowing into Portugal and Spain, in an extremely primitive way. For they naturally wanted a share. Eng- the time being they had little to land, France, and Holland all offer Spain by way of trade. Before turned their energies to the task of commerce could develop, Spain exploring and planting colonies in must send over settlers to establish the New World. This, in turn, led farms, ranches and mines. to wars between the rival nations In the meantime, however, Spain for control of sea routes, commerce, obtained quick wealth from her and colonies. These wars were made American colonies. Cortes and Pi- more bitter by religious rivalry, zarro found rich stores of gold and Shortly after America was discov- silver in Mexico and Peru, which ered the Catholic church split, and the Indians had mined over a long northern Europe adopted various period. When Pizarro captured the forms of the Protestant religion. Inca king, he demanded and ob- Now each nation fought to spread tained for his ransom a room full its own type of Christianity in the of gold. After the Indians had been new lands as well as to gain wealth conquered, the Spaniards with In- and power. SETTLERS FOLLOW PATH OF EXPLORERS 25 The common man comes to German religious groups from the America to find better opportuni- Rhine Valley, who did not agree ties. We have just explained why with the official state church. The the nations of western Europe were Pilgrims and Puritans came to Mas- eager to share in the trade with the sachusetts to escape from the perse- East and in the wealth of the newly cution of the English state church, discovered lands. Why were the or- Opposition to the government dinary man and woman interested was crushed as quickly as opposi- in America? What was there that tion to the state church. Discontent turned their eyes to the New with the state religion and with the World? What could America offer government quite often went hand them? in hand. If religious persecution Above all, America offered a bet- was to end, the government had to ter way of life. In Europe many be changed. In any event, the state were persecuted or mistreated for tried to stamp out either type of their religious beliefs or political opposition with downright cruelty, activity. Millions lived in extreme One must either submit or get out poverty and could see no hope for of the land. the future. In America they might More important than either re- find freedom to worship as they ligious or political persecution was pleased, take part in the political the desire for greater opportunities, life and improve their standard of In Europe there seemed to be little living. future for the common man. Unem- . When -the Catholic church split ployment was widespread, particu- in the early 1500's, the governments larly in England. As the manufac- in northern Europe established new ture of wool became the chief in- churches. Northern Germany, for dustry of England, great landown- example, founded the Lutheran ers turned their farms into sheep church; England, the Episcopal pastures. As a result, the little ten- church; and Scotland, the Presby- ant farmers lost their land. Men terian church. When the govern- without work roamed the highways ment decided on the form of the looking for jobs that did not exist, nation's religion, everyone in the In America the situation was country was expected to follow it. quite different. Here there was land Those who did not were persecuted without limit, and a great demand in many ways. Sometimes they were for labor. Men who could never thrown into jail or even put to hope to own a farm or earn a decent death. living in Europe could obtain land Thousands came to America to in America for little or nothing. In escape such treatment. Maryland the New World were forests to be was founded in part as a refuge for cleared, crops to be planted, houses persecuted Catholics. William Penn to be built, and all kinds of work in a similar way founded Pennsyl- to be done. No wonder thousands vania for his fellow Quakers. To came to America in search of a bet- Pennsylvania also came many small ter life and a happier future. 26 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Spanish and Portuguese After Mexico city was captured Make the First Settlement* the s P aniards had two cemral ivian me r irsi oe uem ^ ims on the mainland from which in the Western Hemisphere expeditions set out and settlements were planted. From the Isthmus of The Spanish move from the West Panama they moved into Central Indies to Old Mexico. The first set- America to occupy the present dements founded by the Spaniards countries of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, in America were on the island of El Salvador, Honduras, and Guate- Espanola. From there they spread mala. From Mexico City they out to Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Cuba spread into all parts of Mexico (see and the smaller islands of the West map, page 27). Indies. As they conquered these is- Three main desires spurred on lands the Spaniards learned how to the Spanish conquerors: (1) to ob- subdue the Indians. Here they first tain treasure; (2) to convert the In- established the Spanish way of life dians to Christianity; and (3) to in America. The West Indies be- establish a Spanish empire in Amer- came a nursery for Spanish civiliza- ica. In at least three regions Mex- tion in the New World (see map, ico, Central America, and Peru page 27). they found vast stores of precious Even before the Spaniards had metals. There the Indians had de- completely occupied the West In- veloped a way of living far beyond dies, their explorers were sailing that in other parts of America, along the coast of North America They had learned how to construct as far north as Labrador and south roads, build cities, manufacture use- to the tip of Cape Horn. After Bal- ful articles, and mine gold and sil- boa discovered the Pacific, expedi- ver. Great riches rewarded the early tions explored the west coast of conquerors. Central America and South Amer- Every Spanish conqueror was a ica. crusader for the cross as well as a Settlers followed quickly on the soldier of the king. Added strength heels of the explorers. Soon bands was given to this feeling in Mexico of soldiers were sent out to conquer where the Indians worshipped idols the natives and plant Spanish towns and offered up human sacrifices, along the coast of the mainland. Thousands of young men were The Spaniards early recognized the brutally killed in the temples each importance of controlling the nar- year to gain the favor of the gods, row isthmus at Panama. There they The conquerors did what they founded the city of Panama in the could by force and persuasion to early 1500's, the oldest Spanish city get the Indians to replace their idols on the American mainland. At the with the cross and accept Christi- same time, as we have already anity. Missionaries accompanied or noted, Cortes founded Vera Cruz immediately followed the soldiers, and set out on his march to Mexico In the end the Indians accepted the City. new faith, although many Indian A T L A N T I C O C E AJV Mexico Ljiy Acapulc nto Domtnqo< fuaopfAu SCTTUHCNT \JN HEW WORLD G C E A JV Santiago Buenos Aires LATIJV AMERICA^ CEKTERS OF SETTLEMENT BEFORE JAMESTOW^ ^.Important Centers of Expansion A TLAJVTfC 28 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY religious customs were mingled Chile were more warlike than those with those of Christianity. The re- of Peru and Pizarro's men soon re- ligious note of the Spanish conquer- turned. Later other Spaniards com- ors can be seen in the names which pleted the conquest, founded settle- they gave to hundreds of their cit- ments, and established a new area ies. One example is Los Angeles, of Spanish rule, first called Nuestra Senora Reina The next center of Spanish set- de los Angeles (Our Lady Queen of tlements, interestingly enough, was the Angels). not on the seacoast, but 1,000 miles That the conquerors established inland from the mouth of the Rio a Spanish empire in America will de la Plata (Ree'-oh day lah Plah'- be made clear as we continue the tah). Before Pizarro had set out for story. Peru, Spanish captains had ex- plored the eastern coast of South The Spanish move into South America and at least two had sailed America. The first Spanish settle- up the La Plata. Finally, Pedro de ments in South America were made Mendoza (Pay'-droh day Main-doh'- near the Isthmus of Panama on the sah) embarked from Spain with a coast of what is now Colombia, large expedition, sailed far up the These, however, were tiny and un- La Plata and Parana rivers and important. The first real advance of founded Asuncion (Ah-soon-see- the Spaniards into South America ohn'), on the Paraguay River. This was in Peru. In the 1530's Francisco is the present capital of Paraguay Pizarro sailed south from Panama (Pahr-ah-gweye). with 180 men and 30 horses on an A prosperous settlement grew up expedition which proved to be the at Asuncion supported by farming conquest of Peru. and ranching rather than mining. Pizarro landed on the coast, In the meantime, the Spaniards marched his band inland, and ar- tried three times unsuccessfully be- ranged a conference with the Inca, fore they finally established a col- as they called their king. When the ony at Buenos Aires (Bway'-nos Inca arrived, Pizarro took him pris- Eye'-race), near the mouth of the oner by treachery and later mur- La Plata. Buenos Aires became the dered him. The Spanish conqueror capital of the present Argentina then set up a puppet emperor and and the largest city in Latin Amer- finally subdued the Indians. Like ica. Cortes, he terrorized the Indians By the middle 1500's Spain had with his cannon and horses. In the established four centers of settle- meantime he founded Lima, the ment in South America. These were present capital of Peru. (1) the coast of the present Venezu- Even before he had conquered ela and Colombia; (2) Peru; (3) the Indians, Pizarro persuaded his Chile; and (4) the river valley of ablest lieutenant to march south to the La Plata. From these regions, explore and conquer the region of settlements spread in many direc- the present Chile. The Indians in dons until Spain controlled all Lat- SETTLERS FOLLOW PATH OF EXPLORERS 29 in America except Brazil (see map, The year that Yorktown was fought, page 27). they founded Los Angeles (1781). Missionaries played a great part The Spanish also push northward in the settlement of California. from the West Indies and Mexico. From San Diego northward they es- In the last chapter we told how tablished 21 missions. Here they Ponce de Leon and Hernando de taught the Indians not only Christi- Soto had landed in Florida and how anity but the white man's way of de Soto had explored the region on life. Important white settlements the Gulf coast westward beyond the grew up around most of these mis- Mississippi. We also told how Coro- sions. nado, setting out from Mexico had marched northward through the Tiny Portuguese settlements lay present Texas, Oklahoma, and Kan- the basis for the great country of sas. For more than 200 years similar Brazil. Spanish conquerors occu- expeditions set out from Mexico to pied most of the region between explore the southwestern part of San Francisco and Cape Horn. Nev- the United States. ertheless, Brazil, the largest single Settlers followed the explorers, country in Latin America, was colo- In 1565 a Spanish expedition nized by Portugal. Today its 44,- foynded St. Augustine on the east 000,000 people speak Portuguese coast of Florida, the first permanent rather than Spanish, white settlement in the present Portugal claimed Brazil by right United States. For almost 100 years of discovery and because it lay east after Cortes had conquered Mexico, of the line drawn by the Pope to the Spaniards were too busy set- separate the possessions of Spain tling Mexico to occupy the country and Portugal. The king of Portu- farther north. Finally in the early gal, however, was mainly interested 1600's an expedition entered the in his trade and possessions in the present New Mexico with a definite East Indies. Moreover, he had little intention of settling. Santa Fe was wealth or military force to conquer founded at that time. In the years and settle Brazil, that followed, soldiers and mis- The king, therefore, shifted the sionaries planted settlements in responsibility as far as he could to New Mexico, Arizona and Texas. his wealthy nobles. He granted Just 250 years after Cortes landed them vast areas of land with large at Vera Cruz, Spain finally took up powers to rule on condition that the task of occupying upper Cali- they settle and develop the country, fornia. Their first town, San Diego, This was known as the system of was founded in the 1760's. Pushing colonization by captaincies. Later northward they established a fort the king set up a central govern- and mission at San Francisco in ment under royal officials to super- 1776, the year that the English col- vise the various captaincies, onies on the Atlantic declared their Under this system the rule of Por- independence from Great Britain, tugal was established. The first cen- U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY A typical colonial village on the banks of the Amazon in Brazil. At the left is a wayside cross; at the right a tiny bell structure to call the Indians and Negro slaves to work on weekdays and to worship on Sundays. The long narrow boats carried the products of the region to market. (Culver Service) ters of settlement were at Bahia (Bah-ee'-ah), at Rio de Janeiro (Ree'-oh day Zhah-nay'-roh) farther down the coast, and at Sao Paulo (Sah'-ong Pow'-lah). From these centers Brazilian control was pushed inland in all directions (see map, page 27). During the years that followed Portugal and the settlers in Brazil had to fight off both French and Dutch intruders. When the crowns of Spain and Portugal were joined in the late 1500's, Bra- zil was ruled by Spain. Finally Por- tugal won her freedom from Spain, and Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until she declared her own independence from Portugal. Unlike the early Spanish settlers who were chiefly interested in min- ing and the early French who were mainly interested in the fur trade, the Portuguese turned their ener- gies to agriculture. In the warmer regions they developed sugar cane and cotton plantations. Most of the sugar used in Europe in the 1600's came from Brazil. In the cooler re- gions toward the south great cattle ranches appeared. From the begin- ning the settlers exported many products of the forest, such as dye- woods, herbs for medicine, and tim- ber of various kinds. In later years gold, diamonds, and other precious stones were found, but mining was of little importance compared to agriculture. To obtain labor the Portuguese attempted to enslave the Indians, but in the long run they were un- successful. The Indians fought back and escaped into the forests. When captured they proved to be poor workmen. Moreover, the Catholic missionaries, who played an impor- SETTLERS FOLLOW PATH OF EXPLORERS 31 cant part in colonization, opposed king granted the sole privilege of the practice. Plantation owners trading in America. Through their then turned to importing Negro efforts Quebec was finally estab- slaves. lished in 1608. By the middle 1600's As a result, Brazil imported more Port Royal (now Annapolis) in Negroes than any other part of Lat- Nova Scotia, and Montreal were in America. In the settled regions also founded. there were often many more Ne- These three towns remained the groes than either whites or Indians, center of New France as long as the Later Brazil freed her slaves and of- French held Canada. From there ficially granted Negroes racial the French gradually spread out equality. There has been much mix- and new settlements were planted ture among the three races whites, along the St. Lawrence and the lit- Indians and Negroes. tie rivers which ran into it. But the growth of population was small. When Count Frontenac, the great- est of the governors of New France, The French Center Their Set- died about 1700, there were prob- tlements in the St. Lawrence abl y not more than 15 ' 000 French - f r 7| , .1 TT7 , T , . men in all Canada. This was 90 Valley and the West Indies years after the first permanent French settlement was founded. Canada is opened to settlement by the French. In the last chapter we The French push up the St. Law- mentioned briefly how Cartier, rence to the Mississippi Valley. Champlain, La Salle, and other Despite the small population, the great French explorers prepared the French showed great ability to ex- way for settlers and traders. Diffi- tend their control over a vast terri- cult and dangerous as exploration tory. This was due to a number of was, the planting of settlements reasons. First of all, the main in- proved to be even harder. During terest of the French was the fur the 1500's the French made several trade. If they were to win and keep attempts which completely failed, this trade, they must push westward Efforts were made to found colonies into the regions of the Great Lakes in Brazil and in Florida. The for- and the Mississippi Valley. This was mer was destroyed by the Portu- particularly true because the Eng- guese and the latter by the Spanish, lish were also eager to obtain furs. Expeditions into the St. Lawrence The English had made friends with Valley wintered three times at Que- the Iroquois (ear'-oh-kwoi) along bee but failed at that time to plant the Mohawk River and hoped to a permanent settlement. obtain furs from- them and their After 50 years efforts were re- Indian allies. sumed. This time the direction was Frontenac and later French gov- taken by private individuals or trad- ernors understood this situation ing companies to whom the French well. They encouraged La Salle, U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY La Salic takes possession of the Mississippi in behalf of the king of France, while Indi- ans look on. Among his brave band of explorers was a Jesuit priest who represented the church at the famous ceremony. Compare LaSalle's costume with those of Columbus and Cortes in the last chapter. (Courtesy of the Singer Sewing Machine Company) Joliet, and other great pathfinders to search the wilderness for the easiest routes and the best places for settlements. But these men were interested in more than furs. They dreamed of a great French empire in America, an empire that would hem in the English along the sea- coast and hold back the Spaniards to the south. \Vherever they went, they took possession of the land in the name of France and raised the flag of the French king. The spread of French power in- land was also aided by the mission- ary priests, particularly those of the Jesuit order. These men accom- panied the explorers and remained behind to convert the Indians. Often they went alone and ahead of the explorers to live and work with the natives. These men suffered the bitterest hardships; many were killed by the Indians. They did, however, discover and explore many parts of New France. As a result of the work of the ex- plorers, fur traders, missionaries and soldiers, France extended her empire over a wide area. Forts and trading posts were set up along the upper St. Lawrence and at impor- tant points on all of the five Great Lakes. Such posts were to be found as far west as the upper Mississippi in the present state of Wisconsin. SETTLERS FOLLOW PATH OF EXPLORERS 33 Farther south there were posts on (Mahr-tee-neek'). These islands also the Illinois River and along the changed hands in wars that fol- Mississippi at St. Louis and New lowed, but France recovered them Orleans (see map, page 38). and still holds them. Although French rule extended In some ways France was more over this wide area, there were few successful in the West Indies than Frenchmen in it. When France lost in Canada. Within 25 years after her great empire to England in 1 763 her first colony was founded, the there were not more than 70,000 French flag floated over 14 islands. Frenchmen in New France. Most of The French population of these is- them were in the St. Lawrence Val- lands in the 1600's was twice that of ley. Only a handful of fur traders Canada. In the end France lost and soldiers lived in the widely scat- Canada but kept some of her pos- tered forts and trading posts. Farm- sessions in the West Indies, ers and other settlers were few. The English colonies at this time had almost 2,500,000 people. This is The English Settle from New- one reason why France lost her . American empire. joundland to the West Indies In the meantime the French estab- A great English business company lisli themselves in the West Indies, establishes a going settlement in When France in the early 1600's Virginia. Like the French, English stirred to a new interest in empire adventurers attempted to plant col- building, she turned also to the rich onies in America in the 1500's, but tropical islands of the West Indies, failed. During these years Sir Hum- In the West Indies her colonies phrey Gilbert tried unsuccessfully might raise tobacco, sugar cane, to establish a settlement in New- tropical fruits, and other products foundland and Sir \Valter Raleigh desired in France. Moreover, she in Virginia. Newfoundland has might use her possessions in the been called the "senior colony" of West Indies as stepping stones to England in America, but, as we further colonization in America. shall see, the first permanent Eng- With this in mind, the king en- lish settlement was in Virginia, couraged various trading com- Although Raleigh spent a large panics, similar to the English Vir- private fortune in his Virginia en- ginia Company, to plant colonies, terprise, it was not enough. The The first French settlement in the founding of Jamestown, Virginia, West Indies was founded in 1625 at came through the efforts of a great St. Christopher, a little island business company. Jamestown did southeast of the Virgin Islands, not just happen. It was the result, as Years later the English captured St. we pointed out at the beginning of Christopher, but the French were this chapter, of careful business more successful at Guadeloupe planning and management, and the (Gwah-de-loop') and Martinique spending of much money. U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Early settlers at Jamestown suffered many misfortunes during the early years. This pic- ture shows that there were too many soldiers and "gentlemen" who sat around and loafed while the few servants did the work. Even the laborers are not pushing them- selves too hard. (Culver Service) In 1606 the English king granted a charter to the Virginia Company, a concern in which many wealthy people bought shares. He granted to it large areas of land on the At- lantic coast with exclusive right to colonize them and with many trad- ing privileges. On its part the com- pany had the responsibility of planting colonies and defending them from the enemies of England. After a weary voyage of four months, three ships with 104 men came to anchor in the James River. There they founded the settlement of Jamestown (1607). The early years of the new colony are a story of suffering and misfortune. Sup- plies from England were poor and insufficient, and the settlers did not know how to provide for them- selves. They suffered from misman- agement within the colony and In- dian attacks from without. Three- fourths of the first two expeditions died of disease and starvation (see map, page 38). Finally the colonists learned how to grow food and defend themselves from the Indians. The rule of the company improved. The settlers discovered in tobacco a prosperous crop which could be exported to England. All these helped the col- ony to survive. The Virginia Com- pany lost heavily in settling Vir- ginia. Nevertheless, its place in his- tory is important. It laid the foun- dations of an English world empire and of the American nation. Pilgrims and Puritans seek reli- gious liberty in Massachusetts. Vir- ginia was founded by a great com- SETTLERS FOLLOW PATH OF EXPLORERS "Pilgrims Going to Church" hardly needed the arms shown in this picture. Other settlers on the frontier often did. Actually the Pilgrims established friendly relations with the nearby Indians and got along well with them. Chief Massasoit and other friendly Indians often helped the Plymouth settlers. (Culver Service) mercial company interested in profits. Plymouth, the next perma- nent English settlement, was estab- lished by a small religious group in search of freedom of worship and a chance to earn a decent living. The Pilgrims were Englishmen who dis- liked the form of worship of the English state church. Persecuted at home, they fled to Holland. Life in a foreign country was hard and the Pilgrims preferred to bring up their children in English ways. Many of them decided to leave Holland and to move to America. The Virginia Company granted permission to settle on their lands, and London merchants pro- vided the funds. Setting out in 1620, the little band of 102 men, women, and children sighted land m November near Provincetown, Cod. After exploring the coast, they picked Plymouth as the place of settlement. Here they found a fine harbor, a brook with good water, and much cleared land. The region was uninhabited, for the In- dians had been destroyed in a re- cent plague. Driven out of their course by storms, the Pilgrims found they were outside of the bounds of the Virginia Company. Before they landed, therefore, the men drew up a simple agreement (the Mayflower Compact) by which each pledged himself to obey the will of the ma- jority. As in other settlements, the early years of Plymouth were hard. Over half the little company died during the first winter but not a single person returned to England in the spring. Under their determined leaders, William Brewster and Wil- liam Bradford, the tiny colony 36 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY slowly grew. When the land around Bay Company planned to keep the Plymouth was taken up, small government in the control of the groups moved north and south to shareholders and the religious life settle other towns. under control of the Puritans. It While the Pilgrims were strug- happened, however, that at least gling to keep their foothold in Ply- four-fifths of the newcomers were mouth, another group, called Puri- not Puritans. Moreover, many Puri- tans, was preparing to come to tans began to question the ideas of America. The Pilgrims and the their own religious leaders. Soon Puritans were alike in that both there was discontent, and many groups were dissatisfied with the from Massachusetts left that colony church in England. They differed in search of greater political or re- chiefly in policy. The Pilgrims pre- ligious freedom or in search of bet- ferred to separate from the English ter land. state church while the Puritans pre- One of the rebels was Roger Wil- ferred to stay in the church and re- Hams. Before a Puritan judge could form or "purify" it. banish him to England, he fled Unlike the Pilgrims, many of the southward and founded a settle- Puritans were wealthy and power- ment at Providence, Rhode Island, jful men. They obtained from the Another group under Thomas king a charter with a grant of land Hooker marched westward to settle covering the present region of Mas- Hartford and other towns on the sachusetts. The charter also granted lower Connecticut River. From them rights of self-government. Un- Connecticut as a base English set- der this charter the Puritans or- tiers pushed north into Vermont, ganized the Massachusetts Bay west into New York, and crossed Company. Long Island Sound to settle Long The Puritans were not interested Island. .Settlers from Massachusetts in using the Massachusetts Bay also moved into New Hampshire. Company as a trading company. In the meantime, the Calvert They planned it as a means to set family under a grant from the Eng- up in America a Puritan colony, lish king had founded settlements Accordingly an expedition of over in Maryland as a home for perse- 800 set out in 1630 under the lead- cuted Catholics. By this time the ership of John Winthrop and English had learned the methods of founded the city of Boston. Others settlement. Wealthy individuals quickly followed and new villages like the Calverts could now do what sprang up in eastern Massachusetts, before only great commercial com- Within ten years at least 1 5,000 Eng- panics had been able to manage, lishmen had come to the new col- Colonists could now settle without ony. the hardships suffered at James- town and Plymouth. Although Later the English fill in the gaps Maryland grew slowly at first, it from Maine to Georgia. The Puri- developed finally into a strong col- tans who owned the Massachusetts ony. SETTLERS FOLLOW PATH OF EXPLORERS 37 William Penn treated the Indians with fairness and justice. His wisdom in doing this freed his colony from the danger of Indian attack in its early years. This painting of Penn making a treaty with the Indians shows a good likeness of Penn, but otherwise probably bears little resemblance to the actual scene. (Culver Service) In 1664 the English king granted to his brother, the Duke of York, the land between the Connecticut and the Delaware rivers. Before the Duke of York could take pos- session, however, he had to drive out the Dutch, who had settled New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island and New Netherland on the Hud- son. This he did and New York came under the English Crown. Englishmen now moved into New York and New Jersey. A few years later (1681) the Eng- lish king granted Pennsylvania to William Penn. Penn was a Quaker who wanted to set up in America a refuge for his persecuted fellow Quakers. Unlike the Puritans, he believed in religious liberty and invited the persecuted of all lands to come to his new colony. Soon there was a steady stream from Eng- land, Germany, and Ireland. The "holy experiment," as Penn called it, prospered from the start. The Carol inas were granted to eight English nobles. The northern part was settled largely by Virginia frontiersmen, the southern by im- migrants from England, France, and the West Indies. Georgia, the last of the 13 English colonies, was founded in 1733 under the leader- ship of James Oglethorpe. Ogle- thorpe hoped that it would be a land where English debtors and others might start a new life. The king thought of it as an outpost of defense against the Spaniards in Florida. Like the Spanish and the French the English now settle in the West Indies. Before Jamestown was five years old England established her first West Indian colony on the Ber- muda Islands. It prospered from ENGLISH COLONIES AND THEIR NEIGHBORS English Colonies in 1760 Settled Areas Fbrt Pit puqiiesne fhesapeake Bay > rlesTown Savannah St. Augustine BAHAMA ISLAND^ (JULF OF SETTLERS FOLLOW PATH OF EXPLORERS 39 the start and grew rapidly. In the Englishmen went to the West In- 50 years that followed, England dies as to the mainland colonies, planted settlements and extended Their chief activity was raising to- her power over St. Christopher, An- bacco and sugar on large planta- tigua (An-tee'-gwah), Barbados tions for the English market. Eng- (Bahr-bay'-dohs), Jamaica, and oth- land also prized these settlements er islands. as outposts from which to attack During the 30 years following the Spain. Today she owns more of the founding of Jamestown, as many West Indies than any other power. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Here are some key words and terms of this chapter. Show that you know them by using each in a sentence. Also give an example of each. 1. religious persecution 3. "captaincies" 5. Mayflower Compact 2. political persecution 4. charter 6. "holy experiment" WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1565: Why is this an important year in early Spanish history as well as in our own past? 1607: This is a date that should appear on every colonial time line. Why? 1608: To the French in America this is a red-letter year because it marks the founding of a city which is still very much French. What is it? 1620: This is the year in which an English colony was founded in which the settlers could enjoy religious freedom. What was the colony? 1630: In this year another type of religious settlement was made. What city was the center of this colony? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Name three advantages which might come to a nation making discoveries and settlements in the New World (p. 24). 2. What could the ordinary man and woman gain by seeking a new home in the Americas? Name three such gains (p. 25). 3. What were the three main reasons which urged on the Spaniards to con- quest and settlement in the Americas (p. 26)? 4. Name four centers of Spanish settlement established in South America by the middle 1500's (p. 28). 5. Why do parts of our present Southwest have towns and cities with Spanish names (p. 29)? 6. How did the early Portuguese settlers in Brazil differ from the early Span- ish and French settlers in the Americas (pp. 30-31)? 7. Why was it that the French always small in numbers were able to conquer and claim so much land in North America (pp. 31-32)? 8. Why were the French more successful in the West Indies than in Canada (p. 33)? 9. Why is the founding of Jamestown of great importance? Why were its first years uncertain ones (p. 34)? 40 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 10. How did the Pilgrims and Puritans differ? What colony did each settle (pp. 35-36)? 11. Name three other important colonies founded along the Atlantic seacoast, giving the names of the founders (pp. 36-37). 12. Summary Question: Using the two maps in this chapter (see pp. 27 and 38), prepare to answer this question. How do the maps show that there was rivalry in settlement among the English, French, Spanish and Portuguese? Chapter 3. Europeans Establish Different Ways of Living in the Americas In the late 1600's a group of German immigrants bought 15,000 acres of land near Philadelphia from William Penn. Before the main body came they sent over as their agent Francis Daniel Pastorius to prepare the way. Pastorius was a well-educated man and immediately wrote a description of Pennsylvania to aid immigrants who would follow. Describing his voyage he wrote: "My company consisted of many sorts of people. There was a doctor of medicine with his wife and eight chil- dren, a French captain, a Low Dutch cake-baker, an apothecary [druggist], a glass-blower, a mason, a smith, a wheelwright, a cabinet maker, a cooper [barrel maker], a hat-maker, a cobbler [shoe-maker], a tailor, a gar- dener, farmers, seamstresses, etc., in all about eighty persons besides the crew. They were not only different in respect to age (for our oldest woman ivas sixty years of age and the youngest child only twelve weeks) and in respect to their occupations, as I have said, but were also of such different religions and behaviors that I might not unfittingly compare the ship that brought them hither with Noah's Ark. ... In my household I have those who hold to the Roman [Catholic], to the Lutheran, to the Calvinistic [Presbyterian], to the Anabaptist, to the Anglican church [Episcopa- lian], and only one Quaker." From this description of a group of immigrants we learn that they fol- lowed many different occupations. We also learn that they came from various countries and believed in different types of religion. This one immigrant ship is typical of thousands which came, particularly to North America, for 300 years. This description is also interesting because it helps to explain how America came to be as it is. Our own nation is made up of immigrants and their descendants who came from many lands, followed many dif- ferent religions and earned their living in all sorts of ways. It was true of the colonial period; it is true today. 41 42 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Latin America Is a Land out b r law > s P ain continued a sys- nf Miner? Rancher? and tem of forced labor in the mines ' J 6rS > n The law required that a proportion Farmers of Indians in each village work a certain length of time in the mines. A small number of Spaniards rule While Spain encouraged the min- over millions of Indians. In proper- ing of gold and silver, the great ma- tion to the Indians the number of jority of people in Latin America Spaniards in the New World was lived by farming and ranching. The always few. Moreover, they enjoyed value of the agricultural products but little home rule. The governors, was much greater than that of the judges, and high church officials mines (see map, page 43). This were appointed by the king and happened despite the lack of inter sent from Spain. Even the descend- est of the home government. Spain, ants of the early settlers had little in fact, discouraged any products part in the government. of agriculture or industry that Nevertheless, it was the Spanish might compete 'with those in Spain, settlers who controlled the eco- nomic life of New Spain. That is, The church is a great influence in they owned and directed the min- the social life. From the beginning ing industry, the ranches, and the the church played an important great plantations. As the Spaniards part in the life of Latin America, conquered the land, they divided The soldiers, of course, first con- it among themselves in great es- quered the country. But the con- tates, called encomiendas (ain-koh- quered territory was vast and the mee-ain'-dahs). Each owner of an Spaniards were few. It was the encomienda was given control over priests who took the responsibility one or more Indian villages. These of converting the Indians and teach- villages were forced to supply the ing them the ways of the white man. labor for his estate. Under this sys- The priests pushed out beyond tem the Indians became little more the white settlements and set up than slaves. missions among the Indians. Then Spain did not intend that the In- they taught the natives the Spanish dians should be slaves and after language, the Christian religion, many years abolished the encomi- and how the white man lived. After enda system. The great estates, how- the missionaries had done their ever, remained, and the Indians work, other Spaniards came in to worked on them as in earlier years, take over the land and profit from Since the Spaniards had taken away the country. their land, the Indians could earn The work of the priests was often a living in no other way. Moreover, dangerous and always difficult. The most of them had fallen into debt Indians gradually learned the new to the landowner and they must language, but kept many of the In- keep on working to pay it off. Even dian words. They accepted the Cath- after the encomiendas were wiped olic religion, but retained many of A: T LACTIC G C EAJ^f C I F I C I LATIJ^AMERKAX TRADE ! Cordoba >antiago Buenos Aires) Montevideo PLATA EARLY COLONIAL TIMES =5= Early Colonial Trade Routes Sugar Tobacco Cotton Cacao Hides Scale of Miles 44 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Gold mining in colonial Brazil, as this picture shows, was done by slaves digging out the gold from rocks and sand washed down from the mountain streams. This method is called "placer mining" and is the same as that used by the California gold miners described in Chapter 12. (Historical Pictures Service) the customs and ceremonies of their Indian faith. The Indians of Mexi- co to this day often give their old tribal dances on church holidays, sometimes on the porch of the church. Indian manners and cus- toms have continued, particularly in the remote regions. A leading part in the promotion of education was taken by the church. More than 50 years before Jamestown was settled two univer- sities had been founded in Latin America the University of Mexico at Mexico City and the University of San Marcos at Lima. Before the colonial period was over Spanish America boasted of a string of col- leges and universities stretching from Mexico to Chile. Learning was greatly honored in Latin Amer- ica. Almost all elementary educa- tion and most university teaching were in the hands of the church. Not only was the church supreme in the religious and educational life, but it was also important in the economic life. There were some re- gions in which it owned four-fifths of the land. On these lands the monks directed the farming. The Indians did most of the work for little or nothing. In return the church supported and protected them. Sometimes the Indians had small plots of their own on which to farm. The monastery was always the center of the community. EUROPEANS LIVE DIFFERENTLY IN AMERICAS 45 Most of Latin America, however, almost entirely Negro descendants was not owned by the church. The of the early slaves, land was largely held by a small rul- Another important difference be- ing class who lived on large estates tween Brazil and the Spanish col- called in certain countries hacien- onies was in the government. Por- das (ah-see-ain'-dahs). The owner tugal permitted more home rule in and his family directed the great Brazil and allowed more Brazilians farm or plantation. The Indians in to take part in the government. She nearby villages provided the skilled did not try to keep the government and unskilled labor. The hacienda entirely in the hands of officials needed little from the outside; it sent from Portugal. Because of this raised its own food and manufac- the government was less harsh and tured its own products. Even here, more fitted to the needs of the col- however, the church through its onists than was the case in the Span- influence on education and religion ish colonies. Laws regarding corn- had an important place. merce and trade were less strict. In the field of education, how- In certain ways the Portuguese dif- ever, Brazil lagged behind the Span- fer from the Spanish. Although the ish colonies. Brazil had no univer- Portuguese colony of Brazil resem- sides in the colonial period and no bled the Spanish colonies in many printing presses until the early ways, there were also many differ- 1800's. If Brazilians wanted a uni- ences. The Spaniards quickly forced versity education, they had to re- the Indians into a condition little turn to the mother country, better than slavery. The Portuguese On the whole, life was more easy- never succeeded in doing this on a going in Brazil than in the Spanish wide scale, and therefore brought colonies. Relations with the home in Negro slaves in large numbers, country were more satisfactory to The population of the Spanish the colonists. This explains in part mainland colonies, as a result, was why Brazil remained longer under largely made up of whites, mestizos Portuguese rule than did Spanish (mace-tee'-sos, a mixture of white America under the rule of Spain, and Indian), and pure-blooded In- dians. In most of the countries of Central and South America the ma- Furs and g Large l y In _ jonty of the population, even to- _ JL r V day, is composed of Indians or mes- JiuencC r rencfl L/lje tizos. In Brazil, on the other hand, there is a large population of Ne- French ways of living continue in groes and of mixed Negro and Old Quebec. Like other Europeans white, as well as of Indians. Ne- who settled in America, the French groes also inhabit the Caribbean is- expected to set up here a way of lands and the shores of the Gulf life similar to that at home. It was of Mexico. In fact the popula- after all the only kind that they tion of many Caribbean Islands is knew. Just as in Old France, we U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY "Talon Visiting a Settler's Home," a painting by Batchelor, shows one of the many ac- tivities of Jean Baptiste Talon, one of the great seigneurs of New France. As an im- portant public official, he not only encouraged settlers on his own estate, but also built ships, began trade with the West Indies, and sent exploring expeditions to Hudson Bay and elsewhere in search of copper and iron. (Public Archives of Canada) find in New France a government in which the people had little influ- ence. The governor, who was the king's representative, ruled with ab- solute power. As in France, the church was close to the government and had great influence. All colo- nists were expected to follow the Catholic religion. In Old France most of the people were small farmers. The little farms were grouped around the house of the lord and the farmers paid rent to him for the use of the land either in products from the farm or in la- bor. The French government ex- pected to establish the same system in New France. They granted large blocks of land to seigneurs (sen- yurs), who were to persuade the im- migrants to settle on their lands. Many of these big estates were set up and many immigrants settled on them. At least three-fourths of the French in Canada became farm- ers. The life of the seigneur and his farmers, however, was different from that of France. First of all, the dues or rents were much smaller. The farms were not grouped around the seigneur's house, as in France, but stretched in long lines along the rivers and lakes. This was because there were few roads in Canada. People traveled by wa- ter and had to be near the routes of transportation. Although three-fourths of the set- EUROPEANS LIVE DIFFERENTLY IN AMERICAS 47 tiers were farmers, the most impor- tant business of New France was in collecting and exporting furs. The great profits were in furs and the fur trade. A goodly number of the population were off in the woods seeking adventure and wealth. "There is not a family of any ac- count," wrote one governor to the king, "but has sons, brothers, uncles and nephews among these coureurs- de-bois" (koo-rur' duh bwah, run- ners of the woods). These men spent most of their lives in the forests. Some lived with the Indians and married into their tribes. They trapped furs them- selves and bought furs from Indi- ans. All acted as contact men to di- rect the fur trade to the French rather than to the Dutch or English. Once a year they led the Indians with their stock of furs to a big gathering at Montreal. Here there were a great council fire and speeches by the governor and the chiefs. Then the trading began. The Indians exchanged their furs for firearms, knives, blankets, kettles, trinkets, and many other things. And, of course, there was feasting and plenty of strong drink, mixed with the more serious business. Fur trading was the big business of New France. The French adapt themselves to life on tropical islands. The French in Canada adapted themselves well to the cold climate and to the fur trade. They were equally success- ful in the warm regions of the West Indies. Like their English and Span- ish neighbors in nearby islands, they laid out large plantations. On these they raised sugar, tobacco, ginger, and other tropical products with the labor of Negro slaves. In some ways they excelled the British and the Spaniards. They were more industrious than their Spanish neighbors. They beat the British because they took better care of their plantations. Most Eng- lish planters returned to England as soon as they had made their for- tunes. Hired overseers took care of the estates. The Frenchman stayed on the islands and personally watched over his estate. Before long he could undersell the Spaniards and English in the nearby islands. The English Colonies Are a Land of Small Farmers, Plantation Owners and Shippers . . . , Plantation life in the South differs from life in the North. Life for many in the southern mainland col- onies was much like that on the British and French West Indies. The settlers in Virginia, the Caro- linas, and Georgia found that they, too, could raise crops on large plan- tations for which there was a mar- ket in Europe. Virginia early turned to tobacco. The Carolinas and Georgia later raised rice and indigo, a plant used to make a blue dye. A colonial plantation differed from a farm in the North in a num- ber of ways. It was much bigger. It raised crops largely for sale and the work was done by hired hands or slaves. The colonial farm, on the 48 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY other hand, was small and worked secured the Negroes from the west almost entirely by the farmer and coast of Africa in exchange for rum, his family. Most of the products of firearms, and other goods. Hun- the farm were used by the family, dreds of thousands were brought to Little was sold in the market. the colonies in the colonial days. The southern colonies were well fitted for plantations. Land was The South also is a land of small cheap and enough could be secured fanners. Unlike the British \Vest for large-scale production. It was Indies, the mainland colonies were also easy to get the crop to market, a country of small farmers as well Virginia and the Carolinas are re- as great planters. This is the main gions of many rivers and the plan- difference between life in the two tation could be laid out on the regions. Nine-tenths of the settlers banks. Each one had its own wharf in Virginia, the Carolinas, and and the little ships of the colonial Georgia were small farmers who days could easily sail up and load, lived much like the small farmer The greatest problem of the in the North. planter was labor. Since land was Despite their numbers, the small cheap, settlers preferred to develop farmers had little influence. The their own farms rather than to work planters raised the crops that were for a plantation owner. The planter exported and secured most of the finally solved the labor problem in wealth. They controlled the govern- two ways: first, by indentured serv- ment and made the laws. The large ants; and later, by Negro slaves. plantation houses were the center Indentured servants were mainly of social life. These are the reasons poor immigrants who wanted to why we think of the colonial South come to America but had no money as a land of great planters rather to pay their passage. The planter than of little farmers, paid the expenses and the immi- grants signed an indenture or con- Small-scale farming is the way of tract agreeing to work for the plant- life in New England and the Mid- er for three or four years. The die Colonies. The system of large planter provided food, clothing, plantations never developed in and shelter, but paid no wages. At New England and in the Middle the end of his service the servant Colonies of New York, New Jersey, usually received 50 acres of land and Pennsylvania. There were, of and tools to start farming for him- course, a few large farms, but most self as a free man. were small. In general, they were In the 1700's the planters turned about the size that a farmer and his to Negro slaves. They were easier family could operate, to obtain than indentured servants There were many reasons for the and seemed to be cheaper in the small farm in the North. Scarcity of long run. Negroes were better fitted labor was one. The small farmer for hard work in a hot climate, often lived in comfort, but he rarely English and Yankee slave dealers made enough money to buy slaves. "Along the Water Front in Old New York," a picture drawn by the famous illustrator, Howard Pyle, gives a glimpse of commercial life in the late colonial period. The long line of ships shows that New York was already a lively trading center. In the fore- ground two merchants are discussing business with a sea captain. (Harper's Weekly) U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The climate and soil were not suit- able for raising plantation crops which England desired. England wanted tobacco, rice, and indigo, but not foodstuffs. There was little in the North to encourage planta- tions. The first business of the small farmer was to produce enough to support his family. Since roads were poor and there was little commerce inside the country, each farmer must raise most of the things which the family needed. He had little chance to specialize on a single product. After clearing the land, he put in corn, wheat, vegetables, and fruit trees. He raised, in ad- dition, some hogs and a few sheep. From the land and livestock he ob- tained food, leather, and wool. His own wood lot supplied fuel and building materials. To a large extent the farmer took care of his own needs. The first needs of life food, clothing, shel- ter, and fuel he secured from his farm. But there were other neces- sities which the farm did not sup- ply iron, salt, firearms, and am- munition. The farmer needed money for these as well as for taxes and other expenses. The farmer could obtain money only by selling some of his prod- ucts. From the beginning he tried to raise a surplus of corn, wheat, or meat which he could sell to the coast towns, or to foreign markets. He often used the wood on his farm for lumber, or to make shingles and casks. He could sell the lumber and shingles in the foreign market and the casks to the fishermen and rum dealers. There was always a market for furs, and the frontier farmer usually spent part of his time hunt- ing. A lively commerce develops be- tween the English colonies and the Old World. Since the farm never supplied quite all of the needs of the family, commerce was bound to develop. Moreover, there was a market somewhere for whatever surplus the colonists could produce. It was hard, of course, for inland farmers to get their goods to market because roads were poor. Most of the colonists, fortunately, lived near rivers or the seacoast. Commerce developed quickly and easily in the South. That region had products which England did not have and was eager to get. These included not only tobacco, rice, and indigo, but also naval stores. Naval stores are products of forests used in shipbuilding tar, pitch, turpen- tine, and lumber. The forests were disappearing in England, and she was forced to obtain these products elsewhere. For all of these things England exchanged manufactured goods. New England and the Middle Colonies found it more difficult to develop a lively commerce. England bought their naval stores and furs, but not their foodstuffs. The chief products of this region were fish, meat, and flour. England was in- terested in protecting her own fish- ermen and farmers and barred these products by high import taxes. The colonists finally solved the problem. They discovered a market EUROPEANS LIVE DIFFERENTLY IN AMERICAS 51 England THREE CORNERED TRADE West Indies FURNITURE IRONWARE TEXTILES New England and f f Middle Goloniest/y. SLAVES Africa w for their fish, meat, grain, and lum- ber in the West Indies and in south- ern Europe. Gradually a three- cornered trade developed with these regions (see chart, above). The colonists exchanged their fish, meat, grain, and lumber in the West In- dies for sugar, molasses, and fruit. Then they carried these products to England and exchanged them for manufactured goods. English man- ufactured products, such as textiles, ironware, and furniture, were then brought to America. Trade with southern Europe was much the same. American products were traded for wine and fruit, and the latter exchanged in England for manufactured goods. In this way each region supplied the needs of another. All gained from this com- merce. America profited, particu- larly, because an active commerce encouraged shipbuilding and sup- ported a merchant marine and a merchant class. Another three-cornered trade was the transportation and sale of Ne- gro slaves. The chief product of the \Vest Indies was sugar. Ameri- can merchants, particularly in New England, distilled the sugar into rum. The rum was exchanged for slaves, the slaves brought back to the West Indies and traded to the planters for sugar. Some were also brought to the Southern mainland colonies. The slave trade was profit- able, but disgracefully cruel. Its long- term results were only harmful. U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Europeans Carry to America Different Ideas of How to Live The sons and daughters of many countries come to America. Except for the Indians, every person liv- ing in the United States is an im- migrant or a descendant of immi- grants. Most have come from Eu- rope, and the stream of immigra- tion has been flowing to this coun- try for 300 years. The first immi- grants were Spaniards who planted tiny settlements in Florida. In later years Spaniards from Mexico pushed northward into Texas, Ari- zona, New Mexico and California. In the meantime, the English be- gan to plant settlements along the Atlantic seacoast of the present United States. Almost all of the immigrants into this region in the 1600's were English, except some Dutch in the Hudson Valley and a few Swedes on the Delaware. We do not know how many English came to America during the 1600's. The white population of the mainland colonies of England in 1700, how- ever, numbered about 250,000. This seems like a small number but it was enough to establish in America the English language, English laws, and English customs. During the 1700's the source of migration changed. Most of the immigrants during these years came, not from England, but from Ireland and Germany. The migra- tion from Ireland was of two kinds. There were the so-called "Scotch- Irish" from northern Ireland, a mixture of English, Scotch, and Irish. From South Ireland came the Irish. The Germans, later known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, came from the upper Rhine Valley. There were, of course, immi- grants from other countries. We have mentioned the Spanish, Dutch, and Swedes. There were also a few French Huguenots, French Prot- estants, who came to escape reli- gious persecution. They settled mainly in the Carolinas. A small number of Jews also arrived and settled in the seaport towns. In the 1600's most of the immi- grants went to New England and Virginia. In the 1700's they settled in the Middle Colonies New York, New Jersey, and Pennsyl- vania. The Pennsylvania Dutch have largely stayed where they first settled. The Irish and Scotch-Irish have moved to all sections. Next to Europe, Africa has given to America more people than any other continent. These were the Negro slaves brought here mainly in the 1700's. Unlike the Europe- ans, they came here against their will. They numbered at the end of the colonial period one-fifth of the entire population of the 13 British colonies. Our first census of 1790 put the Negro slaves at almost 700,- 000. The colonists carry to America dif- ferent religious ideas. Long before the Revolution America was a land of many different people from many different countries. They brought to America from their homelands different ideas and different ways of life. This was particularly true of religion. Since many immigrants came to America to escape religious EUROPEANS LIVE DIFFERENTLY IN AMERICAS 53 persecution, they set up here vari- ous kinds of churches. In Europe each nation had its of- ficial state church. All were sup- posed to follow it and even pay taxes to support it. It was natural that this policy should be followed in America in the early years. In Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia the governments es- tablished the Episcopalian form of worship (the state church in Eng- land) as the official church. This was also true in southern New York. All were expected to belong to it and to support it. The colonists in New England were opposed to the state church in England. The Pilgrims and Puri- tans had come to America to escape from this church. When they reached New England, however, they proved as unwilling as the Episcopalians in England to allow religious liberty. They set up state churches (the Congregational church) in Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, and New Hampshire. All were supposed to attend this church. Only church members could vote in town or state elections. The un- ion between church and state was complete. Rhode Island was one exception in New England. Roger Williams, pastor of the Salem church in Mas- sachusetts, had ideas disturbing to the local authorities. He believed that the church and state should be separated. He was convinced that the state should not interfere with the religious life of an individual. Before the authorities could banish him from Massachusetts, he and his followers fled to Rhode Island. There he bought land from the In- dians and established a government. In line with his beliefs, there was no state church in Rhode Island. In the Middle Colonies of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware no state church was established. It was impractical because there were too many religious sects. The Pres- byterians were strong in New Jer- sey, the Quakers and the German religious groups in Pennsylvania. But no single church was powerful enough to force its will upon the others. The idea of religious liberty de- velops in the English colonies. Even in the colonies where state churches had been established there were settlers who followed other forms of worship. In fact, there were so many that the government finally had to tolerate them, that is, permit them to remain and follow their own religious faith. By the end of the colonial period there was free- dom of worship in all of the colo- nies. The story of toleration begins in Maryland. That colony was found- ed by the Calvert family as a refuge for persecuted Catholics. Almost from the beginning, however, there were more Episcopalians than Cath- olics. If trouble was to be avoided, there must be freedom of worship. In 1649 the Toleration Act was passed. It provided that all those "professing to believe in Jesus Christ" should not be "molested" in their religion. William Penn welcomed all to Pennsylvania who acknowledged "one almighty God" to be the "Cre- 54 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY At Dame Schools, in unsanitary and distracting surroundings such as these, children of different ages gathered to learn to read. This process was supposedly aided by the bundle of sticks held tightly in the Dame's hand and applied vigorously if students were inattentive or slow to learn. Here the Dame seems to have fallen asleep, allowing some of the children to give attention to a rat. (The Bettmann Archive) ator, Upholder and Ruler of the World." These laws of Maryland and Pennsylvania provided for re- ligious toleration, not complete re- ligious liberty. Even in these two liberal states only Christians could vote. Maryland had its state church until the Revolution. Complete religious liberty began in America with Roger Williams. In 1636 he gave to the New World a model for a free state. In Rhode Island there were no religious tests for voting, no taxes to support a state church, no compulsory church attendance. This was religious lib- erty, not merely toleration. As the years passed toleration de- veloped. The English government interfered in Massachusetts and ended church membership as a re- quirement for voting. Finally the American Revolution dealt a death blow to the idea of a state church. Except in three New England states, the church and state were quickly separated. The great Jefferson hiiriT self wrote the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom. Amend- ment I [86] l of the Constitution forbids Congress from passing any law restricting religious liberty. The ideal of public education also has its beginnings. One thing which New England gave to the world was a belief in public education. Many of the early settlers were educated men and they were unwilling that the learning of Europe should dis- appear in the New World. More 1 Heavy-faced numerals in brackets refer to the authors' paragraph headings in the Con- stitution in the Appendix. See the first and sixth footnotes on the first page of the Con- stitution for further explanations. EUROPEANS LIVE DIFFERENTLY IN AMERICAS 55 than that, the Puritans were anxious leges. Even before Massachusetts that everyone in the new colony had started a public school system, should be able to read the Bible. the legislature voted money to es- For these reasons the Massachu- tablish Harvard College. The main setts legislature in 1647 ordered purpose was to train ministers. The every town with 50 householders to second American college, William set up a school where children could and Mary in Virginia, was founded read and write. It also ordered every by an Episcopalian clergyman. The town with 100 householders to es- clergy of Connecticut later founded tablish a more advanced school to Yale; the Baptists of Rhode Island, train youths for the university. Al- Brown; the Presbyterians of New though this law was not always Jersey, Princeton. Dartmouth was obeyed, it is important in the his- started as a missionary school for tory of education. It was the first Indians. law ever passed providing for free College education in colonial public education. Other colonies in times was limited to the very few. New England, except Rhode Is- The settlers believed, nevertheless, land, passed similar laws. that their clergy and other leaders Outside of New England there should be learned men. Measured were few public schools. Many by the standards of today, these churches, however, established pri- schools and colleges were not too vate schools taught by the minister, good. But they marked the begin- Charity pupils were often admitted, nings of our great system of educa- but parents who could afford it paid tion. tuition for their children. Wealthy parents generally hired tutors. The tutors were mainly clergymen, for /. , L TT ., they were most often the best edu- Summary of the Unit . . . cated persons in the community. Since most colonial schools were Unit One "An Awakening Old under the control of the church, World Discovers a Strange New much attention was given to reli- World" tells the story of the dis- gious teaching. Beyond that the pu- covery, exploration, and settlement pils learned little more than read- of North and South America, ing, writing, and simple arithmetic. 1 . The story begins in Europe Even this was a great advance for with an awakening interest in Asia those days. Only the very few who and eastern trade. This led to the hoped to go to college studied Lat- exploration of the African coast and in. A few schools, such as the Boston the discovery of America by Colum- Latin School, prepared for college, bus (1492). but most students preparing for a 2. During the 1500's explorers higher education were trained by from many nations sailed along the private tutors. American coast. Balboa (1513) The religious influence was also crossed Panama and discovered the important in founding colonial col- Pacific. Magellan headed an expedi- U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY tion which first sailed around the world (1519-22). In the meantime Cortes entered Mexico (1519). The English began with the Cabot ex- pedition (1497), and the French with Verrazano and Carder. The exploration of the two Americas, which started with Columbus, has continued to the present day. 3. After exploration came settle- ment. In the 1500's the Portuguese occupied Brazil and the Spaniards took over the region between the Rio Grande and Cape Horn. 4. In the 1600's the French set- tled Canada; and the English founded colonies along the Atlantic seacoast from Maine to the Caro- linas. The French founded Quebec (1608); the English planted their first settlements at Jamestown, Vir- ginia (1607), and at Plymouth, Mas- sachusetts (1620). Settlers came hop- ing to find in America a better life than in Europe. 5. Each group brought to Amer- ica the way of life of its home coun- try. The Portuguese, Spanish, and French brought the Catholic reli- gion. The English, Dutch, and Ger- mans carried to the New World the various forms of the Protestant faith. Each brought the government of its homeland. Wherever they went, they earned their living as the climate, soil, and products of the country allowed. America became a land of many languages, many re- ligions, many different kinds of people. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? By using these words in a sentence, show that you understand them. Give an example when possible. 1. encomiendas 5. courevrs-de-bois 2. hacienda 6. indentured servants 3. mestizos 7. naval stores 4. seigneurs 8. Pennsylvania Dutch 9. Scotch-Irish 10. state church 11. religious toleration 12. religious freedom WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1636: Why is this a most important year in the struggle for freedom in re- ligion? 1647: In the development of free public education Ihis is indeed a red-letter year. Why? 1649: In what way may this date be linked with 1636 given above? How is it quite different? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. How did the Spanish settlers control the way the conquered Indians made a living (p. 42)? 2. How did the Catholic priests help the Indians to adjust themselves to the Spanish way of life (pp. 42-44)? 3. Name four ways in which Portuguese colonial life differed from the Span- ish (p. 45). 4. What was the way of life which the French settlers set up in New France (pp. 45-47)? EUROPEANS LIVE DIFFERENTLY IN AMERICAS 57 5. Describe a southern plantation, noting some of the problems of a planter (pp. 47-48). 6. Why did small-scale farming develop in the North rather than plantation farming (pp. 48-50)? 7. Name the most important English colonial products which were exchanged with the mother country or sent elsewhere (pp. 50-51). 8. Using the chart on page 51, explain what is meant by the three-cornered trade. 9. What European countries sent immigrants to what is now the United States in the 1600's and 1700's (p. 52)? 10. To what extent were there state churches in the colonies (p. 53)? 11. How did these colonies or persons lead in the struggle toward freedom in religion: Rhode Island and Roger Williams; Maryland, Pennsylvania and William Penn; Virginia and Thomas Jefferson (pp. 53-54)? 12. Why were the Puritans and other religious groups especially interested in education? How did they use their influence to promote public education (pp. 54-55)? 13. Summary Question: Spain, Portugal, France, and England each set up its way of living in the Americas. What were the chief ways in which their colonies differed from one another? In what ways were they alike? Activities for Unit One CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Table or Chart. Make a table or chart of the explorers of the New World, who are included in this book. Use these headings: Explorer, Date Explor- ing, Country Exploring For, Region Explored, Special Events. Group the explorers as Spanish, Portuguese, French and English. List the explorers in time order. If a large chart is made, illustrate with flags of the countries, ships, and the like. 2. Map. On an outline map of eastern United States, entitled "The Thirteen Colonies in 1760," show the following: (a) boundaries of each colony and name of each colony; (b) most important settlement in each colony; (c) New England Colonies colored red; (d) Middle Colonies in green; (e) Southern Cblonies in yellow; (f) Appalachian Mountains as a barrier to the West; (g) as far as map permits, French and Spanish claims in 1760. Be accurate in boundaries and locations, and neat in printing and coloring. Use the map on page 38 as a good guide. 3. Cartoon. Make a cartoon illustrating one or more conditions in Europe which led Europeans to set out for unknown homes in North, Central, or South America. It is not necessary to be an artist to draw a cartoon, but you should have a good idea and a good title. The cartoon should express an idea without using many words. Often it can be funny. 4. Historical Products Map. Using the information given in Chapters 2 and 3, make an illustrated map of the chief products of the Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English colonies in North, Central, and South America in the 1600's and 1700's. Remember that present-day boundaries did not exist. 58 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY I TEST MY SKILLS 5. Using This Book. This textbook has its main parts in this order: title page, table of contents, list of maps, charts and graphs, preface, main part of the book, appendix, and index. If you can answer correctly these questions, you will show that you know how to use this book, (a) On what page do you find a map entitled, "Latin America Today"? (b) What is the proper way of finding Chapter 12? (c) On what page does the Appendix begin, and what does it include? (d) Parts of this book were tried out in mimeographed form in certain schools. Where would you expect to find such a statement? Is it there? (e) Who wrote this book, and who published it? (f) Where is there reference to Canada's form of government? In each case indicate how you arrived at an answer. 6. Reading a Map. Turn to the map on page 16, and test your ability to use a map. How many of these questions can you answer? (a) What is the title of the map? (b) Does it have a legend or key? (c) What part of the world is shown? (d) Where is east on this map? (e) Is it possible to tell distances on this map? (f) Are both cities and countries shown? (g) Where does Colum- bus's route begin and end? (h) Where did Magellan go on his voyage? (i) From where did Cortes's "invasion army" set sail? (j) In what years did Pizarro make his explorations? WE WORK IN GROUPS 7. Committee of the Whole. Let the whole class act as a committee to prepare a "Colonial Hall of Fame." This will consist of brief illustrated biographi- cal sketches to be included in a booklet of the above title. In order that necessary planning may be done, it might be well for the class to elect a sub-committee of three. The person receiving the highest vote would be chairman of the sub-committee. This sub-committee would then select the colonial leaders discoverers, explorers, founders of colonies, and other leaders to be included in the booklet. Be sure to include some Latin- American and Canadian leaders. This committee would then assign one name in the Hall of Fame to each class member. The committee would make clear the kind of report wanted and the form in which it is to be done. The committee would also prepare an appropriate cover for the booklet. Look under "To Find Out Who's Who" on page 59 for biog- raphies. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 8. Explorations Then and Now. Have you ever thought much about these two questions? (a) How does exploration today differ from that of the 1500's, 1600's, 1700's and 1800's? (b) Why do men explore? This unit tells you about many of the early explorers, what they found, and why they ex- plored. On page 21 you will find something about recent explorers and their methods. Additional help in answering these questions will be found in the excellent Unrolling the Map by L. Outhwaite, and in M. S. Lucas, Vast Horizons. Also useful is any one of these: G. Hartman, These United States and How They Came to Be, chaps, ii-iv; D. Goetz, Half a Hemisphere, chaps. 1-5; J. Cottier and H. Jaffe, Map Makers, parts I and III; A. M. Peck, The Pageant of Canadian History, chaps, i, ii and xx; S. EUROPEANS LIVE DIFFERENTLY IN AMERICAS 59 Hoffman (cd.), News of the Nation, Nos. 1-3. For simpler reading, sec R. C. Gill and H. Hoke, The Story of the Other America, 6-18; or R. Duvoisin, They Put Out to Sea. WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 1 9. To Get More Information. HARTMAN, GERTRUDE, Medieval Days and Ways. An interesting account of how people, especially Englishmen, lived in the Middle Ages. HEWES, A. D., Spire Ho! A story full of adventure which tells why men and nations risked their lives to control the spices of the East. OUTHWAITE, LEONARD, Unrolling the Map. The story of great explorers from earliest times to the present. DUVOISIN, ROGER, They Put Out to Sea. From the ancient traders to Magel- lan, this is an exciting story of adding to the map. HARTMAN, GERTRUDE, These United States and How They Came to Re. The first chapters of this book tell a lively story about the early Americas. GILL, R. C., and HOKE, HELEN, The Story of the Other America. A nicely illustrated story of Latin America with emphasis upon the early days. EARLE, A. M., Home Life in Colonial Days. An interesting and accurate description of how the English colonists lived from day to day. 10. To Find Out Who's Who. WILLIS, C. H., and SAUNDERS, L. S., Those Who Dared. Simply told stories of the lives and adventures of early leaders in discovery, exploration and settlement. HODGES, C. W., Columbus Sails. A dramatic and stirring book about the discovery of America. DIAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL, Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards in 1521. An eye-witness tale by a soldier of fortune who was with Cortez in Mexico. AVERILL, ESTHER, The Voyages of Jacques Car tier. A story of French sailors, the discovery of the St. Lawrence, and an Indian chief carried off to the king of France. KENTON, EDNA, With Hearts Courageous. The lives and work of the cou- rageous Jesuit missionaries among the Indians of New France. LENSKI, Lois, Indian Captive: The Story of Mary Jemison. The childhood of the "White Woman of the Genesee" who lived all her life with the Iroquois. 11. To Read a Historical Story. MEANS, PHILIP, Tupak of the Incas. An absorbing story of the Incas of Peru before the Spaniards came. GAGGIN, E. R., Down Ryton Water. Young Matt and his Pilgrim compan- ions seek freedom in Holland and finally in the Americaji wilderness. - 1 In each group of books that follows, the titles are listed in the order in which the subject- matter is presented in the chapters. This order of listing will be used in each unit of the book. 6o U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY COATSWORTH, ELIZABETH, Sword of the Wilderness. Seth Hubbard, cap- tured by the Indians, is forced to spend the bitter winter of 1689 with them. GRAY, E. J., Meggy Macintosh. Brave 15-year-old Meggy came to the Scotch settlement in the Carolinas to join her heroine, Flora MacDonald. UPDEGRAFF, F. M., Traveler's Candle. A Quaker candlemaker takes in young Patrick escaping from kidnappers. Later the lad is able to help his rescuers. 12. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Pageant of America: I, 69-170, 171-284, 285-330, 331-43, discovery, ex- ploration, and settlement in pictures Spanish, English and French. Building America: VI, "We Americans"; VII, "The American Indian"; VIII, "Spanish-Speaking People." WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 13. Headline Events. Under this heading prepare carefully worded brief state- ments of the ten most important events of this unit. Be sure to include all of the Americas and all aspects of the period: exploration, settlement, and ways of living. 14. Time Line. Make a time line on which will appear the outstanding events of the unit. Select your events from those listed under "Why Are These Red-Letter Years?" at the end of each chapter. After the events are ar- ranged in order, you are ready to plan the scale of the time line. This line will cover the years from 1450 to 1650 a period of 200 years. If you let one inch represent 20 years, your line will be ten inches long. The next step is to place the events accurately and neatly along the line. Perhaps you will want to put all Latin-American and Canadian events on one side of the line, and those concerning the English on the other. Be sure to in- clude both date and event. You may wish to be original, but do not forget that the first purpose of a time line is to record accurately events and the time between events. 15. Checking the Artist. Study carefully the two-page drawing at the beginning of this unit, pages 4-5. This is the artist's view of the unit as a whole. Checking against the text of Chapters 1, 2, and 3, list the historical events of discovery, exploration and settlement which James Daugherty, the artist, has so ably included in the drawing. Has he included all of the Americas? Has he omitted any important idea? What do you like most about this unit drawing? DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 16. Through Indian Eyes. Imagine yourself an old Indian chief living some- where in the Americas about 1650. You are telling the young men of the tribe what the coming of the white man has meant to the Indians. The chief tells what he himself has seen and the tales that have been handed down since 1500. What would you say to the young warriors? 17. The Round-lip. What ideas in this unit do these words and terms recall: Crusades, "Pope's Line," Aztecs and Incas, religious persecution, May- flower Compact, hacienda, mestizos, indentured servants, religious tolera- tion? Unit Two The New World Separates from the Old 4. The American Revolution Paves the Way for Free Na- tions in America 5. The Latin- American Colonies Break the Chains that Bind Them to Europe Colonies are much like children. The mother country gives them life and protects them in their early years. As they grow older and stronger they do more and more for themselves. Finally they grow up and are able to stand on their own feet. Strong colonies refuse to be children forever. They want to make their own way in the world. Some stay in the family and make their own de- cisions. That is, they insist on home rule. Others move out and become independent states. This is what happened to most of the European col- onies in America. The 1 3 mainland colonies of England first broke away. After a long war they won independence. A few years later the Spanish colonies followed their example. Later the Portuguese colony of Brazil became free. The only strong child in America to remain with its parents was Canada. But Canada insisted on home rule. r Chapter 4. The American Rev- olution Paves the Way for Free Nations in America . . The autumn of 1776 was the most discouraging period of the Revolution. Washington and his army had been driven out of New York. Weary and discouraged, they began their retreat across New Jersey. The British followed closely, sometimes entering one end of a town as Washington's army escaped from the other. Never did the American cause look so hopeless. But there was one soldier who was not discouraged. He was Thomas Paine, who had already stirred his countrymen to independence by writing a famous pamphlet, Common Sense. While Washington's half-starved, ill- clothed, and defeated men lay sleeping, Paine sat by the campfire writing a new appeal. He called it The Crisis. It began: "These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot, will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." Tyranny, said Paine, is hard to defeat. The cost of freedom is high, but it is worth any price. Again the country was aroused to new efforts. Washington ordered the stirring words of The Crisis read to his army. A few days later his men turned and won the battles of Trenton and Princeton. Defeat had turned into victory. The new nation was saved. The pen can sometimes be as mighty as the sword. 6 4 AMERICAN REVOLUTION The English Colonies Slowly 'Drift Away from the Mother Country The colonies begin to take an American point of view. The set- tlers at Jamestown and Plymouth were Englishmen transplanted to America. They thought and acted like Englishmen and brought to America the English way of life. But conditions in America were dif- ferent from those in the homeland. In America the settlers had to clear forests and fight Indians. They had to learn new ways of farming and how to live under new forms of gov- ernment. Different conditions developed a new way of life. The settlers gradu- ally began to live differently and think differently from Englishmen. They became Americans with an American point of view. More than 150 years passed between James- town and the American Revolution. This was a long time and it helps to explain why Americans took up arms to win their independence. As the years went by, ties with England loosened. Most Americans of English stock knew little of the mother country. They thought of it as a nation from which their an- cestors had fled to find a better life in America. It was a nation which ruled them from faraway. Many felt no great loyalty or love for it. Many Americans, as we know, did not come from England. At least one-fourth of the white Ameri- cans at the time of the Revolution had come from other countries Holland, Sweden, France, Germa- ny, and Ireland. These immigrants and their children had even less loyalty than the descendants of Eng- lish settlers. The Irish, in fact, car- ried to America a strong feeling against England. One of the many things that sepa- rated England from America was religion. Many had come to Amer- ica to find religious freedom. This was particularly true of large num- bers in New England and the Mid- dle Colonies. These settlers feared that England might try to establish the English state church as the offi- cial church in America. America was becoming a land that stood for religious freedom. The colonists in- tended to keep it that way. Colonial interests clash with those of the mother country. Much hard feeling developed during the long colonial period between England and her colonies. Like other Euro- pean nations, England founded colonies mainly for the benefit of the home country. If the interests of England and the colonies clashed, the mother country came first. Oth- erwise, why have colonies? England made many demands upon her colonies. She expected them to furnish her with products which she did not have at home. The colonies were to provide raw materials for British industries. In turn, the colonies were to be a mar- ket for British manufactured goods. Britain opposed colonial manufac- turing and expected the colonies to buy British goods. She hoped that commerce with the colonies would develop a strong English shipping business. 66 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Many laws were passed to enforce this policy. One act prevented the colonists from using foreign vessels, such as the Dutch, in shipping co- lonial products to England. Certain products, such as sugar, tobacco, and furs, must be sold only in Eng- land. Products which England did not want, particularly grain and fish, she kept out by high tariffs (import taxes). England tried to prevent the development of colo- nial manufacturing, particularly in woolen and iron goods. She even forbade the colonies to mint coins or issue paper money. Not all of these acts were harm- ful. Some were not strictly enforced until shortly before the Revolution. The colonists evaded other laws by smuggling. Fortunately the colo- nists found markets in other coun- tries for the goods which England would not buy. Nevertheless, hard feeling was continuous. The clash of interests was not limited to commerce. There was also disagreement between English officials and the colonists. The king or the proprietors sent over gover- nors and other officials to protect their interests. Naturally, it was their business to enforce the laws passed by the British government. Each colony, however, had some form of legislature which repre- sented the people of the colonies. They were often at odds with the royal governors. The legislatures would pass laws in the interest of the colonies. The governors or the British king would forbid them. The southern colonies, for example, passed laws to limit the slave trade. The British government crossed them off the books to protect the English slave dealers. These constant clashes over rights of the colonists to manufacture, to ship goods, and to trade caused hard feelings. As the years wore on, the colonists could see that their in- terests were different from those of England. Yet few thought of sepa- rating from the mother country. It was not until Britain tried to en- force old laws and pass new ones that real trouble began. Revolt came when new taxes were levied and troops sent over to enforce Brit- ish laws. New taxes increase the bad feeling. In 1763 Great Britain won a long series of wars with France for con- trol of North America. She now possessed Canada and the region east of the Mississippi. The British government decided to tighten con- trol over her empire and supervise it more closely. She planned to en- force strictly all earlier trade acts. Also she planned new taxes to sup- port the empire. Ten thousand British troops were to be sent to America, and the colonists were to pay one-third of the cost. The new policy began in 1764 when Great Britain laid new duties on many products imported into the colonies. At the same time she passed the Sugar Act. This reduced the import tax on molasses brought in from the Spanish, Dutch, and French West Indies. On the face of it, the Sugar Act looked better for the colonists than an earlier law, but this was not the case. Britain had not enforced the former law, but this one she intended to enforce AMERICAN REVOLUTION 67 Resenting the Stamp Tax, the colonists bitterly criticized those who accepted appoint- ments as stamp officers. Whoever was foolish enough to take such a job had a lot of explaining to do to angry crowds. Two soldiers in the rear seemed surprised that plain citizens should threaten an officer of the British crown. (Howard Pyle in Harper's Magazine) by every means at hand. It struck at the very heart of colonial business prosperity. Molasses was one of the most im- portant colonial products. From it the colonists manufactured rum, the most common colonial liquor. Rum was also important in the slave trade. There had been import taxes on molasses for many years, but Britain had not enforced the act. The colonists had smuggled in large quantities without paying duties. Under the new law the British offi- cials were to collect the duties, and special courts were to try all who evaded it. The Sugar Act was passed to pro- tect the sugar planters in the British West Indies. The mainland colo- nists claimed that they could not get enough molasses from the Brit- ish Islands and that they must im- port from the Dutch, French, and Spanish Islands. Moreover, they in- sisted that the duties on foreign molasses would ruin their business. The year following the Sugar Act, Britain passed the Stamp Act. This provided that stamps of differ- ent values must be placed upon newspapers, pamphlets, deeds, wills, and various legal documents. The Stamp Act was something new in British taxation. There had always been taxes on imports, but this was an effort to tax business carried on within the colonies. 68 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Protests and petitions were sent to England. Merchants in America banded together and pledged that they would buy no English goods until the taxes were removed. Brit- ain then gave in and withdrew the Stamp Act. At the same time, how- ever, she passed a new act claiming that she had a right to make laws for the colonies in any way she pleased. Then she added new im- port duties, including one on tea, and sent soldiers to enforce the acts. The arrival of troops in the colo- nies increased the bad feeling. This was particularly so in Boston where clashes between citizens and sol- diers resulted in the Boston Mas- sacre. A group of soldiers, irritated by the taunts of a mob, fired into them, killing five and wounding several. The situation reaches a breaking point. Despite tax laws and the sending of troops, the situation was quieting down when a new act again aroused- the colonies to fresh anger. This was the Tea Act of 1773 which gave the British East India Company the right to import tea directly into the colonies. This act seemed to endanger the importing business of colonial merchants. If Parliament could take away from Americans the business of import- ing tea, it could take away other business. When the tea ships arrived, the colonists were ready for them. New Yorkers dumped the tea of one ves- sel into the harbor and refused to allow the other to unload. At An- napolis the tea ship, Peggy Stewart, was burned at the demand of the patriots. In Boston, a band of citi- zens, disguised as Indians, boarded the tea ship and dumped the tea into the harbor. When news of the Boston Tea Party reached England, Parliament struck back quickly to punish the colonists. Several acts were passed in 1774 called by the colonists the "Intolerable Acts." One closed the port of Boston until the tea was paid for. Another changed the gov- ernment of Massachusetts to make it less democratic. General Gage, commander of the British troops in America, was made military gover- nor of Massachusetts. The Intolerable Acts aroused the colonists to action. Other colonies sent aid and sympathy to the people of Boston. Merchants again refused to import English goods. More im- portant than all else, colonial legis- latures sent delegates to a Conti- nental Congress at Philadelphia. This Congress expressed its loyalty to King George III, but at the same time sent to him a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances." Congress demanded that England end these grievances and again establish American rights. If this were not done, Congress agreed to meet again in the following year. The Declaration of Independence marks the birth of a new nation. Before Congress could meet again, the war for independence had be- gun. Battles at Lexington and Con- cord had been fought. On the May day in 1775 that the Second Conti- nental Congress met, Ethan Allen with his Green Mountain Boys from Vermont captured the British AMERICAN REVOLUTION 69 fort at Ticonderoga on Lake Cham- The Declaration of Independ- plain. At the end of the year an ence was largely the work of Thom- American expedition marched into as Jefferson. It begins with a state- Canada and tried unsuccessfully to ment of the right of the colonies to capture Quebec (see map, page revolt. Said the Declaration, "We 73). hold these truths to be self-evident, During these early months of the that all men are created equal, that war, Congress again petitioned the they are endowed by their Creator king. He refused to receive the pe- with certain unalienable rights tition. Instead he declared the colo- [rights that cannot be taken away], nies in a state of rebellion and hired that among these are Life, Liberty 20,000 German troops (Hessians) to and the pursuit of Happiness." It aid in putting down the revolt. The was to secure these rights, said Jef- British began to attack seaport ferson, that governments were es- towns. tablished. When such rights are By now it was too late to draw taken away, the people have a right back. The colonists must either sur- to change or even do away with render all their rights or fight a war. their government. Such action is a As the months went on more and revolution. more people felt that they must The second part of the Declara- fight not alone for their rights, but tion is a list of 27 grievances against also for independence. the British king. Finally comes the No one did more to arouse the statement declaring independence, desire for independence than an There could be no mistake as to its immigrant from England, Thomas meaning. At home the Declaration Paine. In a fiery pamphlet, Com- meant a call to arms. It meant a mon Sense, he attacked the abuses final break with Great Britain. To of British rule and urged the need the world, it was notice that a new of independence. "The sun," said nation had been born. Paine, "never shined on a cause of greater worth." In every colony thousands read his stirring words, and the demand for freedom grew. A Small Army of Patriots Congress recognized this growing Struggle Over Six Weary feeling. In May, 1776, it advised the y , , . Freedom various colonies to organize states with new governments. In June Richard Henry Lee moved in Con- In the first campaign the colonials gress that "these united colonies are, drive the British out of New Eng- and of a right ought to be, free and land. Fighting had been going on independent states." A committee for more than a year before Con- was appointed to frame a "Declara- gress passed the Declaration of In- tion of Independence." It was dependence. The American Revo- adopted on July 4, 1776, our na- lution really began on the night of tional birthday. April 18, 1775, when General Gage, 70 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY hearing that the colonists were col- Hill, came to be known as the battle lecting military stores at Concord, of Bunker Hill. The British won sent an expedition of about 1,000 the heights, but they lost so heavily British troops to destroy them. The in dead and wounded that the colo patriots, awaiting such a move, sent nists considered it as good as a vie- out William Dawes and Paul Re- tory. It proved that American mi vere to arouse the countryside. litia (citizens volunteering for an When the British reached Lex- emergency), properly led, might be ington on the morning of the nine- a match for British regulars, teenth they found a band of armed A few days before the battle of citizens awaiting them on the vil- Bunker Hill Congress elected lage green. A brief skirmish fol- George Washington Commander- lowed leaving eight of the Ameri- in-Chief of the Continental Army, cans dead and ten wounded. Press- \Vashington then took command of ing on, the British fought another the troops near Boston. He spent band of patriots at Concord Bridge the next winter training his army (see map, page 73). and tightening his grip around the Then began the long retreat to besieged city. Early in the spring he Boston. By now the countryside was seized Dorchester Heights. Rather thoroughly aroused. Nearby farm- than fight another battle like Bunk- ers swarmed in from all directions er Hill, the British decided to give and poured a deadly fire on the up the city. In March they sailed British regulars from behind rock, for Nova Scotia, fence and tree. Aided by reinforce- After the British fleet left Boston ments, the British finally reached the war in New England was largely Boston. There the Americans closed over. Except for a few British raids in to besiege the city. on seaport towns, there was little The colonists knew that they fighting. Washington expected that could never drive the British from the next attack would be against Boston unless they occupied the the Middle Colonies. Shortly after heights over the city. Colonel Pres- the capture of Boston he moved his cott, therefore, on the night of June troops to the defense of New York. 16 occupied Breed's Hill in Charles- town. Throughout the next morn- In the second campaign the coloni- ing the colonists held their position als battle for control of the Hudson against the bombardment of the and Delaware valleys. General Wil- British fleet. In the afternoon Gage liam Howe, the new British corn- ordered his men to storm the posi- mander, appeared off New York in tion. With great courage the British June, 1776, with a large force, advanced twice only to be driven Washington tried to defend the back by the deadly fire of the Amer- city, but failed. He then moved icans. On the third charge the what was left of his army, about Americans, with their ammunition 3,000 men, across the Hudson for gone, retreated. the defense of New Jersey. Pursued This battle, fought on Breed's by the British, he retreated swiftly The Battle of Bunker Hill is being watched from the house tops of Boston by these Americans. As they look across the bay they see Charlestown on the right set afire by the British bombardment and burning to the ground. On the left are the British regulars advancing up the hill against the Americans. (Howard Pyle in Harper's Magazine) 7 2 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY acrY>ss the state. He finally got what and forced to surrender at Saratoga, was left of his little army across the Instead of moving northward to Delaware into Pennsylvania. join Burgoyne, General Howe in The cause of independence never New York decided to march south- looked so hopeless. Many of the col- ward and capture Philadelphia, onists were discouraged and willing Washington tried to stop him at the to quit. But Washington was not battles of Brandywine and German- beaten. In one brilliant stroke he town, but failed. While the British saved his army and restored the took up comfortable quarters in hope of independence. With part Philadelphia, Washington and his of his small force he recrossed the shattered army spent the winter at Delaware on Christmas night. Valley Forge. Marching eight miles through a Valley Forge was a bitter winter blinding sleet storm, the Americans for Washington's defeated and half- fell upon 1 ,400 of the enemy, most- starved troops, but not for the ly Hessians, at Trenton and cap- American cause. Washington's ar- tured 1,000 of them. Four days later my had kept Howe busy while Washington defeated three British American militia destroyed Bur- regiments at Princeton. Howe then goyne at Saratoga. Saratoga was the withdrew his troops to New York turning point of the war. and Washington established winter The victory of Saratoga brought quarters at Morristown, New Jer- France into the war. Influenced by sey. Benjamin Franklin and other The British War Office planned a American agents, France had al- large-scale campaign for the sum- ready been sending secret aid. She mer of 1777. One British army un- was now convinced that America der General Burgoyne was to move would win. The time had come, she south from Canada along the Lake believed, for revenge for earlier de- Champlain-Hudson River route, feats at the hands of Britain. In Another was to proceed eastward 1778, France declared war against from Oswego along the Mohawk Great Britain and agreed not to River. General Howe was to move make peace until American inde- up the Hudson to join them. The pendence was won. purpose was to cut New England off from the Middle States (see map, The colonists cross the Alleghenies page 73). and drive the British out of the These plans failed. Fighting Northwest. The Revolution was farmers under General Herkimer fought not only along the Atlantic stopped the British and their In- coast, but also on the frontiers. Cer- dian allies at Oriskany and sent tain of the American states claimed them fleeing back to Canada. Bur- land as far west as the Mississippi goyne got as far south as Bemis and were willing to fight for it. Heights (near Troy, New York). Throughout the war the British Here he was defeated by the militia sought to win the Indians to their of New York and New England side. This was not hard, for the In THE REVOLUTION i THE XORTH Scale of Miles zs so 75 ioo inceton \ renton i ntown hiladelph JERSEY 74 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY THE WESTERN dians looked upon the frontiersmen as their natural enemies. In 1778 Patrick Henry, governor of Virginia, ordered George Rogers Clark to raise a band of militia and drive the British out of the re- gion north of the Ohio. With less than 200 men Clark crossed the Al- leghenies, descended the Ohio, and captured British forts on the Mis- sissippi and Wabash rivers (see map above). Clark then planned to attack Detroit when he learned that the British had recaptured the fort at Vincennes on the Wabash. He marched his little band 230 miles in the dead of winter, surprised and captured the garrison. Clark spent the rest of the war fighting the Brit- ish and Indians on the frontier. When it ended, Americans had con- trol of the Northwest. While Clark was fighting in the Northwest, the British led their In- dian allies against the frontier set- tlements in the Cherry Valley of New York and the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. This cruel and un- necessary warfare spared neither women nor children. It gained the British nothing but hatred. General Sullivan with an army of frontiers- men quickly struck back. He de- feated the Iroquois in battle and then destroyed their crops and vil- lages. This broke the Iroquois pow- er and opened western New York to settlement after the war. John Paul Jones and the privateers fight the British at sea. Even before Congress declared independence it began to create an American navy. During the war it fitted out at least 70 vessels. At the same time most of AMERICAN REVOLUTION 75 the states had tiny navies. After Barry was given command of one France joined the American war ship after another and fought many Congress let its navy decline, and at successful sea battles. When Con- the end there were only three cruis- gress reorganized the navy after the ers in service. Nevertheless, these war, it made Barry senior captain, few ships did much to challenge the More important than the navy in proud British navy. winning the war were the priva- Of all the American naval officers teers. Privateers were vessels owned in the Revolution, John Paul Jones by private persons, but given corn- was the most famous. He captured missions by Congress or the states many British ships, including an to make war upon the enemy. It is armed transport carrying arms and believed that 2,000 such commis- supplies to Burgoyne. Throughout sions were granted, most of them to the war he attacked British com- New Englariders. These privateers merce and even raided English roamed the seas and captured hun- coast towns. dreds of British merchant ships. In 1779 Benjamin Franklin se- English shipowners and merchants cured for him an old French ship, lost millions of dollars worth of Jones refitted it and named it the shipping and cargoes. Insurance Bon Homme Richard in honor of rates finally rose to more than one- Franklin (a pen name used by fifth of the value of the cargoes. Franklin in his Poor Richard's Al- The heavy losses caused by priva- manac}. With this aged vessel and teers did as much as anything to several smaller ones Jones set out make the war unpopular in Eng- to engage the enemy. He soon land, sighted a convoy protected by three war ships. Leaving the smaller war The colonials and the French win ships to his other vessels, Jones en- the war at Yorktown. After the win- gaged the larger one, the Serapis, ter at Valley Forge (1777-78), the far superior to his own. Sailing in British returned to New York, close to escape the fire of the bigger Washington tried to prevent them ship, he lashed his own to the Sera- but failed. Then he took a position pis and began a hand-to-hand fight, in New Jersey where he could When the astonished British cap- watch the British. From then until tain cried out, "Have you surren- the final defeat of the British, the dered?" Jones answered with the war in the Middle States was al- famous words, "I've just begun to most at a standstill, fight." Three and a half hours later During these years the British de- the Serapis signaled her surrender, cided to crush the South. They cap- Next to Jones, the foremost naval tured Savannah, Georgia, and hero of the revolution was John Charleston, South Carolina (see Barry, an Irishman who had come map, page 78). Then they began to the colonies a few years before to march through the Carol inas and the war. He was the first American Virginia, destroying property and captain to capture a British ship, striking terror into the hearts of In sea battles of the Revolution, such as this between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis, warships often lashed themselves to the enemy and fought with close-range weapons such as swords, bayonets, and javelins as well as pistols and muskets. The marine in the foreground is either preparing to fire the cannon or to throw a grenade. (Culver Service) AMERICAN REVOLUTION 77 the patriots. Small bands under lo- cal leaders, Sumter, Marion, and Pickens, did what they could to op- pose them. Congress also sent a regular army of Continentals to help the South. Nathanael Greene, next to Wash- ington the ablest American gen- eral, finally took command of the southern army. But even Greene could not stop the invaders. He lost one battle after another. In the end, however, he managed to lead the British under General Cornwallis onto the Yorktown pen- insula in Virginia. In this he was aided by the Marquis (Mahr-kee') de Lafayette, now a general in the Continental Army, and one of the many Frenchmen who offered their help to the Americans. With the British cornered on the Yorktown peninsula, Washington saw his opportunity. First he de- ceived the British in New York by making believe that he was prepar- ing to attack the city. He sent word to a French army quartered in New- port, Rhode Island, to join him. Then he quickly marched his troops south to the Chesapeake Bay and embarked for Virginia (see map, page 78). In the meantime the French fleet sailed north from the West Indies. They stood guard at the head of the bay to prevent reinforcements from reaching Cornwallis. Then Washington with his American and French soldiers closed in around the unfortunate Cornwallis. Caught in a trap and unable to fight his way out, Cornwallis surrendered his 7,000 men in October, 1781. Brief control of the sea off Virginia and perfect co-operation between French and Americans won the vic- tory. After Yorktown the British de- cided to end the war. They had won many battles but they had lost two armies. All they had to show after six years of war was the con- trol of a few coast towns. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, gave the Americans about all they asked for. They secured inde- pendence, a western boundary line at the Mississippi, and a share in the Newfoundland fisheries. Some problems, such as the northern and southern boundary lines, were not wholly settled by the treaty. These and other matters were ironed out in later years. There are many reasons for our vic- tory. Why did the colonists finally Avin over the powerful British Em- pire? The population of America was less than a fourth the size of that of Great Britain. England had the strongest navy in the world. She had a standing army with well- trained officers. She had a strong government able to tax her people and secure funds for a long war. Despite these English advantages, the colonists finally won. Geograph- ic conditions helped us greatly. Britain was 3,000 miles away. Like the American armies in the Second World War, the British had to fight a long distance from their supplies and munitions. Moreover, America was a large country. The British army was not big enough to occupy all of it. British soldiers might con- quer and hold the land they actu- ally occupied. This was a tiny part U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Richrnon Petersburg BRITISH AND FRENCH FLEETS IN BATTLE BATTLEGROUNDS OF THE SOUTH Wilmington Camden CAROLIN Scale of 'Miles 25 50 75 100 of the whole, and the rest of the country was still in rebellion. Britain also made several blun- ders. The British War Office knew little of American conditions and they sent over generals ignorant of America. Orders from London were often delayed or misunderstood. Howe, for example, instead of go- ing north to help Burgoyne, turned south to capture Philadelphia. The hiring of Hessian soldiers did much to anger the colonists. More important than British blunders was aid from France. Arms and munitions secretly sent from France helped greatly in the early years of the war. After France en- AMERICAN REVOLUTION 79 tered the war, she loaned us money, these Tories were often the most French troops and the French navy prominent men in the colonies, co-operated with Washington in the John Adams believed that one- final victory at Yorktown. Before third of the colonists were Tories the Revolution ended, England was throughout the struggle, also at war with Spain and Hoi- Although there were many To- land. From these nations we ob- ries, they did not exert much pow- tained some indirect help and small er. The patriots were better organ- financial aid. ized. Leaders of the Revolution, After all has been said, the real such men as Samuel Adams and cause for victory was the dogged Patrick Henry, set up Committees courage of the colonists. Often dis- of Correspondence before the war couraged and defeated, they kept started to hold their followers to- up the war year after year. The gether. These committees kept in American soldiers were mostly touch with one another and kept farmers and mechanics, militia with alive the spirit of opposition. After but little military training and al- the war started, they organized to most always poorly equipped. Of prevent the Tories from actively his men at Valley Forge Washing- opposing the Revolution. In some ton wrote: "Naked and starving as places the Tories were more nu- they are we cannot enough admire merous than the rebels. But the the patience and fidelity [loyalty] of rebels were younger, more active, the soldiers." and more determined. America was fortunate in her Thousands of Tories aided the leadership. Washington was a man British army and many joined it. of patience, courage, and character. As the war continued, however, A true leader, he commanded the their influence declined. Many re- respect of all ranks. No matter how turned to England or went to the dark the future looked, he never West Indies. At least 60,000 mi- thought of giving up. To George grated to Canada. This was the first Washington must go much of the great movement of the English to credit for the final victory and Canada. American Tories laid the American independence. foundation in Canada of a new English nation. The War Creates Problems The colonists free themselves from but Also Results in Desirable the British nation. During the Rev- olution the Tories were driven from power. The patriots were in Many colonists oppose the war. control and they wrote new consti- One great diffculty in winning the tutions in most of the states. Some war was the opposition at home, of these constitutions established a America was divided. There were more democratic government than many in all the colonies who had been known before. All in- opposed independence. Moreover, eluded "Bills of Rights," such rights 8o U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY as freedom of speech, of the press ended the system of primogeniture, and of religion. They prepared the that is, the system whereby the old- way for the separation of church est son inherited all the landed and state. property. The Revolution ended The Revolution won more than many restrictions placed on Ameri- political independence. It broke up can commerce and manufacturing, many large landed estates held by From now on America could de- favorites of the British crown. It velop in her own way. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you understand the following terms by using them correctly in a sentence, describing their meaning, or giving their historical importance. 1. tyranny 6. colonial legislatures 10. Committees of 2. The Crisis 7. Common Sense Correspondence 3. tariffs 8. Declaration of 11. Tories 4. mainland colonists Independence 12. privateer 5. Stamp Tax 9. militia 13. primogeniture WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1763: What changes came about in British treatment of America after this date? 1775-81: What is the importance of these years in relation to our military history? 1776: Why is this a year which every boy and girl in our country should know? 1783: What event of great importance to our country occurred at this time? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why did the colonists have a different point of view from the people living in England? 2. Why did England want colonies? 3. Can you give at least three instances when the interests of England clashed with those of her colonists? 4. Can you give an example of a law passed to favor one group of colonies that was opposed by another group of colonies? 5. What events after 1770 finally brought about the break between the col- onists and England? 6. What is our national birthday and why is it that day? 7. Give the important ideas in each of the three main parts of the Declaration of Independence. 8. What were the four main areas of fighting in the Revolution? Using the map on page 73 and the text, explain the importance of the battle of Saratoga. From the map on page 78, show how Yorktown was captured. 9. What did the Treaty of Paris provide? 10. Give at least three reasons for our victory over the British. 11. Explain why "The Revolution won more than political independence." 12. Summary Question: "After all has been said, the real cause of victory was the dogged courage of the colonists." Can you give examples of how the colonists showed their "dogged courage" both before and during the war? Chapter 5. The Latin- American Colonies Break the Chains That Bind Them to Europe It was January, 1789. A knock at the door of Prime Minis- ter Pitt of Great Britain was answered by a servant. "I am Francisco de Miranda [Frahn-sees'-koh day Mee-rahn'-dah\. I believe Mr. Pitt is expecting me" said the caller. In a moment the Prime Minister appeared. "Ah, Miranda. I am happy to see that you arrived safely from France. I remember well our conversations and exchanges of letters about your request for aid in a movement to free the Spanish colonies in South Amer- ica from Spain" said the Prime Minister as he led Miranda to his office. "Tell me, how are affairs developing in your native land of Venezuela?" "The people are in a state of unrest and are ready for action. Here is a copy of instructions that have been sent me from reliable agents in the colonies," replied Miranda. Pitt read with interest Miranda's instructions. He noted a proposal that England and the United States should work together to assist the revolt. The Prime Minister asked: "Have you made any direct request of the gov- ernment of the United States to take part in your struggle for freedom?" "Not yet. I did not wish to act there until I had secured an opinion from you in this matter," answered Miranda. "We should approve" said the Prime Minister. "Another matter, your request for 20 ships we can grant. Now then, have you decided upon the government?" "I have a draft of a proposed constitution" replied Miranda, giving the document to Mr. Pitt. The Prime Minister read the paper with care. At last he arose and said: "Indeed, all is very good. I see nothing wrong with your plans, but this is very serious business and I cannot say more to you at present. In a few days we shall have a definite reply. My best wishes to you, sir." 81 82 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Conditions in the Old World at onl Y a few selected ports. Spain ijvr T JJF> ii- also regulated strictly the trade be- and New Lead to Revolutions tween * ne colony an y d another in Latin America Almost all buying and selling were under the control of the gov- Like the English colonists, the ernment. Colonists were charged Latin Americans grow discontented prices that were from five to ten with the mother country. Miranda's times as high as prices paid for simi- conversations with Pitt show the lar goods in Spain. However, the unrest and plotting that were going weakening of shipping rules and on throughout the Latin-American the increased smuggling by British colonies. All but a few islands of and Dutch traders enabled the col- the vast American possessions of onists to buy goods more cheaply Spain and Portugal were lost to the and opened their eyes to their mother countries in the 1 5-year pe- plight. riod from 1810 to 1825. Why were A third reason for discontent was the people in these lands so discon- to be found in the church. For tented? many years the clergy were strictly First of all, Spain governed her loyal to the king. Many in the high- colonies very strictly. For example, er positions were still loyal, but the famous Council of the Indies among the lower priests were many had charge of all government, trade, Creoles and mestizos who observed and social and religious life. The that once lands were taken from Council, sitting in Spain, made and the people by the government and unmade laws governing the districts the church, they were never re- into which the colonies were di- turned. Many of the priests who vided. It also selected the judges, had been reading about freedom army leaders and even church bish- and liberty felt that this practice ops. should be stopped. All of these officials came from Spain herself gave added weight Spain, served a few years, and then to the discontent when she corn- returned to the mother country, bined with France to fight against They had no real interest in the England, thus aiding the 13 Eng- people they governed. They were lish colonies in their fight for free- often dishonest. Furthermore, gov- dom. If Spain could aid the colonies ernment positions were seldom, if of another nation to be free, surely ever, given to American-born colo- she could not object if her own col- nists. onies became free. Another reason for discontent was that the colonists learned how The Creoles take the lead in uniting expensive it was to trade with the the Latin Americans for action. mother country. From the begin- Perhaps the most important reason ning, Spanish colonists were per- for discontent was the rise of the mitted lo irade wilh no one excepl Creole class and ihe failure of Spain Spain. Ships were allowed to call to recognize it as the natural source LATIN-AMERICAN COLONIES BREAK CHAINS 83 "v *" *,. Threshing was done by hand flails, by the stamping of human feet, and by the pound- ing of animals' hoofs before the days of machinery. This picture of colonial Chile shows how the wheat farmers drove their horses around in an enclosed ring to separate the kernels from the straw. (Historical Pictures Service) of leadership in America. The Creoles were of pure Spanish blood, but they were born in America. They were proud of their ancestry, many coming from old Spanish no- bility. Some owned huge estates and were very wealthy men. Many had gone abroad to Spain, France, England, and America. There they learned new ideas about govern- ment and the value of a free press. They were impressed by the cheap- er prices of goods. When these Creoles came back home to live, they were unable to enjoy these privileges or to secure important positions in the govern- ment or church. They became dis- contented and talked a great deal about gaining rights of freedom. Small groups were formed here and there to plan ways to get more power. It was the Creole class that furnished most of the leadership in the wars for independence. Miranda was one of these leaders. Early attempts to revolt were made here and there, but without success. The time was not yet ripe. It took still other events the French Revolution and wars in Eu- rope to furnish the spark to set off the revolutions. Wars in Europe open the way for revolution in America. The period from 1789 to 1815 was one of revo- lution, unrest and war in Europe. The French Revolution opened the struggle for liberty in France, show- 8 4 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY ing that a king could be over- thrown. During the first six years of this period the French were at war among themselves and with other countries. Out of these wars rose Napoleon who became the su- preme ruler of France. Napoleon was ambitious to con- trol all of Europe, perhaps most of the world. He was soon at war again with most of the European coun- tries and had remarkable success. At first Spain was his friend and ally against the hated British. But Napoleon deceived Spain. He in- vaded the country and placed his brother Joseph on the throne. The Spanish people were furi- ous. They refused to recognize Jo- seph as their ruler. Instead, the Spaniards formed a committee that was to rule until the rightful heir to the throne, Ferdinand, could be placed in power. This committee made an alliance with England which sent troops and naval aid to Spain. They drove Napoleon from Spain and placed Ferdinand VII on the throne in 1814. These wars had a startling effect upon the Spanish colonists. The creole leaders did not wish to be governed by the French under Na- poleon. The news of his conquests was the cause of important revolts in Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile in 1810. The Creoles set up their own governments to keep the colonies for Ferdinand, the rightful ruler of Spain. The wars also resulted in increased smuggling on the part of the British, Dutch, and Americans. This gave the col- onists an opportunity to buy goods at much cheaper prices. When Ferdinand returned to the throne, he sent troops to America to put down the creole uprisings and to place the colonists once again un- der strict rule. The Creoles, having once tasted freedom, did not pro- pose to give it up. They now de- cided to fight for full independence. Thus, a movement begun as a means of keeping colonies for Spain, turned into a movement for complete freedom. The European wars also had two other effects upon the wars for inde- pendence in Latin America. First, when Spain was fighting at home she could not send troops to the col- onies to put down rebellions. But when fighting ceased troops could be sent to the New \Vorld. Second, after the wars in Europe ended, a large number of soldiers came to the Spanish colonies to aid in the fight for liberty. It was these foreign legions that eventually turned the tide for freedom. Under Strong Leadership Revolutions Spread from Country to Country in Latin America Bolivar, the Liberator, is the George Washington of South America. The wars for independ- ence were long and often seemed hopeless. There were four centers of revolt. The first was in Venezu- ela, the second centered in Argen- tina, the third broke out in Chile, and the fourth in Mexico. These revolts could not have succeeded if Simon Bolivar was an outstanding leader of the Latin-American revolutions. This famous picture hangs in the Federal Palace at Caracas, Venezuela. Bolivar also called the first Pan-American conference, hoping to establish a congress that would promote friendly relations among the New World countries. (Pan American Union) 86 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY it had not been for the ability of a he was looked down upon. This few great leaders. Perhaps the great- hurt his feelings and from then on est of these was Sim6n Bolivar (See- he had little use for Spain. He met moan' Boh-lee'-vahr). The story of again his childhood tutor who put his life makes clear the influences into his head some entirely new that started the revolution and the ideas about liberty. They talked of troubles that Spanish Americans the experiment in government in had in uniting to fight for inde- the United States and about the pendence. recent French Revolution. Why There is no more stirring figure shouldn't people be free? in the history of Latin America Bolivar saw Napoleon made lead- than Sim6n Bolivar. A youth born er of the French people in Paris, to riches, he became in succession Here was his hero, a military leader a dandy in European social life, a fresh from victories, bringing order plotter for the independence of out of confusion in France. Yet, in Spanish colonies, a daring army a short time when he saw Napoleon leader, and finally a writer of con- tumble ruler after ruler from their stitutions and maker of South thrones and take over the govern- American republics. ment for himself, Bolivar won- THE YOUNG CREOLE. Born on a dered about those ideas of free- huge plantation nestled among the dom. When he saw Napoleon hills of Caracas, Venezuela, Bolivar crowned king of Italy with all the early learned the meaning of wealth, splendor and trappings of royalty, On the great cacao and indigo estate he knew that Napoleon was not giv- he found many pleasures, among ing the people of Europe freedom, them horseback riding and gay He was stealing freedom from Spanish festivals. His father died them. when he was only nine years old Then and there Simon Bolivar and his mother when he was but 15, made a vow. "On my life and hon- so that he was early placed under or, I swear not to rest until I have the care of his uncle who sent him liberated America from her ty- to Spain to further his education, rants." At the age of 23 he returned Great wealth and a fine family to America to begin his life wor.k. background opened many doors of THE LEADER OF REVOLT. Bolivar famous people to him. He met and faced enormous difficulties. He married a beautiful and wealthy must convince his own people of girl, but shortly after their return the values of liberty and he must to Caracas she died. Lonely and dis- secure money to buy supplies. He appointed, he returned to Europe had difficulty in raising an army, and passed the next few years in Curiously enough, his greatest en- travel, study, and having a gay time, emy was not Spain, but Spanish His experience in Europe did Royalists within the colonies. As much to form strong beliefs that the United States had her Tories, were to stick with him through life. Spanish America had her Royalists. He found that as a visiting colonist The first stage of the wars began LATIN-AMERICAN COLONIES BREAK CHAINS 87 Venezuela was the first Spanish-American colony to declare itself free from the mother country. Under die leadership of Miranda and Bolivar, delegates met and drafted a Declaration of Independence. Here we see the delegates signing the declaration setting an example for the remainder of Latin America. (Brown Brothers) Avhen Bolivar with Miranda issued on July 5, 1811, the proclamation of independence for Venezuela. The two leaders gathered their forces for a fight against the Span- ish. Miranda was defeated and thereby lost many valuable sup- plies. Recovering from this loss, Bolivar rallied some 500 men and marched from New Granada across northern Venezuela, liberating that country. In this journey he won six battles and defeated five Spanish armies (see map, page 89). He im- mediately made plans for the forma- tion of a congress and the establish- ment of a government. Next came the period of despair from 1814 to 1819. Spain, now free from Napoleon, sent reinforce- ments and drove Bolivar from Ven- ezuela, forcing him to flee to Ja- maica. Bolivar continued to plan and work for liberation. Never did he give up hope. He made many at- tempts in these five years to carry on campaigns on the continent, but without success. He needed more help. The people were not yet ready to rise and fight with him. Some of the best native fighters were on the side of the Spanish. THE LIBERATOR. Finally, plans were completed for the drive that was to spell victory. Establishing headquarters on the Orinoco River, Bolivar received supplies and men from Europe. He gained the confi- dence of some of the leaders of the local plainsmen. He made his dar- ing plans for attacking the Spanish through the back door by a trip over the Andes. Leaving a small garrison to fool the enemy, Bolivar took his army through the tropical lowlands to the 88 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY base of the Andes Mountains, tory and true to his goal, he was There in one of the greatest mili- one of the great men of the world, tary marches in history, he led his His greatest disappointment was the army up the rugged icy mountains realization at his death that perhaps through narrow passes at 13,000 his countrymen would not know feet altitude. Bolivar and his army how to use the liberty that had been decisively defeated the Spanish and so recently won. Today all Latin drove them from New Granada and America remembers Simon Bolivar Venezuela. Eight years after his first as the man whose persistent efforts entry into Caracas as liberator, he won freedom for five republics, again entered and proclaimed the republic free. This time it was to San Martin and others also aid in remain free. the revolt against Spain. As Bolivar Bolivar turned his armies south- was the central figure in the move- ward, freeing Ecuador. Then came ment for independence in northern a great conference with San Martin South America, so Jos de San Mar- (Sahn Mahr-teen'), patriot leader to tin (Hoh-say' day Sahn Mahr-teen') the south, who was driving north was the central figure in the mili- from Chile. They discussed the tary achievement in the southern prospects of conquering Peru. It regions. was decided that San Martin should The revolution in Argentina be- withdraw, leaving some of his gan in 1810. Patriots in Buenos troops to help Bolivar. Bolivar's Aires, upon hearing that Napoleon armies, under General Sucre (Soo'- had secured control of Spain, seized kray), finally met and utterly de- control of the government from the stroyed the entire Spanish army. Spanish viceroy to prevent its fall- This marked the end of the great ing into the hands of the French, battles, though some resistance con- A committee was organized to run tinued for another year and a half, the government and preserve it for The independence of Bolivia was Ferdinand VII. The patriot govern- proclaimed in 1825. ment formed an army and attempt- Bolivar was more than a great ed to march inland toward the seat military leader. He was a believer of Spanish power at Lima, Peru. At in the representative form of gov- first successful, the patriot armies ernment. He had faith that people began to suffer defeats as they went could choose wise representatives, further inland from their base at At every opportunity he urged the Buenos Aires. importance of democratic ideas in There now appeared on the scene government. He had many chances Jose de San Martin. Born the son to become a supreme dictator, but of an army officer at a frontier post he never kept his power over the in Argentina, San Martin, at the people. age of seven, went with his father Bolivar died of tuberculosis in to Spain. Later he joined the Span- 1830. A daring leader who was ish army and served 22 years. Hear- hopeful in defeat, generous in vie- ing that the patriots were moving Bolivar and San Martin meet at Guayaquil REVOLT IX LATI>f AMERICA U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY San Martin, on the white horse, leads his soldiers in a 25-day march over the lofty Andes. He spent nearly three years preparing for the campaign, making cannons and gun powder and gathering supplies. There were only crude trails and the men suffered greatly from storms and mountain sickness. (Historical Pictures Service) toward independence in the Argen- tine, he boarded a British ship and returned home. San Martin made preparations designed to attack the seat of Span- ish power in Peru. In a secluded western Argentine province he se- cretly gathered a few skilled and trusted leaders who built a well- supplied army. Scouts secured plans of the three great passes through the Andes to Chile, with whose leaders of revolt San Martin made contact. He also kept in touch with events in Buenos Aires and was pleased when in 1816 he heard that independence had been declared. At last all was ready. Three ar- mies climbed the dizzy heights of the Andes and crossed into Chile. The operation (see map, page 89) was so successful that three different drives attacked the Spaniards at the same time. Within a year they drove the Spanish from central Chile. It was the turning point of the war in the south. Soon after these victories Chile, too, declared its independence. Plans were now made to dislodge the Spaniards from their strong- hold in Peru. Assisted by a famous British admiral, a fleet of war ves- sels was soon ready to sail. Working cautiously and gathering recruits from Peru, San Martin was able to drive the Spanish forces out of Lima, though not from all of Peru. After conferring with Bolivar, who was driving down from the north, San Martin withdrew and returned to Argentina. Strangely enough, when San Mar- tin returned to Buenos Aires he was LATIN-AMERICAN COLONIES BREAK CHAINS 91 ignored, even insulted. Without dalgo went to the village jail and money, deserted by his friends, his freed the prisoners. He then tolled wife dead, San Martin was discour- the church bell calling the villagers aged and he sailed for Europe. He to revolution. is remembered as one of the truly From town to town the mob great military leaders of South gathered on its way to Mexico City. America, a man whose victories in- A battle was fought and won. Forces sured independence for at least five nearly 100,000 strong marched to- republics Argentina, Chile, Peru, ward the capital. The Spanish au- Paraguay, and Uruguay. thorities gathered their armies. Hi- dalgo hesitated, turned to another Mexico and Central America like- town where he was decisively de- wise break away from Spain. From feated. Hidalgo, father of the revo- the day Napoleon placed his broth- lution, was captured and executed er on the Spanish throne, there had along with many fellow patriots, been unrest in Mexico. Two upris- Next, another priest, Jose Maria ings were actually planned, but the Morelos (Hoh-say' Mah-ree'-ah Spanish authorities discovered the Moh-rayMos) took up the leader- plot, ship of the Mexicans. He called The revolutionary movement in a patriot congress which issued Mexico had one important differ- the first Mexican declaration of in- ence from that in most other Span- dependence. After two years of ish colonies. In Mexico, during the fighting he, too, w r as captured and early years, the revolutionary ar- executed. The struggle then went mies were made up mostly of In- on for six years without able lead- dians and mestizos rather than ere- ers. oles. The Indians and mestizos The final step remained for hated the Creoles as much as they Agustin Iturbide (Ah-goos'-teen' hated the power of Spain. They Ee-toor-bee'-day), a mestizo who wanted power for themselves. The brought about actual independ- creoles despised the mestizos and ence. At first, Iturbide was an offi- Indians and at first fought to keep cer in the Spanish army who fought the Spanish government in power, against both Hidalgo and Morelos. After 1821, however, the Creoles Later, the viceroy asked him to put joined the movement for independ- down other patriot uprisings. Itur- ence, which was quickly won. bide marched toward the patriot There were at least three major stronghold. Arriving at the scene of steps in Mexico's struggle for in- action, he arranged a meeting with dependence. First, in the village of the patriot leader. Instead of fight- Dolores (see map, page 89) a ere- ing each other, the two agreed to ole priest named Miguel Hidalgo unite and fight together for the in- (Mee-ghel' Ee-dahl'-goh) organized dependence of Mexico. Their plan a plot against the Spanish rulers, succeeded and that was the end of The actual revolution opened one Spanish rule there, night in the year 1810, when Hi- Central America joined Mexico U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Dom Pedro, in the center on a black horse, tears from his uniform the Portuguese colors, lifts his sword and utters his "Independence or Death" cry, declaring Brazil independent from Portugal on September 7, 1822. Dom Pedro was shortly proclaimed emperor of Brazil. (Pan American Union) for a short time. However, in 1823 it declared its independence from "Spain, Mexico or any other pow- er." For a few years this region held together as a republic, but at length it broke up into five countries. Thus, in one of the most remark- able series of revolutions in history, we have seen how most of the Span- ish-American colonies freed them- selves to set up independent repub- lics. Brazil, largest country in Latin America, separates from Portugal and establishes a monarchy. Brazil had a colonial history nearly as long and colorful as that of the Spanish colonies. Her main settlements along the coasts were completely under control of Portugal, and she was the chief source of wealth for many a Portuguese noble. Although the Portuguese strictly regulated the life and trade of her Brazilian colonists, it was not until after the American Revolution that any serious thought of independ- ence developed. As early as 1787 Thomas Jefferson had an interview in France with a Brazilian student who was seeking aid from the United States government to help promote an independence move- ment. Jefferson nodded his head in sympathy, but wisely said "no," for he realized that his own govern- ment was not yet firmly established. The real story of independence hinges around King John and his son, Dom Pedro (Dawm Pay'-droh). When Napoleon invaded Portugal, King John and his advisers made up their minds to transfer their govern- ment to America. Hastily they boarded ships and sailed to Brazil. There the king opened the ports of Brazil to the trade of all friendly LATIN-AMERICAN COLONIES BREAK CHAINS 93 nations. This pleased the people as was established that was to last al- it gave them an opportunity to buy most 70 years, goods at cheaper prices. Thus King John was well received. He made Brazil the center of his empire for more than ten years. Latin Americans Continue Although the Portuguese royalty to Live under Unsettled Con- brought some prosperity to Brazil, it also brought trouble. Brazilians became jealous of the power and wealth that the Portuguese were The revolutions change but little taking. The first outbreak was in an the way of life. It had taken the peo- eastern province which announced pie of Latin America 15 years to its independence of the royal family win independence. They were 15 and established a republic. How- years of turmoil, blood, and hate, ever, Portuguese forces quickly cap- Now that they were free, what did tured and executed the leaders. it mean in their everyday life? Later, King John decided to Strange to say, there was no great return home, as Portugal had been change. Latin America continued free of Napoleon for six years. to be a land of ranchers, miners, and Aware, of movements for independ- farmers. The huge estates contin- ence throughout Latin America, ued to be owned by a few people, King John said to his son: "Pedro, with the great mass of the Indians if Brazil has to be separated from and mestizos working on them as Portugal, you take the crown your- peasants at pitifully low wages, self, before somebody else gets it." There was still almost no oppor- The Portuguese government tunity for the Indians and mestizos again attempted to place the old re- to buy land and start out for them- strictions upon Brazil. The people selves as there had been for the corn- objected to this treatment and be- mon man in the English colonies, gan movements for independence. The church continued to be a pow- Leaders went to Dom Pedro and erful influence upon the people. It asked him to declare Brazil a free was still the largest single land- nation. Dom Pedro hesitated until owner in almost every country, he heard that delegates to Portugal Strong class feeling continued, were insulted. He immediately an- with the Creoles taking the place of nounced the independence of Bra- the Spanish royalty as the highest zil. class. In many ways they were just One month later, October, 1822, as proud, just as anxious to keep Dom Pedro was crowned emperor, power to themselves as the old Span- though his power was limited by a ish governing groups had been. The constitution. In a little more than a Creoles owned the estates; they man- year the new government drove the aged the better businesses; and they Portuguese soldiers from the coun- controlled the politics. Thus, in try. Thus, a successful monarchy many ways the new governments 94 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY did not establish immediately free- be the pistol and the sword, not the dom and opportunity for which the ballot box. leaders said they fought. The great majority of the people Did independence mean nothing, of Latin America were totally unfit then, to these people? Indeed it for democratic government. Ninety- did! While no great change came five per cent of the people were un- immediately, nor in all countries able to read and write, so they alike, there were some desirable lacked the means of forming re- changes made as the years went by. liable opinions. Few of the small First, the courts that inquired into farmers, merchants, and craftsmen a person's religious views were abol- were informed and capable of mak- ished. While complete religious ing wise decisions. Unlike the Eng- freedom was not permitted, non- lish colonies, they did not inherit a Catholics were allowed more free- background of democratic rule and dom than they had under Spanish there had been no long training in rule. the art of self-government. It is no Second, laws were wiped out that wonder that dictators became the permitted the collection of tribute rule in Latin-American politics, from Indians. This relieved the In- What were the major quarrels in dian of a heavy and often unjust government? First, there were quar- taxation. It must be said, however, rels over the kind of government to that the laws repealing these taxes be established. Some men, like San were not always well enforced. Martin, realized that the people Third, Negro slave trade was abol- lacked training for self-government, ished in many countries. Fourth, They were in favor of establishing commerce was opened to countries monarchies. Other men, like Boli- other than Spain so that the people var, were opposed to monarchy and traded more freely and cheaply than wanted a republic. These differ- before. Finally, many countries did ences led to violent disputes, establish schools, improve roads, Second, there was much trouble permit publication and sale of over who should govern. Once the newspapers and books, so that Spanish power was overthrown, the slowly but surely living conditions various leaders began to fight improved. among themselves. One man would no sooner get into office than a rival Dictators and revolutions follow in- would wish to throw him out. The dependence. It was in the field of usual way of getting a man out of government that the people reaped office was not to hold an election, as they sowed. The years previous but to get an army, stage a revolu- to the revolutions were years of dis- tion, and drive the man from office, honesty, graft, and selfishness in The victor would remain only as government. The period of the rev- long as he controlled forces great olutions was one of horror, waste, enough to keep another from seiz- and destruction. The usual manner ing power. In reality these "presi- of settling political disputes came to dents" were dictators. A T LAtfTI C Guadalajara&s O * j Xi> **?r^ t O C E A?S pL oUNITED p iTucuman r 4 * Dnr\T;iu fv PLATATM ntevide LATIJM AMERICA APTER THE REVOLUTIONS Scale of Miles 500 1000 1500 g6 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY These struggles were the main theme in the early story of Latin- American republics. For example, Mexico in its first 35 years of exist- ence had 48 different presidents. Greater Colombia, brought to- gether by Bolivar, lasted but eight years when it split into three coun- tries, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. Except for Brazil, every country in Latin America had a rev- olution within five years after its independence. Some continued to have them at the rate of 60 or 70 in a hundred years. Several countries had revolutions as late as the 1940's. The one nation to which the above was an exception was Brazil, which you remember established a monarchy. Even there some rivalry and opposition appeared. But no Latin-American country could match the relatively peaceful con- ditions within her land for the first 67 years of her career as an inde- pendent nation. Summary of the Unit . J J In this unit "The New World Separates from the Old" we have seen how the United States led the break between the New World and the Old World. Our independence also stirred our neighbors to the south to revolt. The main points of the unit are: 1. Long years of living in Amer- ica changed the outlook of the col- onists so that they were no longer British, Spanish or Portuguese at heart, but were Americans with an American point of view. 2. Both England and Spain clashed with their colonies over tax- ation, and over strict regulation of trade and manufacturing. 3. All the Americas had their Tories and Royalists who wanted to remain loyal to the mother coun- tries. 4. A whole stream of events led up to the Revolutionary War, be- ginning with the Stamp Act (1765), followed by the Boston Massacre (1770), the Tea Act (1773), and finally the Intolerable Acts (1774). These and other events caused each side to become more impatient with the other. 5. The first shots on April 19, 1775, at Lexington and Concord became a revolution, when, on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of In- dependence told the world we were free from England. 6. The Revolutionary War lasted six years (1775-1781) and was fought in five broad areas: New England, the Middle Colonies, the South, in the Northwest, and on the 1. The patriot army, under the courageous leadership of General Washington, finally brought the long and difficult struggle to a vic- torious end. Foreign aid also helped. 8. The treaty of peace, signed in Paris (1783), recognized our inde- pendence and gave us control of lands east of the Mississippi, north of Florida, and south of Canada. We became the first republic in the New World. 9. Under the leadership of Boli- var and San Martin, Spanish Amer- ica revolted and in wars lasting 15 LATIN-AMERICAN COLONIES BREAK CHAINS 97 years (1810-1825) Mexico, Central and it then established a monarchy, and South America won independ- 11. Although Latin America had ence. won its independence, it took some 10. Brazil, alone of the great na- time before steady and strong gov- tions, had a peaceful separation, ernments were established. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you can use each of the following terms in relation to events in Latin America. 1. revolt 4. Creoles 7. foreign aid 2. independence 5. French Revolution 8. mestizos 3. Council of the Indies 6. smuggling 9. monarchy WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 181025: Why should we remember this 15-year period in Latin-American history? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What is the purpose of the story about Miranda and Pitt? 2. Name at least four reasons for discontent among the Spanish colonists in Latin America. 3. Why were the Creoles often the leaders of revolt? 4. What effect did Napoleon's successes in Europe have upon the Spanish- American colonists? 5. Name the four centers of revolt in Spanish America. 6. What were some of Bolivar's qualities which made him such an able leader? Give two examples of his daring leadership. 7. In what countries would San Martin be an important hero today? Why? 8. How did the Mexican revolt differ from the revolutions in South America? 9. Was Iturbide a hero or a traitor? 10. Explain how Brazil became independent. Who were John and Pedro? 11. In what respects did the revolutions fail to change the Latin-American "ways of life"? In what respects were they changed? 12. Why did Latin America continue to have revolutions for many years while the United States did not? 13. Summary Question: How did the ideas for which Latin Americans fought compare with those for which the English colonists struggled? Activities for Unit Two CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Poster. Prepare a poster showing the reading of the Declaration of Inde- pendence before the Continental Congress. Or a poster showing Hidalgo calling the people of Dolores to revolution in Mexico. Watch your cos- tumes and be sure that your poster centers on a single idea. 9 8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 2. Models. Make a clay or soap bust of one of the three great revolutionary leaders: George Washington, Simon Bolivar or Jose de San Martin. 3. Cartoons. Draw a cartoon to illustrate one of the following: (a) Latin Amer- icans wondering if they should follow the example of the United States and fight for independence; (b) comparison of the grievances of the English colonists and the Latin-American colonists with their mother countries; (c) the attitude of the patriots toward the Tories. 4. \ewspaper Headlines. Write headlines for a newspaper featuring the con- ference between San Martin and Bolivar. For additional information see Marion Lansing, Liberators and Heroes of South America, 104-07. Or write headlines announcing the victory of John Paul Jones over the Serapis. 5. Letter. Imagine that you were at the battle of York town and saw the British surrender. Write a letter to a friend describing the ceremonies. For ad- ditional information consult Pageant of America, VI. Turn to the index and look under "Yorktown." Or imagine that you were with George Rogers Clark. Write a letter to your mother who is in New York, telling her about the kind of country that you are going through, some of the forts that you visited, and what it looked like there. You might mention some battles. For additional information see Pageant of America, II and VI. Consult the index under "Clark, G. R." I TEST MY SKILLS 0. A Report. Prepare an oral report on the military campaigns in the Hudson and Delaware valleys. Make a list of the important facts that you wish to explain people, plans of British and of Americans, places, and results. If necessary prepare a blackboard map to use during your report. Have your notes arranged in outline form so that you can give your report smoothly. Start with an interesting idea a British blunder cost them the key battles in this campaign. Present your report well. Stand evenly on both feet, look at your audience. Have a pointer to indicate on the map the routes and places that you describe. At the close of your talk invite questions. For in- formation see pages 70-72. Pageant of America, VI, will also be helpful. 7. Using References. There are thousands of books for reference work. We shall explain two, the encyclopedia, and the World Almanac. Encyclopedias may be in one volume or several. They are usually arranged alphabetically with letters on the back of each volume indicating the range of topics in that volume. To find a person look under his last name. Some topics may be listed several ways, or under headings other than what you might think. For example to look up the battle of Yorktown you might try first "York- town." If that fails, try "Revolution" for this was a battle during the Revolution. Practice on these, (a) What are the main headings under the Revolutionary War? (b) Find out about the Liberty Bell. (If it isn't under "Liberty" or "Bell" try "Declaration of Independence.") The World Almanac is a handy single volume reference for current facts and information published each year. It has a great variety of materials ranging from topics such as sporting records, names of government officials, and facts about countries to figures on population, immigration, and a summary of events in each year. Opening the World Almanac you will find first several pages of advertising. Then will follow one or two pages LATIN-AMERICAN COLONIES BREAK CHAINS 99 covering the table of contents, followed by the index, which you note is not in back of this book. As in other reference books, you may need to think of several ways in which your topic might be listed in order to find it. Find these to get acquainted with the World Almanac, (a) When did Argentina adopt ts constitution? (b) What are the area and population of Chile? (c) Who is the United States ambassador to Mexico? (d) How many immigrants have come to our country from Mexico? WE WORK IN GROUPS 8. Committee. A committee of five could prepare a Philadelphia newspaper issued soon after the battle of Yorktown. The editor will be responsible for seeing that all materials for printing are well punctuated, spelled cor- rectly and neat. Decide on the various articles you will want in the paper. Suggestions are: the surrender at Yorktown, the meaning of the victory in terms of what the colonists were fighting for, a who's who in the war, a cartoon, as well as odds and ends typical of that period. For helpful sug- gestions, but not to copy, consult Sylvan Hoffman's News of tfie Nation series of newspapers. See especially Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 9. Round Table Discussion. A panel of five members might discuss the topic: "Are Revolutions Necessary?" First, the panel will meet to organi/e their discussion into four topics. Suggestions for three of the four possible topics are: (a) why people are discontented, (b) ways of settling their troubles, and (c) results of revolution. The chairman will introduce each speaker and will conduct a question period at the end. Pupils in the class should feel free to direct questions to each speaker. Speakers may be able to tie up this topic with present-day events. Are there any countries or regions to- day in which revolutions are taking place? WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 10. To Get More Information. RUGG, HAROLD, America's March Toward Democracy. Chapters iv and v give the story of events leading to the Revolutionary War and describe the chief campaigns in that war. HOFFMAN, SYLVAN (ed.), News of the Nation. Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7 give ex- cellent accounts of the leading events in the United States between 1770 and 1783. CUTRIGHT, PRUDENCE AND OTHERS, Latin America, Twenty Friendly Na- tions. Pages 116-69 tell in easy language the story of La tin- American revolutions. Other pages give additional facts about these nations. 11. To Find Out Who's Who. The class working together could prepare from the following books a "Who's Who" for this unit. Each person taking part could prepare a 100-word biography of one person. Then put all biog- raphies together to make up the "Who's Who." The class artist could decorate the cover. OLCOTT, F. J., Good Stories for Great Birthdays. Over 200 easily read stories of leaders of both North and South America. ioo U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY EATON, JEANETTE, Leader By Destiny, George Washington, Man and Patriot. A delightful biography of Washington. ELLSBERG, EDWARD, "I Have Just Begun to Fight." The thrilling adven- tures of our first naval hero, John Paul Jones. WILSON, W. E., Big Knife. This is the name by wh ch the Indians^ called George Rogers Clark. This book tells you his story. ROGERS, FRANCES, AND BEARD, ALICE, Paul Revere, Patriot on Horseback. A good account of this famous patriot of the Revolution in the Boston area. DEAN, S. W., Knight of the Revolution. The biography of the slippery "Swamp Fox" who saved the South for the cause of the colonies. DAUGHERTY, JAMES, Poor Richard. Interesting details of Benjamin Frank- lin's life and of his help in the Revolution. EATON, JEANETTE, Young Lafayette. The story of the aid given by a great leader from France. FAST, HOWARD, Haym Salomon, Son of Liberty. The story of a famous Jewish patriot who gave his life and used his fortune to help pay the costs of the Revolution. LANSING, MARION, Liberators and Heroes of South America and Libera- tors and Heroes of Mexico and Central America. These two books contain good stories of leaders of both North and South America. 12. To Read a Historical Novel. FORBES, ESTHER, Johnny Tremain; A Novel for Young and Old. The story of a messenger boy for the Sons of Liberty, which will make the Whigs and Tories mean something. WONSETLER, A. H. AND J. C., Liberty for Johanny. A new story of the son of a Pennsylvania Dutch family during the days of 1777. UPDEGRAFF, F. M., Coat for a Soldier. How a 13-year-old girl worked for a soldier in days when cloth was scarce. 13. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Pageant of America: VI, dealing mostly with the details of the Revolu- tionary War. Building America: V, "Our Latin-American Neighbors," will give further information on the revolutions in Latin America. WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 11. Time Line. Prepare a time line seven inches long dating from 1760 to 1830. On one side of the line place events in the United States, and on the other side place events in Latin America. Color in the periods of the two revolutions so that they stand out. 15. Booklet. Prepare a booklet entitled "Military History." In this booklet place a map of the principal campaigns in the United States and Latin America. Have a section devoted to outstanding men with a one sentence statement of the importance of each. Another section could contain copies of some of the flags of that day. Be sure that the British and Spanish get due credit. Make it fair. Do not neglect naval battles and leaders. 16. Map. Make a map of the American nations in 1825. You will need to LATIN-AMERICAN COLONIES BREAK CHAINS 101 watch the United States at this date. For additional territories, see map on page 180. For proper boundaries of Latin-American nations, see map on page 95. 17. Watch Your Words. Be sure you know the meaning of these terms: tyranny, tariffs, mainland colonies, Tories, privateer, militia, revolution, uprisings, Creoles, and mestizos. Identify the importance of the following: Committees of Correspondence, Declaration of Independence, Council of the Indies, and French Revolution. DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT 18. List. Prepare a list of the main points in this unit. You should not need more than one sentence for each sub-heading under each section. Be sure that the sentence summarizes the main idea, rather than gives facts in de- tail. 19. Understanding a Picture. An artist tries to put across ideas with pictures, rather than words. Turn to pages 62-3 and study the unit picture. What is the main idea the artist is trying to show? What men from the United States does he use as leaders? What man from Latin America? How docs the artist make it possible for you to identify these men? What is the sig- nificance of the yoke on the ground? How does the artist point out that it takes more than soldiers to make a revolution? How do you account for the Indians on one page and the Yankee frontiersmen on the other? Unit Three The Idea of Democracy Takes Root and Grows in American Soil 6. The Seeds of Representative Government Are Brought from England and Planted Here 7. The New Constitution Binds the States Together into a Strong Central Government 8. In the Early Days of the Republic, Democracy Means Different Things to Different Men 9. Our American Neighbors Make Progress toward Democ- racy The democratic idea in England began more than 700 years ago. When Englishmen began coming to America in the early 1600's, they brought their democratic ideas along. Soon town meetings and "little parliaments" sprang up in the colonies. In the late 1700's our great Constitution and Bill of Rights were born. Jefferson, the* dreamer, and Jackson, the doer, did much in the early 1 800's to make democracy popular in our country. Meanwhile, Latin-American colonies cast aside the chains of political slavery. So did Canada, a little later. Today, nearly everywhere in the Americas, is this sign: "To the Land of Democracy." I It I/ i I 1 V '7. IS- Chapter 6. The Seeds of Rep- resentative Government Are Brought from England and Planted Here . . . . . . It was October 14, 1765. Certain citizens of Cambridge in Massachusetts were gathered in Town Meeting. They were there to consider a law just passed by the British Parliament. Under the leadership of their elected chairman, the members were discussing in open meeting the matter before them. The discussion lasted a long time and frequently grew heated. Finally, however, the members were ready to vote on what their position would be. Here is the simple record of their votes. Voted that the people of this Town and Colony have a legal right to claim all the Rights of Englishmen even though they are far from Great Britain. Voted that the Stamp Act is a violation of these rights for the following reasons. (1) The representatives of the king who sell the stamps will con- trol everything except the lives of the people. These distributors of stamps may call every one they please to such faraway places as Quebec, Mont- real or Newfoundland to answer for pretended or real violations of this Act. (2) When these faithful subjects arrive there, they will not be tried by their fellow citizens the birthright of every Englishman. They will be tried by a judge, but there will be no jury. (3) Why are not his Majesty's subjects in Great Britain treated this way? We also believe this: No one in Great Britain is taxed as much in rela- tion to the property he holds as are some in our Colony. If this Act stands, liberty will end and trade will die. Voted, therefore, that the Town advises and directs its representatives to do nothing that will aid in the enforcement of the Stamp Act. Moreover, we urge that everything be done to have this Act wiped off the law books. Voted that this be recorded in the Town Book so that children yet unborn may see the desire their ancestors had for their freedom and happiness. 106 SEEDS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 107 The English Colonists Bring si g ned statement which limits the A ii IT** ii t powers of the kins:. So important is to Amerwa^the Rights of L agreement that it is considered Englishmen" one of three great English docu- ments or laws which together are Three great documents are the known as the "Bible of the English foundation stones of the "Rights of Constitution." Englishmen." The Cambridge The Petition of Right (1628) was Town Meeting was democracy at the second far-reaching victory in work. It was a lawful gathering of the struggle between those who rule citizens to determine what kind of and those ruled. This time another government and what kind of laws king gave up more royal rights, they should have. Since not all when he agreed that in the future Cambridge citizens were present or no Englishman could be taxed with- had a right to be present, those who out the consent of Parliament (the were there were more or less repre- law-making body). In a word, repre- sentative of the citizens. Such a gov- sentatives of the voters would pass ernment is called representative upon the matter of what taxes were government, a form of democratic to be raised. government in which we are gov- The third and most important of erned only with our consent. the foundation stones of the The slow growth of our demo- "Rights of Englishmen" came in cratic ideas and rights goes far back 1689 in the form of the Bill of into England's past. Let us turn to Rights. A revolution had brought England in about the year 1200. a new king to England. Before Par- At that time King John was rul- liament would accept the new king, ing with a high hand. He was tax- however, he was forced to agree to ing heavily and making unusual the Bill of Rights. This document and unlawful demands on his sub- placed lasting limitations on the jects. Finally the great landholders king's power. In the future, it was revolted. They forced John to agree agreed, that (1) Parliament should to 63 demands made upon him, have greater power than the king, when in 1215 he signed the Great and (2) Parliament, in its turn, was Charter or Magna Charta. The to govern only with the consent of most important demand of the the voters. At last Parliament was charter was that in the future the supreme over the king, nobles or great landholders would be given a fairer trial when accused The rise of Parliament gives more by the king. They wanted a small power to Englishmen. The 500 number of their own group to pass years from Magna Charta to the Bill upon the charges made by the king, of Rights were important ones for Today we call this trial by jury or England and the idea of represen- trial by one's fellow citizens. tative government in the world. It is important to note that the During these years the struggle had Great Charter is a written and gone on between unwilling kings io8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY King John is forced by the nobles to accept Magna Chart a in a meadow near London in 1215. The king, who certainly does not look pleased, is supposed to have said, "Why do not the barons ask me for my crown also?" (Culver Service) and the "representatives of the peo- ple." And in this time the English system of government, as we know it today, had come into being. What was this government like? The heart of the English system of government today is Parliament. Parliament, however, did not rise overnight as a body representing the English people. Its beginnings go back to the Great Council of the early kings. This council was a small group of nobles and high churchmen selected by the king to advise him. In time the Great Council was called "parliament," meaning a place where discussion of government affairs took place. It was not until the 1300's that Parliament became the body we know today. Slowly over several hundred years three important changes had taken place. First, Par- liament became representative of more classes of Englishmen. When representatives from the great mid- dle class were admitted to Parlia- ment, a great step forward was taken. One reason for these new members lay in the fact that the middle class was being taxed. The idea was developing that those who pay taxes should be represented. Second, with the addition of these new representatives, Parlia- ment was divided into two houses. The House of Lords included the nobles and high churchmen. The House of Commons was for the rep- resentatives of the middle class or "commoners." Third, the practice grew up of electing the members of Commons. The rise of Parliament did not SEEDS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 109 end the powers of the king. In the take too many liberties, if given a next 400 years (1300-1689), the little power. struggle for power went on between In spite of these reasons for not king and Parliament. It went on giving the colonists self-govern- over questions of taxation, over ment, the settlers soon insisted rights of free speech, over religious upon it. In fact, only 12 years after matters to list the most important, its settlement, the king granted a In the end, however, the Bill of representative assembly to Virginia. Rights made Parliament the ruler This was called the House of Bur- bf England. gesses, and its first meeting was in 1619. This legislature was made up of two representatives from each of p Virginia's 1 1 districts. The mem- The Business of Government b er s were elected by those who Centers around "Little Par- tould vote. Thus was established /' m^n/N c C - e|| i 03 O (LI c/5 c/5 - U U > C. 1 - ! E S In re re a; T3 .2 re S-r C S a P fi S P 2 c Jj^: S - I -a 3 - C 2 ^ c S ^ "fee a t/3 3 L! fcjo "^^ C cj C Co 2 - lili g a g s ^ PI 'S * 'S.g "S S 5111 < O iS T3 CONSTITUTION BINDS STATES TOGETHER 125 Second Continental Congress that adopted the Declaration of Inde- pendence, raised an army, ap- pointed General Washington to head it, and prepared to fight a rev- olution. The states experiment with the Ar- ticles of Confederation. \Vhatever the Second Continental Congress did to win the war, it was never in- tended that it should be more than a temporary meeting of delegates from the states. It had no constitu- tion. It lacked power to tax. It al- ways lacked money. It was poorly organized. It was inefficient. Under the circumstances, the wonder is that the Continental Congress man- aged to exist. Shortly after the Declaration of Independence was adopted, a com- mittee of the Congress reported on a plan of union intended to replace the temporary Congress. They called the plan the Articles of Con- federation. The Continental Con- gress promptly adopted the Articles as a constitution. Disputes over state ownership of lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River delayed adop- tion by all of the states, however, until the war was almost ended. What was the nature of this new experiment, and why was it adopted? The Articles were entered into for the common defense of the 13 states at war and for the promo- tion of their general welfare. As the name of the "Articles of Con- federation" indicates, here was the constitution of another loose union of states. Although it was another "league of friendship," it was to be much stronger than the New Eng- land Confederation. The new con- federation was called "The United States of America," and included all of the 13 states. What kind of government was provided for under the Articles? The government was the Congress and nothing more, but it was a three-in-one Congress. This Con- gress would make laws, enforce them, and interpret or judge them in the event of disputes. There was no president, nor any national courts. Every attempt made to form a large-scale union of colonies or states came face to face with two big problems. First, should each state, large or small, have equal power in the congress of the central govern- ment? Second, how many powers should the states give to congress? The first problem was settled by the Articles in this way. A state might have as many as seven rep- resentatives in Congress, but no state could have less than two. Re- gardless of size, wealth, population, or number of representatives, no state could have more than one vote in Congress. About 50,000 people in Delaware, therefore, would have as much power as more than 500,- 000 in Virginia. The second question was an- swered by giving the Congress un- der the Articles certain powers. Among these were the power to raise and support an army and a navy, declare war, make treaties, coin and borrow money, and estab- lish post offices. No central govern- ment could have existed with fewer powers. 126 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts was one example of the failure of government in the 1780's to solve the people's problems. In the moving picture Servant of the People the farmers, led by Daniel Shays, are shown capturing a court house. They rebelled against seizure of farms for debts they could not pay. (Courtesy Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) The Articles of Confederation fail to unite the country. On paper the Articles of Confederation set up the strongest central government of a democratic nature then known to history. In practice the Articles proved so weak that they lasted only eight years. The period just after the Revolution was a serious one for the young nation. Even Wash- ington appeared more discouraged than in the darkest days of the war. The new government failed to unite the country chiefly because the Articles lacked several necessary powers. In the first place, Congress could not tax the people directly as is done today through the income tax. It could only ask the states to raise their quotas of money. These amounts were based upon the value of land within the states. This was like passing a hat around. If a state cared to toss some money in, it did. If it did not, Congress was helpless. Less than one-fourth of the money requested was received. This was not enough to pay the interest on the money our foreign friends had loaned the government. To make matters worse, the paper money al- ready issued was practically worth- less. Second, Congress lacked power to regulate commerce among the states. As a result trade rivalry broke all bounds. Each state taxed the goods of another when those goods crossed its borders. Maryland and Virginia quarreled over the use of the Potomac for trade. In the face of such weaknesses at home, it CONSTITUTION BINDS STATES TOGETHER 127 is not surprising that England, 55 men who met in Independence Spain, and even France took advan- Hall in Philadelphia in 1787 were tage of us and refused to make fa- to be recorded in history as men vorable trade treaties with us. wise beyond their times. They were In the third place, the Congress meeting in a chamber already sa- lacked necessary military power, cred to the memories of Americans, Shortly after the war ended, a band for here the Declaration of Inde- of unpaid soldiers caused Congress pendence had been adopted and to flee from the capital at Philadel- signed several years earlier. From phia. Congress was unable to put the same building had rung the down the endless quarrels among famous Liberty Bell, the states quarrels over bounda- Heading the roll of the "Fathers ries and land, over taxes on trade, of the Constitution" was the "best- and over their different money sys- loved American," General Wash- terns, ington, chairman of the convention. Finally, and most serious of all Also from Virginia was 36-year-old perhaps, Congress could not com- James Madison, able student of pel the states to obey its rightful both ancient and modern govern- orders. It could only beg and recom- ment. From New York came the mend. The dispute between Mary- brilliant 30-year-old Alexander land and Virginia over the use of Hamilton. The oldest member was the Potomac finally brought mat- 81 -year-old Benjamin Franklin ters to a head. A Trade Convention from Pennsylvania, the American was called to consider the problem, best known to the world. There \Vhen only a few states sent repre- were at least a dozen others in the sentatives, Alexander Hamilton convention who would have been saved the day by putting through a strong men in any gathering, but motion. The motion requested the list is too long to call. Congress to call another convention There is no doubt that these dele- to meet in Philadelphia in May, gates, representing all the states ex- 1787. This the Congress did, but cept Rhode Island, were able men. made it plain that the meeting was They were practical men, too. Most for "the sole and express purpose of of them had had considerable po- revising the Articles of Confedera- litical experience. More than two- tion." thirds of them had been members of the Continental Congresses. Some had been governors and judg- The Constitutional Conven- es in their states - Others had helped tion Creates a Stronger Gov- T draw " p ^ u S T f nstitutions - Later three-fifths of them were to eminent become important officials in the new government, including two The "Fathers of the Constitution" Presidents and two Chief Justices meet to form a more perfect union, of the Supreme Court. Whether they knew it or not, the The body as a whole was excep- 128 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Independence Hall, Philadelphia, as it was when the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution were adopted. Thousands of visitors yearly view the Declaration Chamber in this shrine, where these two great documents were born. In the same build- ing the visitor can reach out to touch the famous Liberty Bell. (Culver Service) tionally well educated for the times, since more than one-half of the del- egates were college graduates. As a group the delegates were conserva- tive or generally opposed to change. Most of them were men of property, such as merchants, planters, bank- ers, and army officers. More than one-half were lawyers. As men of some wealth, they had loaned mon- ey to the government during the war. They naturally wished to see a government established that would be able to repay those loans. But beyond this, they were also meeting "to form a more perfect Union." Because the convention as a whole was conservative, it does not follow that the members agreed on all matters. As a matter of fact, quite often the section of the coun- try a delegate represented would de- termine his point of view. A mer- chant from New England, for ex- ample, might disagree strongly with a planter from the South. Or a rep- resentative from a small state might refuse to accept a proposal made by a delegate from a large state. The delegates wisely agree to com- promise. Under such circumstances one should not be surprised to learn that long discussions sometimes very heated ones developed in the convention. The differences in the convention, however, were not nearly so important as the fact that in the long run the delegates were CONSTITUTION BINDS STATES TOGETHER 129 big enough men and loved their went on between the big and little country enough to compromise fellows. Then, finally, men were their differences. That is, each side ready to listen to compromise. Con- to a controversy or a dispute was necticut neither a big nor a little willing to take less than it first state in number of people intro- wanted. In the end one delegate duced the Great Compromise. The said that the Constitution was a Great Compromise provided for a "bundle of compromises." Congress of two houses [2]. 1 In the This willingness to give up some upper house, or the Senate, each state or sectional advantage for the state was to be equally represented, good of the country as a whole was Regardless of its size, each state well illustrated in one of the most would have two Senators and each important differences in the con- Senator would have one vote [8, vention. After having decided to note]. In the lower house, or House cast aside the Articles of Confedera- of Representatives, each state was tion as hopelessly weak, there was to be represented according to its no agreement on the kind of gov- population. No state, however, was ernment to replace it. to have less than one representative Especially was there disagree- [3]. Each representative would have ment on how the small states and one vote. the large states should be repre- In the Senate, therefore, the small sented in a new congress. You will states won their point. In the House remember that under the Articles of Representatives the large states each state was equal in voting pow- won, for there the large states would er in the Congress. The large states have more representatives and more presented the Virginia Plan to the votes than the small states, convention as their solution of the problem. Under this plan a state The states give very important pow- would be represented in the new ers to the central government. Now congress according to its popula- that a Congress of two houses was tion. This would mean that the agreed upon, what powers should large states would have more repre- it have? The delegates were torn sentatives, more votes, and there- between two feelings. On the one fore more power than the small hand, there was the long-standing states. f ear tna t a faraway central govern- The small states, objecting vio- ment might prove dangerous if giv- lently, introduced the New Jersey en rea l power. Moreover, since the Plan. Under this plan representa- powers of government belonged to tion in the new congress would be the separate states, why should they based upon equality of states. Re- ive them up? On the other hand, gardless of size or population, each they remembered as a long and very state would have equal representa- i Heavy-faced numerals in brackets refer tion and equal voting power in the to the authors' paragraph headings in the Congress. Constitution in the Appendix. See the first T- , and sixth footnotes on the first page of the 1-or a month a battle of words Constitution for further explanations. 1 3 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY unpleasant dream how close to dis- aster the weaknesses of the Articles had brought this country. They weighed these fears against each other. Then the convention decided that a new government without some real power over the states would be as useless as the old Articles. Quarreling states, like quarreling sons, made for a danger- ous weakness. Furthermore, were they not meeting "to form a more perfect Union" and to make a stronger government? This ques- tion then remained: What kind of power should be given to the new government? The events of the immediate past seemed to answer that question. Something had to be done about the control of commerce, especially among the states. Something had to be done about giving the new Con- gress power to tax and to collect taxes. Passing the hat around was not the answer. Something had to be done about the power of the cen- tral government to make and en- force treaties. Something had to be done so that the central government could exercise control over child- ishly quarreling states. These and many other things had to be done, if the central government was not to be laughed out of existence. Above all, Congress had to have power to compel obedience to its rightful orders. If you will turn to the Constitu- tion in the Appendix, you will find that one part [2643] contains a number of powers that the conven- tion granted to the central govern- ment. It is well to remember that all powers granted were given up by the states only after long thought. Important in terms of the weak- nesses of the Articles and important in terms of the future of this coun- try were these powers: (1) to lay and collect taxes; (2) to regulate com- merce with foreign nations and in- terstate commerce or commerce among the states; (3) to provide for an army and a navy, and to declare war; (4) to make treaties [64]; (5) to coin and to borrow money. Back of these and other powers granted the Congress was this gen- eral power: Congress had full right to enforce these powers upon the states and upon the people in the states [43]. Power was the founda- tion stone of this new and stronger union. Here, for the first time, was a central government that could command (see chart, page 131). The states keep many powers for themselves. \Vhen the Constitution- al Convention decided the question of powers, it followed two general rules. First, a power ought to be given to the central government, if the -central government could do the job better than the states sepa- rately. Treaty-making, for example, is such a power. The central govern- ment was in a better position to make a treaty than the states acting separately. The second rule was: Unless the Constitution directly or indirectly grants a power to the cen- tral government, that power be- longs to the states or to the people [95]. Although the states surrendered important powers to the central government, the states kept many, CONSTITUTION BINDS STATES TOGETHER 131 DIVISION OF POWER BETWEEN FEDERAL a STATE GOVERNMENTS l'FEDERALi GOVERNMENT /I ^* B- * B- W| l ' -- ***% :'":::: !'-'. -:-:-/:-:'^^^:-':-:'x-:-:-:X:::M::v-' Atl&mano many powers for themselves. To- day, it is said, state laws touch you nine times to the one time that laws of the central government reach you. In one way or another, state and community laws and regula- tions keep close watch over you from the cradle to the grave. When you were born, a state law required that a birth certificate be filed with the proper authorities. Failure to do this would probably mean that you are not legally alive. If you fall ill with certain diseases, your local government may quaran- tine you or keep you away from others for a period of time. When old enough you must go to school and attend regularly until a certain age is reached. If you leave school to go to work at certain ages, you probably must get permission in the form of a work certificate. Then the state determines the general conditions under which you may work. At the age of 21 you may vote, provided you register and meet cer- tain requirements. When you go fishing or hunting, avoid trouble by staying within the law T . If you de- cide to own or operate an automo- bile or an airplane, the state sets the conditions under which you may do either. When you make up your mind to marry, you had bet- ter become acquainted with your state laws on the subject. If you buy a house, there are cer- tain papers that must be filled out and recorded. When you make a contract or business agreement, re- member that there are important state laws on the subject. When you 132 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY CHECKS AND BALANCES VETO OVERRIDDEN BUSINESS make a will, which will distribute your property after death, be cer- tain to know or get advice on the state's requirements. Finally, when at last you pass from this life, it is necessary to have your death prop- erly recorded. Otherwise, you may not be legally dead. "Checks and balances" are written into the Constitution. The Con- gress of two houses the Senate and the House of Representatives was one of the three great branches of the central government as planned by the Fathers [2]. It was the legis- lative branch. Within its powers the Congress was to make the laws for the nation as a whole [2643]. The second branch was the executive department. This branch included the President, Vice President, and the chief secretaries (today these ten secretaries are called the cabi- net). The task of the executive de- partment was to enforce or faith- fully carry out the laws passed by Congress [63-66]. The President was also to carry on our foreign re- lations [64]. The third branch was the judicial department made up of the Supreme Court and other courts created by Congress [68]. The courts were to interpret the laws or decide what they meant, if a state, a person, or a business or- ganization raised a question. By this separation of powers in three departments, the Fathers hoped to avoid two extremes. They wanted to avoid dictatorship or too much power in one man's hands. CONSTITUTION BINDS STATES TOGETHER 133 They also hoped to prevent too thirds vote in each house. (Note much power from falling into the that it appears that Congress is to hands of the common people. have final legislative power.) To make matters doubly safe, the Fourth. A manufacturer believes makers of the Constitution worked that Congress has misused its con- out a system of checks and balances, stitutional power to tax. He appeals Executive, legislative, and judicial to the courts for protection of his powers would not be wholly sepa- constitutional rights. Finally, the rate. They would overlap in each case reaches the Supreme Court, case under this system. The Presi- That court decides, in our example, dent would have some legislative that Congress has gone beyond a and judicial powers. The Congress proper use of its power to tax. It would have some powers over the therefore calls the law nnconstitu- President and the courts. The tional. That is, it is contrary to the courts would check the President meaning of the Constitution, and Congress. There are many ex- The Supreme Court had in this amples of "checks and balances" in imaginary case done more than set the Constitution. Let us take as an aside a law. By its action it had illustration what may happen to a shown itself to have power over and law of Congress. . above that of Congress and the These are the checks and bal- President. In spite of checks and ances (shown on the chart, page balances or separation of powers, 132) through which a congressional the judicial branch is today su- law may go [24-25, 69]: preme. First. Both houses of Congress, let us say, pass a bill which places a heavy tax upon all goods pro- duced in factories employing chil- The Bill of Rights Places the dren under 16 years of age. (Note "Rights of Man" in the Con- that Congress has used its legislative , , power.) stitmion Second. The President, we will say, believes that the age should be Civil liberties protect us against 18 rather than 16. He therefore ve- unreasonable rulers. The three de- toes the bill. That is, he returns the pai tments and checks and balances bill to Congress with his objections are machinery of government. More stated. (Note that the President has than 150 years have proved them used his veto power to "check" Con- to be good machinery. Machinery, gress.) however, is only something to be Third. Both houses of Congress used for a purpose. The goal or pur- consider, let us assume, the Presi- pose of representative democracy is dent's objections, but decide to pass the spirit of democracy what de- the bill over the President's veto, mocracy is at its best. From early To override the President's veto, times men have kept their eyes on however, requires at least a two- that precious golden thread woven 134 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY into the history of free men. Nei- ther King John nor George III was allowed to forget that men will fight for their "rights." When new state constitutions were made, the sacred rights of free men were included in Bills of Rights. A written guarantee is some protection against unreasonable rulers. Before we ask what the Con- stitutional Convention did about a Bill of Rights, let us make clearer the meaning of civil liberties. Part of a letter written during the Second World War reminds us of some of our civil rights today. It was written to a California govern- ment official by a German who had fled from the cruelty of the Nazis. The German had just received the final payment for a claim against an employer who had failed to pay his salary when he left his job. After thanking the official, he wrote: "But it is not really the money for which I am writing this letter. When I came to this country two years ago as a German refugee from Nazi oppression, I was stateless, no country in the world was willing to accept me and to protect my civil rights. This little interlude [event] in behalf of a non-paid salary brought me for the first time in con- tact with the American law, and you can imagine my amazement when your court upheld my rights re- gardless of nationality and creed [religious belief]. "I feel the greatest respect for a country in which even in wartime a foreigner finds protection, and which builds an institution like yours to enforce the laws of a demo- cratic country." This man had learned that in democratic America he could get a square deal in the courts, even though he was not a citizen. The most important thing he learned, however, was this: In a democratic America the individual man, woman, or child counts. Civil liberties mean, therefore, more than rights in a court. They mean the right to speak and write freely, to criticize the government whether the government is right or wrong, and the right to hold free elections. Those who live in Amer- ica can move about freely without government permission. They can belong to a union and they can strike. They can follow any relig- ion. They are safe from unlawful searches of their homes and places of business. Without these and oth- er civil liberties, Americans would not be so free as they are today. The Bill of Rights guarantees civil liberties. Before the new Constitu- tion could go into effect, at least nine of the 13 states had to ratify or accept it. When the document came from the convention, a real opposi- tion promptly greeted it. One rea- son for the opposition was the fail- ure of the Fathers to include a Bill of Rights. Although all the states finally ratified the Constitu- tion, most did so only on the prom- ise that civil rights would be safe- guarded. The famous Bill of Rights or first ten amendments [86-95] was added to the Constitution in 1791. Since the state constitutions guar- anteed the civil liberties, why was it necessary to have a Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the central HIM inn P.S. BILL OF RIGHTS THESE RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES ARE GUARANTEED PRESS SPEECH I. FREEDOM OF RELIGION, SPEECH, PRESS AND ASSEMBLY II. RIGHT OF STATE TO HAVE A MILITIA III. PRIVATE HOMES MUST NOT BE USED AS BARRACKS IV. UNREASONABLE SEARCH AND SEIZURE ARE PROHIBITED V. LIFE, LIBERTY AND PROPERTY ARE SPECIALLY PROTECTED VI. RIGHT OF ACCUSED TO A FAIR TRIAL VII. RIGHT OF A JURY TRIAL IN PROPERTY CASES VIII. NO CRUEL OR UNUSUAL PUNISHMENTS IX. THE PEOPLE KEEP MANY RIGHTS NOT LISTED HERE X. THE STATES OR THE PEOPLE KEEP POWERS NOT GIVEN TO CONGRESS SEARCH B ^SEIZURE r RELIGION JURY TRIAL RIGHTS ASSEMBLY* a PETITION 136 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY government? The answer is that this convinced that something unlawful Bill of Rights applies to Congress has been done in the place to be only. It places a whole series of searched. "thou-shalt-not's" on Congress. It Again, no one's life, liberty, or strikes a balance between the neces- property can be taken from him sary powers of the central govern- without a fair trial. A trial, that is, ment and the liberties of the indi- which hears all sides before guilt is vidual. determined. The trial must be pub- The average American thinks of lie and by jury in most cases. Every the Bill of Rights as a guarantee of person brought into court has a three freedoms: religion, speech, right to know what crime is charged and press. A few more know that against him. He has a right to have Amendment I also gives Americans his own witnesses and to hear the the right to petition the govern- witnesses against him. He does not ment or request in writing that the have to be a witness against himself, government change its policy. A In this country a man is considered few others know that, so far as Con- innocent until proved guilty. Fi- gress is concerned, they have a right nally, unreasonable fines and pun- peaceably to gather together. These ishments must be avoided, are very sacred rights. They are the All these and still other civil lib- first rights that dictators take away erties are recorded in the famous from their victims. They are not, Bill of Rights (see chart, page 135). however, the whole story. These amendments are "the rules Some other provisions in the Bill of the game" the very foundation of Rights protect us against govern- of American democracy under our ment officials who might be tempt- strong Constitution. So important ed to overstep their powers. No law r - is it that we keep them alive that enforcing official, for example, can some states have a Bill of Rights search our homes or places of busi- Day or Week. At such time citizens ness unless he has a paper called a pledge themselves anew to the civil warrant. A warrant can be issued liberties for themselves and their by a judicial officer only after he is fellow Americans. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Giving examples, show how each of the following terms is necessary to an understanding of our history and government. 1. co-operation 6. legislative 11. unconstitutional 2. confederation 7. executive 12. civil rights, or civil 3. conservative 8. judicial liberties 4. compromise 9. veto 13. petition 5. interstate commerce 10. override a veto 14. a warrant WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1787: Why is this one of the most important dates in our 350 years of his- tory? CONSTITUTION BINDS STATES TOGETHER 137 1791: The event which this date marks seems to increase in importance with the years. Why was the event important at the time, and why today? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What conditions in the New World forced the settlers to co-operate? 2. Describe the central government set up under the Articles of Confedera- tion. 3. What four outstanding weaknesses of the government under the Articles explain why the Articles lasted only eight years? 4. The Fathers of the Constitution were an unusual body of men. What qualifications did they have for the work they were to do? Name four important members of the Constitutional Convention. 5. Describe the Great Compromise of the Constitutional Convention. 6. What kind of power was given to the new government under the Consti- tution? Name six of these powers. 7. How did the convention decide to divide power between the central gov- ernment and the state governments? Give examples. 8. What are the three great branches of government set up by the Constitu- tion, and what is the chief duty of each? 9. Using the chart in this chapter, explain how the system of checks and balances works. 10. Why is the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments to the Constitution) necessary to what we call the "American way of life"? 1 1. Summary Question: This chapter deals with a series of attempts to bind all of the colonies (and later all of the states) into "a more perfect Union." List each of these attempts. How was each a step nearer the goal of a stronger central government and "a more perfect Union"? Chapter 8. In the Early Days of the Republic, Democracy Means Different Things to Different Men . . . . . . Two great Americans Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson stand out in the early years of the Republic as political giants. One distrusted democracy; the other had a deep faith in it. What they be- lieved about democracy is important today because their opposing views are basic. Although changed somewhat with the times, their ideas live to- day. Men still quote these giants, as we shall do now. HAMILTON: "All communities divide themselves into the few and the many. The first are the rich and well-born, the other the mass of the people." JEFFERSON: "Men are naturally divided into two parties: 1. Those who fear and distrust the people, and wish to draw all powers from them into the hands of the higher classes. 2. Those who identify themselves with the people, have confidence in them, cherish and consider them as the most honest and safe, although not the most wise depository [place of safekeep- ing^ of the public interests." HAMILTON: "The voice of the people has been said to be the voice of God; and, however generally this maxim [saying] has been quoted and believed, it is not true in fact. The people are turbulent [restless] and changing; they seldom judge or determine right. Give, therefore, to the first class [the few] a distinct, permanent share in the government. They will check the unsteadiness of the second [the many], and they will there- fore ever maintain good government." JEFFERSON: "In every country these two parties exist. Call them, there- fore, liberals and serviles [slave-like], whigs and tories, republicans and federalists, aristocrats and democrats, or by whatever name you please, they are the same parties still, and pursue the same object. The last ap- pellation [name] of aristocrats and democrats is the true one." 138 DEMOCRACY MEANS DIFFERENT THINGS 139 Washington Lays Sound Bible, Washington added, "I swear, Foundations for the New W ^^% below came the Government chorus, "Long live George Wash- ington, President of the United Washington becomes first President States!" In the distance was heard of the infant Republic. "Your cool the boom of cannon, as the simple steady temper is indispensably nee- outdoor ceremonies closed. In a essary to give firm and manly tone brief address delivered to the Con- to the new Government. Among gress, the President warned that these thirteen horses now about to "the preservation of the sacred fire be coupled together, there are some of liberty and the destiny [future] of every race and character. They of the republican model of govern- will listen to your voice, and submit ment are justly considered, perhaps, to your control; you therefore must, as deeply, as finally, staked on the 1 say must, mount the seat." So experiment intrusted to the hands wrote a Revolutionary leader to of the American peoole." General Washington. Because most The new government was at last Americans felt the same way about a going concern, and in the hands the need for Washington's leader- of leaders friendly to the new Con- ship, he was unanimously elected stitution. This was fortunate. But the first President of the United most important of all was the fact States. that Washington had yielded to the Notified of his election, Washing- demands of Madison, Hamilton, ton prepared to leave his beloved and others that he take the responsi- Mount Vernon for New York City, bilities of the Presidency. His journey northward was a 14-day Washington brought to his office procession, as fellow citizens in a broad experience as farmer, engi- town after town paid their respects neer, business man, traveler, and to the President-elect. On the tri- military leader. To the office he also umphal arch at Trenton were the brought certain desirable qualities, words: "The hero who defended He was a man of high character, the mothers December 26, 1776, excellent judgment, and unusual will protect the daughters." self-control. "He was, in every sense At noon, on April 30, 1789, on of the words," as Jefferson said of the balcony of Federal Hall in New him, "a wise, a good, and a great York City, a tall 57-year-old man man." placed his hand on a Bible and took a solemn oath. "I do solemnly swear Washington puts the Constitution that I will faithfully execute the to work. Today more than 150 Office of President of the United years after its making all Ameri- States, and will to the best of my cans take just pride in the Consti- ability preserve, protect and defend tution. Under it our country has the Constitution of the United grown strong and great. Few na- States." [62] Bending to kiss the tions in the world have continued George Washington brings his 73-year-old mother into the ball room at Fredericksburg, Virginia. The occasion is the visit of the general to his mother following an absence of almost seven years during the Revolution. "Mrs. Washington, in her still handsome black brocade with its soft laces at neck and wrists, entered on the arm of her dis- tinguished son." Washington gave his mother credit for his successes. (Howard Pyle in Harper's Magazine) DEMOCRACY MEANS DIFFERENT THINGS 141 for so long a period under one form might well determine how they of government. It would be a mis- would be carried on for years, take, however, to think that the When Congress by law provided Constitution, which was drafted in three executive departments and a 1787 and put into operation in legal adviser for the President, how 1789, would enforce itself. was \Vashington to use their serv- Two big tasks, therefore, faced ices? Should he request the Secre- President Washington. First, he had tary of State (foreign affairs), the to put the Constitution to work. Secretary of the Treasury (financial That is, he had to take a piece of affairs), the Secretary of War (mili- paper a set of theories and make tary affairs), and the Attorney-Gen- a living, working government out eral (government lawyer) to advise of it. Second, he had to lay a solid him in writing? Or should he call foundation for the new govern- them together? When Washington ment, for another failure at setting decided to call them together, he up a central government might be started a cabinet not provided for fatal. in the Constitution [63, note]. Shortly before Washington was How should the President deal inaugurated, Congress met and or- with Congress and the Supreme ganized. The most important law Court? Two examples will illus- passed by the First Congress was the trate. Should the President consult Judiciary Act. It provided for a the Senate in making a treaty or number of federal courts. It also send it to the Senate when corn- determined the size of the Supreme pleted? Washington visited the Sen- Court, which was to consist of a ate while making his first treaty. Chief Justice and five associate jus- The results were not satisfactory, tices. After that he decided to send treat- In this act, moreover, Congress ies to the Senate when completed, provided for the right of appeal. So it is today. Would the Supreme Any case which concerned the fed- Court please give Washington some eral Constitution, laws, or treaties advice? We do not give advisory could be appealed or be carried for opinions replied the court, and that further and final hearing to the Su- remains the practice today, preme Court. Appeals could be made from the highest state courts or lower federal courts, with the Political Parties Beg in When presidential appointment of justices Hamilton and Jefferson Dis- to the several courts, the three de- M partments were established. The <*0 re e over Who Shall Rule new government was a going con- cern, but the task of making the Hamilton believes in the rule of the government operate smoothly re- few. As his Secretary of the Treas- mained. ury, \Vashington appointed the Washington knew that the way brilliant 32-year-old Alexander things were done the first time Hamilton. In that office Hamilton 142 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY was in a good position to influence the new government. As we have seen from Hamilton's own words, he distrusted the masses. He did not believe them capable of acting wise- ly in a legislative body. He even questioned their ability to "judge or determine right." On the other hand, he frankly believed that "the few," "the rich and well-born" should be given power. To this small group, he would give "a dis- tinct, permanent share in the gov- ernment." In brief, Hamilton be- lieved in an aristocracy a govern- ment of the select few. Washington's government had inherited a debt of $75,000,000, a huge debt for the times. And the government's income was not suffi- cient to pay day-to-day expenses. Hamilton's problem was to put Un- cle Sam on a sound financial basis. All debts must be paid, for only in that way would the people again have faith in the American dollar. Accordingly, Hamilton proceed- ed to convince Congress that (1) both the national and state debts must be paid in full by the central government, and (2) taxes must be laid so that money would again flow into Uncle Sam's cash box. (3) He also managed to establish a strong banking system. In pushing this program through against mounting opposition in Congress, what did Hamilton have in mind? First, he believed that governments, like individuals, must pay their debts in full. Second, his policy offered an excellent chance to secure the support of the "re- spectable" people for the new gov- ernment. It was this group the fortunate few who, generally speaking, held the bonds issued dur- ing the Revolution. Third, by hav- ing all debts paid by the central government, that government rath- er than the state governments would gain in power and standing. The establishment of a United States Bank, partly owned by the government, would likewise in- crease the powers of the central gov- ernment. In one more way Hamilton used the occasion to strengthen the new federal government. Among the new taxes laid by Congress was one on distilled liquors. This tax bore heavily upon many farmers in the western counties. Unable to trans- port their corn and rye over poor mountainous roads, they distilled these grains into whiskey. This was a product in demand in the East and not so bulky to transport. When the "Whiskey Boys" in west- ern Pennsylvania rebelled against the tax, Hamilton led 15,000 mili- tiamen to enforce the law. The Whiskey Rebellion was quiddy put down, and the new government's power was made crystal-clear. Hamilton had put through a fi- nancial program which won the support of the few for the new gov- ernment. He greatly strengthened the central government and easily crushed a rebellion. Jefferson has faith in the common man. As Washington's Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson sat oppo- site Hamilton in cabinet meetings. But more important was the fact that Jefferson's way of thinking was opposed to Hamilton's. These two DEMOCRACY MEANS DIFFERENT THINGS '43 Alexander Hamilton (left) was able to persuade President Washington (seated) that his financial plans should be accepted. Jefferson (right), in this scene from the play The Patriots by Sidney Kingsley, strongly opposed parts of the program- especially the establishment of the bank and the whiskey tax. (Courtesy Playwrights' Co.) giants faced each other "like two fighting cocks in the pit," according to Jefferson. Jefferson, the great lib- eral, had an undying faith in de- mocracy. Unlike Hamilton, he had full confidence in the people, al- though he saw the need for educa- tion for the masses if they were to rule wisely. "The influence over government must be shared by all the people," wrote Jefferson just before becoming Secretary of State. No wonder he was called "the prophet of Democracy." In and out of cabinet meetings Jefferson was strongly opposed to most of Hamilton's political ideas. First of all, Jefferson did not be- lieve it desirable to have too much power in a faraway central govern- ment. Government at its best seemed like a necessary evil to Jef- ferson. He did, of course, recognize the need for some government. But what government was necessary should be largely in the states. For this reason, then, Jefferson opposed those parts of Hamilton's financial 144 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY plans which increased the power of the central government. Second, Jefferson opposed Ham- ilton's readiness to read the Consti- tution loosely or broadly. When Hamilton read between the lines of the Constitution for the purpose of giving Congress or the President increased power, Jefferson disa- greed. Jefferson insisted that nei- ther Congress nor the President had a right to act unless the power was unmistakably given in the Consti- tution. In brief, Jefferson believed in a strict reading of the document. Believing so, he violently opposed Hamilton's United States Bank. The Bank could not legally be es- tablished by Congress, said Jeffer- son, because such a power could not be found in the words of the Con- stitution. Third, Jefferson fought Hamil- ton's policies because they favored the fortunate few the large mer- chants, manufacturers, shippers, lawyers, and bondholders of the East. Those policies were not aimed primarily at helping Jefferson's common people the poor farmers of the South and West and the city workers of the East. This was espe- cially true of the tax on whjskey so heartily disliked by the farmers. The major differences between Hamilton and Jefferson (and those who believed with them) may be summed up as follows: Hamilton 1. Stood for a strong central gov- ernment 2. Believed in loose reading of the Constitution 3. Favored the aristocratic few Jefferson 1. Stood for strong state govern- ments 2. Believed in strict reading of the Constitution 3. Favored the democratic many Although Hamilton and Jefferson differed strongly in their ideas, each was a sincere patriot. Under Wash- ington's steady leadership, such honest difference of opinion was good for the brave young nation. Rival political parties line up be- hind Hamilton and Jefferson. The opposing ideas of these two politi- cal giants were and are quite im- portant. They were important then because the government was just getting started. Hamilton and Jef- ferson knew that as the twig is bent so the tree grows. Soon each of these giants was to have many followers. Each became the leader of a major political party. The political beliefs of these men are important today because in one form or another they continue to exist. Although the Constitution makes no provision for political parties, party organizations are necessary to democratic government. Political parties groups of people who be- lieve much alike on political mat- ters carry on the political house- keeping for the nation. They elect candidates to many offices, prepare programs of political action called platforms, and in general make the wheels of government move in a democratic manner. The differences between Hamil- ton and Jefferson laid the founda- tions for the first parties under the OUR TWO PARTY SYSTEM DATES HAMILTON'S PARTY 1791-93 | FEDERALISTS | ~ 1816 I DEATH OF FEDERALISTS I I ?-! - i i I JEFFERSON'S PARTY 1817-25 > REPUBLICANS (One- party "era of good feeling) 1825-29 NATIONAL REPUBLICANS DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICANS 1834 1854 WHI6S I J REPUBLICANS I T TO DATE A. JACKSON X W. WILSON \l F.D.ROOSEVELT 146 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Constitution. After more than four \Vhatever the name of a major years of disagreement in the cabi- party, its object is to gain control of net, Jefferson resigned and returned the government. Only in that way to his home in Virginia. There he can a party put its ideas to work. In did the endless spade work neces- this sense, then, the two major sary to the successful beginning of parties are the "Ins" and the an opposition party. Helpful to him "Outs." Jefferson, you will remem- was the hard feeling in the western ber, insisted that the proper names counties, which the Bank and the for parties are "aristocrats" and whiskey tax aroused. "democrats." The followers of Jefferson took the name Republicans. Republican then meant opposition to mon- j ff T . , p , . archy, privilege, and the rule of the Je ff ers <>n 1 r ^S W fill niS wealthy few. The Jeffersonian Re- Ideals into Practice publicans consisted largely of the common people the little farmers Jefferson is called upon to apply the and the city workers. They gladly "American Dream." Jefferson's suc- accepted Jefferson's beliefs. Hamil- cess as a party leader won him the ton's followers called themselves Presidency as the first of a line of Federalists, that is, believers in and Republicans. When he was inaugu- supporters of a strong federal gov- rated in 1801, his countrymen got a ernment. As conservative men of first taste of what the change from property, they followed Hamilton's the Federalists Washington and program as the best method for con- John Adams would mean. The serving or protecting what they had. ceremonies were simple compared In his second administration, Wash- with Washington's. The first Presi- ington went over to this party. dent had used a coach drawn by The two-party system of Hamil- four cream-colored horses. That ton and Jefferson has continued to was too much like royalty for Jef- this day, as is indicated on the chart ferson. Simply clad, Jefferson on page 145. A careful study of the walked from his boarding house to chart will show these three things: the Capitol for the inauguration. (1) a line of succession extends from The defeated Federalists feared the early Federalists to today's Re- what would happen to them and publicans; (2) today's Democrats the country under the leadership of trace their beginnings to the Jeffer- Jefferson. He had, they thought, sonian Republicans; (3) the Repub- such strange and unsound ideas, licans of Jefferson's times became What were these ideas so much first Democratic-Republicans and feared by the few in the early finally Democrats. Not shown on 1800's? Since Jefferson was a great the chart is this: The years have believer in democracy and in the brought changes to party thinking goodness of all men, his ideals have and action. Much depends upon been summarized under the title whether a party is in or out of office, of the "American Dream." This DEMOCRACY MEANS DIFFERENT THINGS 147 dream, according to one writer, is ferson held the Presidency for two "the belief in the common man and terms. He was succeeded by his the insistence upon his having, as faithful follower, James Madison, far as possible, equal opportunity in for two terms. Following Madison, every way with the rich one." another Jeffersonian Republican, Jefferson indicated that there James Monroe, held the office for were two basic ideas in his dream of two terms. Thus the Jeffersonian life, liberty, peace, and happiness Republicans were in power for a for all. First, our federal govern- quarter-century. Although they be- ment must be representative of all lieved in their democratic ideals the people, not the few. To be rep- and wished quite sincerely to put resentative of all, it must respect them into practice, events beyond the rights of all. Jefferson did not their control prevented them from say that all people must rule. He having their way. This was true did believe that the government upon one important occasion after should be of and for the people, another. That is, able men representing all The first event to brush Jeffer- classes would, he thought, provide son's ideals aside was the closing of a wise and thrifty government. the port of New Orleans. Since Jef- Jefferson's second basic idea con- ferson's farmers west of the Appa- cerned the power of the federal gov- lachian Mountains had no other ernment. The central government, way out for their commerce, they he insisted, must not always be try- turned to the President for help, ing to increase its powers. He be- Jefferson proposed to buy New Or- lieved that the chief powers should leans and the surrounding territory be in the states. Government pow- from Napoleon, who now held this ers, said Jefferson, had to do with region. In the end (1803), Jefferson either domestic matters or foreign had to buy the entire Louisiana affairs. Domestic matters meant gov- Territory in order to get control of ernment business within the coun- the mouth of the Mississippi, try, such as road building. Relations By doubling the size of the coun- with foreign nations, such as mak- try in the greatest real estate deal in ing trade treaties, would be foreign history, Jefferson had, of course, affairs. greatly increased the power of the He believed that domestic mat- central government. But more than ters should be largely the business this troubled Jefferson. Nowhere of the states. The conduct of foreign did the Constitution grant power to relations, on the other hand, should buy land unless one read between be the primary concern of the cen- the lines. Finally, Jefferson fell back tral government, because the states on the "good sense of our country" separately were not in a position to to justify his purchase. This was go- handle such matters. ing beyond the Constitution alto- gether. Events prevent the Jeffersonians Shortly after Jefferson took office, from having their way. Thomas Jef- the Napoleonic Wars broke out in 148 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Chief Justice John Marshall made the Supreme Court the great power it is today. Courts still refer to Marshall's rulings made more than 100 years ago. This portrait by Henry Inman was chosen by the Treasury Department for use on certain government bonds. (From original in possession of The Philadelphia Bar Association) Europe. France and Great Britain were engaged in a life-and-death struggle for power. Jefferson be- lieved that we as a young nation should take no side. But Jefferson soon discovered that neither war- ring country intended to permit us to use the Atlantic for peaceful commerce. To protect our interests, Jefferson asked Congress to pass a law which practically killed our commerce. Again, the Constitution did not grant such power unless one read between the lines. Finally, the Jeffersonians, under Madison, iound themselves in the War of 1812, thus again centralizing more power in the federal government. A war always does that. When the war ended, a wave of nationalism swept the country. This "we-feeling" grew rapidly. Ameri- cans, turning their backs on Eu- rope, decided to build up a strong and prosperous United States a great nation independent of Eu- rope. Since Monroe, the last of the Jeffersonian Republicans, was now in power, he was soon swept along in the swiftly-moving current of nationalism. Under the circum- stances, Monroe supported meas- ures that represented Hamilton's ideals more than Jefferson's. Fortu- nately, however, the American dream did not disappear. It was merely lying on the shelf of time. Chief Justice Marshall continues Hamilton's fight for a strong cen- DEMOCRACY MEANS DIFFERENT THINGS 149 tral government. Although Hamil- Usually Marshall's reasoning would ton had been killed by Vice Presi- throw a state law out because the dent Aaron Burr in a pistol duel, legislature was using a power which there were faithful Federalists eager he believed belonged to the central to keep Hamilton's ideals alive, government. None was more ready or in a better The famous New York "Steam- position to do this than John Mar- boat Case" shows how Marshall and shall. For Marshall had been ap- his court could set aside a law. The pointed Chief Justice of the United New York legislature had granted States Supreme Court just before the right to two men to use New the last Federalist President, John York's rivers for steamboat ship- Adams, turned his office over to Jef- ping. When a person who had not ferson. been granted the privilege began In the 34 years (1801-35) he was operating steamboats between New Chief Justice, Marshall greatly in- Jersey and New York, the matter creased the power of the central was brought before a federal court, government. He also made the Su- The case finally reached the Su- preme Court the strongest of the preme Court on appeal. The court three departments, although the ruled that navigation is commerce, Constitution does not state that the that commerce between two or judiciary is to have such power, more states is interstate, and that Earlier in this chapter we read power over interstate commerce be- that the Judiciary Act determined longs to Congress under the Consti- the conditions of the right of ap- tution [28]. The New York law was peal. This right is granted in the therefore declared unconstitutional. Constitution [70]. Marshall, how- Under Marshall's leadership the ever, seized upon the right of ap- court thus practically gave the cen- peal to give the Supreme' Court a tral government control over the power not found in the Constitu- country's waterways, tion. This was the power to declare There can be no doubt that un- an act of Congress or of a state legis- der Marshall the Supreme Court lature unconstitutional. This means had reduced the powers of the that a law could be wiped out, if a states. But it did more than that. It majority of the Supreme Court jus- greatly increased the powers of the tices thought it conflicted with any central government. Thus did John provision in the Constitution. To Marshall keep Hamilton's ideas establish this power Marshall read alive, even though the Federalists between the lines of the Constitu- no longer controlled the Presi- tion. dency. With this tremendously impor- Jefferson greatly feared the power tant power in their hands, the jus- of the Supreme Court under Mar- tices under Marshall's great leader- shall. He feared it because he ship were ready to go to work. In thought that the central govern- < ase after case, laws of Congress and ment was gaining too much power the state legislatures were set aside, at the expense of the stares. 150 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Jackson Brings New Ideas ginning to feel the influence of the About Democracy to Wash- fro " t , ier spiri ;.; f J The constitutions of the new ington western states did not require that one own property in order to vote. The West stands for greater rights j n some states taxpaying was no for the common man. As our fore- longer a voting requirement. The fathers spread across this vast con- \v es t believed that manhood suf- tinent, those on the outer or west- j rage> or the right of men to vote> j s ern edges of civilization were called t he basis of democracy. Before long frontiersmen. Their thin settle- t h e workers of the East gained that ments became the frontier an r i g ht, too. The democratic ideas of ever-shifting "West." the frontier were traveling east- Frontiersmen were usually peo- ward. pie of little or no wealth. They be- NOW that the common man was longed to the masses. They were beginning to enjoy the privilege of Jefferson's farmers. They believed voting, what kind of a President in his "American Dream." Those would he elect? The answer was not who lived through the hardships of ] on g in coming. In 1828 the masses the frontier believed also in equal- overwhelmingly elected Andrew ity. Since one man was as good as "Old Hickory" Jackson, Indian another, there were no classes in fighter, hero of the War of 1812, the expanding \Vest. The frontier and son of the \Vest. By electing brought all to the. same level. The "the people's President," the corn- frontier, therefore, was a natural mO n men of the East and West birthplace for a new kind of democ- voted for one of their kind. They racy one in which every man had a also voted against privilege, wealth, right to share directly in running and aristocracy, the government. Democracy, as we know it today, When Jefferson became our third began with the election of Jackson. President, the frontier had barely For the first time the people them- nosed its way into the open spaces selves were in the political saddle, west of the Appalachians. Twenty- When the frontiersmen flocked to eight years later (1829) when An- Washington to see Jackson inaugu- drew Jackson entered the Presi- rated, an old Federalist wrote in dency, the frontier had reached the disgust, "King Mob seemed trium- mighty Mississippi. The region be- phant." tween the Appalachians and the Mississippi became the "New Under Jackson the common man West." It was an area from which has a share in the national govern- seven states were carved in less than rnent. The people's President soon 20 years. From these "frontier de- put new life into Jefferson's dream, mocracies" an increasing number of Jefferson believed in government of Representatives and Senators went and for the people. Jackson favored to Washington. The East was be- government of, for and by the peo- . * C ^ 9, 3.S8. although in some the . . term was six years. In most cpun- lltical Llje tries, however, immediate re-elec- tion was forbidden. Despite this These republics pattern their con- provision, ambitious presidents stitutions after that of the United found a way to stay in office beyond States. Following their wars for in- the stated period. Unlike our Presi- dependence, Latin Americans asked dent, Latin-American presidents themselves: What kind of govern- might, when congress is not in ses- ment shall we adopt? Sooner or sion, rule by their own issued later the 20 countries became re- orders. Also, in case of foreign war publics. Most of them borrowed our or disorder within the country, the form of constitution, although some constitutions permitted the presi- followed that of the old French Re- dents to declare an emergency and public. Our Constitution could be suspend individual liberties, taken south, but getting the feel of Most Latin-American govern- it was another matter. merits differed from ours in another The difference between the form respect. They had highly central- and the spirit remains today a basic ized governments, in which the cen- difference between La tin- American tral authorities had far-reaching democracy and ours. The chief rea- powers over the separate states. In son for this difference lies in the fact these highly centralized govern- that we spent 150 years learning the ments, the presidents could even ways of democracy before we won appoint the state governors, independence. Latin Americans Latin Americans do not look very largely had to learn self-gov- upon constitutions as we do. We be- ernment after their independence, lieve a constitution is a framework And they had to learn it the hard of government and ought to be way, for 95 per cent were unable closely followed. It should .be to read or write. changed only after seriou's thought. How faithfully was the United In most of Latin America, on the States Constitution followed? All other hand, constitutions are re- Latin-American constitutions pro- garded somewhat as we look upon vided for a government of three de- political platforms. Under the cir- partments. In most countries con- cumstances, Latin-American consti- gress consisted of two houses usually tutions are frequently changed elected by the voters. Every repub- either by constitutional conventions lie had a president elected either by or by dictators who wish to make the voters or indirectly by presi- legal their seized power, dential electors or by congress. Each Bolivar feared that democratic country had a supreme court. Prac- forms might not go well in Latin tically every constitution contained America. "To my mind," he wrote, a Bill of Rights. "it would be better for [Latin] Most of the constitutions pro- America to adopt the Koran [Mo- AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 157 The congress of Chile consists of two houses: the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Here the deputies are shown in session in Santiago. Deputies are elected for four years, while senators hold office for eight years. Men 21 years of age and over may vote if they can read and write. Chilean congresses have passed social security laws which have gone beyond those passed by our Congress. (Fenno Jacobs, from Three Lions) hammedan Bible] than the govern- ment of the United States, although it is the best in the world." The story of Spanish-American pol- itics is one of unrest. No Spanish- American country was able to avoid revolution in the years following independence. Most of them had many revolutions, followed by one- man government. Some had more than 60 in the first hundred years after independence. Revolution and dictatorship, then another revolu- tion and another dictator that seemed to be the rule. Before we look into the causes of this unrest, let us understand the meaning of revolution in the Latin-American sense. Revolutions in Latin America were usually merely an attempt to change rulers. Frequently they took the place of an election. Many times they indicated the people's will bet- ter than elections, because elections were often dishonest. Many revolu- tions failed. That is, the "Outs" did not drive the "Ins" out. Many were "bloodless," which meant that the army had merely given its support to another dictator, with loss of few or no lives. In the long run revolu- tions in Latin America meant re- i 5 8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY This Cuban revolution in 1933 resulted in the resignation and night of a dictator- president, who held office for eight years. Several officials were killed in this revolt engineered by the army. Because of student opposition, the dictator had closed the universities. The general unrest ended when a new constitution was made. (Interna- tional) form and progress. Gradually they increased democracy. A Mexican writer reminded us recently that Jefferson and Lincoln believed that revolutions might be necessary at times. We should remember, too, that we have had three Presidents murdered. In Chapter 5 certain causes for unrest in Latin America were de- scribed. There were quarrels over the kind of government to be es- tablished and disputes over who should rule. The feeling between the masses and the favored few was bad. Then, too, there were lack of education and lack of democratic experience. These were serious handicaps, if republics were to work democratically. Another factor also contributed to the unrest. Latin America lacked a middle class the very backbone usually of a con- tented nation. Ready to make the most of this restlessness in each country was a small group of military chieftains known as caudillos (cow-deel'-yos). Usually with one eye on what they could get out of it, these chieftains became leaders of a large personal following from the masses. The fol- lowers seemed more interested in the leader than in his program. When the republics were founded, the caudillos came into their own. They became the dictators one hears so much about. These dicta- tors ignored or controlled congress and the courts. And they lost no AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 159 time in taking over the treasury, Second, the right to vote was army, and secret police. When the gradually extended in most coun- paths of rival dictators crossed or tries to men able to read and write, too much corruption developed, a Today, in a few, one may vote at revolution occurred. the age of 18. In more than one-half Although many of the dictators of the republics women may vote were cruel and selfish, a few did im- at least in some elections. In five, prove conditions for the masses. In voting is required; and failure to time political parties, as we know vote may result in a fine. Third, in- them, came out of the earlier per- troduction of the secret ballot in sonal parties. Indeed, today, the some countries has strengthened the caudillo is a local political boss, democratic trend, for voting as one Gradually, then, in a century, Latin wishes without fear is a democratic Americans became politically more right. peaceful. Revolutions, however, can Fourth, a practice which does not still occur, as Argentina proved in exist here developed in Latin Amer- the early 1940's. ica. University students became ac- tive in politics. In place of football games and fraternities, students T , - A r> TI /r joined political groups. Sometimes Latin America Becomes More J they b ^ ought * bout F revolutions . Democratic Even kindergarten children are said to discuss leaders during a political Democracy moves forward. When campaign. one says that "Democracy moves for- A fifth factor in causing democ- ward in Latin America," it does not racy to move forward was the very mean that it moves forward every- slow growth of a middle class of where or to the same extent in each skilled workers, teachers, small shop- country. In some republics democ- keepers, and some small farmers, racy is still pretty much a dream. In The recent rise of labor unions also others, democratic ideals have made strengthened the democratic trend, much headway. Do you recall Next, freedom of the press has in- "What's in a Name?" creased. As a result, many people As time passed, conditions favor- are better informed. They have, able to democracy improved in therefore, better grounds for mak- many Latin-American countries (see ing up their minds, map, page 160). Most important of In the advancement of social and all, perhaps, was the spread of free economic democracy parts of Latin elementary education. Today, in America lead the United States. In nearly all countries, free elementary the matter of race relations, for ex- schooling is required. In a few coun- ample, Latin Americans not only tries free high schools exist. Never- have less racial feeling, they have theless, in about three-fourths of less racial trouble than we do. In the republics 50 per cent or more of some countries the Indians' skill in the people still cannot read or write, handicraft has been recognized by CENTRAL AMERICA, C I F I C O C E A LATIN AMERICA TODAY AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 161 University students gather in front of a government building in Buenos Aires to show their support of peace in America and among American nations. The occasion was the Day of Peace set aside to mark the end of long border wars between Bolivia and Paraguay in the 1930's. (International) laws providing for co-operatives. Under these laws, co-operative in- dustries are encouraged by the gov- ernment to help the Indians help themselves. As a result, the old In- dian handicraft has been profitably awakened. At least one country Uruguay provides free medical at- tention for the poor. In this repub- lic every worker gets a vacation with pay. Uruguay, moreover, had what are called social-security laws before the United States had them. Our neighbor, Mexico, moves rap- idly toward democracy. A good all- around example of rapid demo- cratic progress in recent years is that of our neighbor, Mexico. Revo- lutions and dictators followed Mex- ican independence. A notable ex- ception was the liberal president the full-blooded Indian, Juarez (Hwah'-race) who attempted a re- form program against heavy odds. The outstanding dictator was the mestizo, Diaz (Dee'-ahs), who for 35 years (1876-191 1) ruled with an iron hand. Then (1910) the Great Revo- lution began. From it came a new Mexican constitution. First, the constitution of 1917 provided for a federal government like ours. However, the president who was to be elected for six years might not succeed himself. Men and women able to read and write could vote. But since only 55 out of 100 could read and write, suffrage was limited. So much for officehold- ing and voting in revolutionary Mexico. Second, the heart of the Mexican constitution was the article dealing with ownership of land. "Mexico for the Mexicans" was the slogan of the revolutionists. They meant: (1) Mexico's millions of farm workers U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Mexican school girls in this picture are quite clearly showing more interest in what the teacher is doing than in the photographer who stood to the right. Note that in this well-furnished schoolroom the girls appear to wear similar clothes. (Fritz Henle, from Monkmeyer) should own their own little farms, and (2) foreigners should not con- trol the rich oil properties of Mex- ico. Accordingly, the constitution pro- vided that the government should take farm lands away from the great landholders and give them to the "have-nots." Likewise, 17 British and American oil companies were ordered to give up their properties. By what is known as expropriation^ the government would pay them a price for lands and properties seized. After long disagreement, American oil interests came to a set- tlement with Mexico in the early 1940's. By the same time, the Mexi- can government had distributed farm lands to nearly 2,000,000 peas- ants. That many more were still waiting for farms. The expropriation of land and properties was regarded by many as communistic rather than demo- cratic. Most Mexicans said it was merely returning to the Indian land system in use before the Spaniards arrived. Mexicans did not believe that about 5 per cent of the people should own everything. Third, the revolutionary consti- tution made education the exclu- sive business of the government. No longer could the church have a share in primary education. Under the government's program little one-room schools sprang up in the country districts. Today, one-half of Mexico's children have schools at AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 163 least to the age of 15. The impor- sympathetic ruler, interested in Bra- tance of these rural schools as a zil's welfare. When he visited us on basis for democracy cannot be over- the hundredth anniversary ot our stated. independence, the democratic em< Fourth, the new constitution peror was called "Our Yankee Em- gave new privileges to labor. It rec- peror." Brazil made unusual prog- ognized, for example, labor's right ress under Dom Pedro. Brazilians to form unions. Under it new laws also learned the advantages of or- gave labor real hope for a better derly government. Since Dom life. . Pedro was no dictator, they had a long period in which to learn at least the A B C's of self-overn- - nt Brazil Shifts from a Man- r nt E^ ""Sli J dent called Brazil the crowned archy to a Republic ..... democracy of America." During Pedro's long reign, a Under Dom Pedro II Brazil enjoys sound foundation for the nation's a long period of progress and or- future was laid. Public education derly government. How Brazil an A\-as developed. Immigration was en- area larger than the United States couraged. Railroads and telegraphs of America gained its independ- were widely extended. Coffee-grow- ence from Portugal was told in ing was greatly expanded. Corn- Chapter 5. How the Brazilians de- merce was increased. The govern- cided on a monarchy rather than a ment's finances were put in order. republic was also related. The first Despite this progress, there were emperor, however, did not come up growing signs of Brazilian discon- to Brazilian expectations. He was, tent as Pedro aged. The army was therefore, forced out in favor of his dissatisfied because Pedro refused it five-year-old son, Pedro II, who was a privileged position in Brazilian to reign for 58 years (1831-89). affairs. The wealthy landholders A monarchy is not a republic were furious when all slaves were and an emperor is not a president, freed without payment to the own- Nevertheless, Brazil was probably ers. \Vhen, as a last straw, Dom fortunate at this time in having an Pedro talked of turning the throne emperor especially one whose over to his daughter, a bloodless powers were limited by a liberal revolution took place. Before Bra- constitution. At any rate, Brazil, zilians knew what happened, Pedro under Pedro, was spared the revolu- II accepted the result "for the good tions and dictators which the Span- of Brazil," and sailed away to Por- ish-American republics experi- tugal. The republic of Brazil was enced. thus established nearly 70 years The easygoing and peace-loving after its independence. Brazilians were again fortunate in Pedro II as their emperor. He was a The republic brings stormy years to mild, progressive, intelligent, and Brazil. Our big neighbor to the H> j U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY President Grant and "my brother the Emperor," Pedro II of Brazil, attend the opening of the Philadelphia Exposition marking 100 years of our nation's life. Here (left of center) the tall Emperor and the President turn the levers that start two huge engines in the Hall of Machines. (Pan American Union) southeast became the "United States of Brazil" under its new con- stitution, which was much like ours. The president was to be elected by the voters. He could not succeed himself. Men able to read and write could vote. Brazil was to prove once more, however, that democratic constitutions do not guarantee dem- ocratic governments in Latin Amer- ica. With the steady hand of Dom Pedro removed, the republic soon experienced revolutions and dic- tators. One cause of the stormy years of the republic was the fact that the constitution gave the president more power than the emperor had enjoyed. As a result, men who wished to use this power built up personal followings. Through elec- tion or revolution, these men hoped to gain office. Second, the army at- tempted to control affairs at times. Third, the states were some- times powerful enough to run the central government as in the days of our Articles of Confedera- tion. Fourth, political parties were slow in developing, thus prevent- ing the people from expressing themselves in an effective manner. Fifth, the size of Brazil and lack of adequate communication created serious problems. Finally, and most important of all, when the republic began, only about one-third of the people could read or write. As a AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 165 result, an aristocracy of officehold- contagious disease, revolutionary ers developed rather than a going ideas can spread. In Chapter 4 we democracy. saw how the British lost the 13 col- The extraordinary power of the onies, while in Chapter 5 we read president is illustrated in the case of about successful revolutions in Vargas who became temporary pres- Latin America. For the most part, ident in the early 1930's, after an then, Europe had by the 1840's lost army-navy revolt. Sending congress its rich empire in the Americas, home, Vargas soon became very The important exception to this much a dictator. He did, however, was Canada an area larger today promise a new constitution. Under than the United States which this, Vargas was elected president Britain took from France a dozen for four years. Then he permitted years before our Revolution, no more elections. According to an- Canada, as events proved, was to other constitution handed down have a revolution, too. But let us later by Vargas, the president was tell Canada's story in five parts. Part to rule by his own orders until con- one has to do with a false move by gress met. But since congress did the British Parliament. When Par- not meet, Vargas continued as die- Hament in the 1790's divided Can- tator. ada into Upper and Lower Canada, Apparently Vargas ruled by con- trouble was in the making. Upper sent of the people. As a dictator he Canada, centering in present-day did not on the whole stand for the Ontario, was English. Lower Can- Hitler-Mussolini type of dictator- a da, or present-day Quebec, was ship. He did not push his people mainly French. Each was to have its around; he raised no racial issue, own representative assembly, and On the other hand, he stood for one each a governor sent from England, of the most advanced systems of so- Even under these arrangements, cial welfare found anywhere. He Upper and Lower Canada could not helped poor men secure farms. By get along well together. The French encouraging public education, he and English quarreled. English increased greatly the number who Protestants and French Catholics could read and write. Perhaps, Bra- could not see eye to eye. French Ca- zil, like other Latin-American na- nadians and English Canadians tions, was merely experiencing agreed on one matter, however, growing pains. They did not like the limited self- government which Parliament had granted them. Ill-feeling against the Discontent in Canada Forces s y stem of government led to rebel- ,, r j i r i i j lion in 1837. The revolt was quickly the British Parliament to crushe d, but the causes of the trou- Grant Home Rule ble remained. Part two is the British attempt to A revolt in Canada results in the get at the bottom of the trouble. To grant of self-government. Like a do this, the British government sent 166 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY a new governor to investigate. The Frenchmen and Englishmen de- new governor failed to understand cided to take a step on their own. the French Canadians. He did see They called a convention not only the need, however, for more home of Upper and Lower Canada but rule in Canada. He recommended of the Maritime Provinces as well, that Parliament try a different way The Canadians really got together of solving the Canadian problem, in this convention. Out of it came Part three is Parliament's answer, the suggestion for a federal scheme It is known as the Act of Union of government for Canada (see (1840). This law united Upper and chart, page 167). Lower Canada into one govern- They decided, in other words, to ment. There was to be one Cana- form a union of the provinces dian parliament elected by the vot- (states) and to have two types of gov- ers. There was to be one governor ernment. (1) The central govern- appointed by the British. He was to ment would be a Canadian parlia- appoint a cabinet to help him rule ment which would deal with mat- Canada. Since the Canadian par- ters concerning Canada as a whole, liament had new powers and since (2) Each province would have its a Canadian cabinet existed, this own legislature which would make looked like more self-government, laws for the province. This might solve the English-French problem Parliament agrees to Canadian and give each province some inde- plans for a workable union. Under pendence. the Act of Union there were still Part five has to do with a wise some flies in the ointment. On the move by Parliament. When the one hand, the first governor did not British Parliament received these think much of the ability of the Ca- suggestions from Canada, it passed nadians to govern themselves. "I the British North America Act will govern as I think right," he (1867) setting up a federal govern- said, "and not as they fancy." On ment. By this act, four provinces the other hand, the French were Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and still not satisfied. They believed the two Canadas, renamed Ontario that their large population entitled and Quebec joined to form "The them to more representation in the Dominion of Canada." Later other Canadian parliament. All in all, it provinces and territories became soon began to look as though the part of the dominion (see map, British Parliament had taken an- page 205). Newfoundland and Lab- other false step. rador, however, never joined. Part four is Canada's own solu- England sent a governor-general tion of the problem. By the close to the dominion, but the Canadian of our War Between the States prime minister was the real power (1865), a deadlock had resulted be- in the dominion. The prime minis- tween the two parties in Canada's ter was to hold office only as long as new system of government. Forced the Canadian House of Commons by circumstances, the Canadians would back him up. Under this ar- AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 167 CANADA IN THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AUSTRALIA UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITIAN AND NORTHERN IRELAND CANADA UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA GOVERNOR GENERAL EIRE NEW ZEALAND PRIME MINISTER HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT rangement the Canadians practi- cally governed themselves. The vot- ers men and women elected the Canadian House of Commons and their provincial legislatures, too. Soon Canada was united from ocean to ocean under a workable union one of its own selection. Today Canada, as a part of the Brit- ish Commonwealth of Nations, vol- untarily co-operates with the Em- pire. It is united with the other in- dependent self-governing nations of the British Commonwealth through a common loyalty to the British king (see chart, above). Truly our American neighbors have made progress toward democ- racy. During the Second World War a Latin American could write: "Freedom, democracy, America: the three words are synonyms." i68 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Summary of the Unit .... Constitution of the United States of America (1787) and the equally In this unit "The Idea of De- famous Bill of Rights (1791). mocracy Takes Root and Grows in 5. In 1789 Washington started American Soil" we have traced the government under the new certain democratic developments Constitution, but it was Hamilton from Old England to today's Amer- and Jefferson who fought to deter- icas. Some of these are: mine whether it should be a gov- 1. In Old England the feeble be- ernment of the few or of the ginnings of democratic ideals go many. back to Magna Charta (1215), the 6. It was not until 50 years after Petition of Right (1628), and the the Declaration of Independence Bill of Rights (1689). These, to- (1776) that democracy in this coun- gether with the rise of Parliament, try meant "of the people, for the limited the king's powers. The idea people and by the people." Andrew of representative government had Jackson was largely responsible for been born. that. 2. These ideas, brought to the 7. In Latin America, meanwhile, English colonies in America, devel- democracy was slowly making head- oped in the busy town meetings of way as representative democracy New England and the important at least in form was widely ac- "little parliaments" of every colony, cepted. Increased public education Democracy in America had taken for the masses gave Latin-American root and was growing. democracy hope for the future. 3. Spurred on by idea-men like 8. In Canada, democracy made Thomas Jefferson, a great liberal that former British colony a self- and spokesman of early democracy, governing dominion in 1867. the "rights of man" took on new 9. The 300-year growth of democ- meaning here. racy in American soil is one of the 4. Finally, out of 150 years of co- most important and hopeful events lonial experience came the famous of all history. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Give in your own words the meaning of each of the following terms. Also give an example when possible. 1. caudillos 4. province 7. governor-general 2. expropriation 5. dominion 8. Upper Canada 3. federal government 6. prime minister 9. Lower Canada WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1837: Why is this a date of particular importance in Canadian history? 1867: In Canada July 1 is celebrated as a holiday a day similar to our July 4. What is the event celebrated which goes back to this date? 1917: This i$ a date of particular importance to Mexico. What is the event? AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 169 CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. In what ways do Latin- American constitutions seem to follow ours? How do their constitutions differ from ours? 2. We believe that the United States Constitution is the first law of the land and ought to be followed closely. How do many Latin Americans look at constitutions, and with what results? 3. How does the Latin-American meaning of revolution differ from our understanding of that word? 4. Why have dictators been rather common in Latin- American countries in the past century? 5. With the betterment of certain conditions in Latin-American countries, democratic ideas began to make progress. What were the factors which caused democracy to move forward in Latin America? 6. In what ways have certain Latin-American countries shown greater demo- cratic growth than the United States? 7. Under the revolutionary Mexican constitution of 1917, how did the Mexi- cans propose to advance their democratic ideals? 8. Using Brazil as an example, show how it is possible under Latin-American conditions for a president to become a dictator. 9. Briefly outline the stages by which Canada became a democratic, self- governing dominion of the British Commonwealth of Nations. What has long been Canada's chief problem? 10. Under the provisions of the British North America Act the British Parlia- ment gave approval to a workable scheme of government for Canada. What are the chief features of this scheme? 11. Summary Question: In what ways have the Latin-American countries and Canada appeared to follow our form of democratic government? In what ways have they differed from us? Activities for Unit Three CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Poster. Prepare a poster entitled "The Rights of Man." Jefferson or some symbol representing him might well be a part of the poster. What else should be included? 2. Diary Notes. Using five dates between May 25, 1787, and September 17, 1787, write entries such as a member of the Constitutional Convention might have made in his diary. 3. Cartoon. Draw a cartoon which will illustrate the opposite positions taken by Hamilton and Jefferson. Or draw a cartoon representing the struggle between the royal governors and the colonial legislatures. 4. Newspaper Headlines. Prepare newspaper headlines announcing the be- ginning of the Mexican revolution in 1910, or headlines on the Mexican constitution adopted in 1917. Or make headlines reporting that the British parliament passed the British North America Act in 1867. In order to give an accurate date to the newspaper, it will be necessary to find out on what day of the year the event occurred. iyo U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY I TEST MY SKILLS 5. Using a Document. Turn to the Declaration of Independence in Appendix I (see page .579). (a) You will note, first, that this document is quite old. How old? (b) What evidence is there that this is a faithful copy of the Declaration? (c) In addition to the date, how can you tell that this is a copy of an old document? (d) What do we celebrate on July 4? How do you know? (e) In your opinion what phrase of the Declaration is most quoted? (f) How many grievances did the colonists list? (g) In what part of the document is independence declared? (h) Why does John Hancock's signature lead the list of signers? (i) How do some of the abbreviations for first names differ from those used today? 6. Using Our Most-Used Document. In Appendix II (see page 582) is an official copy of the Constitution of the United States of America. It differs from the original, however, in two ways. First, the authors have added heavy-faced numbers and statements for each paragraph. Second, footnotes explaining certain parts of the Constitution have also been added. Easy reference has, therefore, been made possible by simply referring in the text to a heavy or black-faced number. The purpose of this exercise is to find out how well you can use the Constitution without this aid. Can you find the answers to these questions? Whenever possible, indicate by article, section, and paragraph the part of the Constitution in which you found the answers, (a) How many Articles are there, and with what do they deal? (b) When was the Bill of Rights added? (c) Which state had the most signers? (d) Where do you find provision for electing the President? (e) How many Senators are necessary to ratify a treaty? (f) What provision is made for the right of Negroes to vote? (g) How long may federal judges hold office? WE WORK IN GROUPS 7. Quiz Program. Let a committee of five, with one member serving as chair- man, prepare 25 questions. Five will be on the Articles of Confederation, ten on the Constitutional Convention, and ten on the Constitution. The questions on the Constitution will be based on those parts of the document referred to in Chapter 7. With the chairman conducting the quiz program, the entire class will take part. If the class is unable to answer any question, the chairman will call on members of the committee. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 8. Floor Talks on Co-operation. The "little parliaments," the town meetings, the several attempts at union ending in the Constitution, and the struggles in Latin America and Canada all point in one general direction. Peoples were trying to solve their political problems through some form of demo- cratic co-operation. Let three people divide this subject for floor talks and discussion. Its title might be "We Learn and Make Progress through Co- operation." Show what attempts at co-operation were made, how they succeeded or failed, and why. Although the Constitution succeeded, what early difficulties did it have? Finally, what do these attempts, successes, and failures at co-operation mean for us today? In addition to the text, any one of these books will be helpful: E. M. Tappan, The Story of Our Constitution, chaps, i and ii; G. Hartman, The Making of a Democracy, AMERICAN NEIGHBORS MAKE PROGRESS 171 chaps, xv-xvii; A. Mersereau, Why is America?, 6^8; H. Rugg, America's March Toward Democracy, chaps, iii and vii; H. Rugg, Citizenship and Civic Affairs, chap, xi; L. Huberman, "We, the People," chap, v; B. Bro- dinsky, Our Federal Government; A. M. Peck, The Pageant of South American History, chap, xxv; A. M. Peck, The Pageant of Canadian His- tory, chaps, xii and xxii; H. B. Clifford, Canada, My Neighbor, chap. xvii. Very helpful on our basic rights and privileges are: E. McGuire and D. C. Rogers, The Growth of Democracy, 99-187; and these four booklets by C. S. Williams: The Rights We Defend; Right of Free Speech; Liberty of the Press; and Fair Trial. WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 9. To Get More Information. HARTMAN, GERTRUDE, The Making of a Democracy. The struggle for America is traced from its Old World backgrounds to the present. TAPPAN, E. M., The Story of Our Constitution. How it came to be, how the new government began, and how the Constitution was later amended. KNAPP, G. L., Uncle Sam's Government at Washington. Tells the story of the City of Washington, describes our federal government, and tells about the great men who helped to make our Constitution work. DILL, C. C., Our Government. The story of our government at work told by a former Senator. Simply presented, with many illustrations. PECK, A. M., The Pageant of Canadian History. Canada's story from Cartier to the seventy-first birthday of the Dominion in the early 1940's. PECK, A. M., The Pageant of South American History. A good background for understanding the Latin-American nations today. 10. To Find Out Who's Who. MORGAN, JAMES, Our Presidents. Besides brief biographies, the highlights of each presidential term are given. VAN LOON, H. W., Thomas Jefferson. A very interesting illustrated story of Jefferson, the champion of the "Rights of Man." NICOLA Y, HELEN, Boys' Life of Alexander Hamilton. A sympathetic ac- count of the brilliant Hamilton, soldier and political leader. JAMES, B. R. AND MARQUIS, The Courageous Heart. Well-told biography of Andrew Jackson, frontier soldier, hero, leader of the common people. BAKER, N. B., Juarez, Hero of Mexico. A good account of the life of Mexi- co's full-blooded Indian president. 11. To Read a Historical Story. CHOATE, FLORENCE, AND CURTIS, ELIZABETH, Five Gold Sovereigns. Anne Farnsworth was a neighbor of Jefferson when he was a member of the House of Burgesses. MEIGS, CORNELIA, Mounted Messenger. The young messenger carrying mail between Boston and Philadelphia helped prepare the way for closer under- standing of colonial leaders. WEIL, ANN, My Dear Patsy. This is a novel about Jefferson's daughter, Patsy, in France and in this country. 172 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 12. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Pageant of America: VIII, 7-37, 107-11, 144-264. Early colonial struggles, the making of the Constitution, and the presidential years of Washington, Jefferson, and Jackson. Building America: II, "Our Constitution"; III, "Our Federal Govern- ment"; IV, "Civil Liberties." WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 13. Time Line. Prepare a time line for this unit, using the red-letter years listed under "Why Are These Red-Letter Years?" in each chapter. Place events occurring in the Americas on one side of the line in one color. Place events outside the Americas in another color on the other side. 14. Study Unit Drawing. The drawing on pages 10405 is a unit illustration. Checking the unit title, go over each chapter and note the main ideas presented. Which are included in the drawing and which are omitted? 15. Written Summary. Prepare in your own words a two-page summary of the entire unit. Note carefully the summary at the end of the unit, but do not reproduce it. Your written summary should be a summary of what the unit means to you. 16. Men and History. Choosing five persons who played important parts in this unit, write brief accounts of their contributions to democratic prog- ress. DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 17. A Political Scrapbook. Upon the completion of this unit you should have a new interest in your federal government. You should want to continue that interest. A good way to do that is to begin a "Political Scrapbook." Such a book should contain important information about your govern- ment at Washington: its leaders and what they do as your leaders. First, include a "Who's Who" of government officials, with illustrations if pos- sible from newspapers. Include the (a) President, (b) Vice President, (c) cabinet members and their states, (d) Senators from your state, (e) Repre- sentative from your district and your district's number, (f) Supreme Court justices and their states. For these facts, see index of the World Almanac under "U. S., Government Departments." Second, include important news- paper items concerning the activities of these officials, together with your written comment as to the importance of the activities. Perhaps you will wish to keep this scrapbook up to date for the rest of the year. 18. Examples of Democracy. Democracy has made much progress in the past 700 years. Can you give (a) two examples of democratic progress in Eng- land, (b) five examples in the United States, (c) three examples in Latin America, and (d) two examples in Canada? Be prepared to give reasons for each selection. 19. The March of Democracy. Let seven persons prepare a three-act play to be presented informally to the class. After careful planning under the guidance of a chairman, let two people be responsible for writing each act. The purpose of the play is to show the progress of the democratic idea and your understanding of the long struggle to make democracy a living thing in the Americas. Unit Four The Peoples of the Americas Push Back the Frontier 10. Pioneers, Diplomats, and Soldiers Carry the Flag to the Pacific 1 1 . Courageous Settlers Move into the Heart of the Conti- nent 12. The Moving Frontier Creates New Problems for the Peoples of America The United States was born with a silver spoon in her mouth. Life be- gan with a handful of people in possession of a vast region stretching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi a land of noble forests, fertile soil, and rich mineral resources. Long before this land could ever be used, more was added. Step by step we advanced westward to the Pacific. Such conditions made America a land of opportunity and a land of hope. There was little need for signposts reading "To the West for New Opportunities." The sons and daughters of the East knew that their future pointed toward the setting sun. Each year saw the line of settlements move steadily westward. For almost 300 years the great task of America was the settlement of a continent. Chapter 10. Pioneers, Diplo- mats, and Soldiers Carry the Flag to the Pacific . . . ' J During the Revolution only two settlements of pioneers were left in Kentucky Boonesboro and Herrodsburg. The rest of the settlers had been driven out by the Indians. Early in 1 778 Daniel Boone and a few men set off for the salt springs to get their yearly supply of salt. Returning alone, Boone was captured by Indians on their way to attack Boonesboro. If the Indians captured Boonesboro, Herrodsburg could not hold out. The white man would be driven out of Kentucky and the region might be lost to America at the end of the Revolution. Boone was certain that if the Indians could win a victory and capture a few white men they would lose all interest in Boonesboro. To save his settlement with its women and chil- dren, he told the Indians about the men at the salt springs. This might mean the capture and death of some of the men, but it would save Kentucky. It was a desperate chance, but he could think of no other way. The Indians turned back, captured the party at the springs and set out for home. Boone played the game and pretended that he wanted to live with the Indians. An Indian chief adopted him and called him "Big Turtle." When summer came the war drums began to beat along the Ohio. Once again the Indians prepared to destroy Boonesboro. Boone watched his chance and one day slipped away. He ran 160 miles to Boonesboro in four days, stopping for only one meal a fast trip for a turtle and even for an expert long-distance runner. Boonesboro prepared to withstand a siege. The Indians attacked for nine days before they were driven off. Boonesboro was saved and with it Ken- tucky. Boone was later tried for treachery but was quickly set free. He became a greater hero than ever among the frontier folk. Not all frontiers faced the bitter fighting endured by the pioneers of Kentucky. But all of them had their share of hardships. All of them had their frontier leaders, men like Boone, skillful in the ways of the wilderness and in fighting the Indians. 176 PIONEERS, DIPLOMATS, AND SOLDIERS 177 The American Revolution one used until after the Revolution. Carrie? the Flan in the M/V In Apri1 ' 1775 ' a few days before carries me r ag w me LVL is- the batde o Lexington Boone and SlSSlppl his followers erected a fort at Boonesboro. Four years later James During the war the pioneers push Robertson led another band from into the Ohio Valley. From the time Watauga which founded the pres- when Jamestown and Plymouth ent Nashville on the Cumberland were first settled, Americans had River. been moving westward. During the It took great courage to move colonial period they took up the westward during the Revolution, lands along the coastal plains and The British continually stirred up in the foothills of the Alleghenies. the Indians to attack the frontier By the time of the Revolution set- settlements. Kentucky became tiers were ready to push through known as "a dark and bloody the mountain passes into the valley ground." The settlers, however, of the Ohio. hung on during the war and laid If you will look at the map, page the foundations of Kentucky and 196, you will see that many valleys Tennessee. run southwestward from Pennsyl- In Chapter 4 we told how George vania into Maryland, Virginia, and Rogers Clark and his Virginia the Carolinas. During the later militia crossed the Alleghenies and years of the colonial period, thou- captured the British posts on the sands of settlers moved along these Wabash and Mississippi. Clark valleys to take up land. Shortly be- spent the rest of the war fighting the fore the Revolution they had Indians and protecting the western founded little settlements as far settlements. When the war ended, south as Watauga in the northeast- America had possession of the land, ern corner of the present state of The bravery of the pioneers of Ken- Tennessee. , tucky and Tennessee and the activi- Watauga was hardly settled be- ties of Clark had done it. fore Daniel Boone and other hunt- ers brought back news of the rich The new nation extends from the lands in Kentucky. This news led Atlantic Coast to the Mississippi Judge Richard Henderson of North River. Fighting ended in the col- Carolina to found the Transylvania onies with the surrender of Corn- Company. It bought land from the wallis in 1781, but it was two years Indians and prepared to settle the later before a treaty of peace was country. finally signed. Some months after Henderson's agent, Daniel Boone, Yorktown the British government blazed the first trail from Cumber- sent a representative to talk to land Gap into central Kentucky Franklin, our minister to France. (see map, page 196). This was one The British agent admitted that of the few openings through the England had become "foolishly Appalachians and almost the only involved in four wars." Moreover, i 7 8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Daniel Boone in this picture is shown leading a group of pioneers through the moun- tains into the western country. Boone helped to pioneer western North Carolina, Kentucky, and later Missouri. The painting is by George Caleb Bingham, a well-known early American painter. (The Bettmann Archive) he said that England's financial con- dition was so bad that peace was "absolutely necessary." Franklin called John Jay, our minister to Spain, to come to Paris to aid him. He and Jay, with John Adams, then worked out the terms of peace with the British representa- tives. Our chief demand was inde- pendence and Britain was willing to grant it. The greatest difficulty in making a peace treaty arose over the boun- dary lines of the new nation. Adams, Jay, and Franklin wanted to place the western boundary at the Mis- sissippi. Clark had won this land and Americans had settled it. We needed it for expansion. France, however, wanted Britain to cede the region between the Alleghenies and the Mississippi to Spain. After France had entered the war she per- suaded Spain to join her, and this was to be Spain's reward. Congress had instructed the com- missioners to make peace in open co-operation with France. The American commissioners, however, had no desire to see their country cooped up east of the Alleghenies. When they heard of the plan, they went over the heads of the French government and dealt directly with Great Britain. Britain preferred to cede the land to the new and weak American Republic (see map, page 1 80) rather than to an already pow- erful nation of Europe. She agreed to our demands and France fell in line. Not all of the land east of the Mississippi went to the United States. Great Britain ceded Florida PIONEERS, DIPLOMATS, AND SOLDIERS 179 to Spain. Until we finally bought Florida, the boundary was in dis- pute. So also was the northern boundary, particularly that of Maine. New treaties many years later solved these problems. In Two Moves We Double Our Territory The Louisiana Purchase is the greatest real estate deal in history. When the United States started as a free nation, it was surrounded on three sides by foreign territory. On the north was British Canada; on the south was Spanish Florida. West of the Mississippi was the vast re- gion of Louisiana, at that time owned by Spain. This raised many problems, the chief one being the fact that Spain controlled both sides of the Missis- sippi at its mouth (see map, page 180). Settlers west of the Appalachi- ans could market their products only by floating them down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. Somewhere in Spanish territory they must be landed and transferred to seagoing vessels. Spain could pre- vent this by high tariffs. This problem was ironed out dur- ing Washington's administration by a treaty with Spain. The treaty al- lowed Americans to unload their cargoes at New Orleans without paying duties. As long as Spain held New Orleans, Americans were not worried. Spain was a weak nation and rapidly declining in power. The situation, however, suddenly changed. Napoleon, head of the French government, persuaded the Spanish king to cede Louisiana to France. Unlike Spain, France was a powerful nation. Her taking of Louisiana could mean only one thing a desire to establish again an empire in America. Jefferson saw this clearly. Said he: "There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural . . . enemy. It is New Orleans." If France holds New Orleans, said Jef- ferson, "we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." Jefferson sent James Monroe to join our minister at Paris, Robert Livingston, with instructions to try and buy New Orleans. If France would not sell, they were to try to make an alliance with England. To the surprise of all, Napoleon agreed to sell. He was about to start a new war with England and he needed money. When the war came, he knew that England with her bigger navy could easily capture New Or- leans. Moreover, the prospects of a French empire in America were not bright. A successful revolt in Haiti had recently ended French control in that island. Napoleon offered to sell not only New Orleans but all of Louisiana. The price was only $15,000,000. Jefferson had bargained for a city, but won an empire. As Livingston attached his name to the treaty, he solemnly declared, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives." In December, 1803, the United States took formal possession. Livingston could hardly overstate the importance of the purchase. It not only gave western commerce PIONEERS, DIPLOMATS, AND SOLDIERS 181 an outlet to the sea, but it doubled the territory of the United States, From it 15 states have been created in whole or in part. It supports to- day about 22,000,000 people. We move southward into Florida. The next important addition to American territory was Florida, When England ceded (turned over) Florida to Spain at the end of the Revolution, it included not alone the present state of Florida. It also included a strip of land as far west as the Mississippi, known as West Florida. As long as Spain owned Florida there was bound to be trou- ble. Few Spaniards ever went to Flor- ida. The colonial government was weak and inefficient. Florida, as a result, became a safe place for pi- rates, runaway slaves, and plunder- ing bands of Indians. During the War of 1812 England used it as a base to attack the United States. Florida remained a constant danger to this country. The weak Spanish government could not or would not do anything about it. As the years went by Americans became more eager to obtain this region. Florida cut us off from the Gulf of Mexico and many believed that our "national boundaries" should go that far. Southern fron- tiersmen began to look hungrily at the good land along the coast (see map, page 180). The purchase of Louisiana left the western boundary of Florida uncertain. Jefferson and his succes- sors believed that it belonged to the United States. When American set- tiers in West Florida finally re- volted against the Spanish govern- ment, Madison coolly annexed (at- tached) that region to the United States. Spain, of course, protested, but she could do nothing. Her power in America was rapidly declining as one Latin-American colony after another declared its independence. John Quincy Adams, our Secretary of State, bluntly informed Spain that she must either establish a gov- ernment in Florida strong enough to maintain law and order or else cede the region to the United States. Spain decided to cede. By a treaty of 1819 we purchased Florida for $5,000,000. When Congress two years later ratified the treaty, the United States included all the land east of the Mississippi from Can- ada to the Gulf of Mexico. With a Cry of "Onto Oregon R eac h the Pacific . ; Explorers, fur traders and mis- sionaries open the Oregon country to settlement. The next addition of territory took the United States to the Pacific coast. American interest in the Oregon region goes back to the earliest days of our nation. Shortly after the Revolution, trad- ers from New England and New York began to sail to the northwest coast. There they traded with the Indians for sea otter and other furs. They carried the furs to China and exchanged them for silks, tea, and Chinese dinnerware. On one of these early trips Captain Robert i8 2 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Gray, sailing from Boston, discov- ered the Columbia River. No sooner had Jefferson pur- chased Louisiana, than he sent an exploring expedition to report on the new territory. This expedition under Meriwether Lewis and Wil- liam Clark followed the Missouri River to its source. Not content with exploring only the Louisiana Purchase, they crossed the Rocky Mountains and followed the Co- lumbia to the Pacific (see map, page 210). If discovery and exploration meant anything, America had some claim to Oregon. One member of this notable party was Sacajawea (Sak'-ah-jah-wee'-ah), the Indian wife of a French guide. She is Amer- ica's first famous woman explorer. During the early 1800's British fur companies began to collect furs in Oregon. Not to be outdone, John Jacob Astor founded the American Fur Company to trade in the same region. His agents set up a post at Astoria near the mouth of the Co- lumbia. Astor, unfortunately, lost this trade during the War of 1812. For more than 30 years Oregon remained under the control of the British Hudson's Bay Company. Their agent, Dr. John McLoughlin, ruled the country. Americans, how- ever, had not lost interest. Efforts were frequently made to secure a share in the fur trade, but they failed. Missionaries were more success- ful than the fur traders. When Mar- cus Whitman and a few others came out in the 1830's to work with the Indians, McLoughlin allowed them to stay. Their letters to the church papers at home and their trips to the East helped to keep alive the in- terest in Oregon. They did much to advertise the Pacific Northwest. Gradually rumors of the rich land of Oregon reached the fron- tiersmen. A few American settlers trickled in. Then, in the early 1840's, the long trains of covered wagons began to point toward Ore- gon. Marcus Whitman, himself, helped to lead one of the largest groups over the Oregon Trail (see map, page 210). Shortly there were more American farmers in the new country than English fur traders. There they settled, and there they intended to stay. The United States and Great Brit- ain divide the Oregon territory. At the beginning four nations had claims to the Northwest, a region known as the Oregon country. These were Spain, Russia, Great Britain, and the United States. Spain gave up her claims to the United States at the time of the Florida purchase. Russia withdrew in favor of Great Britain by a treaty. This left only Great Britain and the United States. A treaty with Great Britain in 1818 set boundaries be- tween Canada and the United States at the 49th parallel as far west as the Rockies. The problem of Oregon was postponed by providing for "joint occupation." Joint occupation was hardly a true description. The only British in the country were a few fur trad- ers. On the other hand, several thousand American settlers had ac- tually taken up land in the region by the middle 1840's. Most of these had settled along the Willamette, a g " is u ~ c S V 5bS c * II tf) r !i c re <> - t> V % c % o E *. c so c > S* 8 "" 3 W *> -C fc ~ r c w - r - * 03 s * e 184 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY river running into the Columbia. Diplomats and Soldier 's Bring By this time it was clear that ,? /-, , o i t i JL some decision as to boundary must the Great Southwest into the be reached. Many Americans be- Union lieved that we should have all of Oregon as far north as 54 40'. The Sam Houston is the hero of the government, however, offered to Lone Star Republic. When Ameri- compromise at 49. On her part, cans think of frontiersmen, they Great Britain suggested the Colum- usually think of men like Daniel bia River as the dividing line (see Boone. These were the hunters, the map, page 210). trail blazers, the Indian fighters, At this point, the dispute got into and the small farmers. They were politics. Western frontiersmen de- mainly poor men who did the hard inanded that we take Oregon, work in pushing the frontier west- Southerners insisted that we add ward. Texas. The Democrats decided to One of the most famous of all fight the campaign of 1844 on the frontiersmen, however, does not fit issue of Texas and Oregon. Cries this picture. He was Sam Houston, of "Fifty-four forty or fight" and the father of the Texas Republic, the "Whole of Oregon or none" Sam was one of nine children born became slogans of the campaign, into a well-to-do family in western America was in the mood to expand Virginia. When Sam was 14, his and the Democrats easily elected father died. His mother sold the their candidate, James K. Polk. property in Virginia and with her It was now up to the Democrats nine children set out for the wilder- to make good. Congress voted to ness of the new state of Tennessee, end joint occupation. Texas, how- In Tennessee the family did well, ever, had just been annexed and Sam's brothers became prosperous war with Mexico followed. A war merchants and planters. But Sam with both England and Mexico at was different from the rest of the the same time was unthinkable. family. He was restless and full of England, on her part, was not the love of adventure. Farming and greatly concerned over Oregon. She storekeeping did not interest him. offered to compromise at 49 with To the horror of his family, he left the understanding that she keep them in his late 'teens and lived for Vancouver Island. This was the line three years with the Cherokee In- that we had earlier suggested sev- dians. The chief adopted him as a eral times. The United States ac- son and christened him "The Ra- cepted in 1846. The dispute ended ven." From then until his death with this country in possession of Sam Houston remained a firm the most valuable part of the Ore- friend of the Indians. He often gon country, the great Columbia acted as their representative and River region. Once again we sue- presented their cause before the au- ceeded in settling peacefully a thorities in Washington, boundary dispute to the north. Just before the outbreak of the PIONEERS, DIPLOMATS, AND SOLDIERS 185 War of 1812 Sam Houston returned to live with the white men. He started a school, but after a few months enlisted as a private in the regular army. He was soon pro- moted and distinguished himself for unusual bravery at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. He was severely wounded, but won the notice and friendship of his commander, An- drew Jackson. Jackson, in turn, won the devotion of the young lieuten- ant. Jackson was Sam Houston's great hero. THE POLITICIAN. Houston re- mained in the regular army for eight years. Then he resigned his commission, studied law, and went into politics. Sam Houston was nat- urally fitted for frontier politics. He was tall, vigorous, and dramatic in speech and action. All admired him for his bravery at Horseshoe Bend. More than that, he was a friend and follower of Andrew Jackson and Jackson's political star was rising rapidly. As a Jackson man, Houston was twice elected to Congress. In 1827 Houston was elected governor of Tennessee, the year before Jackson won the Presidency. At the age of 34 his future was indeed bright. Governor of Tennessee and a fa- vorite of Jackson, he was already talked of as the man to succeed Jack- son at Washington. While he was governor, Houston married. Three months later his wife left him. Neither of them ever gave the reasons. Shaken by this event, Houston resigned his gov- ernorship and left to rejoin his old tribe of Cherokees, then living in Oklahoma. For six years he lived with them as a trader, adviser, and peacemaker. While living with the Cherokees, Houston appeared in Washington more than once. He came as their representative to protest against the frauds of government agents. Jack- son, who always kept in touch with Houston, asked him to go to Texas to make treaties with the Indians. Sam Houston liked Texas and decided to remain there. He had imagination and saw that it would be a great country. Texas was then part of Mexico, but American set- tlers were already moving into the region in large numbers. Houston could see that American immi- grants would soon be dissatisfied with Mexican rule. He believed that war would then come, and he was never a man to avoid excite- ment or danger. Wherever Houston went, he quickly became a leader. When the Texas Revolution started (1836), he was made commander of the Texas army. At the head of his troops Houston destroyed the Mex- ican army at San Jacinto (San' Jah-sin'-toh) and ended their rule in Texas. His leg was shattered in the battle, but Houston recovered and became the hero of the new nation with its flag of a single star. LEADER OF THE LONE STAR STATE. Just as Americans had turned to Washington, so the Texans elected Sam Houston as their first president. Like Washington, Houston found the problems of starting a new na- tion very difficult. The Texas re- public was heavily in debt. Mexico would not recognize her independ- Sam Houston, hero of the Texan Revolution, governor of Texas and Senator of the United States, as he looked in his later years. A born leader, Houston played an im- portant part in the early history of the Lone Star State. (The Bettmann Archive) PIONEERS, DIPLOMATS, AND SOLDIERS 187 ence and clashes on the border were frequent. Houston served twice as presi- dent of Texas. His first problem was to win recognition of Texan in- dependence from the United States and other nations. Houston's old friend, Andrew Jackson, hesitated. Finally, at the very end of his sec- ond term, Jackson advised Congress to send a minister. Other nations followed our lead. Then Houston bent his efforts to bringing Texas into the United States. After Texas had been an inde- pendent state for nine years, she joined the United States. Houston was immediately elected one of the Senators from the new state. He re- mained Senator for 1 3 years during the stormy period before the War Between the States. Houston had worked long and hard to bring Texas into the Union. In the Sen- ate he fought just as hard to hold the Union together. Houston's stand was not popular with the majority of Texans and he failed of re-election. But Sam Houston was still a power in his own state. Returning to Texas, he ran for governor and was elected. As governor he tried his best to keep Texas in the Union, but failed. Then he dreamed of a new independent Texas. Texas was strong for the Confed- eracy and gave more men to the southern army than any other state except Virginia. But this made lit- tle difference in its feelings toward Houston. He was the father of Texas independence; his hand had guided the state during the first difficult years. When he died in the midst of the war, Sam Houston was still the hero of the Lone Star state. The Texas revolution creates the Lone Star state. Let us now turn back and tell in more detail the story of the Texas revolution. Only a handful of Mexicans and Indians lived in the vast region of Texas when American immigrants first moved in. More than 30,000 Amer- icans, however, had entered by the time of the revolution. From the beginning these immigrants found it difficult to live under Mexican rule. Americans in Texas faced many problems. They found themselves part of a nation which spoke a dif- ferent language and followed a dif- ferent form of religion. Hard feel- ings arose over problems of taxation and customs duties between Texas and the United States. Texas de- manded home rule, but was re- fused. These and other difficulties led to rebellion. As soon as Texas declared her independence, a Mexican army un- der General Santa Anna moved northward to crush the rebellion (see map, page 189). At San Antonio he found less than 200 Texans ready to defend the town from the Alamo, an old fortified mission. "I shall never surrender or retreat," wrote Colonel Travis to the new Texan government. When the Mex- ican troops carried the Alamo by assault after a siege of eleven days, only six wounded defenders were still alive. Upon promise that their lives would be spared, they sur- rendered. Santa Anna ordered them shot as rebels. i88 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY In the face of Santa Anna's large Texas independence, naturally op- army, General Houston believed it posed this claim, wise to retreat. Finally, when he Now that Texas was part of the had drawn the Mexicans into an United States, President Polk be- unfavorable position at the San lieved that we must support the Jacinto River, he turned on them, claims of Texas. He ordered Gen- With the cry "Remember the eral Zachary Taylor to move his Alamo," his troops destroyed the troops into the disputed region. Mexican army and captured Santa Shortly after, a force of Mexicans Anna. crossed the Rio Grande, attacked a San Jacinto won independence company of Americans, and killed for the Texans. After that battle or captured them. President Polk Mexico never seriously tried to win immediately demanded war. The back the territory. Nevertheless, Mexicans, he insisted, had "invaded Mexico refused to recognize the our territory and shed American freedom of the new state. Texas, as blood on American soil." we have pointed out, was weak and Congress declared war, and Gen- heavily in debt. She needed the eral Taylor moved into northern help and backing of a stronger na- Mexico. President Polk, however, tion. Above all, she desired to join decided correctly that Mexico could the United States. not be conquered from the north. If Texas had not been a slave Another expedition was planned to region, annexation would have land at Vera Cruz and march over- come sooner. Northerners, opposed land to Mexico City. Orders were to slavery, prevented it for nine sent to Taylor to send half of his years. The question became a po- force to join the new expedition litical issue and was finally fought under the leadership of General out in the election of 1844. The vie- Winfield Scott (see map, page 189). tory of Polk and the Democrats Taylor, with his tiny army of brought Texas into the Union as 5,000, could do little but hang on to the twenty-eighth state (see maps, the few towns he had captured in pages 180, 189). northern Mexico. Knowing his weakness, General Santa Anna gath- Annexation of Texas brings a war ered together an army and moved with Mexico. Mexico had threat- northward to crush him. Taylor's ened war, if the United States army, outnumbered four to one, should annex Texas. As soon as it gave battle at Buena Vista. Santa was done, Mexico recalled her min- Anna was decisively defeated and ister and broke off relations. The Taylor was left undisturbed until war, however, did not come until the end of the war. a year later and then it started over While Taylor was fighting in a boundary line dispute. Texas northern Mexico, Colonel Stephen claimed all the land as far west and Kearny set out from Fort Leaven- south as the Rio Grande. Mexico, worth on the Missouri River to con- which had not even recognized quer the Southwest. New Mexico PIONEERS, DIPLOMATS, AND SOLDIERS 189 % BuenaVista jj O Tampico TEXAtf REVOLUTION AND THE MEXICAN WAIL Scale of Miles 100 200 300 was taken without a blow. Then Kearny pushed on from Santa Fe with only 100 men to conquer Cali- fornia. When he arrived, he found that American settlers had already started a revolution and taken over the government. In the meantime, General Scott and his army had landed near Vera Cruz. Following the route of Cor- tes, they began the 250-mile march to Mexico City. The Mexicans fought bravely in many battles, but were gradually pushed back and de- feated. Six months after Scott's army had captured Vera Cruz, it marched into Mexico City and the war was over. Treaties with Mexico round out our borders. When the United States went to war with Mexico, we hoped to win the great South- west. We had tried to purchase this region, but failed. The defeat of Mexico now made it possible. By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidal- go (Gwah-dah-loo'-pay Ee-dahl'-go) U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Mexico not only recognized the in- dependence of Texas but ceded a large territory to the United States. This included all of the present California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Wy- oming, and Colorado (see map, page 180). In return we paid $15,- 000,000 and agreed to take over any claims our citizens might have against Mexico. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidal- go did not end our trouble with Mexico. The line west of the Rio Grande remained uncertain. More- over, engineers had discovered that the only good southern railroad route to the Pacific was in Mexican territory. Our government sent James Gadsden as minister to Mexi- co with instructions to purchase this land. Mexico agreed to sell, and the southern portions of Arizona and New Mexico were added in 1853 (see map, page 180). The price was $10,000,000. We Plant Our Flag in the Arctic Regions We buy Alaska from Russia. The United States had expanded rapidly since the end of the Revolution. It had added Louisiana, Florida, Tex- as, Oregon, the Southwest, and the region purchased by Gadsden. The original territory had almost tri- pled. It stretched across the conti- nent from the Atlantic to the Pa- cific. Most Americans believed that the days of expansion were ended and that there was enough land to satisfy our needs for all time. The nation was completely sur- prised when Secretary of State Wil- liam H. Seward signed a treaty with Russia in 1867 to buy Alaska for $7,200,000 (see map, page 191). Few Americans had the slightest knowl- edge of Alaska. They thought of it as an Arctic region suited only for polar bears and Esquimaux Indi- ans. Newspapers ridiculed the coun- try as "Seward's Folly," "Seward's Icebox," and "Johnson's Polar Bear Garden." It looked for a while as if the treaty would be laughed out of existence. How did we come to buy Alaska? First of all, Russia wanted to sell it. It was costing her more than she got out of it. Furthermore, Russia knew that she would lose it if she ever got into war with Great Brit- ain. She preferred that the United States should have it and offered to sell. Unlike most Americans, Seward knew about Alaska and believed that it would be wise for us to buy it. When the Russian minister called at Seward's house one eve- ning and said that the Czar of Rus- sia was willing to sell, Seward re- fused to wait until the next day to draw up the treaty. "Gather to- gether your assistants by midnight," said Seward, "and I will be waiting at the State Department to go to work." By four o'clock the next morning the treaty was put into final form and signed. When President Johnson sent the treaty to the Senate, Seward had to use every argument to win approv- al. He gathered information to prove that Alaska was a valuable country. He pointed out that the PIONEERS, DIPLOMATS, AND SOLDIERS LJ^AMVAf I/ITS Scale of Miles I H/\ 100 200 300 400 . 1 > fishing and fur interests of the west coast wanted it. He insisted that it would promote trade with the Far East. He urged that we should buy it because Russia had been friendly to the North during the War Be- tween the States. These and other arguments won the day and the Senate approved the treaty. Alaska becomes important to the defense of the Western Hemi- sphere. The purchase of Alaska was a wise move. Its shores abound in fish, its mountains are covered with forests, its land is rich in gold, coal, and other minerals. It is true that few white Americans have gone there to settle; the white population in 1940 was only about 40,000. Nev- ertheless, Alaska has sent to the United States over ten billion dol- lars' worth of products since we bought it. This is an amount more than 1 300 times its original cost. Even if Alaska had never re- turned a cent to this country, its purchase was wise. The Aleutian Is- lands of Alaska stretch out into the Pacific almost to the shores of Asia (see map, above). Their possession is absolutely necessary for the de- fense of the Western Hemisphere. Any enemy holding Alaska would easily attack the United States in an age of air fighting. Knowing their importance, Ja- pan early in the Second World War established bases in the Aleutians. The United States replied by send- ing armed forces to Alaska and building airports in many parts of the country. Then she built a long military road, the Alaska-Canadian Highway, to supply the troops and airports. In 1943 the last Japs were driven from the Aleutians. Alaska is now one of the most important parts of America's first line of de- fense in the Pacific. 192 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you understand the meaning or historical importance of these words or terms by using each in a sentence. When possible give an example. 1. Cumberland Gap 4. annex 7. Mexican Cession 2. siege 5. joint occupation 8. "Seward's Icebox" 3. cede 6. "54-40 or Fight" 9. Aleutian Islands WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1803: We doubled our territory. What was the real estate deal? 1819: We rounded out a boundary. Where? 1836: Sixty years after the American Revolution came this revolution. A lone star flag went up. Where? 1845: A republic joins the United States. What is it? 1846: We rounded out our Northwest. What is the addition? 1848: In the Southwest we also reach the Pacific. What is the land? 1853: It offered a pass for a future railroad. What is this area called? 1867: The far-sighted saw its value. What is the distant region? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why are pioneers like Daniel Boone thought of as men of very great courage? 2. Using the map on page 180, indicate the boundaries of the United States as a result of the Treaty of 1783. Why was Florida not included in our territory at this time? 3. Why did Jefferson wish to buy New Orleans from the French, and why did Napoleon sell the entire Louisiana Territory? 4. Can you give at least four reasons why we bought Florida? 5. Name five American leaders who were early interested in the Oregon country. What did each do? 6. Why was there a serious dispute over the Oregon boundary? How was it settled? 7. What kinds of work did Sam Houston try before going back to live with the Indians a second time? 8. Why is Sam Houston a Texan hero? 9. "Remember the Alamo" is a famous war cry. What led to the Alamo and what were the results? 10. What was the immediate cause of the Mexican War? The map on page 189 will help you. 11. Using the map on page 180, describe the boundaries of the territory se- cured from Mexico in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 12. What evidence is there that our purchase of Alaska from Russia was a wise move on our part? 13. Summary Question: From 1783 to 1867 the boundaries of the United States mainland changed upon eight important occasions. Beginning with 1783, name the additions, tell how each was secured, and give the chief reason for each. Chapter 11. Courageous Settlers Move into the Heart of the Continent Under the heading "Information" a notice was printed in January, 1786, in several Massachusetts newspapers. It was addressed particularly to veterans of the Revolution calling their attention to the fact that Congress had granted them lands in the Ohio country. The notice urged veterans and others interested in settling Ohio to as- semble by counties and elect delegates to meet in March at the Bunch of Grapes Tavern in Boston. At that time they would organize "The Ohio Company" to undertake the settlement. The call was signed by Generals Rufus Putnam and Benjamin T upper, two men who had won distinction during the war and were highly respected in Massachusetts. When the delegates met they listened to glowing reports of the western country. Then they formed the Ohio Company to raise money to finance the migration and to secure from Congress a block of land in southeastern Ohio. Among the directors elected was the Reverend Manasseh Cutler who was to represent them before Congress. Cutler was not only an able minister but also a good politician. He quickly interested Congress in his proposition and helped their committee draw up a plan for the government of the Northwest Territory. Finally he made a deal to buy 1,500,000 acres of land for about eight cents an acre. In the autumn of 2787 General Putnam was appointed superintendent and set to work to enlist carpenters, blacksmiths, surveyors, farmers, and other workers. The first group of settlers set out in November and wintered about 30 miles south of Pittsburgh. There they made preparations for the spring and built the May Flower to carry them down river to the new settle- ment. When the ice broke in April they floated down to the Monongahela and Ohio rivers to the spot where the Muskingum River joins the Ohio. On the banks of the Muskingum opposite Fort Harmar they made their landing. There they founded Marietta, the first town to be settled in Ohio. 193 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY "Go West, Young Man, Go West" Families move to the West for greater , opportunities. Americans have always been a westward-mov- ing people. No sooner were James- town and Plymouth founded than the march toward the W T est began. By the time of the Revolution set- tlers had covered the coastal plains and the foothills of the Alleghenies. Then they pushed through the mountain passes into the great val- ley of the Mississippi. Opportunities lay toward the west. This is the main reason why Americans kept moving toward the setting sun. When new immigrants came from Europe, they found the land in the East taken up. Most im- migrants wanted land and they wanted to be independent. There was nothing for them to do but move on to the frontier. Not only the new immigrants went west, but also many who had been born here. Families were large and the farm could not support all of the children when they grew up. One of the boys might stay on the family farm, but the others must make their way in the world. It was natural for them to turn their eyes to the frontier where land was plen- tiful and cheap. It was the small pioneer farmer who cleared the wilderness and broke the land for cultivation. He made it possible for the region to develop and for others to come. He was the backbone of the frontier settlements. But there were many others besides farmers who went to the new country. Skilled workmen, merchants, and tavern keepers saw opportunities in the rising villages and towns. The new West needed ministers, lawyers, teachers, and other professional men. Like a mag- net the West drew all kinds of peo- ple searching for a new and better life. Many other reasons led Ameri- cans to move to the frontier, that is, to the fringe of new settlements. Some had failed and wanted a new start in life. Others were discon- tented with conditions in the East. The West was more democratic. A man was judged for his real worth, not for his family connections, his education, or his wealth. Oppor- tunities were everywhere and it was easier to rise in life. Europeans and Easterners build homes in the Mississippi Valley. At the end of the Revolution, only a handful of white men lived west of the Alleghenies. Most of these were in the new settlements of Kentucky and Tennessee. With the end of the war, however, the situation changed rapidly. By the thousands and then by the tens of thousands easterners and European emigrants poured each year into the region west of the mountains. The movement began, as we have pointed out, in the late 1780's when a group of Revolutionary veterans, led by General Putnam, founded Marietta on the Ohio River. Short- ly after, another band of settlers from New Jersey settled Cincinnati farther down the river. A third group from Connecticut built their cabins at Cleveland on Lake Erie. SETTLERS MOVE TO HEART OF CONTINENT 195 Although New Englanders found- and St. Louis all became great cen- ed Marietta and Cleveland, most of ters of German immigrants, the settlers in the Old Northwest Unlike the Germans who spread (the region north of the Ohio) came throughout the Old Northwest, the from elsewhere. In these early years Swedes and Norwegians went at New England was busy settling first mainly to Michigan and Wis- western New York. Ohio was peo- consin. Later they moved into Min- pled largely by pioneers from the nesota and the Dakotas. In 1860 Middle States. Most of the settlers there were 4,000,000 foreign-born in Indiana and Illinois came from in this country. Along with the the South. easterners, they had helped clear The region south of the Ohio, the wilderness and break the sod the Old Southwest, was peopled al- of the Mississippi Valley. most entirely from the southern states of Virginia, the Carol inas, Over rivers, roads, and canals thou- and Georgia. The first wave of im- sands of families travel wearily migrants was composed of the typi- westward. The first problem of the cal small farmer who cleared the pioneer was to get to the new land, forest and prepared the way. Then and this was no easy matter. The came the cotton planters with their early routes to the west were little slaves in search of better land. The more than Indian trails. These were first settlers often sold out to the not good enough for wagons and newcomers and then moved farther the first pioneers traveled on foot, west or north of the Ohio. on horseback, or in some kind of Few immigrants from Europe set- river craft. Even travel by river was tied in the South. They believed not very practical, until the settlers that they could not compete with could get across the mountains and the large plantations and slave la- float down the streams, bor. Because of this, most of them The first important route to the settled in the Old Northwest, a west was the Wilderness Trail region of small 'farms and free la- blazed by Daniel Boone through bor. the Cumberland Gap near the point Most of the immigrants who where Virginia, Kentucky, and came to America in the 1800's were Tennessee meet (see map, page Irish, German, or Scandinavian. Of 196). Along this route went most these three groups, only the Irish of the early pioneers into Kentucky stayed mainly in the East. The Ger- and Tennessee. South of the Ap- mans, the Swedes, and the Norwe- palachians another road went west- gians, on the other hand, set out for ward to Mobile, Alabama, and the West to take up land. The Ger- Natchez on the Mississippi. North mans soon formed an important of the Cumberland Gap were two part of the population of all the roads cut during the French and states of the Old Northwest, and Indian War, one from Cumberland, also of Wisconsin and Missouri. Maryland, to Pittsburgh and one Cincinnati, Chicago, Milwaukee, from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh. ig6 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Boonesboro WILDC TRAIL v I-R'G IN I A KENTUCKY - NORT H CARD LI N A S WAGON ROADS TO THE WEST During the early 1800's Pitts- burgh was the great gateway to the west. If the settlers could get across the mountains to that point, the rest of the journey was much easier. Pittsburgh was a frontier town where the settlers could buy tools and other things needed on the new farm. From Pittsburgh the settlers could sail down the Ohio River on rafts or some kind of river boat to their new homes. Many rivers flowed into the Ohio from either the north or the south, and good land could be found on these rivers. In later years the federal govern- ment helped build an excellent road from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, West Virginia, and then westward across Ohio, Indi- ana, and Illinois. This National Road, as it was called, was good enough for wagons. The settlers then began to travel in covered wag- ons and were able to move more comfortably and to take more things with them (see the map, above). A road was gradually pushed westward in New York state from Albany to Buffalo. In the 1820's the state built a canal along this same route. This was so successful that Pennsylvania built a series of canals westward to Pittsburgh. Then Ohio built canals to connect Lake Erie SETTLERS MOVE TO HEART OF CONTINENT 197 ' Caw " EQUAL TO ANY IN THE WORLD!!! _ MAY BE PROCURED At FROM *8 to $12 PER ACRE. Ksrkttm. School.*, Railroad*. ChueftM, ud *ii tl MMuagt of Ciriliaticn. 1,160,000 Acres, in Farms of 40, 80, 120, 160 Acres and upwards, in ILLINOIS, the Garden State of America. A railroad advertisement published to persuade settlers to purchase land in Illinois. The government gave land to railroad companies to encourage them to build. The railroads then sold it to settlers. This brought in money to build the railroads, and also peopled the country and provided for future business. (Harper's Weekly) with the Ohio River. It was now possible to move west on canal boats, a way of travel much easier than the covered wagon. Moving westward was a difficult task. Despite the improvement in roads and the building of canals, moving to the West was never easy. First of all, careful preparations must be made for the journey. What could a family take with them and what must they leave behind? In the early days few things could be bought on the frontier. The settlers had to drive their cattle and other livestock with them. Even after the roads were good enough for wagons, it was not possible to take much. If the family had room for food, some clothing, a few farm tools, and one or two pieces of household furniture, they were lucky. At best the journey took weeks. Settlers going to Oregon and Cali- fornia took months. As the pioneers lived mostly in the open, their com- fort depended largely on good weather. There was often real dan- ger from wild animals and Indians. Sickness, lack of food, and other hardships often increased the suffer- ing. One difficulty in settling the West is sometimes forgotten. This was the expense of moving and es- tablishing a farm. Since the journey to the new home was long, the prep- aration and the journey itself were costly. When the pioneer arrived in the new country, he usually had i 9 8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY to buy his land. Then somehow he had to support himself until the first crops were harvested. Most pio- neers were poor men. Either they spent a long time in saving money for the move or else they borrowed it. The average pioneer faced finan- cial worries as well as the normal hardships of the frontier. Blood, Sweat and Tears Go into the Building of the Frontier John Pioneer carves out a farm in the New West. The first job of the pioneer when he reached the fron- tier was to pick out his land. Most important of all were good water and an abundance of wood for buildings, fences, and fuel. The pio- neer took it for granted that if there were large trees, the soil would be fertile. If possible, he wanted his farm near a river so that he could more easily transport his products to the market. Having picked out his land, his next task was to build a shelter for his family. In a wooded area he cut logs of the right she and notched them at each end so that they would fit together. The roof he made with split logs, shingles, or anything that would keep out the rain. Openings between logs were filled with clay. These first log cabins were crude affairs. In his haste to get up a shel- ter, the settler often did not bother with a fireplace, windows, or even a wood floor. As he had time, he would add these luxuries and build a loft for the family to sleep in. Later he might build other rooms and shelter for his livestock. Win- dows were a problem on the fron- tier, for glass was scarce and expen- sive. John Pioneer next turned to his crops. First he cleared away the underbrush and girdled or cut deep rings around the trees to kill them. This let the sun through so that the corn planted around the trees would grow. Later, as he had time, he cut the trees down, but left the stumps to decay. Vegetables were planted in small cleared patches. The cattle, hogs, and horses could easily pick up enough food for themselves during most of the year. If John Pioneer was industrious and fortunate, he was able by the third or fourth year to produce sur- plus products for sale. The early frontier farmer avoided the prairies. He was certain he could not get along without wood for fuel, fencing, and buildings. Moreover, he believed that land without trees was not fertile. Later on he discovered that the prairie soil might be very fertile and then he moved in. On the prairie the settler did not have to clear forests, but he did have to break the tough sod. He did this by cutting holes in it with his axe to raise his first crop of corn. Without wood, he often built his first home with blocks of sod. The problem of lack of wood was never solved until he could bring in lum- ber, coal, and wire fencing from the outside. Mary Pioneer and the children labor by his side. The march to the SETTLERS MOVE TO HEART OF CONTINENT 199 A typical sod house of the early pioneering days in Nebraska. Some of the family seem to be dressed up for the picture. Judging from the pumpkin and squash, the season must be autumn. If the team of horses and the load of sod are really on the roof of the shed, it must have been a strong roof. (Nebraska State Historical Society) West was not only a job of clearing the land and raising crops. It was also one of creating homes. Many of the pioneers were single men who went west alone to build a house and start their farms. Then they re- turned to marry the girl of their choice and bring her to the new country. Others were newly mar- ried couples who started the adven- ture together. Still others were fam- ilies with children. No matter how the start was made, each frontier soon became a region of homes. Mary Pioneer was the center of the new home. With her husband she did her part in turning the dense forests or lonely prairies into settled and civilized communities. Her work was much the same as that she had done before she came to the frontier, except that it was done under more crude and diffi- cult conditions. Instead of living in a comfortable home, she must live in the early years in a rough cabin or sod house. Instead of using a stove, she must cook in the open on a newly built fireplace. Even if one had money, stores were far away. When kitchen uten- sils broke, they were hard to re- place. Clothing must be made from homespun cloth and buckskin. The farm or forest had to supply about everything that was needed. Lux- uries were unknown; all was crude and plain and hopelessly ugly. \Vhen the frontier was new, schools and churches were few. Mothers saw their children grow up with little or no education or re- ligious instruction. To many this was an experience as bitter as physi- cal hardship. Doctors were as rare as schoolteachers and ministers. 200 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Children were born without medi- a storekeeper. If the town was on a cal assistance or physician's care, river it might be a grist mill. Here Moreover, the physical hardships of the nearby farmers would come to the frontier were so great that many buy their supplies or have their broke under the strain. Home reme- corn or wheat ground into flour, dies were of little or no value. Many Soon a tavern or boarding house of the pioneers, particularly chil- was established for the occasional dren, died. traveler or for the farmers who One of the great hardships of came to town. frontier life was utter loneliness. With this start, it was not long Neighbors were few or faraway, before other pioneers would come, The men were often absent on particularly if the region seemed hunting trips or on work that prosperous. A blacksmith and other brought them in contact with other skilled workers would follow the settlers or took them to distant . storekeeper, mill owner and tavern towns. The women were tied to keeper. Then might appear a their homes by small children and schoolmaster, a minister, and a doc- poor means of travel. Alone they tor. It was not long before the little faced real dangers, including at- community became the commercial tacks by bands of Indians. center of the region. Farmers came to town to supply From groups of these pioneer fam- their needs. The town in turn de- ilies grow towns and cities. For most veloped as it was able to meet these pioneers the harsh conditions of needs. If the town was well located, frontier life lasted only a few years. ' its future was bright. This was par- If the land was good and the settler ticularly true if, in later years, a was industrious, he could soon railroad passed through it. In this build a better house and equip it way thousands of American villages, with the comforts of older com- towns, and cities grew up. munities. Likewise, if the land was fertile, other settlers moved in around him and he was no longer 77^ White Man and the Red alone in the new land. M p . ^ ^ Q f ^ As more and more settlers moved in, villages and towns grew up to r TOTttier . supply the needs of the pioneers. These towns usually appeared Every frontier is a battleground, where settlers were thickest or at We have described the frontier as some important point on a route of the most advanced line or fringe of travel or commerce. A likely spot new settlements. Such lines did not was where two roads crossed or stand still. As each region was set- where an important road met a tied, pioneers pushed out to form river suitable for commerce. a new frontier. Each new frontier The first business building of a had to meet many of the same prob- new town was usually the cabin of lems faced by earlier frontiers. Ss. u 8 = s SJ ? - C il G - 2 "w ,- Sis ? -a S ^ So-J 18 c o 202 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Among these was the danger from During 250. years many battles, Indians. large and small, were fought with Before the white man came to the Indians. None, perhaps, is more America, probably a million In- famous than "Ouster's last stand." dians occupied the region north of In 1876 Lieutenant Colonel George Mexico. Some of these Indians, par- A. Custer was ordered into south- ticularly those on the Great Plains ern Montana to break up a large of the West, lived largely from band of unfriendly Sioux (Soo) and hunting. The tribes living on the Cheyenne (Shy-en') Indians. After plains, for example, obtained their discovering them near the Little food, their clothing, and the skins Big Horn River, he divided his to build their wigwams almost en- regiment into three parts and pre- tirely from the buffalo. pared to attack from three direc- Most Indians, however, were tions. The Indians in greatly su- farmers as well as hunters. Like the perior numbers drove back two de- white man, they raised corn and tachments and then fell upon other foods on their plots of land Custer and his 264 men. Outnum- and the tribes lived in little villages, bered by at least ten to one and un- Whether they were farmers or aided by the other detachments of hunters or both, the Indians needed his regiment, Custer and his force land, if they were to live. As the were destroyed to the last man. white man pushed in, he took the best land. When enough white men The defeated Indian is forced back had settled a new region, the game on to reservations. Although the In- disappeared. Then the Indians dians might win battles like that at could neither farm nor hunt. Natu- Little Big Horn, they always lost in rally they fought back to keep their the long run. Each defeat usually land. meant a treaty with the United Each new frontier had to be won States government in which they from the Indians and each frontier gave up claim to land, but were had its battlegrounds. Indian wars promised more further west. Then began soon after the first settlers ar- they moved westward again, rived at Jamestown. More than 250 Before many years the westward- years later the last battles were be- moving pioneers caught up with the ing fought on the western plains. Indians and again began to move In the last chapter we told of the into the Indian lands. The Indians bitter struggle of the first settlers in would turn and try to drive them Kentucky with the Indians during out. A new war, a new treaty, and the Revolution. These wars were again the Indians moved farther always worse when the Indians were west. After the Louisiana Purchase aided or directed by the French or the United States government de- the British. Even when there were cided to end further trouble east of no wars, settlers on the lonely fron- the Mississippi by pushing the In- tiers were in danger of Indian at- dians into the newly bought ter- tacks. ritory. By promises of land, by SETTLERS MOVE TO HEART OF CONTINENT 203 x^ 8-^^=^ " rJ\Si AD ! KANSAS \ ."tv ^-.^ ^v OKLAHOMA RESERVATIONS Scale of Miles tOO 200 300 400 treaties, and in some cases by force this was finally done. Pushing the Indians west of the Mississippi did not solve the prob- lem. White settlers still followed them and the government contin- ued to take away their land. Begin- ning in the 1880's the government attempted to break up the tribes by persuading the Indians to take up individual pieces of land and farm them like the white man. Indians who did this might become Ameri- can citizens. The policy was not suc- cessful. The Indians preferred to live as members of tribes on reserva- tions or land set aside for them. The government policy seemed to them just another way of taking their land. During the Presidency of Frank- lin D. Roosevelt this policy was changed. The government no long- er tried to break up the tribes and cut up the reservations. It now sought to preserve the tribes and the reservations and promote tribal ownership of land. It encouraged the Indians to adopt constitutions and set up local self-government. 204 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Congress also granted funds to pro- mote education and economic im- provement. Today most of the 334,- 000 Indians in the United States live on reservations supervised by the Department of the Interior (see map, page 203). Many famous Indian fighters have appeared in the long years of warfare with the white invaders. But, given an opportunity, many Indians have' also proved their ability in peaceful pursuits. Among such Indians is Francis La Flesche, author and student of Indian life and for many years a member of the United States Bureau of Ethnol- ogy. Among important Indians at work today is Henry Roe Cloud, a Sioux, who is a graduate of Yale. He is superintendent of Haskell Institute and the leading expert in Indian education. Canada Has Her Frontier to Conquer Fur traders push Canada's frontier to the north and the west. The fur trade has always played a more im- portant part in the history of Can- ada than in the United States. Dur- ing the colonial period, when France ruled Canada, furs were al- most the only export from the col- ony. Competition for the fur trade was a principal cause for the wars in America between the French and English settlers. This rivalry for furs existed not only in the region of the Great Lakes and the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi, but also in the area around Hudson Bay. In 1670 the British king granted a charter to the Hudson's Bay Company giving it all the lands drained by waters flowing into Hudson Bay and, of course, a right to all of the fur trade. Since France also claimed this land, there was bitter warfare between the fur traders of the Hud- son's Bay Company and those of France. After England finally conquered Canada, the Hudson's Bay Com- pany controlled practically all of the Canadian fur trade. This situ- ation, however, did not last long. A new group of traders, the North- West Company, was organized. The new company was more active and more interested in exploration than the older one. Explorers and fur men of the North-West Company first crossed the Canadian Rockies, explored the western region of Can- ada and collected furs in the Ore- gon country. Of these explorers three stand out, men as famous in Canadian history as Lewis and Clark in United States history. The first of these was Alexander Mackenzie, who discovered and explored to the Arctic the great Mackenzie River. Later, he crossed the Rockies and reached the Pacific, undoubtedly the first white man to cross the northern part of the continent. An- other great fur man was Simon Fraser, who discovered the Fraser River and followed it almost to the sea (see map, page 205). One of the greatest of Canadian explorers was David Thompson. He surveyed many parts of Canada and was the first man to make a detailed survey 206 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY of the region drained by the Colum- bia River and its branches. So bitter was competition be- tween the Hudson's Bay Company and the North-West Company that it led to open war. Finally the two companies decided it was -better to join forces, and the North-West Company disappeared. Until 1869, the Hudson's Bay Company not only controlled the fur trade, but it actually governed the larger part of Canada. All of Canada except the eastern settled provinces was leased to the company. For 200 years the fur trade played the leading part in the life of Canada. Farmers follow to open the great wheat farms of the West. Canada's westward movement is much like that of the United States. Until the 1850's most white settlers in Can- ada lived near the eastern seacoast or along the St. Lawrence River. Few had located farther westward than the northern shores of Lake Erie. When American frontiersmen jumped the Great Plains and set- tled California and Oregon, we find Canadians also starting settlements around Vancouver Sound. Canada, like the United States, Avas eager to join her eastern settle- ments with those on the west coast. Shortly after the Union and Central Pacific Railroads united to make the first transcontinental railway in the United States, Canada began the construction of the Canadian Pacific. It was planned to join the eastern provinces of Quebec and Ontario with the settlements at Vancouver. Just as the United States gave land, loaned money, and in other ways helped our rail- roads, so the Canadian government aided the Canadian Pacific. In later years she also helped build the Grand Trunk Pacific which finally became a part of the Canadian Na- tional System. These railways not only linked together the east and west coasts, but they made possible the settle- ment of the great wheat country of Manitoba and Saskatchewan (see map, page 205). As railroads were built into this rich prairie, immi- grants from Europe, eastern Can- ada, and the United States followed. Just as in the United States, the Ca- nadian railroads advertised for set- tlers and the government gave free homesteads of 160 acres to actual settlers who would live on the land for three years. Canada has a northern as well as a western frontier. Unlimited lum- ber resources and deposits of metal, as well as agricultural land, lure the white man northward. The fron- tier has passed in the United States. In Canada there remains a 3000- mile frontier still advancing toward the north. SETTLERS MOVE TO HEART OF CONTINENT 207 WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Can you use these words and terms in a sentence, showing how they have special meaning in our push to the West? 1. pioneer 4. Old Southwest 7. prairie 2. frontier 5. National Road 8. sod house 3. Old Northwest 6. "girdle trees" 9. reservation WHY IS THIS A RED-LETTER YEAR? 1816: One hundred years after the Declaration of Independence the "origi- nal" Americans took a stand. What was the event and its importance? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Name at least four reasons why Americans and others turned toward the West for a new start in life. 2. Many foreign-born people helped to settle the West. What were the two leading groups, and what part of the West did each settle? 3. Using the map on page 196, name and locate the five principal routes to the West. 4. Describe at least four problems which faced the family moving westward. 5. Show step by step how John Pioneer established himself on the frontier, fi. How did Mary Pioneer and the children help in making the frontier more livable? 7. Tell how a frontier town usually developed. 8. For what two main reasons did the Indians -fight the westward advance of the white man? 9. What changes in policy did our government make in dealing with the Indians? Why? 10. Alexander Mackenzie, Simon Fraser, David Thompson were three great Canadian explorers. How many of these names do you find on the map of Canada, page 205? Where on the map? 11. In what ways are the Canadian West and our West much alike? How do they differ? 12. Summary Question: How and why was the frontier a series of regions that had to be "conquered"? Chapter 12. The Moving Frontier Creates New Problems for the Peoples of America . -;> . In 1839 a former Swiss army captain, John Augustus Sut- ter, landed in California. He became a Mexican citizen and took out a grant of 50,000 acres of land. On this grant he established a great estate called New Helvetia (New Switzerland) around the location of the present city of Sacramento. At New Helvetia Slitter erected a ranch house of timber and adobe brick and guarded it with 12 cannon. He trapped for furs, grazed immense herds on his lands, built forges and shops, and carried on a lively trade. Slitter was on the way to becoming one of the richest and most powerful men in California. One morning early in 1848 James Marshall, Suiter's boss carpenter, rushed into the fort at New Helvetia and threw on the table a handful of gold nuggets. He had found them on the American Fork of the Sacramento River where he was building a mill. Sutter did not take the discovery too seriously, but ordered Marshall to say nothing about it. The news, however, quickly got out. Before many months thousands of gold-hungry men overran his property, stole his cattle, and disputed the title to his land. Instead of riches, gold brought only trouble to Sutter. A ruined man, Sutter left California for the East. He sued unsuccess- fully in the courts for the return of his land. Then he petitioned Congress for a grant to make up for what he had lost, but failed. California granted him a small pension, but it meant little to the man who had once been a leader in California. 208 FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 209 The Mining Frontier Lays Panama, crossed the Isthmus, and the Foundation for Seven ^ a , in took , shi P u f the west coas ^ Others made the long trip around Mountain States Cape Horn. Probably 35,000 found their way to California by land and Gold is a magnet drawing thou- 42,000 by sea. Thousands of others sands to California. The discovery left their bones to bleach on the of gold was the beginning of mod- long overland trails or in the un- ern California. Before that the healthy forests of Panama, white population of California The center of the gold country probably did not number more was on the western slopes of the than 5,000. The centers were a few Sierra Nevadas on the edge of the Catholic missions and three or four San Joaquin (San Wah-keen') and villages on or near the coast at San Sacramento valleys. Here the gold- Francisco, Monterey, Los Angeles, seekers sought the precious metal San Diego, and elsewhere. The busi- from the mountain washings on ness of the country was mainly the bottom of the rivers and creeks, ranching carried on by great land- This kind of mining, known as owners like Sutler with the aid of "placer mining," was hard work Indians and Mexicans. but it required little skill, experi- Marshall discovered gold on Jan- ence, or money. uary 24, 1848. Nine days later the In placer mining* three men us- United States signed the treaty with ually worked together. One shov- Mexico which gave us California eled the dirt from the bank or and the Southwest. Congress rati- shoals of the nearby river or arroyo fied the treaty in March. Up to this (dried river bed). Another carried time neither Mexico City nor it to the water. The third man Washington knew anything of the rocked the "cradle." The cradle was new discoveries. Not until the late a trough with an iron sieve at the spring and summer of 1848 did the upper end, through which the dirt news of California gold reach the was sifted and washed. The dirt was outside world. washed away, and the heavier gold When the news got out, white nnd black sand caught on cleats settlers in Oregon and California fastened to the floor of the trough, deserted their farms and stores for Then the most experienced miner the gold country. They were joined separated or "panned out" the gold by others from Mexico. The miners from the sand that was left, of 1848 were few, however, com- Placer mining gave out after a pared to the stampede of fortune- few years. From then on large capi- seekers who reached California in tal and expensive machinery were 1849. needed. Nevertheless, the gold rush Some of the "forty-niners" came brought the first great wave of pop- along the overland trails and ulation to California. Two years through the mountain passes (see after the discovery of gold, Cali- map, page 210). Others sailed to fornia had a population large 210 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY fttHB JCWi !/H,1^ isHTTgs,.** X I M1SSOUR 1 enough to come into the union as a state. Silver and other minerals draw thousands more to the Rockies and the Great Basin. The western slope of the Sierras in California was not the only region in the Far West rich in minerals. As placer mining be- gan to give out in California, min- ers were alert for any rumor of new findings. In 1858 came news of rich deposits of the precious metal in Colorado. With the motto "Pike's Peak or Bust" painted gaily on their cov- ered wagons, almost 100,000 set out from the East for the Colorado gold diggings. Unfortunately for the "fifty-niners," most of the gold was deeply embedded in the mountain rocks. Only expensive machinery could get it out. Half of the Colo- rado immigrants returned, but those who remained laid the foun- dations of a new state. In the same year, 1859, silver and gold were discovered in the Carson Valley of the present state of Ne- vada. This was the famous Corn- stock Lode from which over $340,- 000,000 worth of silver was taken in the next 30 years. Thousands of miners quickly deserted the worn- out diggings of California for the new discoveries. Virginia City, which appeared al- most overnight near the Comstock FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 211 James Marshall is shown discovering gold, while Indians and others employed by Sut- ler are building a mill on his estate. It is doubtful if the Indians wore fancy head dress while doing this rough work or that Marshall and some of the others wore elaborate Mexican costumes. (Brown Brothers) Lode, was the most famous of the boom mining towns. Except for its larger size, it was typical of the early mining towns. Its population was almost entirely men. The gen- eral store provided the few needs of the miners. The saloon and the gambling house were the only places of recreation. The town lit- erally lived on excitement; fortunes were made and lost in a single day. When gold was discovered in the Carson Valley, the region was part of the territory of Utah. So many miners came in that the population was soon large enough for Congress to separate it from Utah and make it into the state of Nevada. Later the mines largely gave out. Then the state turned its attention to ranching and agriculture. The story of California, Colo- rado, and Nevada is quite similar to that of the other states of the Rocky Mountains. Miners, chasing the rumors of new discoveries, first en- tered these areas in large numbers. On their heels came the storekeep- ers, hotel keepers, and gambling house proprietors. In fact, more for- tunes were made by those who lived from the earnings of the miners than by the miners themselves. This happened mainly during the 1860's. The miners were followed eventu- ally by ranqhers and farmers. Out of this combination of various kinds of settlers the population of the mountain states grew until Idaho, Montana, Arizona, and New Mex- ico were finally admitted into the Union. 212 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Cows and Cowboys Take over the Western Plains ..... The cow country stretches from Texas to Montana. Except for the settlers in California and the min- ing towns of the Rockies, few fron- tiersmen in 1865 had advanced be- yond the 100th parallel. A vast roll- ing grass-carpeted plain stretched from there to the Rockies, inhab- ited only by buffaloes and Indians. Water was scarce and most fron- tiersmen believed that the land was not fertile. It was the rancher and not the farmer who first went into this region and proved how valu- able it might be to the white man. When the War Between the States ended in 1865 there was a large supply of cattle in Texas. There was also a market for beef and hides in Europe and in the rapidly growing cities of the United States. Just about this time it was discovered that the cattle could be improved and increased in size if they were driven northward to feed on the fresh grass of the prairies. If the buffaloes were destroyed and the Indians driven back, an almost limitless supply of meat could be produced. Already the hunters were rapidly destroying the buffaloes. Soon the army pushed the Indians farther west to new reservations. Then in the late 1860's and the early 1870's the first transcontinental railroads the Union Pacific, the Kansas Pa- cific, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe began to build across the Great Plains. The great- est ranchers' frontier in our history quickly developed. The cattle were bred in Texas and then driven north to fatten. Then they were col- lected at cow towns along the new railroads and shipped east. The cowboy is the central figure of the ranching business. The chief features of the industry were the round-ups and the long drives. The calf round-up came in May when the cowboys rode out on the plains and drove the cattle into some cen- tral point. The cowboys then rode into the herd and pushed out the cows. Since the little calves followed their mothers it was easy to deter- mine ownership. Once separated from the herd, the calf was lassoed, dragged to the fire, and branded like the mother. A second round-up came in July or August when the fattened animals, particularly the yearling steers, were cut out from the herd. These cat- tle from various ranches were col- lected and started on the long drive northward to the nearest railroad point. The long drives took weeks. The chief danger was that the cat- tle might become frightened and stampede. If this happened, the herd was lost. To prevent it the cow- boys watched them day and night. At night they rode around the herd talking and singing; it is believed that many of the cowboy songs be- gan in this way. Whoopee ti yi yo, git along little dogies, It's your misfortune, and none of my own.' Whoopee ti yi yo, git along little dogies, For you know Wyoming will be your new home. FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 213 Cattle branding was an important part of the ranching business because in this way ranchers established ownership of the calves. The cowboys sitting by the fire in the rear are waiting with red-hot irons to stamp the calves with the same brands carried by the mother cows. (Harper's Weekly) Much romance has grown up around the cowboy. Actually his life was hard, lonely, and often dan- gerous. Generally he was poorly paid. His equipment was chiefly a horse, of which he needed a half dozen if he was busy, a lasso, and a six-shooter. The high pummel on his saddle was to hold the rope after he had lassoed an animal. His wide hat was protection from the sun, his chaps from the cactus, and his tight boots to help him slip out of the stirrup, if he was thrown. The farmers battle with the ranch- ers for control of the Western Plains. The ranching frontier, just described, continued for about 20 years. While it lasted it was profit- able. The land belonged to the gov- ernment and the ranchers grazed there without payment of rent. But chis could not go on forever. Under the Homestead Act frontiersmen could obtain 160 acres free if they would live on it for five years. Rail- roads made it possible for them to get to the new land easily. More and more settlers were willing to take a chance on the Great Plains. Clearly farmers and ranchers could not occupy the same land, for the roaming cattle would destroy the farmers' crops. Strong fences were necessary, if the farmers were to move out to the Great Plains. Wooden fences were out of the question for there was little wood in this country and it was too ex- pensive to bring in. The early set- tlers tried to grow hedges, but they were not strong enough to keep out the cattle. The problem was finally solved by the invention of barbed wire. The need was great and production increased rapidly. Soon it was cheap 214 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The long drive was one of the most important aspects of the cattle business. Aftei the calves had grown big enough to market, they were rounded up and started on the way to the nearest railroad point. Sometimes the long drive took weeks before the tattle could be shipped east. (Harper's Weekly) enough for the farmer to buy. Barbed wire greatly speeded the march of the farmer across the plains. At the same time it doomed the old-fashioned ranching. As barbed wire spread across the plains it ended the long drives and grazing on the open land. The cowboys might cut the wire fences, but this was unlawful and could not con- tinue forever. Finally the ranchers themselves were forced to take out homesteads or to buy government land and then fence off their own property. Ranching continued, but it was of a different sort from rang- ing on the open land. Farmers on the Great Plains had to meet another great problem the scarcity of water. Over the years rainfall on the plains was not enough for the kind of farming done in the East. In some years there was enough water; in others there was a drought. Mostly there was a scarcity. Farmers had to learn how to conserve water and how to use new types of grains that re- quired very little water and would resist drought. This problem was in part solved by the invention of the cheap me chanical windmill. If the wells were driven deep enough, these wind- mills could provide for an almost continuous delivery of small amounts of water. They might not produce enough for irrigation, but they provided water for the farmer and his livestock. Barbed wire and windmills more than anything else made possible the settlement of the Great Plains and brought about the end of the last frontier. FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 215 Chilian copper mines during the Second World War worked both day and night, so great was the demand for copper. Here is the Sewell Mine of the liraden Copper Company high in the Andes and going full blast at night. A full moon helps to light up the scene. (Pan American Union) South America Is Still De- veloping Her Frontiers . . . Early frontiers jump from mining camp to mining camp. No matter where they landed, the earliest set- tlers in America hoped to find gold and silver. It seemed the quickest way to wealth. The Spaniards found some gold among the natives of the West Indies. A few years later the conquerors of Mexico and Peru dis- covered it in great quantities. It was more than 150 years later, how- ever, before the Portuguese in Bra- zil discovered gold in any large amount. Since the adventurers of Spain were interested above all else in quick wealth, they turned their at- tention first of all to the mines. In this they were encouraged by the Spanish government. The Spanish law gave many special privileges to the miners. Among them was the right to use the forced labor of the Indians under the encomienda sys- tem, described in Chapter 3. Moreover, Spain was as eager to get the wealth as were the settlers. The grants of land in the New World given by the Spanish govern- ment were only for the surface. All mineral rights below she reserved for herself. Then she gave permis- sion to mine the land on condition that she obtain one-fifth of all gold and silver produced. The result of all this was that the first frontier of Spanish America was a mining frontier. The follow- ers of Cortes and Pizarro, as soon as they had conquered the Indian, 2l6 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY began working the old mines and seeking new ones. Spanish pros- pectors began searching the moun- tains of Mexico and South America for new deposits just as miners in the United States 300 years later covered the Rockies from Canada to the Mexican border. The yield of the mines was often beyond the dream of even the Span- ish adventurers. A few years after Cortes landed in Mexico that re- gion was producing one-third of all the silver in the world. By the mid- dle 1500's the mines of Peru sur- passed those of Mexico, and Span- iards rushed to these mines as the "forty-niners" did to California many years later. The silver treas- ure of Potosi in Upper Peru was greater than that of the famous Comstock Lode. Luck followed the Spaniards. They found rich deposits and they profited from cheap Indian labor. Early in the colonial period some one discovered that mercury would quickly and cheaply separate the silver from the ore. Then mercury was discovered in great quantities in Peru. Hitherto it had been im- ported from Spain. It is no wonder that the early Spanish colonies grew rich and that the precious metals from the colonies helped to make Spain for many years the most powerful nation in Europe. Ranchers and planters push out their frontiers. Mining may have been the first great interest of the Spaniards, but soon many settlers turned to farming and ranching. In Latin America there were few Spaniards but a vast territory to be divided. Anyone with influence could obtain large grants of land. The advance of the frontier in Latin America differed in many ways from that in the United States. Here the frontiersman was gen- erally a poor man who took up a small farm and cultivated it with his own labor or that of his family. In Latin America the country was already inhabited by Indians who had been conquered and could be put to work. Moreover, the Span- iards were few and the landholdings large. If the soil and climate were right, the Spanish colonist could turn these large holdings into great plan- tations. With Indian labor he could raise corn, wheat, sugar, tobacco, cotton, and many other products. If the soil was not adapted to these products, he could turn his prop- erty into great cattle and sheep ranches. Cattle and sheep ranches were cheaper to operate than plantations. They required fewer workers. This was one reason why ranching was an important occupation of the Latin-American frontier just as it often was in our own country. The large ranch was found almost ev- erywhere, particularly on the fron- tiers of Mexico, Venezuela, and the region of the La Plata River. The methods of ranching in America were first learned by the Spaniards. Our own western ranch- men took them over. The very words of the ranching business, such as corral, broncho, lasso, and rodeo, are Spanish in their origin. The gaucho (gow-choh), or Latin- American cowboy, was an impor- FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 217 tant. figure on the frontier of Latin it began with the first settlers at America long before the cowboy Jamestown and Plymouth and has appeared on our western plains. continued almost to our own day. There is another great difference It is still going on in Canada and between the frontier of Latin Amer- parts of Latin America, ica and the United States. Our fron- Before settlements there must be tier of settlers generally moved exploration. Some one must search from the east to the west. In Latin out the new land and discover America it often moved in all di- where settlers can live where the rections. In Mexico, for example, land is fertile and the water ade- Cortes captured Mexico City in the quate. They must find the best center of the country. Then the routes to the new land. Much of Spaniards moved in all directions to this information was obtained by occupy the land (see map, page fur tradeis and missionaries. Later 27). our federal government sent out This is true also in South Amer- exploring parties, such as the fa- ica. The first settlements were on mous expedition of Lewis and the Caribbean near Panama, and Clark. then in Peru. In the present Colom- Following the fur trader, the mis- bia and Venezuela the settlers sionary, and the exploring expedi- moved south; from Peru they tions, came the pioneer farmer moved south into Chile and east the real frontiersman. After he had into the mountains. Asuncion, on opened the land, others followed the Paraguay River, a tributary of and towns and cities began to de- the La Plata and 1,000 miles inland, velop. This westward movement of was founded before Buenos Aires the frontier was at first very slow, at the mouth of the La Plata. Only It took 150 years for the settlers to in Brazil does one see a westward occupy the coastal plains and the movement much like that of the foothills of the Alleghenies. It took United States. Latin Americans talk just half that time (from the open- of their early frontiers but not, as ing of the Revolution to 1850) for we do, in terms of "the westward the pioneers to reach the Missis- movement." sippi and settle the states along the western bank. Some had even jumped the plains and settled in T r\ n i ii. T? j f California and Oregon. In Our Country the End of After that the f * ontier advance the Front ier Brings a New Age was even more rapid. By 1 900 fron- tiersmen had covered the Great The frontier ends after 300 years. Plains and the Rockies. This was During most of American history a region as large as all the rest of the main business of the people has the nation. As ranchers, farmers, been the settlement of the great and miners occupied this region, area of land between the Atlantic the frontier came to an end. The and the Pacific. In the United States first great task of our people was 2l8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY finished. With the end of the fron- tier a new chapter in our history began. The new age brings pressing prob- lems. The end of frontier meant that most of the good land was oc- cupied. No longer was there a fron- tier where the sons and daughters of the East could lay out farms and grow up with the country. No long- er was there a West where Euro- pean immigrants could start life anew. It was no longer so easy to escape from hard conditions at home and build a new life in a new land. Our people must now adjust themselves to new conditions. The United States also began to pay the price of waste and careless- ness. The great desire of the pio- neer was to get his farm producing as quickly as possible. Trees were a nuisance and the forests were soon destroyed. As the forests disap- peared there was little to hold back the water. In the end much of the good surface land was washed away or ruined by floods. On the prairies the grass sod was broken up for farming. After a severe drought heavy winds sometimes swept away the topsoil and destroyed a farm in a short time. The West was opened with little planning and much waste. Natural resources, Avhich could never be re- placed, were rapidly disappearing. Land, which might produce indefi- nitely, was being destroyed. Coal, oil, and metals were inefficiently mined. \Vould the United States ever learn to use her wealth more carefully? Would she ever wake up to the needs of the future? Grand Coulee is "a fine job well done." The questions just asked were never seriously considered un- til the frontier ended. Then under the leadership of Theodore Roose- velt our country turned its atten- tion to the whole problem of con- servation, that is, the saving and more careful use of our natural re- sources. Roosevelt and state gover- nors appointed conservation com- mittees to study such questions as protection of forests and irrigation of dry land. They also interested themselves in the better use of in- land waterways and rivers where electric power might be created. As interest in conservation grew, scientists turned their attention to the more efficient use of raw mate- rials. Safety engineers worked on the problem of saving human lives. Congress passed laws permitting the President to retain publicly-owned forest lands and water-power loca- tions for great public reservations or parks. Congress also became interested in irrigating the dry land of the West. Federal aid began more than 50 years ago, and has continued ever since. Although many famous dams and irrigation projects have been built, the most important were be- gun or completed while Franklin D. Roosevelt was President. These include the Tennessee Valley proj- ect, Boulder Dam, and Grand Cou- lee. The Tennessee Valley Authority builds dams to control floods, im- prove navigation, and produce elec- tric power along the Tennessee River in Alabama and Tennessee (see map, page 303). Boulder Dam FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 219 GRA^D COULEE nEGIOXlrd^" Scale of Miles W \^>^- 20 40 60 J -i V=~- ' collects the water of the Colorado River for irrigation in the South- west and manufactures electric power for that region. These are great and important projects useful to large areas. Great as are Boulder Dam and the TVA, they are far surpassed by the project at Grand Coulee (see map, above). The Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River in western Washington is the greatest construction project which the world has ever seen. It has power to create far more electricity than Boulder Dam and water to irrigate a region as large as the state of Dela- ware. With its great electric power for manufacturing and its water for irrigating, Grand Coulee may well change the future of western Wash- ington. In the words of President Roosevelt, it is "a fine job well done." Summary of the Unit . . . In this unit "The Peoples of America Push Back the Frontier"- we have traced the story of the growth of our territory and the settlement of our country. Certain facts have been stressed: 1. The Treaty of Paris (1783) placed our western boundary line at the Mississippi. 2. We doubled our territory by the purchase of Louisiana (1803) and Florida (1819). 3. Our part of the Oregon coun- try was determined by a treaty with Great Britain (1846). 4. The Southwest was added through the annexation of Texas (1845), a war with Mexico (1846- 48), and by the Gadsden Purchase (1853). 22O U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 5. A few years later we added to our land on the continent by pur- chasing Alaska (1867). 6. This land was won by diplo- mats and soldiers, and also by ex- plorers, missionaries, and settlers. 7. The typical frontiersman was a small farmer. Nevertheless, parts of the South were opened by large plantation owners. The Great Plains were first used by ranchers, and the Rockies by miners. 8. The chief business of America for almost 300 years was the settle- ment of a continent. Now it is the more careful use of the land which has been settled. 9. Latin America and Canada also had their frontiers often like ours, but sometimes quite different. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? The following words and terms are of special importance in frontier history. Can you use each correctly in a sentence, explaining clearly what you mean? 1. "forty-niners" 4. "Pike's Peak or Bust" 7. rancher 2. "placer mining" 5. Comstock Lode 8. gaucho 3. Far West 6. 100th parallel 9. conservation WHY IS THIS A RED-LETTER YEAR? 18-48: Why was a January day in this year a sad day for John Augustus Sut- ler but a day of hope for thousands of others, when they learned about it? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What effects did the discovery of gold have on California? 2. How did the 1859 gold and silver discoveries in Carson Valley compare in importance with the California discovery? 3. In what ways did the ranchers' frontier change the West? 4. What part did the cowboys play in the round-ups and in the long drives? How do you explain the cowboy's outfit? 5. Tell how barbed wire and windmills made possible the settlement of the Great Plains. 6. Why was the mining frontier the most important one in Latin America for many years? 7. Name three ways in which the advance of the frontier in Latin America and in the United States differed. 8. After 300 years by about 1900 the frontier in the United States "came to an end." What do you understand this to mean? 9. The end of the frontier brought pressing problems. Name and discuss two of the most important of these problems. 10. In the section on conservation reference is made to five kinds of conserva- tion. What are they? 11. Using the map, page 219, describe how Grand Coulee Dam will serve the region. 12. Summary Question: The moving frontier in America has been a very im- portant influence. Can you give at least five examples which will show this influence? FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 221 Activities for Unit Four CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Mop. Make a large map of the United States entitled "Growth of Our Country, 1783-1867." (a) Show (1) United States in 1783; (2) these addi- tions: Louisiana Territory, 1803; Florida Purchase, 1819; Texas, 1845; Oregon Country, 1846; Mexican Cession, 1848; Gadsden Purchase, 1853; Alaska, 1867. (b) Print names and dates on the areas, and show each addi- tion in a different color, (c) In a lower corner of the map indicate in a neat table or by a line graph the number of square miles for each area. For these facts, see the World Almanac. For the map, see page 180 of your textbook. 2. Models. Make a model of one of the following: a canal boat, a covered wagon, a log cabin, a sod house, the Alamo. Or make a model of one of these: trapper, frontier farmer, miner, cowboy. 3. Graph. Make bar graphs showing the height in feet of the five highest dams in the United States. At the bottom of the paper or on other side, make a chart giving the location of each dam, the river concerned, year completed, the crest length, and volume in cubic yards. See the World Almanac for facts. 4. Poster. Make a large poster with the title, "The West Is a Great Magnet." Use your imagination and originality, but be accurate as to the facts of history. 5. Colored Drawings. Make neatly colored drawings of the six flags which have flown over Texas at one time or another. They are the flags of Spain, France, Mexico, Texas Republic, the Confederate States of America, and the United States. All are in S. J. Johnson, Texas: The Land of the Tejas a delightful little book. Add your own brief historical comment for each flag. I TEST MY SKILLS 6. Making a Summary. Suppose your teacher asked you to make a 300-word written summary of Chapter 11, "Courageous Settlers Move into the Heart of the Continent." How would you go about it to get good results? Here are four suggestions, (a) First, it is necessary to read and reread the chapter very carefully, (b) Note that the chapter is organi/ed to help you select (key ideas. There are four major sections which in turn are made up of major paragraphs with heavy-faced headings. Usually, however, you will want to add to these by making notes under each, (c) With these aids write the summary for the first time. Your purpose is to give the authors' main ideas in proper relation but in your own words, (d) Finally, revise your summary. Be sure you have used complete sentences and have cut out unnecessary words. Remember you have only 300 words. 7. Finding and Listing References. The first step in finding references on a topic is to know exactly on what aspect of the topic you need information. Suppose we decide to find references on this topic: "The Discovery of Gold in California in 1848." (a) Note that this topic refers to only one phase of gold, in one place and in one particular year. Where do we look? (b) First, see whether books listed under "We Turn to Other Books" on 222 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY page 223 will help. There arc some, but you decide which ones. The index of cacli book will be the best clue, (c) Next, perhaps some of these books contain other good references, (d) Next, if you cannot find any of these suggestions, consult an encyclopedia. Will you look under "Gold," "Min- ing," "California," "Marshall, James," or "Sutler, John"? (e) The second part of our assignment is to list those references that will be helpful. This is called making a bibliography. A book should be listed as this example is: Dawson, G. S., California: The Story of Our Southwest Corner, pp. 145-47. WE WORK IN GROUPS 8. Committee Report. Let a committee of five conduct a meeting of the Washington Geographic Society which is receiving verbal reports pf Lewis and Clark who have just returned from their explorations. President Jef- ferson, who will preside at the meeting, will welcome all members, espe- cially the returned explorers. He will briefly explain why he purchased Louisiana, tell of its size and immediate value, and what he believes its future will be. He will then tell why he sent out Lewis and Clark. Finally, he will present in turn each explorer. After both have spoken, the Presi- dent will honor each by presentation of the Society's medal never before awarded. The two explorers will make careful preparations for their speeches. Lewis might report on the trip out and Clark on the return trip. They should relate their difficulties, hardships and narrow escapes, the beautiful scenery, their relations with the Indians including special praise for Sacajawea, and their opinion of the value of the land. The explorers should refer re- peatedly to a large map which they and their map-maker have made, show- ing important places and events along the route. The committee members will take the parts of Jefferson, Lewis, Clark, the map-maker, and the medal maker. When Lewis and Clark have finished their speeches, the members of the Society the class members will no doubt have many questions to ask. These books will give helpful suggestions to the committee: J. Davis, No Other White Men; and R. G. Montgomery, Young North- west, chap. iv. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 9. Frontiers, Old and New. About 1900 the land frontier in the United States came to an end. No longer was there good land where one could start all over again if things had not gone well in the "East." Does that suggest that opportunity is dying a slow death in our country? The answer seems to be that there are other kinds of frontiers which science is constantly opening up. Think of the possibilities of plastics or electronics or avia- tion. Make a floor talk on any one of these as a future frontier of oppor- tunity. See Building America: III, "Chemistry"; VIII, "Winged America: The Future of Aviation"; and "Plastics"; IX, "Electronics." Or see V. Schoffelmayer, Here Comes Tomorrow. FRONTIER CREATES NEW PROBLEMS 223 WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 10. To Get Information. HARTMAN, GERTRUDE, These United States and How They Came to Be. Chapters xi-xv and xix tell the story of men moving ever westward in search of land and gold until the end of the road is reached. HUBERMAN, LEO, "We, the People." For the feel of the West, chapters vi and vii are well worth reading. MONTGOMERY, R. G., Young Northwest. The ^Northwest of Lewis and Clark, the fur traders, the missionaries, and the Indians is vividly pre- sented. OTERO, NINA, Old Spain in Our Southwest. A descendant of an old Spanish family tells interestingly about Spanish customs that still exist in this part of the country. CARPENTER, FRANCES, Our South American Neighbors. Emphasis is upon daily life, with good geographical background for the South American ways of living. BONNER, M. G., Canada and Her Story. A simply told tale of Canada's past and present fur traders, prairie life, Indians, the "mounties" included. 11. To Find Out Who's Who. WILLIS, C. H., AND SAUNDERS, L. S., Those Who Dared. Simple stories about Boone, Lewis and Clark, Kit Carson, Stephen F. Austin, Whitman, Sutler and Marshall, and "Buffalo Bill" Cody. DAUGHTERY, JAMES, Daniel Roone. The adventures of the great pioneer and man of action who blazed the trail through the Indian country of Kentucky. EATON, JEANETTE, Narcissa Whitman. A thrilling but tragic story of beauti- ful Narcissa Whitman, missionary, and her doctor-husband in faraway Oregon. GARST, SHANNON, Custer, Fighter of the Plains. The life story of General Custer and a tribute to a great Indian fighter. LANSING, MARION, Against All Odds. Among the pioneer hero stories of South America are those about a New England Yankee and a Californian. 12. To Read a Historical Story. MCMEEKIN, I. McL., Journey Cake. The adventures of six motherless children traveling westward along the Wilderness Trail in the 1790's. ALTSHELER, J. A., Texan Scouts: A Story of the Alamo and Goliad. Crock- ett, Bowie, and Santa Anna play their parts in this heroic fight. PEASE, HOWARD, Long Wharf: A Story of Young San Francisco. An excit- ing story of San Francisco in the days of the gold rush. BRINK, C. R., Caddie Woodlawn. Caddie and her two brothers have many adventures on the Wisconsin frontier. BOWMAN, J. C., Pecos Bill: The Greatest Cowboy of All Time. Tall tales of times when men were men, collected from the stories of campfire and round-up. 224 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 13. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Pageant of America: I, 5-64; II, 7-309. picture stories of the Indian of forest and plain; and the frontier in all its aspects. WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 14. Time Line. Using the dates listed under "Why Are These Red-Letter Years?" in each chapter of the unit, make a time line showing important events of the frontier movement. Can- you think of an original way to do this? 15. Stamp Collection. If you are interested in stamp collecting, you might want to summarize this unit under the heading: "The West Speaks in Stamps." Many stamps have been issued which mark events in western progress. For example, in 1936 there was the Texas Centennial Stamp, showing Houston, Austin, and the Alamo. Arrange the stamps in time order, mount them neatly, and add your brief comment on the event honored by the stamp. The pamphlet "A Description of United States Postage Stamps, 1847-1942" (Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 30 cents) will be very helpful. 16. Chart or Table. Make a chart or table with this title: "A Comparison of the United States, Latin-American, and Canadian Frontiers." Headings might be: Kinds of Frontiers, Direction of Advance, Effects, Some Leaders. 17. Voices of Frontier Heroes. Prepare an illustrated booklet of famous say- ings of our frontier heroes. For example, at the Alamo the commanding officer said, "I shall never surrender or retreat." The story of this and some other famous western sayings are in R. Lawson, Watchwords of Liberty. DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 18. A Letter. As a girl on the farmer's frontier of 1860, write a letter to your cousin in the East answering her question: "Would you advise our family to leave New York for Wisconsin?" 19. Booklet. Prepare an illustrated booklet entitled "Military History." This will be the story of the Mexican War: causes, battles, leaders on both sides, and the results. Include a map of the war. If you started a military history booklet earlier, add this as a new chapter. 20. Playlet. Taking any one of the events which added to the size and power of our country, write a scene which will dramatically present the event. 21. Frontier Language. Do you recall the meaning of these words or terms as used in connection with the frontier: pioneer, Old Northwest, prairie, sod house, "forty-niners," rancher, gaucho, "Pike's Peak or Bust," Comstock Lode? 22. Evidence of Ideas. The frontier was a place where life was hard. It was also a place where hope for a better future was always strong. Turning to the unit drawing on pages 174-75, what evidence can you find that the artist has included the ideas of hardship and hope for the future? Unit Five Changing Agriculture Produces Serious National Problems 13. Science and Machines Lead to a Revolution in Agricul- ture 14. Differences in Agricultural Ways of Life Set the Stage for the War Between the States 15. Hard Times in the South and West Stir the Farmers to Action Riches may bring evil as well as good. Too much wealth may lead to waste and neglect. So it was with the American land. With enough fertile soil for every farmer to enjoy prosperity and abundance, much of it was ruined by shortsighted and wasteful methods. The history of American agriculture might have been a long story of peace and prosperity. Instead of that we find the farmers of the North and South engaged in bitter conflict, in part over the problem of farm labor. Could slave labor and the free wage earner continue side by side? As if that was not enough, the farmers engaged in battle with railroads, manufacturers, and bankers. The soil was rich, the crops were plentiful, but the farmer had to fight to keep a fair share of the profits. Nature had done her part. Man somehow had failed to make the most of his oppor- tunities. r ft k u, ?f& 'S. L *~-,V ?>> m IAy,/WJ) tf/llf i <& & *^~A w fa 4/1 ^^ ^ cc ^vv ^v Chapter 1 3 . Science and Machines Lead to a Revolution in Agri- culture . ; In the i$80's Texas fever was the most serious animal dis- ease which troubled American cattlemen. Each year thousands of fine cattle died from a weird sickness that no one understood. Today this disease is practically wiped out. One man, Theobald Smith, is responsible. When young Smith graduated from medical college in the 1880's he had little interest in becoming a doctor. He wanted to be a research scien- tist. Without money to do graduate work or to study with scientists in Eu- rope, he took a job with the new Bureau of Animal Industry at Washington. Its first big job was to find the cause of Texas fever. The problem was this: When southern cattlemen imported northern cat- tle to improve their breeds, the imported cattle soon sickened and died. When southern cattle were driven north they infected northern cattle which soon died. What was the cause of the disease and how was it carried? Medical science had already discovered that disease was usually caused by microbes or germs in the body passed from one person to another. Smith set out to find the germ which carried Texas fever. Then he heard that the cattlemen had a theory that Texas fever was carried by the tick, an insect that lived on cattle. It was only a hunch. No scientist at that time believed that an insect could carry disease. Smith decided to follow the farmers' hunch. He studied the life history of the tick. By experiments he convinced himself that the blood-sucking tick itself carried a microbe which it injected into northern cattle and de- stroyed them. Southern cattle had become immune; they no longer caught the disease because of light attacks in early life. Since ticks bred on the cattle, they could be destroyed by dipping the cattle in a chemical solution. Smith spent several years on this microbe hunt. When he finished he had discovered the cause of the disease and how to end it. More than that, he had shown that insects carried disease. With this knowledge other scien- tists could attack yellow fever, malaria, and various enemies of mankind. 228 A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE 229 . j , C/7/L r j loose ground is very easy; and hav- A rCW L/eaaers om trie 1 aea m g sown their corn, they got a most of Better Ways of Farming plentiful harvest. This easy method of getting a rich crop had spoiled Our early farmers are slow to see the English and other European the need for new methods. The set- settlers, and induced them to adopt tiers in the colonial period knew the same method of agriculture as little about modern methods of ag- the Indians; that is, to sow unculti- riculture. Europeans, it is true, had vated grounds, as long as they will learned that land would not wear produce a crop without manuring, out as quickly if it was allowed to be but to turn them into pastures as idle every third year. They had also soon as they can bear no more and learned that it would remain good to take on new spots of ground." longer if the same crop was not \Vith so much fertile land, there raised every year on the same piece was little to force the farmer to im- of land. That was about all they prove it. This was also true of his knew about improving land. care of livestock. He let them roam They were even more ignorant in the forests and look out for them- about livestock. Chickens, sheep, selves. For most farmers, the co- and cattle were little more than half lonial period was an age of plenty, the size of the best livestock today, but it was also an age of crude and Farmers knew nothing, for exam- wasteful methods, pie, of how to breed cattle for great- er amount of meat or greater pro- Gentlemen farmers carry on the duction of milk. Livestock were ex- first experiments. Toward the end pected to find their own food, and of the colonial period a few well-to- farmers often provided no shelter do farmers in America became dis- for them in the winter. satisfied with the condition of agri- Farming began to improve in culture. They read of new experi- England during the 1600's and ments and discoveries made in Eu- 1700's, but the settlers in America rope and they determined to work paid little attention to better meth- on the problem themselves. Of this ods. Labor was scarce here but land small group of scientifically minded was abundant. Farmers found it men, George Washington was the easier and cheaper to use one piece most famous. He was not only the of land until it was worn out and "father of his country," but the fa- then open up a new field. ther of modern scientific agricul- One European traveler described ture in America, this very well. Writing of New Jer- Washington was one of the larg- sey farmers in the middle 1700's, he est landowners of his day, and at said: "They had nothing to do but Mount Vernon he had an excellent cut down the wood, put it into plantation with which to experi- heaps, and clear the dead leaves ment. When he saw that tobacco away. They could then immediately was wearing out his land, he proceed to plowing, which in such stopped raising it and turned to 230 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The country fair early became a popular institution in America. This one appears to be largely devoted to pri/e stock around which are gathered the "gentlemen farmers" of the day. At the rear are a speaker's stand and a covered wagon. (The Bettmann Archive) wheat. By careful selection of seed, he soon had as good wheat as was grown in America. He changed his crops to save soil; he experimented with fertilizers and tried in every way to bring back his worn-out land. One traveler after a visit said that the standing toast at Mount Yernon was "Success to the mud!" Washington kept careful records of his experiments and correspond- ed with scientific farmers in Eng- land. He imported plows, animals, seeds, and other equipment from Europe. Lafayette and the King of Spain both sent to him jackasses of the best breeds and Washington was the first farmer in this country to raise mules. He improved his sheep so that they produced on an average of five and one-quarter pounds of wool, more than twice as much as those of his neighbors. Only long absences from his plan- tation prevented Washington from doing more. Thomas Jefferson, like Washing- ton, was a scientific farmer. "No oc- cupation," he said, "is so delightful to me as the culture of the earth, and no culture comparable to that of the garden." His plantation at Monticello was a great -experimen- tal farm. He kept careful records of his experiments in a "Farm Book" and a "Garden Book," both of which have been preserved. Jefferson also was interested in farm machinery. He developed sev- eral devices, notably an all-metal plow. By means of mathematics he designed a plow that would offer A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE 231 the least resistance to turning the soil. Over 300 letters of Jefferson are still in existence describing his agricultural experiments. Another gentleman farmer was Elkanah Watson, who had a large estate near Pittsfield, Massachusetts. He brought the first pair of Merino sheep into Massachusetts and exhib- ited them in the public square at Pittsfield in the early 1800's. This exhibit aroused so much interest that it led to the founding of an agricultural society the beginning in this country of agricultural fairs and cattle shows. Our county fairs go back to Watson and his ' two Merino sheep. Farmers Profit from the Work of Great Government Scientists The government becomes a teach- er. Although the United States un- til recent years was primarily an agricultural nation, our federal gov- ernment was slow in promoting scientific farming. Not until the late 1830's did Congress appropriate the small sum of $1,000 to the Commis- sioner of Patents to collect informa- tion and make investigations. A Bureau of Agriculture was estab- lished during Lincoln's administra- tion. Finally in 1889 this Bureau was raised to a Department and its head made a member of the cabi- net. The greatest single thing which our federal government, or any other government in the world, has ever done for scientific agriculture, was to found the "land-grant col- leges." This was done in the Mor- rill Act of 1862, signed by President Lincoln. The act granted 30,000 acres of public land to each state for each Senator and Representa- tive in Congress from that state. The funds from the sale of these lands were to be used to found col- leges where agriculture and the "mechanic arts" should be taught. As a result, one or more land- grant colleges have been established in each state as well as in Hawaii and Puerto Rico. In these colleges future farmers may learn the most up-to-date methods of agriculture. But the land-grant colleges are more than that. They have become the centers of agricultural educa- tion in their respective states. These colleges have extended their educational work far beyond the college classroom and campus. They give correspondence courses and issue pamphlets on various farm problems. They hold farmers' institutes and co-operate with farm- ers' organizations. Professors of agri- culture lecture and hold classes in farm communities. Congress finally realized the value of this work. By the Smith- Lever Extension Act in the early 1900's grants are made each year to encourage this type of agricultural education. A little later Congress went further when it provided funds to promote the teaching of agriculture and home economics in high schools. Thus the dreams of Justin P. Morrill and other pio- neers in agricultural education have been fulfilled. The United States 232 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY LUMBIA PLATEAU WHEAT REGION FOREST AND HAY REGION NORTH PACIFIC POREST, HAY, AND PASTURE REGION PACIFIC SUBTROPICAL CROPS REGION AGRICULTURAL REGIONS now has a well-rounded program of agricultural education. Scientists experiment with improve- ment of soils, plants and animal life. Hand in hand with education has gone government interest in re- search. Even before the Department of Agriculture was established the federal government was collecting information and investigating agri- cultural problems. As the years went by one "bureau" or "service" after another has been established to aid the farmer. What kind of scientific work is done by these bureaus? We have al- ready told how Theobald Smith of the Bureau of Animal Industry solved the problem of Texas fever. Another example of the work of such bureaus was the wiping out of hog cholera by Marion Dorset. The Bureau of Plant Industry has intro- duced almost 30,000 new plants to this country. Scientists of this bu- reau brought the navel orange from Brazil to the orchards of southern California and covered the dry farmlands of the Dakotas and Ne- braska with durum wheat brought from Russia. They persuaded the farmers of Arizona to plant Egyp- tian cotton. Scientists of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran- tine still wage war against the boll weevil, the corn borer, the Japanese beetle, and many other pests. These are but a few examples of the sort of thing done by government scien- tists. The work of the federal scien- tists has been greatly enlarged since the Hatch Act of 1887. This act pro- vided funds for agricultural experi- ment stations in the various land- grant colleges. Now these colleges not only teach agriculture but they also do a great amount of research. The research stations naturally spe- cialize on the problems of their own sections (see map, above). In the A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE 233 A government expert from the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agri- culture is here checking the progress of an experiment in the hothouse growing of castor beans. Before the Second World War the United States imported the bulk of the castor beans used in this country. (Wide World) Connecticut Valley they are partic- ularly interested in tobacco, in Ala- bama in the diseases and improve- ment of cotton, in Minnesota in de- veloping rust-resisting wheat, and so on. One of the great scientists con- nected with these experiment sta- tions was Stephen M. Babcock, chief chemist of the Wisconsin sta- tion. He invented the Babcock test for butter fat in milk, basic in the development of the modern dairy industry. By means of this test milk can be accurately graded and adul- teration discouraged. Individual cows can be graded and better dairy herds developed. Government scientists and gov- ernment-supported experiment sta- tions do not do all of the agricul- tural research. As in the days of Washington and Jefferson, individ- ual farmers continue to carry on ex- periments. One of the most famous of these farmers was Luther Bur- bank. Burbank was a "self-made" scientist. With only a high school education, he began his experi- ments on a Massachusetts farm but soon moved to Santa Rosa, Califor- nia. There he produced many new and valuable varieties of flowers, fruits, and vegetables. Perhaps his most important work was develop- ing a spineless cactus suitable for cattle food in the dry lands of the West. This is the challenge to us: Rich land or poor land? In the final chap- ter of the last unit we opened up the problem of conservation. This is a broad subject; it deals with the saving, the more careful use, and the rebuilding of our resources. 234 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY These include human resources, mineral and water resources, and our soil and forests. In the last chap- ter we described the better use of our water resources for power and irrigation. There is room here to discuss only soil and forests. Five hundred million acres of productive land, one-sixth of the United States, have disappeared. The homes of people who once lived on these acres have gone as if the land had sunk into the sea. The places where people once earned a living and produced needed prod- ucts are now regions of abandoned farms, dust bowls, deserted ranches, and cut-over forest lands. How could this happen? One an- swer was the ignorance of good farming and forestry methods. With this went carelessness and a desire for quick profits. Soil is destroyed chiefly (1) by failure to rebuild it and (2) by allowing it to be washed or blown away. The same soil can grow crops for a thousand years, if it is rebuilt by fertilizers or if crops are rotated. Many of our farmers never bothered to follow either of these methods. Soil can also bleed to death. Heavy rains can start gullies and wash the soil down to creeks and rivers which in turn may carry it out to sea. Washington and Jeffer- son both advised horizontal plow- ing of hillsides to prevent this. Pat- rick Henry, another great Virginia statesman, once said that "since the achievement of our independence, he is the greatest patriot, who stops the most gullies." Few followed the advice of these foresighted states- men. Wind gnaws away at soil as well as water. It is particularly destruc- tive on the plains. Much land that would have supported ranching for- ever was plowed 'up into farms. A drought followed by a windstorm has blown away this soil which had taken thousands of years to build. Now there is neither good soil for farming nor grass for cattle only dustbowls where no one can live. Much of this waste and destruc- tion is unnecessary. Land can be re- built by scientific farming. Horizon- tal plowing of hillsides, windbreaks, and other methods can often pre- vent soil from being washed or blown away. Some land can be turned back into pasturage. Scien- tific forestry can do much to save the forests that are left and provide for the future. Soil conservation goes back to the first scientific farmers. Both federal and state governments have been interested in it from the time when the first bureaus of agriculture were established. It is only recently, how- ever, that the nation has really be- come aware of the need. Not until the 1930's did Congress vote large amounts to help farmers save their land. Soil conservation is an im- portant part of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, the Act under which the federal govern- ment supervises American agricul- ture. Americans finally turn to scientific forestry. Forests are closely con- nected with the problems of soil. Not only do forests provide wood needed by mankind, but they also help to hold the water and prevent A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE 235 floods. Nevertheless, much of our forest land has been destroyed with little thought of the future. Real efforts to conserve forests did not come, as we pointed out in Chapter 12, until the early 1900's. During Theodore Roosevelt's Presi- dency a Forest Service was estab- lished. Its business is to administer the 176,000,000 acres of our nation- al forests and protect them from fire and disease. It supervises the grow- ing and harvesting of the timber and it also tries to control the dan- ger of flood and soil destruction. The Forest Service of the Depart- ment of Agriculture is the center of scientific forestry in America. The Age of Machines Comes to the Farm Until 1900 hand tools and horse- driven machines do the farmers' work. The colonial period was an age of hand power. Crops were sown and reaped by hand. A spade, a fork, a sickle, and a rake, all clum- sily made, were about all the farm- ers had. Later a few farmers con- structed harrows and wooden plows that could be drawn by horses and oxen. Plows were so scarce in New England in the early years that some towns would pay a bounty to anyone who would make and keep one in repair. A single plow r would be used by an entire community. Just as the colonial period was an age of hand farming, so the 1800's were an age of horse power on the farm. The first great improvement in modern farm equipment came with the invention of the iron plow in the late 1790's. Its inventor, Charles Newbold, spent a small for- tune trying to introduce it. Many farmers, however, would not use it, claiming that the iron poisoned the soil and made the weeds grow. Gradually this prejudice was overcome. Others improved on Newbold's plow and substituted steel for iron. By the middle 1800's a steel plow drawn by horses be- came standard equipment on Amer- ican farms. One July morning in 1831 Cyrus McCormick, who had been working for years on the idea of a mechani- cal reaper, took his crude machine to the neighboring farm of John Steele. There in the presence of a handful of people his rattling ma- chine cut six acres of oats. It was the first public trial of a new inven- tion which was to bring a revolu- tion in farming. Before McCormick and others in- vented the reaper grain was har- vested by a sickle, a scythe, or a cradle. The reaper shifted harvest- ing from hand power to machine power. In later years other invent- ors added new featur.es. Today there are single machines or "com- bines" that can cut, thresh, clean, sack, and weigh the grain without the touch of human hands. Another great invention may be used to illustrate the shift from hand to horse power the threshing machine. Until the middle 1800's threshing, that is, the separation of the grain from the stalks, was done mainly by the old-fashioned hand flail. Inventors both in Europe and America finally devised a method 236 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Cyrus McCormick follows behind his reaper during the first public exhibition of his invention at Steele's Tavern, Virginia, in 1831. A few of the neighbors look on in amazement while the reaper successfully cuts a field of oats. At the rear is a covered wagon bound for the West. (Courtesy International Harvester Company) by which flails could be attached to cylinders and driven by horses. The reaper and the thresher were but two of many new devices which shifted farming from hand power to horsepower during these years. The horse hay-rake which did the work of from eight to ten men was de- vised. Farm mechanics also in- vented seed drills for sowing wheat and planting corn. All stages in farming plowing, planting, har- vesting, and threshing now could be done by horsepower. In recent years power-driven ma- chines take over the burden. As the 1800's were the age of horsepower farming, so the 1900's were the age of power-driven machinery. Even in the late 1800's large-scale farmers were experimenting with machines driven by steam engines. Steam en- gines were practical for threshing machines, when the grain could be brought to them. They were not practical for plowing, planting, and harvesting. They were so heavy that they cut up the ground. There was also the problem of supplying the engine with fuel and water. Power-driven machinery came to the farms early in the 1900's, about the same time that automobiles were developed. The internal com- bustion gasoline engine, the kind used for automobiles, is easily adapted to farm machinery. It is small, efficient and easily managed. Moreover, rubber tires, which also came in with the automobile, are easy on the land. With the appearance of the gaso- line engine, the old farm machinery Horse-age agriculture reached its highest development on the great wheat ranches of the West in this combined reaper and thresher drawn by 30 horses and manned by a crew of five. Nevertheless, the machine-driven thresher handled by two men illustrated in the next picture is faster, more efficient, and cheaper to operate. (Culver Service) U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Machine-age harvesting is a long development from McCormick's first reaper. Here are 12 McCormick-Deering 16-foot Harvester-threshers working in one field, cutting a swath 192 feet wide. They can cut and thresh 340 acres a day. (Culver Service) was redesigned. The new machin- ery was introduced widely, particu- larly during the First World War when farmers were making every effort to increase their crops. The horse has not disappeared from the farms, but the gasoline engine has taken over much of his work. Power-driven machinery has had many effects on American agricul- ture. We will mention here only three. First, it has released land for- merly used to raise food for horses. This land can now produce food for human beings. Second, it has made it possible for fewer people to raise the same amount of food. When the United States started as a new na- tion, it took nine farmers to feed 10 people. Today one farmer can feed 12 people. In the third place, machinery has turned farming into a business. The pioneer could start farming with an axe and a few hand tools. Today the farmer must invest large amounts in machinery. Machines are as neces- sary to him as to a manufacturer. Without machines he cannot com- pete with the farmer who has them. To support them he needs good land and a good-sized farm. Profit- able farming is no longer an occu- pation for a man without capital working on poor land. The use of machines leads to large- scale fanning. Fajrm machinery en- courages large-scale farming in two ways. The farmer cannot afford ma- chinery unless he farms on a fairly large scale. Grain farms using ma- chinery average about 350 acres. At the same time, machinery makes it possible to expand the farm to al- most any size. Let us see how this works on the famous Campbell wheat farm in A REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE 239 Montana. Here is a farm of 95,000 acres. Horses have little use on such a vast farm. Its equipment includes 56 tractors, 1 1 threshing machines, 60 twelve-foot drills, more than 200 wagons, trucks and automobiles, and 500 plows. This equipment can plow 1,000 acres a day, seed 3,000 acres, and harvest the wheat in the few days between the time it ripens and begins to rot. This farm pro- duces 500,000 bushels a year. The Campbell farm has no use for the old-fashioned "farm hand." Its workers are skilled mechanics. They drive the machinery and keep the equipment in order in a great machine shop. Production of wheat, of course, is farming, but for most of the workers it is a business of operating machines. Labor on such a farm is a prob- lem not only for the farm itself but for the whole nation. During seed time and harvest 200 men are em- ployed; during the winter only 50. Three-fourths of the workers are unemployed on the farm during most of the year. The rest of the year they try to find work on other farms or in the city. The problem of getting farm labor when it is needed and at the same time of finding jobs for unemployed farm workers during slack seasons is a difficult one. We have hardly begun to solve it. The Campbell farm is run scien- tifically. Every effort is made to keep the land in good condition. Only half of the 95,000 acres is planted each year. The latest dis- coveries of scientific agriculture are eagerly applied. Few American farms approach in size this immense outfit. All that are well run, how- ever, depend more and more on machinery and science. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Prove that you understand the importance of each of the following terms in connection with the history of American agriculture. 1. Texas fever 4. government bureau 7. "combine" 2. immune 5. scythe 8. seed drill 3. livestock 6. reaper 9. internal combustion engine WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1S31: What invention demonstrated in this year started a new day in agri- culture? 1862: What legislation passed in this year helped to provide better agricul- tural education? 1887: How was scientific agriculture aided by an act of Congress passed in this year? What was the act? 1889: What happened in this year that showed the government was taking more interest in our agriculture? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. How did Theobald Smith help the farmers? 2. In what ways were the colonists unwise farmers? 240 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Why is Washington called "the father of modern scientific agriculture in America"? Who were other early scientific farmers? 4. Why was the establishment of land-grant colleges so important to the development of better agricultural methods? What other steps were taken to improve agricultural education? 5. Give at least five examples of how scientists improved our farming. Who were three men famous as agricultural scientists? 6. What are two important ways by which soil is destroyed? What steps can be taken to preserve our soil and our forests? 7. Compare and contrast farming in colonial days the age of hand power with that of the late 1800's the age of horse power. 8. Why are Charles Newbold and Cyrus McCormick important to our agri- cultural history? 9. Why were farm machines driven by gasoline engines more satisfactory than machines driven by steam engines? 10. What have been three important effects of power-driven machinery on farming? Explain and give an example of large-scale farming. 11. Summary Question: What changes has the agricultural revolution brought about in our farming? How has the government helped the farmer? Chapter 14. Differences in Agri- cultural Ways of Life Set the Stage for the War Between the States On September 22, 1862, while our nation was torn by a great war, Abraham Lincoln called a special meeting of his cabinet. "Gentlemen," he said, "I have, as you are aware, thought a great deal about the relation of this war to slavery, and seven weeks ago I read you an order I had prepared upon the subject, which, on account of objections made by some of you, was not issued. Ever since then my mind has been much occupied with this subject, and I have thought all along that the time for acting on it might come. I think the time has come now." Then Lincoln went on to say that he had written a proclamation which might free many of the slaves. He said he wished that there was a better time to do it, but he was determined to wait no longer. He said that he had decided that he would issue the proclamation as soon as the Confederates were driven out of Maryland. Now that they had retreated after Antietam, the time had come. "I have got you together," continued Lincoln, "to hear what I have writ- ten down. I do not wish your advice about the main matter, for that I have determined for myself. This I say without intending anything but respect for any one of you. But I already know the view of each on this question." I seek advice, he said, only on details. Then Lincoln read the Emancipation Proclamation: "That on the 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free." These were the most important words of this famous document. They gave new meaning to the war. Up to this time the North had been fighting merely to save the Union. Now it was also fighting to end slavery. The Proclamation strengthened the Union cause at home and abroad. 241 242 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY King Cotton Rises to Power in Our Southland Eli Whitney's invention makes cot- ton king of the South. In Chapter 3 we described how the South in the colonial period raised tobacco, rice, and other crops on large plantations for export to England. We also told how these crops came to be largely grown by Negro slaves. This type of farming continued after the Rev- olution with one important ex- ception. Cotton rapidly became the chief crop of the South. In the 1800's the South became the "land of cotton." The reasons for this rapid change are easy to discover. In Chapter 16 we shall tell how James Hargreaves and other inventors designed pow- er-driven machinery to spin thread and weave cloth. This made the cost of woolen and cotton goods so much cheaper that more people could buy them. The demand for cotton goods became so great that it w r as difficult to find enough cotton fiber for the machines. As this great demand grew, the South turned more and more to cotton. Much of the land in the South was suitable and the climate was ideal. More than that, there were Negro slaves to supply the labor. Only one thing held back the South the difficulty of separating the seeds from the cotton fiber. This had to be done by hand. Even with slave labor it was so costly that there was little profit in raising cotton. The problem was solved by Eli Whitney, a Connecticut Yankee. Graduating from Yale a few years after the Revolution, Whitney set out for Georgia to teach school. While visiting friends on a planta- tion near Savannah, he heard sev- eral planters discuss the need of a machine which would separate the seeds from the cotton. Whitney gave up the idea of teaching school and turned his at- tention to inventing such a ma- chine. Said he in a letter to his fa- ther: "I made one before I came away which required the labor of one man to turn it and with which one man could clean ten times as much cotton as he can in any other way before known and also cleanse it much better than in the usual mode. The machine may be turned by water or with a horse, with the greatest ease, and one man with a horse will do more than fifty men with the old machines. It makes the labor fifty times less, without throw- ing any class of People out of busi- ness." Whitney's first crude machine was little more than a cylinder equipped with projecting teeth which drew in the cotton fiber, leav- ing the seeds behind. A second roll- er equipped with brushes to free the teeth from the lint, turned in the opposite direction. Operated by hand, the machine would clean 50 pounds a day; harnessed to water power it would clean 1 ,000. Southern life swings around the cotton plantation. Whitney's cotton gin (1793) seems very simple in our age of machinery. Nevertheless it was America's first great contribu- tion to the age of machinery. More than that it had a tremendous in- AGRICULTURAL WAYS OF LIFE 243 Cotton raising immediately after the War Between the States changed but little from the days of slavery. In this scene of the 1870's, the Negroes are picking the cotton bv hand and taking it away in a wagon. Methods of cotton production have improved greatly in recent years. (Culver Service) fluence upon Southern life and his- tory. First of all, it made cotton the "King of the South." With factories in Europe and in the northern states crying for cotton, southern planters turned from other crops to it. They enlarged their old planta- tions and opened up new ones un- til the entire South was white with cotton fields. When Whitney in- vented the cotton gin the planters raised about 4000 bales. When Lin- coln became President, the crop was almost 4,000,000 bales. Whitney's cotton gin had another great effect upon the South. It in- creased the speed of the westward movement. With a growing market, planters were eager to open up new land. They pushed into western Georgia and Florida, and across the mountains into the rich land of Alabama and Mississippi. Then they moved across the Mississippi into Arkansas, Louisiana, and Tex- as. Soon the states of the Old South- west became the center of the cot- ton kingdom (see map, page 232). One important influence of the cotton gin was that it lengthened the life of the slave system. By the end of the 1700's slavery had be- come unpopular in the South. For one thing, it was no longer profit- able. Washington once said, "Were it not that I am principled [guided by a belief] against selling Negroes as you would cattle in the market. I would not in 12 months be pos- sessed of a single slave." Upon his death he freed his slaves. 244 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY As the planters enlarged their As these factories appeared, emi- cotton fields, they needed more la- grants from Europe went to work bor. Instead of freeing their slaves, in them. Many young men and they bought more. Slave labor was women from the farms, instead of now in demand and slaves became moving west, sought jobs in the more and more valuable. Many in nearest factory. Towns and cities the South now defended the slave grew up around the new factories, system, for they felt that it was nee- The Northeast was still a region of essary to produce their most im- small farms, but more and more portant crop. people now lived in cities and The cotton gin also strengthened worked in factories, the plantation system. The South Factories started the rapid move- continued to be a land of large plan- ment to. the cities, but other influ- tations raising crops for sale. In- ences also helped them to grow, stead of tobacco, as in the colonial Stores, hotels, and banks appeared period, cotton became the great to take care of the needs of the peo- crop. It was the crop that sold in pie. The rising cities became com- the outside market and brought mercial and financial centers. The- wealth to that section. aters, libraries, and schools helped The cotton planters owned the them to become centers of culture slaves and the best land. They be- and learning. came the important men who had The Old Northwest also had its wealth, power, and influence. The growing towns. By the 1860'sCleve- cotton plantation became not only land, Cincinnati, and Chicago were the center of the wealth, but of the good-sized cities. But much of the social life. With power and influ- region was as yet a frontier and still ence, the cotton planter quite easily being settled. It was mainly a region took the leadership in the political of small farms, life of the South. The Old Northwest was a land not only of small farms, but also of Ways of life are different in the free labor. Instead of slavery, free North and West. While agriculture men worked for wages. When Con- and the plantation system contin- gress passed the Northwest Ordi- ued in the South, the Northeast nance soon after the Revolution to was rapidly changing. Here the In- regulate settlement north of the dustrial Revolution, described in Ohio, it forbade slavery. As a result, Chapter 16, got its start. Factories Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michi- sprang up on almost every river to gan grew up as free states, take advantage of water power. The In brief, the North and South first factories mainly produced cot- differed in their way of life. The ton and woolen goods, but soon in- Northeast was a section of small ventions made possible the manu- farms worked by free labor, but facture of metal products iron, turning more and more to manufac- steel, farm machinery, engines, and luring and city life. The Old North- all sorts of things. west was like the Northeast except AGRICULTURAL WAYS OF LIFE 245 that manufacturing and city life had not developed to the same ex- tent. The South remained almost entirely agricultural. It had many small farms but also great planta- tions worked by Negro slaves. D iff erences between the North and South Lead to the Battle- f* 77 J (* ......... Louisiana Territory: shall it be free or slave? Perhaps the greatest differ- ence between the North and South was the use of slave labor. Having found slavery of little use on the small farms of the North, the north- ern states abolished it. Since they did not need slaves, they found it easy to condemn slavery as unjust, Southerners, who believed that they must have slaves, defended the sys- tern. However people might feel, the slavery question was considered set- tied at the time the Constitution was adopted. The problem did arise, however, over the new lands added by the purchase of Florida and Louisiana, the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, and the Oregon Treaty. Should slavery be permitted in these new regions? Little debate arose over Florida or over the southern part of the Louisiana Purchase, that is, the present state of Louisiana. Slavery already existed in these regions when the United States secured them. The system was taken for granted. It was not until the people of Missouri asked Congress for ad- mission as a slave state that the question became important. The country quickly divided over the issue. Many in the North believed that slavery should not be extended into the new territory. Frontiersmen in the Northwest be- lieved that the Louisiana Purchase should be kept open for small farm- ers and free labor. They did not wan t to compete with slave labor and the plantation system. Many southerners, on the other hand, believed that the plantation system and slave labor must expand into the new region. The North was growing in population more rap- idly than the South and already had a majority in the House of Repre- sentatives. If the South was to pro- tect its own interests, it must have at least an equal number of Sena- tors. When the debate over Missouri arose, there were 1 1 free and 1 1 slave states. Whichever side won Missouri, that side would have a majority of Senators. In the long battle in Congress neither North nor South was willing to give in. Finally a compromise was worked out. Maine (now separated from Massachusetts) was admitted as a free state and Missouri as a slave state. A further provision prohib- ited slavery in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase north of 36 30', the southern boundary of Mis- souri. The Missouri Compromise (1820) solved for the moment the problem of slavery in the Louisiana Pur- chase. But it soon appeared again, not to be settled until the War Be- tween the States. Far-sighted states- 246 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY men understood the political dan- ger of the slavery question. Jeffer- son likened it to "a fire bell in the night" which "wakened and filled me with terror." It is the most dan- gerous question, he said, "which has ever yet threatened the Union." The Mexican War again raises the question of slavery in a new region. During the years following the Mis- souri Compromise anti-slavery sen- timent in the North increased. How strong it had become was clear when Texas applied for annexation to the United States. Slavery had become such a hot political issue that annexation was delayed for al- most nine years. When Texas was annexed (1845), she came in as a slave state. The annexation of Texas result- ed in the Mexican War. In turn, the Mexican War brought to this country a new bloc of territory (see map, page 180). Should this new region be slave or free? The ques- tion had to be settled at once. Gold had brought thousands of "forty- niners" to California and the new settlers requested statehood without slavery. The great statesmen of the time believed that the very life of the nation depended on the right solu- tion of the problem. All of them took part in the debate which lasted for months during 1850. Henry Clay of Kentucky, who had run for the Presidency three times and had done much to bring about the Mis- souri Compromise, began the de- bate. His three-day speech was a strong plea for "harmony and peace" as against "heat and pas- sion." The Union, he urged, must not split over the slavery issue; each side must be willing to give up something. Clay was followed by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. Too ill to stand, Calhoun had his speech read by a fellow-Senator. If the Un- ion was to be saved, insisted Cal- houn, the North .must recognize the rights of the South to slavery in the new territories. The North must stop agitating against slavery. The North had become stronger than the South and the stronger side should be willing to give in. Other- wise there could be no Union. A third great statesman, Dan- iel Webster of Massachusetts, followed Clay in urging compro- mise. Webster was the greatest ora- tor of his time and the nation lis- tened closely to his plea for unity. He warned that if the South should leave the Union, a war would surely come. Clay, Calhoun, and Webster had been in Congress for 40 years. They had seen the 13 states grow into a strong nation. They were the great political leaders of their sections. When they urged unity, the nation listened. The long struggle ended in the Compromise of 1850. California was admitted as a free state. The rest of the territory obtained from Mexico was to come into the Un- ion, free or slave, as the settlers in that region should decide. The slave trade in the District of Co- lumbia was abolished. A strict law was passed providing for the return of runaway slaves. Few were satis- fied with the compromise, but it AGRICULTURAL WAYS OF LIFE 247 did put off the War Between the States for ten years. The planters of the South have great power in the national govern- ment. Calhoun had pointed out in his speech that the North was grow- ing stronger than the South. This was true. The North had a larger population. It produced greater wealth from its farms, factories, and mines. Despite this fact, the national government was largely controlled by southern leaders during the 20 years before the War Between the States. By that time the South was almost solidly behind the Demo- cratic party. The Democrats also had strength in the North, particu- larly in the Old Northwest. Here the small farmers sold much of their grain and pork to the plantation owners of the South. A combina- tion of the South and the North- west won most of the national elec- tions. Not only were the Democrats in power, but the party itself was largely controlled by the southern wing. The political leaders of the South were the great plantation owners. They had wealth, educa- tion, and power, and they had the time to devote to politics. Able and skillful politicians, like Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, became im- portant Democratic leaders. The Democrats might elect Presi- dents from the North, but Demo- cratic leaders from the South were the power behind the throne. This is important. It did not make so much difference if the North was stronger so long as the South con- trolled the national government. With southern leaders in control of the Democratic party, they could defend slavery and other southern interests. They could pass laws which would benefit the South. There was no need to leave the Union. The War Between the States finally came, as we shall see, when this control was broken. When Abraham Lincoln is elected President, the South withdraws from the Union. After the Compro- mise of 1850 the nation breathed a sigh of relief. Many hoped that the struggle over slavery in the new territories would die down. The Missouri Compromise had settled the question in the Louisiana Pur- chase; the Compromise of 1850 had taken care of the land won from Mexico. An act of Congress had banned slavery in the Oregon coun- try (see map, page 180). Those who hoped that the slavery conflict would die down were soon disappointed. The whole picture changed when Stephen A. Douglas, Senator from Illinois, introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. Congress had organized most of the region west of Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota into the Territory of Nebraska. Under the Missouri Com- promise this territory was free from slavery. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill provided that the region be divided into two parts Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory and that the settlers should decide for them- selves whether or not they wanted slavery. If passed, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill would upset the Missouri Com- 248 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY SLAVERY SPLITS THE UNJoF ree States H Slave States ^HH Confederate States promise. The South saw an oppor- tunity to win another slave state and supported the bill. The North bit- terly opposed it. The whole slavery struggle blazed up again. In the end, Douglas, with the aid of the Presi- dent, pushed the bill through Con- gress. The Kansas-Nebraska Act led directly to the War Between the States. From the moment it was passed until the South left the Un- ion, the slavery issue became in- creasingly bitter. Northern settlers rushed into Kansas to make it into a free state. Southerners went in to win it for slavery. Soon there was bloodshed on the plains of Kansas, a sign of a greater war soon to come. Northerners, deeply stirred over the Kansas situation, determined to organize a new political party. Its main platform would be opposition to the further extension of slavery. Under the name "Republican" it nominated John C. Fremont for President in 1856. With its slogan, "free soil, free speech, free men and Fremont," it won 40 per cent of the popular vote in its first national election. Encouraged by this showing, the Republicans four years later nomi- nated Abraham Lincoln of Illinois as their presidential candidate. They promised protection to east- ern manufacturers, free land to set- tlers, and a railroad to the Pacific. They opposed admitting more slave states to the Union. Although Lin- coln failed to carry a single south- ern or border state, he won the elec- tion. With the Republican victory the Democratic South lost control of the national government. Southern- AGRICULTURAL WAYS OF LIFE 249 ers had threatened that the South would leave the Union, if Lincoln was elected. Led by South Carolina, 11 states finally broke away and formed the Confederate States of America (see map, page 248). They drew up a constitution and elected Jefferson Davis president. The War between the North and South Saves the Union Lincoln and his generals map a plan to conquer the South. The fate of the Union depended largely on Abraham Lincoln. Would he let the southern states "depart in peace"; or would he try to save the Union? Lincoln was brought up on the frontier of the free state of Illinois and he disliked slavery. Neverthe- less, he had no intention of inter- fering with slavery in the states where it already existed. Lincoln was a patient man and slow to act. He knew that the Un- ion could be saved only by war, and he hesitated to plunge the nation into a bloody conflict. A month af- ter he became President he finally made the fateful decision. He an- nounced that reinforcements would be sent to relieve the small garrison at Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Fort Sumter was one of the few military posts in the South still in the hands of the national government. Im- mediately the Confederate govern- ment ordered an attack on the fort. Sumter fell, and on the following day Lincoln issued a call for volun- teers. The War Between the States had commenced. Lincoln had once fought against the Indians. Years before he also had served one term as a Congress- man. But he knew little of military campaigns or the ways of Washing- ton politicians. He had had no executive experience. Nevertheless the responsibility of directing this bitter four-year war (1861-1865) fell on his shoulders. He took the responsibility and proved equal to the task. His first work was to hold the border states in the Union. This he did by keeping the slavery issue in the background and emphasizing the one principle that the Union must be saved. By skillful politics and quick military action he pre- vented Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri from joining the Confed- eracy. Encouraged by Lincoln, the western counties of Virginia broke away from Virginia and were or- ganized into the state of West Vir- ginia, loyal to the Union. The Union could be saved only by conquering the South. Lincoln and his generals developed a plan which they followed throughout the war. First, the Union navy was to blockade the southern ports. This would prevent the South from sell- ing cotton in Europe and bringing in arms and other needed supplies. It became the main job of the navy. The plan for the army was to in- vade the South both in the East and the West. In the East the Union army was to capture the Confeder- .ate capital of Richmond, Virginia. In the West it was to cut the South in two at the Mississippi River. The AGRICULTURAL WAYS OF LIFE 25 1 western plan aimed to separate Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the rest of the South and pre- vent supplies from reaching the East. A combined blockade and in- vasion would squeeze the South into submission (see map, page 250). * Grant and Sherman break the South into three parts. Fortunately for the Union, the western campaigns were successful. Although the Confeder- ate soldiers bitterly contested every important point, they were grad- ually driven backward. In the sec- ond year of the war (1862) General Grant captured Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. With other Union commanders he occupied Kentucky and western and central Tennessee. In the meantime Ad- miral Farragut destroyed the Con- federate ships defending New Or- leans and occupied the city (see map, page 250). The Union plan for 1863 was to capture Vicksburg and Fort Hud- son on the Mississippi. Then the armies were to move against the railroad center of Chattanooga, Tennessee. After a brilliant cam- paign Grant penned one Confeder- ate army behind the fortifications at Vicksburg. Vicksburg surren- dered after a six-weeks' siege and Fort Hudson a few days later. Vicks- burg gave the North control of the Mississippi and shut off Texas beef, Louisiana sugar, and Mexican arms from the Confederacy. While Grant was besieging Vicks- burg, another Union army cap- tured Chattanooga. But the war in Tennessee was not yet over. The Confederates established strong po- sitions near Chattanooga and pre- pared to besiege the city. Grant ar- rived in the autumn and rescued the Union army after hard battles. After Chattanooga Grant was put in command of all the northern armies. He left for the East, put- ting General Sherman in command. Sherman proposed that during the next year he move southeast against Atlanta, an important railroad and manufacturing center. From there he would march through Georgia to Savannah on the coast. This would cut the South again and prevent supplies from Georgia reaching the Confederate armies in Virginia (see map, page 250). This was risky business, but Lin- coln and Grant finally gave their consent. After weeks of fighting Sherman occupied Atlanta in the midsummer of 1864 and reached Savannah in December. Then he turned northward to join Grant in Virginia. Wherever his army went, they left a trail of wrecked railroads, burned bridges, and ruined crops. Nothing can be said for this destruc- tion except that it hastened the end of the war. The Union navy cuts the South from the outside world. Two weeks after the fall of Fort Sumter Lin- coln declared the southern coast from Virginia to Texas under block- ade. The purpose, as stated earlier, was to strangle the South into sub- mission. At the beginning the block- ade was not very successful. The Un- ion navy was too small to watch a coastline 3,500 miles long. As the war went on, however, the Union navy increased in size. Most 252 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY In the battle of Gettysburg the most dramatic moment occurred on the second day when General Pickett led his famous brigade across open land in an effort to drive the Union soldiers from Little Round Top. His failure was the turning point of the battle and of the war itself. (Brown Brothers) of the shipyards were in the North and they could easily outbuild the South. The Union navy became strong enough to capture New Or- leans and aid in the victory at Vicks- burg. Finally it established a real blockade which did much to bring a Union victory. Although at a disadvantage on the sea, the South kept up the fight. Hundreds of its low-built swift- sailing vessels slipped through the Union blockade. Almost to the end of the war they brought needed supplies to the Confederate army. The Confederate government also bought war vessels in Europe which destroyed much northern com- merce. The South made one famous ef- fort to break the blockade. They raised the old sunken warship, the Merrimac (renamed the Virginia), and covered her with iron plate. Starting out from Norfolk she de- stroyed two wooden ships and spread fear throughout the Union navy. Fortunately for the Union, her triumph was short. The next morning a strange craft, the iron- clad Monitor, looking like a "cheese- box on a raft," steamed out and gave battle. Both vessels survived the battle, but the Monitor saved the Union navy. The battle also made clear that the day of wooden warships was ended. For four years the Union and Con- federate armies fight for victory in the East. War in the West was a suc- cession of major victories for the North. The war in the East was quite different. Here the Union armies fought for four years before they could capture the Confederate capital of Richmond and destroy the southern armies. On their part AGRICULTURAL WAYS OF LIFE 253 Lee signs the terms of surrender at Appomatox Court House. Said General Grant, who sits a little behind Lee to the right, I "felt like anything rather than rejoicing at the downfall of a foe who had fought so long and valiantly and had suffered so much for a cause." (Culver Service) the Confederates under Robert E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, and "Stonewall" Jackson defended Vir- ginia and twice attempted to invade the North. The eastern war began in earnest in 1862. A Union army under Gen- eral McClellan got to within a day's march of Richmond when it was halted in a seven-days' battle. Lin- coln finally ordered the army to withdraw. A few weeks later the Union armies were badly defeated at Bull Run. Lee believed the time was ripe to invade the North. A successful invasion might separate Maryland from the Union, allow him to cap- ture Baltimore and Washington, and dictate peace. Advancing into Maryland, Lee was stopped by Mc- Clellan's Union army at Antietam Creek and forced to retreat (see map, page 250). Later in the year the Union army moved southward only to be defeated at Fredericks- burg. After ten months of hard fighting and four major battles the military situation in the East had changed but little. The next year began with a severe Union defeat at Chancellorsville. Lee decided again to invade the North. This time his main army got as far north as Gettysburg, Pennsyl- vania. There he was again halted in a three-day battle and forced to re- treat. Although General Meade and the Union army failed to destroy Lee, Gettysburg was the turning 254 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY point of the war. Gettysburg along tory at Antietam, as we noted at the with the victories at Vicksburg and beginning of the chapter, he issued Chattanooga in the West made it his famous "Emancipation Procla- clear that the Confederates could mation." It stated that all slaves not win. held in any state still in rebellion Nevertheless the Confederates on January 1, 1863, should be freed, fought on bitterly for almost two This could not take effect, of course, years. Grant took command of the until Union armies had conquered eastern armies in 1 864 and early in the southern states. A northern vic- May advanced toward Richmond, tory made it possible. Lee contested every step, fighting After the war Lincoln's policy major battles at the Wilderness, was written into the Constitution Spotsylvania Court House and Pe- in Amendment XIII [98]. This tersburg. It was not until April, Amendment not only freed the 1865, that Lee finally gave up the slaves in the states which had re- hopeless contest and surrendered at belled against the Union, but also Appomattox Court House. wherever slavery existed in the Both sides fought the war with United States. equal courage and devotion. The The war ruined the planters of South had fought for independence the South and ended the old planta- and its way of life, the North to save tion system. The planters still owned the Union. Both sincerely believed their land, but they had no labor to they were right. work it. They solved the problem by cutting their plantations into small plots and renting them to their former slaves. The Negroes be- The War Between the States came share-croppers. That is, they Results in a New South and P aid for the use of the land by shar- a New North ing their crop with . the owner - The South continued to be the land of cotton, but the cotton was The war frees the slaves and changes raised in a different way. Instead of the Old South. The North fought on plantations and by slave labor, the war mainly to save the Union, cotton was now grown on small There were, however, many in the farms by free labor. The end of North who were strongly opposed slavery also prepared the way for a to slavery. They believed that it was rapid growth of industry. The South wrong and that it must be ended, had rich resources in lumber, water They pointed out that the South power, iron, and other minerals, had left the Union to preserve slav- Now it also had plenty of free labor, ery. A northern victory, therefore, Helped by northern money, facto- must accomplish two things save ries, iron mines, and power stations the Union and free the slaves. were started. The South decided to Lincoln finally took this point of risk its future on industry as well view. Shortly after the northern vie- as agriculture. AGRICULTURAL WAYS OF LIFE 255 The war leaves the North supreme. The War Between the States was fought almost entirely on southern soil. It destroyed much property and ruined many a plantation owner, farmer, and business man. It took many years for the South to recover and regain her strength. Both North and South suffered by the death and ruined health of tens of thousands of their best young men. But the war did not de- stroy the farms and factories of the North. On the contrary, industry grew rapidly during the conflict to supply the needs of war. Farmers also were prosperous as they in- creased food production to supply the army and the busy workers in the war plants. While the war went on the North found time, money, and labor to build railroads and open new indus- tries. Immigrants continued to come from Europe; frontiersmen kept on opening new land. In the Rockies gold and silver miners laid the foun- dations of new states. While the South lost on the field of battle and saw much of its wealth destroyed, the North increased in wealth and power. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you understand the meaning of the following terms by using each in a sentence. 1. free labor 2. slave labor 3. anti-slavery 4. emancipation WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1793: What invention in this year makes it important in the history of south- ern agriculture? 1820: Why was this a key year in the development of the slavery problem? 1850: What important compromise was made in this year? 7554: What proposal in this year again revived the slavery issue? 1861-65: Why should every boy and girl remember these years? 1863: This year is particularly important to the Negroes. Why? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What effects did Whitney's invention have upon the South? 2. How did the economic life of the North and West differ from that of the South? 3. How did the problem of slavery arise again after the adoption of the Con- stitution? Give two examples. 4. What were two important compromises made in regard to the admission of states and the question of slavery? 5. Explain how the South controlled the national government in the 20 years before the War Between the States. 6. Why did the South leap to the support of Senator Douglas' Kansas-Ne- braska Bill? Was it passed? 7. Why did Lincoln's election bring about the withdrawal of the southern states? 256 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 8. Why did Lincoln's decision and the actions of the Confederacy lead to war? 9. Using the map on page 250 as well as the text, explain how the Union forces proposed to separate the South two ways. Why were the battles of Vicksburg and around Chattanooga of key importance in the war? Was Sherman's march wisely carried out? 10. How did the Union turn its navy to the disadvantage of the Confederate states? 11. What were the plans of the Confederate armies in the East? Of the Union armies? Why was the battle of Gettysburg considered the turning point of the war? 12. When and where did the final surrender take place? What effects did the war have upon the South? on the North? on the Negroes? 13. Summary Question: Why could the War Between the States be considered as a struggle tor control of power by the leaders of two different ways of life? Chapter 15. Hard Times in the South and West Stir the Farmers to Action . . . . . Good-bye, My Party, Good-bye (Air: "Good-bye, My Lover, Good-bye.") It was no more than a year ago, Good-bye, my party, good-bye, That I was in love with my party so, Good-bye, my party, good-bye. To hear aught else I never would go; Good-bye, my party, good-bye. Like the rest I made a great blow ; Good-bye, my party, good-bye. Chorus : Bye, party, bye, lo; bye, party, bye, lo; Bye, party, bye, lo; good-bye, my party, good-bye. The old party is on the downward track, Good-bye, my party, good-bye. Picking its teeth with a tariff tack, Good-bye, my party, good-bye. With a placard pinned upon his back, Good-bye, my party, good-bye. That plainly states, "I will never go back"; Good-bye, my party, good-bye. When the discontented farmers of the South and West broke away from the old parties and organized the Populist party, this was part of their favorite campaign song. It was so often sung that some believed it was re- sponsible for victories in Kansas. It gives little hint of the reasons the farm- ers left the old parties. But it does express strongly their disgust with them. 257 2 5 8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Farmer Struggles against Great Odds after the War . . Nature is both friend and foe to the farmer. Farming, like other occupa- tions, has many problems. It is far more than simply planting the seed and reaping the crops. Nature can be very harsh as well as very kind. If the soil is good, the temperature right, and there is sufficient sun- shine and rain, crops will grow abundantly. Unfortunately this happy combi- nation often does not exist. A single winter frost in southern California may destroy a large part of the fruit crop. A late spring frost in the North may ruin the early vege- tables and fruit. A summer hail storm may cut the broad tobacco leaves in shreds and can destroy an entire crop in a few minutes. Too much rain may wash away the topsoil or rot the crop. If there is too little rain, the crops will not grow. A long period without rain sometimes destroys not only the crop but the farm as well. Three times during the 1930's parts of the nation were hit by a long drought. Crops withered and cattle died of thirst. Winds picked up the dry top- soil and blew it far and wide. Thou- sands of farms were no longer fit for cultivation. Heat, frost, hail, drought, and other weather conditions are not all the farmer must contend with. In- sect pests attack his crops and dis- eases strike down his animals. Every plant and every animal have their enemies. The cotton farmer must fight the boll weevil and the corn farmer the corn borer. The rancher must watch for cattle fever and the dairyman for tuberculosis among his cows. Wheat farmers have seen the sky suddenly darkened with a swarm of grasshoppers which have destroyed their crops within an hour. Science has helped the farmer meet some of these problems. We told in Chapter 13 how scientists have found ways to battle diseases of plants and animals. That chapter also told of steps taken to lessen the evils of drought and flood. But there are many things that science cannot do. The weather man may predict a frost and help the farmers prepare for it, but he cannot pre- vent it. Farming is a gamble. It is full of risks no matter how skillful and in- dustrious the farmer may be. But this is only half the story. Even if the sun shines and rain comes in the right amount and at the right time and the weather is perfect, there are other problems. Even if the farmer does not have to fight pests and animal diseases, his busi- ness is not an easy one. This part of the story will now be told. Hard times press upon the farmer. The years following the War Be- tween the States were difficult ones for the American farmer. During the war there was increased demand for farm products to meet the needs of the army and civilian popula- tion. Prices of farm products shot upwards and the farmer enjoyed a few years of prosperity. Encouraged by high prices, many farmers enlarged their farms and HARD TIMES STIR FARMERS TO ACTION The drought of 1936 was followed by winds that whipped up the topsoil and de- stroyed large areas of farm lands. Here a farmer and his two sons in Oklahoma are walking in the face of a dust storm so thick that it has almost blotted out the sun. (Farm Security Administration photograph by Arthur Rothstein, from a negative now in the Library of Congress) bought new equipment. They usu- ally did it on borrowed money. This would have been all right if the de- mand for their products had con- tinued and prices had remained high. Unfortunately for the farmers, the demand for wheat, pork, and other farm products declined at the end of the war. As the demand de- clined, prices went down. Now the farmers found them- selves in a difficult position indeed. They must keep their farms going, meet the interest on their debts, and pay off the money they had bor- rowed. But they had to do it at a time when their own income was decreasing. This was often more than they could do, and thousands went bankrupt and lost their farms. One thing that made the situa- tion more difficult was the prices which the farmer had to pay for the things which he bought. When he sold his corn or wheat, he had to sell at a low price. When he bought clothing, furniture, farm equip- ment, or other things which he and his family needed, he must pay high prices. The farmer believed that he had discovered the reason for the high prices. Big business concerns, as we shall see in Chapter 17, had banded together to control prices. As the condition of the farmer grew worse, he needed desperately to borrow more money to tide him over the hard times. But monev was 2 6o U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY hard to get, particularly on the This story deals with a differen frontier. There were few banks in type of pioneer, a man who helpei these regions. Easterners with mon- to found three new political partie; ey considered such loans risky. If James B. Weaver of Iowa was on they loaned at all, they charged of the early members of the Rt high rates of interest. The business publican party in his home stat man in the city could borrow at 5 or and attended the convention whicl 6 per cent, the western farmer often nominated Lincoln for the Presi had to pay from 10 to 12 per cent, dency. Many years later he himsel Nothing made the farmer more was nominated for the Presidency bitter than the abuses of the rail- first by the Greenback party an< roads. The farmers were absolutely later on by the Populist ticket. H dependent on the railroads to trans- became the great leader of the farm port their crops to the market. If ers' revolt. the railroads gave good service at Weaver knew well the problem reasonable rates, the farmer might of the western farmer. He was bon get along. If they did not, he might on the frontier of Michigan an< be ruined. when he was two his parents move< Instead of setting reasonable rates, to the frontier of Iowa. There hi the railroads often overcharged the grew to manhood in a typical pic farmer. Since the railroads had no neering community. His first schoo competition, they could charge what book, an elementary speller, he ob they pleased. Not only that, but tained from a pioneer merchant b they could charge one farmer more exchanging a coon skin for it. than another, or the people in one Weaver had not even finished tin region more than those in another, country school before he was carry And they could give any kind of ing government mail on horsebacl service they pleased. The farmer over the roadless prairies am suffered from all these abuses. bridgeless streams of frontier Iowa Like many another frontier lad, h< was excited over the gold discover The Farmers Organize New ies j" California. Finally he set ou r j- D LJ T-L Wlt " three companions to drive ; Parties to tiigMl heir WrOTigs i ier d of cattle over the plains am mountains to the gold country. Af James B. Weaver, son of the West, ter a brief try at mining, Weave leads a farmers' party. Many types returned to Iowa and began tin of pioneers have helped to build study of law. America. Daniel Boone, the trail The young lawyer started his po blazer, was one type and Sam Hous- litical life as a Democrat, but hi ton, hero of the Texas Revolution, joined the Republican party sooi was another. Eli Whitney, the in- after it was founded. He said he wa ventor, and Theobald Smith, dis- converted to free soil ideas by read coverer of Texas fever, were pio- ing Uncle Tom's Cabin and the edi neers in science. torials of the New York Tribune James Bund Weaver, lawyer, soldier, Congressman, and twice a candidate for the Presidency, represents the best leadership in the farmers' revolt. He also represents the type of progressive politician and public officeholder who constantly urged many needed reforms. Iowa in the years after the War Between the States considered him one of her most distinguished citizens. (From The Populist Revolt by John Hicks, University of Minnesota Press) 262 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Soon he was riding the prairies of Iowa speaking for Fremont, Lin- coln, and other Republicans. SOLDIER AND POLITICIAN. When Lincoln's first call for volunteers reached Iowa, Weaver was one of the first to enlist. His company elected him a lieutenant. When his enlistment ended three years later, he left the army a Brigadier Gen- eral. During most of this time he commanded the Second Iowa, one of the famous regiments of the war. Weaver deserved his rapid pro- motions. He was the perfect soldier. Calm in battle and utterly fearless, he led his regiment to one victory after another. As the best officer in the regiment he won the confidence of rank and file. He won their de- votion also, for he always put the welfare of his soldiers above his own. When Weaver returned to civil life, he could hardly escape politics. As one of Iowa's military heroes he was known to everyone. He was re- spected as an able lawyer, a power- ful orator, and a man of the highest principles. Courteous and kindly, he was personally well liked. More than that, he understood the diffi- culties of the farmers. He knew well the abuses of the railroads, the high prices which farmers paid for what they needed, and the low prices re- ceived for what they sold. He knew about high interest rates. He had once paid 33 1/3 per cent for a loan to go to law school. After the war Weaver went into politics as a Republican. He sought the nomination for Congressman and then for governor. Both times he was beaten by political trickery. The common people wanted him but the railroad interests which con- trolled the party did not. Weaver was already well known in the West as a believer in railroad regulation. GREENBACKER AND POPULIST. De- spite his popularity among the peo- ple and the popularity of his views, Weaver saw that the Republicans would never nominate him for any important office. If he was to fight for his principles, he must join a third party. In the late 1870's Weav- er joined the Greenback party. This was a party which demanded many reforms including an increase in the amount of paper money (green- backs) in circulation. The people of Iowa elected Weaver to Congress three times on the Greenback ticket. They could hardly have found a better repre- sentative. When the bosses in Con- gress tried to ignore or silence him, he refused to be brushed aside. He also ran for President on the Green- back ticket and was easily the most prominent man in the party. The Greenback party disappeared in the 1880's and its place was taken by the Populist party. Again Weav- er was the most distinguished man of the party and ran for President in 1892. His running mate for the Vice-Presidency was James Field, a former Confederate general who had lost a leg in the war. A ticket headed by a former Union general and a former Confederate general made dramatic appeal. They won over 1,000,000 popular votes and carried four states. Four years later the Populists joined with the Dem- ocrats to back William Jennings Bryan. The Populists soon disap- HARD TIMES STIR FARMERS TO ACTION 263 peared as a party, and Weaver re- tired from politics. Weaver was one of the great pio- neers in American politics. He sup- ported the regulation of big busi- ness and the government ownership of railroads. He urged the adoption of an income tax and a system of postal savings banks. He demanded an eight-hour working day and leg- islation to improve factory condi- tions. He would ban child labor in industry. He spoke eloquently for many political reforms which will later be described in Chapters 25 and 26. All these reforms and others which Weaver supported were con- sidered wild and impractical by most of the voters. Cartoonists pic- tured him a jackass braying in Con- gress while his fellow Congressmen stopped their ears to keep out the noise. Only lunatic farmers from the West, they said, paid any atten- tion to him. But Weaver was no lunatic. He was a hard-headed and practical man. Within a few years either the Republican or Democratic party came out for almost all of his re- forms. Within 25 years these re- forms, except government owner- ship of railroads, were written into law. Weaver was a man ahead of his time, a pioneer who pointed the path for many to follow. The Populists join with the Demo- crats to stage their greatest battle. The life of General Weaver is clear proof that the American farmer will not suffer injustice without fighting back. When Farmer Jones found it was cheaper to burn his corn for fuel than to sell it, he was fighting mad. When he was convinced that bankers, railroads, and big business overcharged him, he determined to do something about it. In a democ- racy it is possible to remedy abuse by the ballot box and legislation, and the farmers turned to these weapons. The first farmers' party after the war was the Greenback party. Al- though their chief demand was more paper money (greenbacks), they urged other reforms to help the farmer. When the Greenback party disappeared in 1880, its place was soon taken by another party. Hard times and discontent con- tinued in the South and West. As a result, farmers' organizations, known as Farmers' Alliances, ap- peared to meet the situation. The Farmers' Alliances finally united in 1890 to form the Populist party. Two years later they nominated Weaver for the Presidency. Never was the West so stirred in a political campaign. All of the anger over the injustice of the past years came to the surface. A great crusade swept the western plains to drive the old parties from power. Drive from Congress the represen- tatives of the railroads, big busi- ness, and gamblers in western land; replace them with representatives of the farmers! This was their cry. The campaign was like a great re- ligious movement. Naturally the financial interests of the East were scared. They con- demned the Populists and made fun of them. It is true that if the Popu- lists had won the election, they might have brought great changes. Farmers believed that the wealth created from the soil supported the whole structure of society. This cartoon which appeared in a farm journal during the "farmers' revolt" shows the farmer surrounded by tne clergyman, soldier, merchant, railroad man, lawyer, politician, and doctor. All of them, according to the cartoon, lived on the wealdi pro- duced by die fanner, no matter what they might do. (Reproduced from The Chronicles of America. Copyright Yale University Press) HARD TIMES STIR FARMERS TO ACTION 265 Like the Greenbackers, they would stood for many things, regulation have increased the money in circu- of railroads by the state and na- lation. The Populists wanted to do tional governments was always one it with silver instead of paper of them. In fact, the demand for money. Their platform included al- railroad regulation came before most all of the reforms demanded these parties were organized. The by General Weaver which we have reasons for this demand have al- already mentioned. ready been stated. Perhaps the East had a right to The first state laws to regulate be scared. The Populists elected the railroads came in the 1870's and seven Congressmen and six Sena- are known as the Granger Acts. The tors. It had become a strong party, name comes from a farmers' organi- It took away so many votes from zation, commonly known as the the Republicans in the West that Grange. The Grange was founded it helped elect Cleveland, the Dem- as a social organization but it was ocratic candidate for President. also interested in helping the farm- So impressed were the Democrats ers with their problems. It had no that in the next presidential cam- political program. Nevertheless, it paign they took over some of the could hardly avoid turning its at- main Populist demands. When the tention to the railroads, nominating convention met in As the Grange brought pressure 1896, western and southern Demo- upon the state legislatures, the crats threw out Cleveland and the states in the Middle West began to easterners from control of the party, pass laws to control the railroads. They nominated William Jennings In general, these laws set up rates Bryan of Nebraska and decided to beyond which the railroads could fight the campaign on Populist prin- not go. They forbade charging ciples. The Populists could do little more for a short haul than for a else but endorse Bryan. This ended long one. That is, the railroads must the Populists as an important po- charge the same rate per mile litical party. Many of their de- whether the distance for hauling mands, however, were adopted by freight was short or long. The laws the Democratic party, and some of tried to prevent special rates for them later even by the Republi- favored customers and they forbade cans. free passes to public officials. The railroads, of course, fought these laws, insisting that the states The Farmers Make Their had no ri s ht to P ass them - The v ,,. . TT i a nj i i pointed out that the Constitution Voices Heard in the State and ves the fcderal governme nt, and National Capitals not the states, the power to regu- late interstate commerce. Since The farmers force the government most railroad transportation is from to regulate the railroads. Although one state to another, only the fed- the Greenback and Populist parties eral government can pass such laws. 2 66 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Many Grange meetings like this one were held at the time of the farmers' revolt against low prices of farm products, high railroad rates, and other abuses. On the ban- ners are such slogans as "Free Trade and Farmers' Rights," "President $50,000 a Year, Congressmen $7,000 a Year, Farmers 75 cts. a Week," and "Brothers, Let Us Organize, Educate for Knowledge and Power." (Leslie's Weekly) After many legal cases, the courts finally agreed with the railroads. Then the people turned to Con- gress. After much pressure Con- gress passed the Interstate Com- merce Act (1887-). It tried to do what the state laws had attempted. Rates must be just and reasonable. The railroads must charge the same rates to all; they must not give favored rates to certain people or certain places. Congress established an Interstate Commerce Commis- sion to enforce it. The Interstate Commerce Act failed. The railroads fought it and the courts did not enforce it. About 20 years later a new law, the Hep- burn Act (1906) was passed. The new act widened the power of the Commission in many ways. Under the old act the Commission, if it believed a railroad rate was unfair, must go to the courts to prove it. Then it must get from the courts an order for the railroad to change its rates. This was hard to do, particu- larly if the court judges were not sympathetic. Under the new act the commis- sion could order a change of rates. The railroads must obey unless they could prove to the courts that the Commission was wrong. This was also hard to do. The change seems small, but it made all the dif- ference in the world. The railroads gave up and obeyed the law. Since the Hepburn Act, public regulation of railroads has been a real fact. The government shows more con- cern over the farmer. The influence of the Greenback and Populist HARD TIMES STIR FARMERS TO ACTION 267 A Granger cartoon published when the farmers were demanding government regula- tion of railroads. It shows a state legislature completely controlled by die railroads. While one railroad politician orates, another sits in die front row widi a bored ex- pression. Notice the sign on the front of the speaker's desk describing the nation as "The Railroad States of America." The Grangers tried to break this sort of control. (Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly) parties had its effect upon Congress. So also did such farmers' organiza- tions as the Grange. The govern- ment showed increased interest in agricultural education and scien- tific farming, as explained in Chap- ter 13. It passed laws to regulate railroads. As we shall see in Chap- ter 17, it also passed laws to regu- late big business in an effort to keep prices down. Another great problem remained the difficulty of borrowing money at reasonable rates of interest. The farmer, like most business men, needs more money at certain times of the year than at others. The farmer, particularly, needs money in the spring when he must buy seed, fertilizer, and farm equip- ment, and hire labor. He may also need more in the fall when he reaps 268 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY his crops. After the crop is sold, he can repay the money. The farmer faced greater diffi- culties than the city business man in getting this needed money. There were few banks in the coun- try districts and particularly in the frontier regions. The farmer needed money for longer periods than the city man and the banks hesitated to loan for more than a short time. We have already shown that agriculture is a risky occupa- tion. If the bankers loaned money to farmers they wanted high inter- est, sometimes twice as much as they charged business men in the cities. In brief, the problem of the farm- er was, first of all, to get money; second, to get it for the right length of time; and finally, to get it at a reasonable rate. It took many years before the nation understood that this could be done only through government action. The first efforts came during the Presidency of \Voodrow Wilson, when both po- litical parties agreed that the na- tion's banking system should be reorganized. \Vhen the Federal Reserve Act was passed, it provided that na- tional banks might lend money on farm mortgages. That is, they might loan money to farmers for long periods with the farms as security. They also might make short-term loans for as long as six months. During the Presidency of Wilson Congress also passed the Federal Farm Loan Act. This set up special banks for the farmers backed by the government. Farmers could obtain loans from these banks at lower rates of interest than they could usually get elsewhere. This pro- gram of financing farmers was later extended, particularly during the Presidency of Franklin D. Roose- velt. By this time the government had done much to help the farmer meet his problems. The worst abuses had been ended. Summary of the Unit .... In Unit Five "Changing Agri- culture Produces Serious National Problems" we have told the, story of American agriculture and some of its effects upon our national life. 1. The abundance of land en- couraged wasteful methods with only a few scientifically-minded farmers struggling against them. 2. Then the government re- sponded to the will of the people with the Morrill Act (1862) to pro- mote agricultural education and the Hatch Act (1887) to encourage scientific research. 3. With the invention of new machinery, agriculture shifted from hand tools to horsepower and then to steam power and gasoline en- gines. 4. Whitney's cotton gin (1793) turned the South to cotton. Slavery and the plantation system con- trolled southern life and politics. 5. The North and West, how- ever, remained a land of small farms and free labor. 6. Conflict between these two types of agriculture came to a head over the question of slavery in the new territories. 7. The Missouri Compromise HARD TIMES STIR FARMERS TO ACTION 269 (1820) settled for a while the ques- tion of slavery in the Louisiana Pur- chase, and the Compromise of 1850 the problem of slavery in the land won from Mexico. 8. The Missouri Compromise, however, broke down with the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) and the slavery issue did much to bring on the War Between the States (1861- 65). 9. The War Between the States ended slavery but left untouched many other problems of agricul- ture. 10. Farmers faced difficult prob- lems in the years after the war low prices for farm products, high prices for the things they bought, high interest rates for the money they borrowed, and abuses of the rail- roads. 11. Led by James B. Weaver the farmers rose in revolt and tried po- litical action through the Green- back and Populist parties. 12. In the end the farmer won re- lief through railroad legislation, new banking laws and other govern- ment action. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Explain the relationship of each of the following terms to the cause of the farmers. 1. Greenback party Populist party 3. Grange WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1887: What important attempt to help the farmers was made in this year? 1890: What new party was formed in this year? 1906: What act of Congress passed in this year helped the farmer? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Explain how the uncertainties of nature make farming a risky business. 2. What were four economic difficulties that farmers faced after the War Between the States? 3. What qualifications did James B. Weaver have as leader of farm groups? Why did Weaver change political parties? 4. For what ideas did Weaver the politician fight? Explain: "Weaver was ahead of his time." 5. How did the farmers propose to remedy what they considered to be abuses against them? 6. Why were the eastern politicians alarmed at the third-party movements in the West? What did they do to safeguard their position? 7. How did the interests of the Grange and of the railroads come into con- flict? Why were state laws regulating railroads unsatisfactory? 8. What did the Interstate Commerce Act provide? Why was this not a satis- factory solution to the farmers' difficulties with the railroads? 9. What did the Hepburn Act provide? Did this settle the problem of railroad regulation? 270 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 10. What steps did the federal government take to help the farmers borrow money? 11. Summary Question: Why did the farmers turn to new political parties and the government for help? Activities for Unit Five CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Map. Using the map on page 232 as a guide, prepare a map showing the farming regions of the United States. Notice that in some regions there is a mixed agriculture. Or make a map that shows the Union and the Con- federate states in the War Between the States (see map, page 248). 2. Headlines. Select two outstanding events from each chapter and make headline statements for them. To get the spirit of the times, see Sylvan Hoffman's News of the Nation, Nos. 1823. 3. Cartoon. Draw a cartoon to illustrate one of the following; (a) the tractor and the combine replace the horses for farm power, (b) Missouri slave state or free?, (c) Weaver in Congress demands laws to help the farmer, or (d) southern political leaders control the national government. 4. Letter. Imagine that you are a farmer living in Iowa in the 1890's. Write a letter to your Congressman explaining the troubles of the farmers. Urge your Congressman to take action. Read again pages 258-66 for an under- standing of the farmers' troubles. 5. Poster. Make a poster for one of the following: (a) Lincoln calling for 75,000 volunteers, (b) Negroes listening to the Emancipation Proclamation, (c) the government aids the farmer, and (d) the southern cotton plantation. 6. Models. Make a bust of either Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, General Grant or General Lee. Or make a model of a large modern farm showing how crops are rotated. Pictures of different types of farm machinery might be dis- played around the model. 1 TEST MY SKILLS 7. How to Reason. Reasoning is difficult. Many people are unwilling to judge facts. They find it difficult to think beyond surface statements to find out why things are so. This exercise is to test your reasoning skill. Read the description of the Compromise of 1850 starting on page 246. Answer these questions on that agreement: (a) Was the admission of Cali- fornia a victory for the North or for the South? Why? (b) Were the condi- tions governing the admission of states from the remainder of the Mexican Cession a victory for the North or the South? Why? To answer that ques- tion you will need to answer these first. (1) Was this territory likely to be settled by people from the North or South? Why? (2) Was it suitable to plantation and slave farming? Why? (c) Did the abolition of the slave jtrade in the District of Columbia please the North or the South? Why could a person keep slaves there if he already owned them? (d) Who was pleased by the strict law providing for the return of runaway slaves? Why? 8. Interpreting Figures. Following is a table of figures. Answer the questions that follow the table. HARD TIMES STIR FARMERS TO ACTION 271 AVERAGE PRICES RECEIVED BY FARMERS Date Hogs per 100 Ibs. Wheat per bu. Cotton per Ib. Potatoes per bu. E S& S P fr doz.. Butter per Ib. 1925 $ 9.31 $1.62 $.22 $ .70 $.49 $.41 1930 8.80 1.07 .16 1.37 .38 .40 1933 2.68 .33 .06 .37 .21 .21 1936 8.91 .92 .11 .65 .23 .33 1939 6.96 .57 .08 .65 .19 .25 1942 10.55 1.06 .17 .98 .31 .36 (a) In what year do all but one of the above products reach their lowest price? (b) Suppose that you had the same yield in 1933 that you had in 1930. How many times greater would have been your income in 1930 than in 1933 if your crop had been wheat? cotton? potatoes? butter? (c) Do these figures indicate that the farmers' income is certain, or uncertain? WE WORK IN GROUPS 9. Radio Play. Write and produce for the class a radio play using the theme "Western Farmers Demand Action." The central character might be James B. Weaver, though this play should not be a biography of his life. You will need a director, authors, sound engineer as well as actors. The class could discuss the details to be included. Let the committee of authors write the script. When it is completed and corrected, then select the cast. Hold at least two rehearsals before staging. Suggested episodes are: (a) Iowa about 1890 showing the unrest of the farmers over their conditions, (b) the announcement of Weaver as a candidate for President on the Populist ticket giving his platform, (c) the fear of the Democrats and Republicans of this new power in the West they ridicule Weaver, (d) election scene announcing Weaver's defeat and what the farmers might think about it. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 10. Round Table Discussion. Have a group of six pupils show how the modern farmer continues to have many problems faced by the old timers. One per- son will act as chairman. He will ask the following questions of the other members of the Round Table: (a) What have been some of the problems of the past that have bothered farmers? (b) Are farmers scientific in their work? Do they make the best use of their resources? (c) Is the farmer better off today than he was in the late 1800's? Why? (d) What are some steps the farmers have taken to improve their position? What changes are farm- ers making in the way they conduct their farms? (e) How has the govern- ment helped the farmer? For information consult your text. Excellent additional material can be found in five Building America pamphlets, I, "Food"; II, "Conservation"; III, "Our Farmers"; VII, "Cotton"; and IX, "Dairying." We suggest that each person on the Round Table choose one of these pamphlets from which to get ideas to contribute to the dis- cussion. 272 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 11. For Further Information. RUGG, HAROLD, The Conquest of America. Pages 377-97 tell about the cotton kingdom and the effects of the War Between the States upon it. RUGG, HAROLD, America's March Toward Democracy. Pages 234-44 de- scribe life in the cotton kingdom before the War Between the States, 247-67 tell of the rise of the slavery trouble, 281-313 give the campaigns of the war and the problem of rebuilding the South. SCHOFFELMAYER, VICTOR, White Gold. An excellent little book telling about cotton land. BAER, MARION, Pandora's Box. The story of the conservation movement in our country. GAER, JOSEPH, Men and Trees. This interesting little book tells the story of forestry and the United States Forest Service. 12. To Find Out Who's Who. DAUGHERTY, JAMES. Abraham Lincoln. An excellent biography with inter- esting pictures of one of America's great men. HAMILTON, J. G. DE R. AND M. T., Life of Robert E. Lee for Boys and Girls. The story of one of the South's finest gentlemen and great generals. BEATY, J. Y., Luther Burbank, Plant Magician. The story of a man whose life was devoted to improving plants. NOLAN, J. C., The Story of Clara Barton of the Red Cross. The biography of one of the great women of America with emphasis upon her work during the War Between the States. BURLINGAME, ROGER, Whittling Boy; The Story of Eli Whitney. An inter- esting account of the man who invented the cotton gin. NOLAN, J. C., The Little Giant, The Story of Stephen A. Douglas and Abra- ham Lincoln. An interesting book that shows the rivalry and friendship of these two outstanding leaders from the Middle West. 1 3. To Read a Historical Story. SWIFT, H. H., Railroad to Freedom; A Story of the Civil War. Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and then helps more than 300 of her people to freedom by way of the underground railway. Ross, M. I., Morgan's Fourth Son. Tom Morgan scorned farming until he suddenly found himself manager of a farm. The story also shows the ac- tivities of the 4-H movement. SCHMIDT, S. L., New Land. The Morgan twins and their father make a fresh start on new land in Wyoming. SINGMASTER, ELSIE, Swords of Steel; The Story of a Gettysburg Boy. John Deane sees and hears the conflicts of opinions in the days of the War Be- tween the States. KJELGAARD, JIM, Forest Patrol. A thrilling story packed with adventure by a boy who learns about the forest service. HARD TIMES STIR FARMERS TO ACTION 273 14. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Pageant of America: III, 69-296, the story of American agriculture from early days up to modern times; VII, 9-181; IX, 9-43; and VII, 282-327, the story of the War Between the States, of slavery, and of Lincoln's part in these critical years. Building America: I, "Food"; II, "Conservation"; III, "Our Farmers"; VII, "Cotton"; and IX, "Dairying." WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 15. Time Line. Prepare a time line from 1790 to 1910. On one side mark the years when Washington, Jackson, Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt were Presidents. On the other side place the events listed under the red-letter years of each chapter in this unit. Answer the following questions based upon the time line: (a) During whose Presidency was the cotton gin in- vented? (b) During whose administration was the reaper invented? (c) Under what President were the land-grant colleges established? (d) How manv compromises concerning slavery are listed? (e) What President issued the Emancipation Proclamation? 16. Booklet. Make a booklet entitled "Military History." In this show by the use of maps the chief plans of both the North and South in carrying on the war in the West, in the East, and on the sea. List two important com- manders on each side. Mention three key battles and tell why each was important. Make an attractive cover for your booklet. 17. Using the Summary. Turn to page 268 where die summary of the unit be- gins. Which sections of the summary are directly related to the title of the unit? Are the others indirectly related? How? Each part of the summary points out an important idea or mentions important dates and acts. Give an example of how an abundance of land encouraged wasteful methods. Give an example of a "scientifically-minded" farmer. How did the Merrill Act promote agricultural education, and the Hatch Act encourage scientific research? In a similar manner explain or give an example of the ideas and facts mentioned in the remainder of the summary. DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 18. Choosing Words. From the "What Do They Mean" lists in each chapter of this unit select ten words that deal with the farmer and explain how they apply to farming or the farmers' interests. List three words that apply to the Negroes and explain their use. 19. Using the Unit Drawing. Turn to pages 226-27 and study the unit draw- ing. Of the many problems caused by changing agriculture, which has the artist chosen to illustrate? What people and symbols has the artist used to represent the Union? the Confederacy? Some of the characters represent real people. Which of these can you recognize? 20. Men of the Year. Select from this unit the names of eight outstanding men. In two or three sentences tell why each is important to the ideas of this unit or was a man of the year. Unit Six The Machine Age Creates a New Way of Life 16. The Industrial Revolution Ushers in the Machine Age 17. The Misuse of Power by Big Business Leads to Gov- ernment Regulation 1 8. The Machine Age Forces Labor to Organize into Unions 19. Our Country Grows Smaller as Man Conquers Distance Modern times began when the spinning wheel moved from the home to the factory. The steam engine speeded the change. Thousands of inventors and scientists created the machine age. The 100 years after 1840 saw greater changes in our ways of life than in the whole period since the coming of man. As the machine age develops, we see the little shop change into the big factory. The sailing boat becomes the great ocean steamship; the stage coach the modern streamliner. Men are no longer bound to the earth; they now fly from continent to continent. With machinery have come other changes. Little villages have grown into great cities. Little business has grown into big business. Small groups of workers have joined together into great unions. Our way of life changed rapidly and keeps on changing. i< r? 3^- rsaSTl^r"^ x >c- j v He invented a machine by which Hand to Machine Production dght spindles were connect y ed by a belt to a wheel, which could be The invention of simple machines turned by hand. shifts manufacturing from the Hargreaves's machine made it home to the factory. Human beings possible to spin eight threads in- have lived in our world for a long stead of one. A few years later an- time, at least 200,000 years. Gradu- other inventor built a machine to ally during this long period they turn the wheels by water power learned how to use metals and man- rather than by hand. This had ufacture tools, clothing and other many effects. First, it ended the use things which they needed. Until of man power in spinning. The ma- recently, however, all manufactur- chine now made the thread. Man ing was done by hand. This was simply tended the machine. Second, the situation in America during the it made possible the spinning of colonial period. It was less than 200 more thread. Water power is great- years ago that mankind began to er than man power. Instead of one invent machinery. thread at a time spun by a house- The machine age began in the wife, hundreds of threads could be textile industry in the spinning of spun on one machine run by water thread and the weaving of cloth, power. Third, it made thread The colonial housewife made her cheaper. thread in her own kitchen by means What happened in spinning soon of a simple spinning wheel. Her spread to weaving and other indus- method was to draw from a roll tries. New machinery was invented enough wool to make a thread and and water power took the place of then run it over a good sized wheel, hand power. One of the most im- This wheel she kept in motion by portant effects of all this was the de- her hand or by working a treadle velopment of the factory system, with her foot. The thread was then The new machines were large and run through a small wheel or spin- expensive. They must be set up die which twisted it and gave it near rivers where there was water strength. The big wheel made the power. Since the new machines pro- little one spin with great speed. duced goods more cheaply, they put The spinning wheel was, of the little spinning wheel and the course, a crude form of machine. It hand loom out of business. Spinners 282 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY and weavers left their homes or lit- tle shops to seek work tending the big machines in the factories. James Watt invents a practical steam engine. No invention did more to bring in the machine age than the steam engine. It intro- duced a new kind of power. From ancient times men had known that water turned into steam expanded to create power. But it was not un- til 1769 that Watt, a Scotch engi- neer, showed how to use steam in a practical way. Watt discovered how steam could be used over and over again to force a piston back and forth. The back- ward and forward motion of the piston could be applied to the turn- ing of wheels or the driving of a hammer. It was now no longer nec- essary to build factories on streams where there was water power. They could be built anywhere. A steam engine could drive the heaviest ma- chinery. Perhaps the greatest effect of the steam engine was in transportation. Less than 50 years after Watt in- vented his practical engine, other inventors harnessed it to paddle wheels to propel boats. A little later they applied it to wheeled ve- hicles, and steam railroads began. This, as we shall see in Chapter 19, brought a new age in transporta- tion. Samuel Slater is the "father of American manufactures." The in- ventions just described were made in Great Britain. The machine age and the factory system began in that country. Great Britain, in fact, had a 50-year start over the rest of the world in machine production. She became the greatest manufacturing nation in the world. Naturally Britain did not want to lose these advantages. She passed laws forbidding the export of the new machinery. She tried to keep the inventions secret. She- even at- tempted to prevent workmen in the new industries from moving to other countries. Since America was eager to learn about the new machinery, it was impossible to keep the inventions secret. Machinery was smuggled out of Great Britain. Workmen, who knew the machinery well, slipped out of England. When they came to America, they built new machines from memory. The most famous of these immigrants was Samuel Slater, called by President Jackson "the father of American manufac- tures." Slater had been a foreman in im- portant English textile mills. When he came to America he offered his services to two Rhode Island mer- chants who were already experi- menting with textile machines. Slater built from memory his own spinning machines and by 1790 he had started his first mill. Slater's first mill was a tiny affair. Only nine little children tended the machines. It marked, nevertheless, the begin- nings of the American factory sys- tem. Clever Yankee inventors spread the industrial revolution. The first in- ventions which started the Indus- trial Revolution, as we have just read, were made in Great Britain. 284 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY But Britain did not have all of the brains. \Vhen Americans once learned of the new machinery, they set themselves to improve it. More than that they invented new ma- chines, inventions which have done much to change our way of life. One of these, the cotton gin, in- vented by Eli Whitney, we de- scribed in Chapter 14. Of the many thousands of Ameri- can inventions, there is room at this point to mention only three. Eng- lishmen invented the first machin- ery for the spinning and weaving of cloth. But it was a Yankee me- chanic, Elias Howe, who con- structed a machine to put this cloth into quicker use. In 1846 he pat- ented his sewing machine. The sewing machine was a great help to the housewife in making and repairing clothes for the family. More than that the sewing machine made possible the factory produc- tion of dresses and men's suits. The making of clothes shifted from the home to the factory. Finally sewing machines were invented which would sew leather as well as cloth. Then shoemaking also moved from the home or little shop to the big factory. A few years before Howe in- vented the sewing machine, another clever Yankee, Charles Goodyear, discovered how to make useable rubber. Before Goodyear, rubber was of little use; it would melt in hot weather and harden and crack in the winter. Goodyear worked on this problem for years. Finally he discovered that if he mixed sulphur with rubber and heated it, the final product could be used at any time. Goodyear's discovery was the be- ginning of a great industry. Even more important to modern life than rubber is steel. It is hard to think of a machine age without plenty of good cheap steel. Man- kind had known for hundreds of years how to make steel, but the process was long and costly. In the 1850's an American, Wil- liam Kelly, and an Englishman, Sir William Bessemer, discovered about the same time a new and cheaper way of making steel. The process was simple. After the iron was melted, a blast of air was forced through it. This burned out the impurities. Once the iron was pure, the right amount of carbon or other material could be added to make a hard and yet elastic steel. Steel is a much better metal than iron. It has greater strength and is less brittle. The Kelly-Bessemer process made steel as cheap as iron had been. Be- fore this process steel had been manufactured by the pound. Now it was turned out by the ton. In- stead of three months, it now took only half an hour to make steel. Thousands of useful products which before had been too costly were now within reach of all. With good cheap steel, the machine age could develop rapidly. Little Shops Grow into Greai Factories The War of 1812 and a growing country increase the number . of small factories. It was more than 20 years after Slater set up his first lit- THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 285 tie spinning mill before America really turned to factory production. Since England had a ^0-year start on us in manufacturing, she had machinery and skilled workers. Therefore she could make products more cheaply than we could. Most Americans in the early 1800's were farmers. They raised food, cut lumber, and produced other raw materials. These were sent to Europe and sold. With the money merchants bought manufac- tured goods which they brought back and sold in America. In this way each continent met the needs of the other. This two-way trade might have gone on much longer if it had not been for a war. England and France with their allies were engaged for about 25 years in a life-and-death struggle. Finally in 1812 the United States was drawn into this war against Great Britain. One impor- tant result was to interrupt our trade with Europe. When the war cut off our supply of manufactured goods from Eu- rope, we turned to making them ourselves. As foreign commerce stopped, wealthy merchants and shipowners put their money into manufacturing. Small factories sprang up like mushrooms, particu- larly along the little rivers of New England. These were mainly textile factories, but other products were also manufactured. The most fam- ous of these factories was built by Francis Cabot Lowell at Waltham, Massachusetts. Here, for the first time in the world, all the processes of spinning and weaving were brought together in one factory. War or no war, America was bound some day to be a great manu- facturing nation (see map, page 283). She had everything necessary for large-scale industry. First of all, the people of the United States wanted to buy manufactured goods. There was a sure market in this country. America was large and her population was increasing rapidly. Frontiersmen already had pushed over the Alleghenies and were oc- cupying the great Mississippi Val- ley. Besides a market, America had a vast store of raw materials. Few na- tions had so much of so many things. An abundance of power, water, coal, and oil could turn the machinery. Millions of acres of fer- tile farms could produce many needed materials. Beneath the ground were iron, copper, sulphur, limestone, and many other materi- als. Another war speeds the growth of the factory system. Although the number of factories grew, the chief interest of the nation continued to be agriculture. England could still produce manufactured goods more cheaply and sell them in the Ameri- can market. Even if we did manu- facture, it was hard to get the goods to the market. Railroads had not yet been built, and goods had to be carried long distances over poor roads. There were rivers, of course, but generally they flowed in the wrong direction. Most American rivers start in the north and run in a southerly direction. People, on the other hand, were moving west. If the manufacturer was to reach 286 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY the market, lie must follow the west- times as many workmen were en- ward-moving frontiersmen. Many gaged in making it. Before 1860 raw materials were also found in most steel mills were in western the West. These must be brought Pennsylvania. The mills now spread east to be manufactured. south into Alabama and west into Two influences in the middle Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and else- 1800's helped turn America into a where. Steel was the foundation great manufacturing nation. The stone upon which America built the first was the building of railroads. Industrial Revolution (see map, Railroads made it possible to ship page 283). manufactured products quickly and cheaply to the West. They also _ brought back farm products and 1 oday the Machine Age raw materials to feed busy people Means MaSS Production . . and machines. The second great influence was From Eli Whitney to Henry Ford, the War Between the States. This industry moves toward mass pro- lasted four years (1861-65). At duction. In less than 30 years after one time or another several million the War Between the States had men were in the army. As in every ended, America had taken Eng- war, the demand for food, clothing, land's place as the greatest manu- arms, and munitions greatly in- facturing nation in the world. We creased. The government gave large turned out more factory products orders to almost every factory that than Great Britain and half as could produce goods needed by the much as all Europe put together, army or navy. Raw materials and Yankee clever- Hundreds of thousands of farm ness, of course, made this possible, boys enlisted during the war, and Also important was the fact that farmers bought machinery to do America first learned the secret of their work the new machinery de- modern manufacture, scribed in Chapter 13. The army What was this secret that gave needed food, and meat packing be- America leadership? It was the came one of the most important knowledge of how to produce goods American industries. The woolen cheaply by means of mass produc- industry more than doubled during /ton. Eli Whitney, as we know, first the war. By the end of the conflict got the idea. No one has explained America had turned very definitely it better than Whitney's friend, to manufacturing. Thomas Jefferson. Said Jefferson: In the great industrial advance "He has invented molds and ma- during and after the war, steel was chines for making his locks [for the key industry. The war demands guns] so exactly equal that, take started the development; the Kelly- 100 locks to pieces and mingle their Bessemer process made it possible, parts and the 100 locks may be put Eight times as much steel was pro- together by taking the pieces which duced in 1880 as in 1860. About 12 come to hand." THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 287 The Ford Rouge Plant at Dearborn, Michigan, shown in this picture, gives some idea of the tremendous size of just one of the Ford Motor Company plants. Large scale industry with mass production and the assembly line has resulted in factories like this one. (Courtesy Ford Motor Company) This idea does not seem very ex- citing to us. Products have been made this way so long that we hardly think of any other way. Nev- ertheless, it was new 150 years ago. Only gradually did manufacturers adopt it. Before Whitney a single work- man made the entire product. Gan you imagine a single workman mak- ing an airplane today? One ma- chine stamps out the body, other machines make the engine, still others turn out the wheels, spark plugs, batteries, wires, and so on. Sometimes a single factory gives its whole time to making a small part of a big machine. A factory in Ak- ron, Ohio, may make the tires which go on a plane made in De- troit, Michigan. If one workman or factory gives its entire attention to making a sin- gle part, the product can be made more rapidly and more cheaply. Although many skilled mechanics are still employed, most workers simply tend machines that produce the parts or assemble the parts after they are made. The "assembly line" has become an important part of modern factory production. The assembly line means fast pro- duction. It makes possible "mass production" the turning out of many units. When Henry Ford started mass production in 1907, he planned to turn out 10,000 cars a year. Fifteen years later, as he grad- ually perfected the assembly line, he was turning out 5,000 a day. A typical modern car has as many as 4,000 parts. A powerful machine first drives 30 or more holes in an engine block. The engine is then placed on a conveyor. As the con- veyor moves down a long room, var- ious parts of the automobile are added to the engine. Sometimes a single workman adds only a few bolts or tightens a few screws. Finally the completed job rolls out z88 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Mil " , This assembly line shows both a line of tanks (right) and a line of tank destroyers (left) as they near completion. The picture was taken in the Fisher Body Division of the General Motors Company at Grand Blanc, Michigan. (Ewing Galloway) of the factory. Since fewer skilled workmen are needed, the assembly line also means cheap production. The machine age changes greatly our way of life. The machine age has changed our way of life in many ways. Before the Industrial Revolu- tion almost all of the people lived in the country or in small towns. When machinery was invented, workers moved to live near the fac- tories. When the United States be- gan as a nation, only one person in 20 lived in a town of 2,500 or more. Today over half of our people live in such towns or cities (see chart, page 289). This movement to the cities is true of all industrial na- tions. Machine products, as we have al- ready said, can be made more cheaply. This means that more peo- ple can have more things. A well- paid workman today can obtain more things and live in greater com- fort than a king in earlier times. Machinery, mass production, and the assembly line have raised the standard of living for most people. The effects of machinery, how- ever, are not all gain. Machines tend to control man rather than man the machines. The man on the assembly line must keep up with the conveyor. He must keep a cer- tain pace day after day. Instead of really building a machine as in ear- lier years, he does only one tiny operation day after day, year after year. He becomes in a sense a tiny cog in the great machine of produc- tion. The machine has taken him prisoner. There is little in this sort of work to stir the mind. It is a deadly routine. Machinery has done more than that. It has set a pattern of life THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 289 PERCENT GROWTH OF TOWNS AND CITIES POPULATION 2500 OR MORE PERCENT 1790 1840 1890 1940 which we are all likely to follow. Factories turn out clothing of the same style. We begin to dress alike whether we live in New York or in a little village in Kansas. We rush to offices and factories at the same time to produce or distribute the products of the new machinery. When we turn on our radios at night millions listen to the same music or laugh at the same jokes at the same time. Millions listen at the same time to the same speaker who tries to make us think as he does. People in New York and Los Angeles read in the newspapers the same articles on the same day. Tele- graphs, cables, and radios have made this possible. Whether for good or ill we come more and more to work, play, and think in the same way. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Explain the meaning of each of the following terms in relation to our in- dustrial development. 1. manufacture 3. craftsmen 5. Kelly-Bessemer process 2. mass production 4. antiques 6. assembly line WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1790: Why is this date important in our industrial history? 1846: What invention in this year completely changed the textile industry? ago U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 1907: What process was introduced in this year, making possible mass produc- tion of automobiles and later applied to other industries? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Explain: "Every colonial farmer was a little manufacturer." 2. Why did industries begin to spring up in shops even in colonial times? 3. Give two examples of British inventions that were the basis for the In- dustrial Revolution. 4. In what industry did the machine age have its start? What were at least four improvements made in this industry? 5. Why did Britain try to keep ideas about new machines from going abroad? 6. What American inventions and improvements on old inventions helped to spread the Industrial Revolution? 7. How did the War of 1812 affect our trade and manufacturing? 8. Show the effects of the new railroads and of the War Between the States upon manufacturing. 9. How does work on the assembly line differ from the work of the skilled mechanic? 10. From the map on page 283, list five states where you would find many manufacturing plants. In what states would you find oil refining, textile manufacturing, meat packing, and lumbering? 11. The machine age has several important results. What has been its effect upon: (a) towns and cities, (b) the cost of finished products, (c) workers, and (d) the way we live? 12. What contributions did each of the following make to the industrial de- velopment of America: Francis Cabot Lowell, Samuel Slater, Elias Howe, William Kelly, and Henry Ford? 13. Summary Question: What is the new way of life that the machine age has brought? Chapter 17. The Misuse of Power by Big Business Leads to Government Regulation . . . In the early 1900's two men had control of all the railroad routes from the Mississippi to the Pacific. Edward H. Harriman con- trolled the central and southern routes and James J. Hill through the Northern Securities Company the northern routes. This was a company set up to control the three great railroads serving the Northwest the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, and the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy. These two men and their financial backers enjoyed complete control of transportation west of the Mississippi. They could determine freight rates, passenger fares, and quality of service. They had no competitors. A few years earlier Congress had passed an act making such practices illegal. When the people of the nation understood the situation in the West, they demanded action. President Theodore Roosevelt decided to remedy this situation. He would ask the Attorney General to bring the Northern Securities Company to court because it was set up for one purpose to unite the three great railroads serving the Northwest under one control. When J. Pierpont Morgan, the financial backer of Hill, heard of Roose- velt's intention, he rushed to Washington. "If we have done anything wrong," said he to Roosevelt, "send your man [meaning the Attorney General] to my man and they can fix it up." "That can't be done," said the President. Added the Attorney General, who was present at the interview, "We don't want to fix it up, we want to stop it." Greatly disturbed, Morgan inquired, "Are you going to attack my other interests, the Steel Trust and others?" "Certainly not," replied the President, "unless we find out that in any case you have done something that we regard as wrong." Evidently the Supreme Court believed that the Northern Securities Com- pany had done wrong in the eyes of the law. The court declared it to be a monopoly and ordered it to go out of business. "If Congress has not," said the court, "described this and like cases [in the Anti-Monopoly Act], it would . . . be impossible to find words that would describe them." 291 292 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY A CORPORATION AT WORK t CHARTER FROM STATED i / .\j. STOCKHOLDERS ELECT MANAGERS ft DIRECTORS AND OFFICERS APPOINT Many Business Companies Unite in Great Corporations Today the corporation is the most important form of business organi- zation. In the last chapter we dis- cussed the coming of the machine age. We also noted the development of big factories and mass produc- tion. Heavy machinery and large factories are very costly. In fact, a great manufacturing plant usually costs more money than any single person has to put into it. As a re- sult, great companies of many per- sons are formed to carry on the busi- ness. These great companies are called corporations. The railroad com- panies and the Northern Securities Company mentioned at the begin- ning of the chapter are examples. They operate under state laws and under charters obtained from a gov- ernment. A corporation charter is simply a permission granted by the government to a group of people to carry on a business. The charter allows this group to do certain things. The most important right that it grants is the power to raise money by selling shares in the cor- poration to the public. After a charter is obtained and the corporation started, the holders of the charter decide how much money they need. Then they try to get it by selling shares in the cor- poration. A share in such a corpo- ration is known as a share of stock. If a corporation needs $100,000, it may sell 1,000 shares of stock at $100 a share. The person who buys MISUSE OF POWER 293 one share of stock then owns 1/1000 of the company. If the company makes a profit, he has a right to 1/1000 of the profits. This way of raising money has many advantages. First of all, many people can usually provide more money than a few. The American Telephone and Telegraph Com- pany has more than 600,000 stock- holders; the General Motors Com- pany has more than 200,000. Al- most all great corporations have thousands of stockholders. Another advantage is that a man of small income may invest his sav- ings in a great and prosperous com- pany. He may not have enough to start a company of his own, but he can buy shares in corporations. Moreover, he can put as much or as little in the company as he pleases. If he feels that it is too risky to put all in one company, he can buy shares in various companies. As a part owner of the company, a stockholder has the right to vote for the directors of the company. If he goes to the annual stockhold- ers' meeting, he can debate and vote on policies. Each share of stock usually entitles him to one vote. One reason why the state govern- ment grants charters to corpora- tions is to encourage people to do things which the government itself does not want to do. The govern- ment, if it cared to, could use the taxpayers' money to build railroads, telephone lines, and great factories. In America it has preferred to let private individuals do these things. A corporation is a type of business organization which makes this pos- sible (see chart, page 292). John D. Rockefeller, oil king, sets the pace. The purpose of granting charters to form corporations was to benefit the country. Sometimes these corporations have become so powerful that they have harmed as well as helped the nation. They have sometimes grown so large as to control an entire field of busi- ness. When a corporation has such powers it is known as a monopoly or "trust." The first great monopoly in this country was the Standard Oil Com- pany. Its founder was John D. Rockefeller. Rockefeller was born in 1839 on a farm in central New York. Later the family moved west- ward to Cleveland, and there Rockefeller got his first job at the age of 16. After three years as a clerk in a wholesale produce com- pany, he and a partner started their own firm. This concern was so suc- cessful that Rockefeller, by the time he was 23, had made enough money to invest in an oil refinery. The oil business, which Rocke- feller entered, was still in its in- fancy. Scarcely three years had passed since Drake had bored the first well in Titusville, Pennsyl- vania. Young as it was, the industry was growing rapidly. People were turning from candles and whale oil to petroleum to light their houses. The center of early oil produc- tion was northwestern Pennsyl- vania. Much of it was refined in Cleveland. Rockefeller while on business trips had visited the boom- ing oil towns and had studied the business. Oil, he was convinced, had a boundless future. He had barely reached his middle twenties John D. Rockefeller by the time he had reached middle age had created a monopoly in oil refining and was branching out into railroads, industry, and banking. Already he had planned large gifts for research and education. This painting by Eastman Johnson, owned by the University of Chicago, shows Rockefeller in middle age at the height of his business activity. MISUSE OF POWER 295 before he was dreaming of con- from their rivals by buying up the trolling the entire industry. pipe lines. Still another method was ROCKEFELLER ENTERS THE Busi- to get the railroads to give Stand- NESS OF REFINING OIL. As Rocke- ard better rates for transporting oil feller studied the oil industry, he than their rivals could get. saw that refining was the most im- Rockefeller's most famous tri- portant part of the business. Oil is umph was a victory, not over little of little use unless it is refined, oil men, but over the mighty Penn- Whoever could obtain a monopoly sylvania Railroad. A certain Joseph of refining could control the whole D. Potts, owner of a pipe line, per- industry. Producers would have to suaded the Pennsylvania Railroad sell to the refiner and consumers to back him in his fight against would have to buy from him. A re- Rockefeller. With the help of Penn- fining monopoly could pay what it sylvania money, he purchased re- pleased to oil producers and charge fineries in New York and Philadel- what it pleased to consumers. Rock- phia. Potts and the Pennsylvania efeller determined to gain a monop- now had transportation from the oly of oil refining. oil regions and refineries on the sea- During the War Between the coast. States Rockefeller made his first Rockefeller met the challenge, venture into oil. He bought stock He persuaded the New York Cen- in a little refinery producing ten tral and the Erie to cut the cost of barrels a day. Ten years later he transporting oil and then he re- and his able partners had control of duced the price of refined oil. Un- most of the refining in Cleveland, luckily for the Pennsylvania, a se- the largest refining center in the vere railroad strike tied up their world. Then they pushed out to lines in 1877. Between the strike capture the refining business in and the competition with Rockefel- New York, Philadelphia, and Pitts- ler, the Pennsylvania lost millions, burgh. Rockefeller and his partners It gave up the fight and forced Potts were wealthy and they offered to to sell both pipe line and refineries buy rival refineries at high prices, to Rockefeller. Most of the owners sold, but a few Twenty years after Rockefeller refused and fought back. If they re- had started in oil he had control of fused to sell, Standard Oil crushed nine-tenths of all the refining busi- them by every means, fair or ness in the country. Standard Oil foul. also owned most of the pipe lines. One method of crushing com- It had set up storage tanks in the petitors was to find out who their chief cities and had its own sales customers were, and then sell to force to market its products. It not the same customers at lower prices, only manufactured kerosene but by- Standard might have to take products paraffin, naphtha, vase- a temporary loss, but later it could line, and lubricating oils. It sold raise prices and recover its loss. An- even more in foreign countries than other method was to cut off the oil at home. 296 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY ROCKEFELLER GIVES AS WELL AS he died at the age of 98 (1937), he RECEIVES. The Standard Oil mo- had given away over $500,000,000. nopoly lasted for at least 30 years. Throughout these years it was bit- In growing large, the Standard Oil terly criticized. Time and again the Company gobbles up little rivals. courts tried to break the monopoly. During the early years of an indus- Finally, other large concerns came try, there are usually many rival in to share the business. In the companies. That was the situation meantime, it made the Oil King the in the early oil industry. Dozens of richest man in the world. different refineries owned by dif- Rockefeller was quite heartless ferent companies were scattered in driving out competitors and through the cities of the Middle charging whatever he pleased. His West and Atlantic seacoast. Under competitors looked upon him as a such conditions there is bound to villain. The public criticized him; be keen rivalry and competition, the press attacked him for years. The competition, in fact, often be- He did, however, do many good comes so bitter that few companies things. For one thing, he believed can make money. The weaker corn- strongly in giving money to good panics fail or sell out to the stronger causes. As a youth he had contrib- ones. Sometimes the stronger ones uted regularly to his church. By the deliberately crush the little ones by time he was 60 he had given away underselling them, even if they more wealth than any person who have to .take a temporary loss them- had yet lived. And these gifts were selves, wisely distributed. It is scarcely possible for one com- His first great donation was to pany to crush all its rivals or get found the University of Chicago, all the business. Another method, Altogether he gave the University therefore, has been tried to soften $45,000,000. With his help it be- or end competition. Various con- came one of the world's great cen- cerns engaged in the same kind of ters of learning. Later he estab- business will join together and set lished a General Education Board up a top concern t supervise and to distribute money to many schools make policies for them all. This and colleges. These gifts were us- super-company or corporation is ually made when the colleges them- known as a holding company. The selves agreed to raise certain Northern Securities Company, de- amounts, scribed at the beginning of the Rockefeller was interested in chapter, was such a holding corn- other types of education, particu- pany. larly research. His largest donations If you will look at the chart in went to the Rockefeller Founda- this chapter on page 297, you will tion, which finances research of all see how a holding company is or- kinds. He set up a special founda- ganized. Each separate company tion, the Medical Institute, for the that goes into the merger or combi- laboratory study of diseases. When nation turns over to the holding MISUSE OF POWER 297 HOW A HOLDING COMPANY CONTROLS >( HOLDING 'COMPANY company enough of its stock so that the top company or holding com- pany can control it. This usually means that the holding company has more than 50 per cent of the stock of the lesser company. The lesser companies may also be hold- ing companies, controlling more than 50 per cent of the stock of other companies. A top holding company ordinar- ily does little business itself. The Northern Securities Company, for example, did no railroading. It sim- ply held a controlling number of shares of stock in three companies which did. The same is true of a holding company in manufactur- ing. It usually does no manufactur- ing. Its main concern is to decide policies and determine prices. It also decides what products its vari- ous companies can manufacture and where and under what conditions they may sell them. The Standard Oil once set up such a holding company the Standard Oil Company of New Jer- sey. It was made up of the Standard Oil Company of New York, the Standard Oil Company of Ohio, and many other concerns. The Standard Oil Company of New Jer- sey was finally broken up because it violated the anti-monopoly laws. Nevertheless, there are hundreds of holding companies in this country today. The greatest in weakh is the American Telephone and Tele- graph Company. It has many lesser companies located in all sections of the country. Another famous hold- ing company is the United States Steel Corporation. 298 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Ford Engineering Laboratory at Detroit, Michigan, is where the Ford engineers design new models and test new machinery. An idea of the important part taken by research scientists in industry may be gained from the size of this building. (Courtesy Ford Motor Company) Big Business May Benefit the Public as Well as Harm It . . Big business can produce and sell more cheaply. The fact that a busi- ness is big does not necessarily mean that it is harmful to the public. On the contrary, it is usually of great benefit. Almost any manufacturer will tell you that he can produce the same product more cheaply in large amounts than in small. This means that he can also sell it more cheaply. Why is large-scale production cheaper? First of all, the manufac- turer saves on machinery. One of the most costly parts of manufactur- ing is the building of machinery. Every time a new product is made new machinery must be designed and built to manufacture that prod- uct. In some industries, such as the making of automobiles, where styles may change every year, new machinery must be built each year. If a machine can turn out 1,000,000 products instead of 1,000, the cost of each is bound to be cheaper. Big business saves in many other ways. Advertising often costs the manufacturer the same whether he sells 1,000 products or 1,000,000. If the cost is spread over the sale of many units, each unit will bear a smaller part of the cost. Since the consumer in the end pays for the advertising, he benefits when many units are sold. A large and wealthy business is in a better position to hire abler managers, salesmen, and factory workers. It has the money to pay larger salaries and wages. Because MISUSE OF POWER 299 of its strong position, it is able, if Although rubber has been made it needs to borrow from the banks, for over 100 years, it was of poor to obtain money at a cheaper rate quality until recently. Chemists and of interest. If it is big enough to other scientists have discovered how have factories in different parts of to improve the product to make it the country, it can save on trans- wear longer. The problem has been portation costs. It can also save by largely one of mixing the right buying raw materials in quantities, chemicals with the rubber in the One of the most important bene- right amount. An automobile own- fits of big business is that it can em- er 30 years ago was lucky if he ploy engineers, scientists, and re- could get 3,000 miles out of a tire, search men. These men devote their and he spent much of his time lives to building better machinery patching and repairing. Today, if and to improving the product, he is careful, he can get 30,000 They discover cheaper ways of mak- miles. Tires today are ten times as ing old products, and they show good and they cost half as much, how to make new ones. The re- Rubber chemistry, in fact, has search staff is often the most im- made such strides that the world is portant part of an industry. In the no longer dependent upon natural end their work benefits the con- rubber. After the Japanese cap- sumer. tured the great rubber plantations in the East Indies in the Second The rubber industry illustrates the World War, Europe and America benefits of large-scale production, turned to synthetic or chemical rub- All this can be illustrated from the ber. Chemists had already discov- rubber industry. Although there ered that good rubber could be are many companies making rub- manufactured from oil or from corn ber products, there are four big and other agricultural products, ones which lead the way. These four are large enough to benefit from When a business controls markets large-scale production. Each one and prices, it is a monopoly. Mere can make millions of tires a year size, as we have pointed out, does and save in all the ways just men- not make a business dangerous to- tioned. a nation. It is when a single busi- No industry has profited more ness decides to act as a monopoly from the work of the research men. that danger arises and power is mis- Each of these four big companies used; that is, when it becomes so hires hundreds of engineers and sci- powerful as to control markets and enlists. When Charles Goodyear in prices. If it wins such control, it the 1840's discovered how to make can prevent competition and keep practical rubber, the industry made other manufacturers from entering only rubber boots, overshoes, and the business. raincoats. Today one company in Monopolies may develop in many the industry makes 30,000 different ways. The government may give an products. inventor a patent which allows him 300 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY *4 This anti-monopoly cartoon called "Jingle Bells" was published in 1910 at the height of the trust-busting period. The little fellow representing "The Common Man" is being driven by the monopolies (meat and coal) already fat with large and unfair profits. (F. B. Opper in New York American) the exclusive right to manufacture his product for a number of years. This is done to encourage inven- tion. A city may grant one electric company the right to sell power in that community. 'Since it is imprac- tical for more than one electric company to distribute in the same city, a monopoly exists. The city, however, keeps some control over the business. Many monopolies in industry, however, develop because one com- pany grows so large that it can de- termine prices and policies for the whole industry. More commonly a monopoly is established, as we have pointed out, when a number of im- portant companies join together in- to one great holding company. This is the kind of monopoly that may be dangerous to the public welfare. There are three main reasons why the public usually opposes such monopolies. First of all, a monopoly can dictate prices to the producer of raw materials. We have shown how the Standard Oil Company, when it got a monopoly of refining, could decide what it would pay for the raw oil taken out of the ground. Another example is the meat pack- ing business. For many years five great companies controlled this in- dustry. By agreeing among them- selves they could determine the prices paid for beef on the hoof. If the cattlemen did not accept the price, they had no market. Monopoly, in the second place, gives the power to dictate prices to the consumer. The consumer must buy the product from the monopoly and pay the price asked. Such ne- MISUSE OF POWER 301 cessities include sugar, meat, oil, tie. The people demanded that the and steel products. At one time or national government do something, another there have been monopoly In 1890 Congress passed the Sher- prices for all these products. A situ- man Anti-Trust Act. ation like this enables a monopoly Congress tackled the problem by to sell at prices higher than neces- using a power granted to it by the sary. The consumer pays more than Constitution. This is the power to he should and the monopoly makes regulate trade between states and greater profits than it should. with foreign countries [28]. The Finally, a monopoly may give Sherman Act forbade manufactur- careless and inefficient service. This ers or others to band together to often happens in the transportation control any product shipped across business. It may also sell a poor state boundaries or to foreign na- product when it could make a bet- tions. ter one. The Sherman Act was clear enough, but it accomplished little. Many industries disobeyed the act. TL r* / r i' D- The courts did little to enforce it. L he Evil Practices Oj Big S ome monopolies, like the Standard Business Force the Govern- Oil Company of New Jersey, were ment to Act finall y broken U P> but little was gained. All agreed that the Sherman Act had failed. The government passes laws to Twenty-four years after the Sher- end monopolies. What can be done ma n Act, Congress tried again. In when a monopoly becomes so pow- 1914 it passed the Clayton Anti- erful that the public is helpless? Trust Act. This was more detailed There are three possible ways to than the earlier act. It stated very attack the problem. (1) The govern- definitely what practices were il- ment may pass laws in an effort to legal. By another act Congress set break up the monopoly and restore U p the Federal Trade Commission competition. (2) It can let the mo- to help enforce the Clayton Act. nopoly exist, but regulate it so that This commission was to study busi- it does not injure the public. (3) ness practices and point out to in- The government itself may go into dustries when they were breaking business and compete with a private the monopoly laws, monopoly. The Clayton Act and the Fed- Big business and monopolies eral Trade Commission have done grew rapidly in the years following much. But they have not solved the the War Between the States. By monopoly problem. Courts found 1890 the nation was so aroused it about as hard to break up old against the developing monopolies monopolies as to unscramble eggs. that it demanded action. Already Moreover, new monopolies devel- many states had passed anti-monop- oped, and the public still suffers oly laws, but they accomplished lit- from monopoly practices. 302 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 3992. Adulteration of candy. U. S. v. 233 Boxes of Candy (and 2 additional seizure actions against candy). Default decrees of condemnation and destruction. (F. D. C. Nos. 7781, 7806, 7852. Sample Nos. 80810-E, 98091-E, 98092-E, 98093-E, 98705-E, 98706-E.) Wood fragments, sand, wool fibers, metal fragments, insect fragments, and mammalian hairs resembling those of rodents were found in samples taken from these candies. On June 19 and 26, and July 3, 1942, the United States attorneys for the Northern District of Ohio and the District of Massachusetts filed libels against 233 boxes of candy at Cleveland, Ohio, 100 boxes of candy at Brockton, Mass., and 308 boxes of candy at Chelsea, Mass., alleging that the article had been shipped in interstate commerce on or about May 12, 15, and 16, 1942, by the Co. from Chicago, 111.; and charging that it was adulterated in that it consisted in whole or in part of a filthy substance. The article was labeled in part: (Boxes) "Jaw Breakers," "Spearmint Leaves," "Victory Balls With Saf-T Stix," "Kumbak Balls." On July 23 and August 17, 1942, no claimant having appeared, judgments of condemnation were entered and the product was ordered destroyed. The Food and Drug Administration of the Federal Security Agency takes such action as that described in this picture of a printed government report to enforce die Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938. In this case die filthy candy was simply seized and destroyed by order of die court. Quite often fines are imposed for the offense. The government tries regulation. When the housewife buys meat, she Sometimes it is impossible or un- cannot tell whether it comes from wise to break up a monopoly. In a healthy animal and is packed in such a case the government has a sanitary manner. The Meat In- stepped in to regulate that business, spection Act of 1906 provided for A railroad, a telephone company, government inspection of meat or a gas company are monopolies shipped in interstate commerce. If of such a type. How the government the act is well enforced, the buyer began this type of regulation when is assured of clean meat, it passed the Interstate Commerce The same principle of protection Act of 1887 to control railroads we to the consumer was applied in the have told in Chapter 15. Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. This type of regulation has been This act forbids anyone to ship extended to motor vehicles engaged adulterated or misbranded food and in carrying passengers or freight drugs in interstate commerce. A few across state lines. It has been ex- years later another act forbade pat- tended to include companies trans- ent medicine manufacturers from porting electric power. The air- claiming falsely that their products line companies, the telegraph, tel- would cure a disease. If every per- ephone, and radio companies, and son were a chemist and had a chemi- many others are under federal regu- cal laboratory in his home, he could lation. determine for himself if he was buy- Sometimes the government steps ing pure food or drugs. Since he is in to protect the consumer against not a chemist, the government steps buying products that are harmful, in to protect him. MISUSE OF POWER :.....*:*., ***>>.*- TVA A GREAT EXPERIMENT MISSISSIPPI r*Ts Tennessee River Valley Dams ALABAMA Scale of Miles 25 50 75 100 In the Tennessee Valley the govern- ment tries a new experiment to solve an old problem. Besides break- ing up monopolies through the courts and regulating business, the government, of course, can go into business itself. If a government de- cides to go into business, it can break up a monopoly and bring back competition. A government in business may even establish a mo- nopoly. The post office is such a monopoly. In 1933 Congress decided that the government would manufac- ture electric power and sell it in the great area of the Tennessee Valley (see map, above). This would bring it into competition with local companies. In fact, it might put some of them out of business. In any case, government production would provide a yardstick to meas- ure the cost of electric power. The consumer could find out how much it really cost to manufacture elec- tricity. There is a long history back of the Tennessee Valley experiment. In the First World War the govern- ment built a great dam at Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee River to manufacture chemicals for explo- sives. After the war many believed that the government should con- tinue to use the dam to manufac- ture fertilizer for farmers. This group was led by Senator George Norris of Nebraska who fought tire- lessly for government operation of Muscle Shoals. Others believed that the government should sell the plant to private business. Little wai done until 1933. In that year Congress decided on a great experiment. It created a Tennessee Valley Authority. This organization was to do far more 304 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Tennessee Valley Authority by producing cheap electricity has encouraged many new industries to locate in the region. Here the Aluminum Company of America has established a large factory to meet the increased demand for aluminum brought about by the war. (Courtesy Tennessee Valley Authority) than to keep the dam at Muscle Shoals running. It was to build other dams on the Tennessee and other nearby rivers. These dams could furnish power to manufac- ture cheap fertilizer and electricity. They would also improve naviga- tion on these rivers and control floods. This was even more than Senator N orris hoped for. In brief, the business of the TVA was to see what could be done to improve the life of an entire region. Cheap fertilizer would help farm- ers. Cheap electric power would aid both agriculture and industry. Bet- ter transportation and flood control would help all. Land could be im- proved and perhaps new industries encouraged. . The TVA was the first such ex- periment ever attempted in this country. As a whole it has fulfilled the hopes of its founders and back- ers. It has stirred the entire region to new economic life. It has done much to aid the war effort. It has, however, taken the government in- to business and into competition with private concerns. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show how each of the following terms applies to the development of business in the United States. 1. corporation 5. stockholder 9. holding company 2. charter 6. monopoly 10. consumer 3. stock 7. competitor 11. anti-trust laws 4. company 8. research 12. interstate commerce MISUSE OF POWER 305 WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1887: Why was an act passed in this year important to trade from one state to another? 1890: How did an act passed in this year affect big business? What was the act? 1914: What act was passed in this year to regulate big business? 1933: What new venture did our government undertake in the South in this year? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Using the chart on page 292, explain how a corporation is formed. 2. What are the advantages of a corporation for raising money? 3. List at least two privileges of a stockholder. 4. Show the steps by which Rockefeller secured a monopoly of the oil refining industry. 5. In what ways has Rockefeller tried to use his vast fortune for the public good? 6. Explain how a holding company controls the other companies under it. Consult the chart on page 297. 7. Why can a large company often produce goods more cheaply than a small company? Give an example of ways in which the cost of goods is lowered. 8. Why was the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey considered a holding company? 9. What are three ways to secure a monopoly? 10. In what three ways may monopolies be against the public interest? 11. What attempts did Congress make to break the power of monopolies? 12. What were the main purposes of the TVA project? On the map on page 303 name and locate two important industries and three dams. 13. Summary Question: Why did the rise of the large corporations and mo- nopolies lead to government regulation? In whose interest was the gov- ernment acting in making these laws? Chapter 18. The Machine Age Forces Labor to Organize into Unions .... . . . One Sunday afternoon in 1869 Uriah S. Stevens and a fel- low worker set out for a stroll. Both belonged to the Garment Cutters As- sociation in Philadelphia and both were dissatisfied with the organization. It had ceased to be of use to its members. As they talked Stevens said, I have been looking all my life for some- thing that will help the workers, "something that will develop more of charity, less of selfishness; more of generosity, less of stinginess and mean- ness than the average society. I cannot find it. We want to establish a so- ciety that will place manhood and its needs at the forefront instead of the dollar he pays in." They talked for hours about the possibility of founding a new society. When they parted each agreed to invite a chosen few to meet at a certain spot in Fairmount Park on the following Sunday. The next week eight or nine of the older and more reliable members of the Association appeared. They agreed to draw up plans for a new organization. Each Sunday they met in the park. The men would take three benches and place them in the form of a triangle. They would read off the plans drawn up during the week. If it rained they would seek shelter in a park building. In cold weather they met in the homes of the members. Under the leadership of Stevens the plans were finally perfected. In December a resolution was offered to bring to an end the Garment Cutters Association. It was approved by a large majority. In place of the old or- ganization Stevens founded a new society the Knights of Labor. Starting with a handful of clothing workers, the Knights of Labor grew into a large union. It was the first great federation of American unions and the most important labor organization that had yet appeared in America. More than that, it was labor's answer to big business and monopolies. Small units in industry were uniting to form large ones; small units of workers were doing the same to form big unions. 306 LABOR ORGANIZES INTO UNIONS 3<>7 In the Machine Age Labor Meets Entirely New Con- ditions In colonial days there is little need for unions. At least two conditions are necessary for labor unions to exist. First, there must be enough workers in a trade or industry to form a union. Second, they must live close together so that they can unite and carry on the business of a union. Neither of these conditions really existed in colonial America. The typical American of the colonial period was a small farmer. When he needed a manufactured product, he was more likely to make it himself than to buy it. Since each farmer was his own manufacturer, he hard- ly needed to join a union. There were, of course, agricul- tural workers on the large tobacco, rice, and indigo plantations of the South. But there was little chance that they could ever form a union. Almost all of them were either "in- dentured servants" or slaves. The indentured servant was an immi- grant who agreed to serve a master for a certain number of years in exchange for payment of his pas- sage to America. The slaves were Negroes brought from Africa and sold to the planters. Neither the indentured servants nor the slaves were free men. Unions can exist only among free men in a free coun- try. Not all Americans were farmers. Some craftsmen in the little towns gave their entire time to manufac- turing blacksmiths, millers, leath- er workers, cabinetmakers, and oth- ers. But the shops were small. The owner or "master workman" rarely had more than one or two helpers. The shops were small because there were few buyers. The farmers made what they could themselves. Few people lived in the towns. At the end of the Revolution there were only five towns of over 8,000 population Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, and Bal- timore. Only one of these, Phila- delphia, had 20,000. In brief, wage earners were too few and too scat- tered to organize unions. The factory system brings new hardships to workers. This picture of colonial labor changed with the Industrial Revolution. In Chapter 16 we described how hand manufac- ture gave way to machine produc- tion. Workers no longer manufac- tured products; they simply tended machines which did the work. Be- cause of this, workers left their homes and small shops to take jobs in factories. They were no longer independent workmen, but became the hired hands of the owners of the machines. Factories first appeared in large numbers in New England. Most of the early ones were textile mills, which spun and wove cotton and wool. This work was not so heavy as some other kinds and could be done by women and children. They supplied most of the labor in the early mills. As other and heavier industries developed, men also were drawn into the factories. When one studies the conditions in these earlv mills, one can under- Time Table of the Holyoke Hills, | To take effect on and after Jan. 3d, 1863. The standard being that of the Western Rail Road, which is the Meridian time at Cambridge. - MORNING BELLS. First Bell ring at 4.40, A. M. Second Dell ring in at 5, A. M. YARD GATES ^\ Will be opened at ringing of Morning Bells, of Meal Bells, and of Evening Bells, '< R. and kept open ten minutes. WORK COMMENCES J | At ten minutes after last Morning Bell, and ten minutes after Bell whkh "rings in" j| from Meals. M BREAKFAST BELLS. October 1st, to March 31st, inclusive, ring out at 7, A. M. ; ring in at 7.30, A. M. April 1st, to Sept. 30th, inclusive, ring out at 6.30, A. M. ; ring in at 7, A. M. DINNER BELLS. Ring out at 12.30, P. M. ; ring in at 1, P. M.' EVENING BELLS. Ring out at 6.30,* P. M. * Excepting on Saturdays when the Sun sets previous to 6.30. At such times, ring out at Sunset. In nil csc*. the />** stroke or ibo Bell it coiisiJcicJ * marking the linM. When this working schedule was established labor hardly dreamed of the eight-hour day. It took years to win even the ten-hour day. The workers in this factory not only took their lunches to work but their breakfasts too. More time was spent at the factory than at home. Long hours, such as these in the Holyoke Mills, was one of the main reasons for the organization of labor. Children also worked these hours. Bobbin boys, whose job it was to replace the filled spools or bobbins with empty ones on the spinning frames, were needed as long as the machinery was running. (From Holyoke, Massa- chusetts by Constance Green, Yale University Press) LABOR ORGANIZES INTO UNIONS 309 stand why unions finally appeared, the way for unions was the advance On the opposite page you will see of democracy. By 1830 the right to the working hours of the Holyoke vote had been won by most adult Mills, Holyoke, Massachusetts, as males. Now that the poor man posted by the factory in 1853. Work- could vote, he could help choose ers must be at their machines by five representatives and influence legis- in the morning. They had a half lation. Through politics he could hour out for breakfast and for din- work for labor legislation and pro- ner, and finished at 6:30 P.M., ex- tect his unions, cept on Saturday in the winter time. This was a I2i4-hour working day. Large Labor Organizations Some mills worked even longer. Spring Up to Protect the The working hours were usually ^r , from sunrise to sunset. VorkerS For working these 75 hours a Early local unions lead up to na- week skilled men got from $5.00 to tional unions. Although the factory $6.00, women about $3.00, and chil- system prepared the way for the dren less. Besides long hours, low great unions of today, the first un- wages, and child labor, there were ions in America were organized often other conditions which irri- among the skilled trades. Some of tated workers. The Hamilton Mills them, in fact, appeared years before of Lowell, Massachusetts, required the factory system had really started, all single employees to board in As early as 1800 we find the print- company-owned boarding houses, ers, shoemakers, carpenters, and They had to be in their houses by other skilled workers organizing 10 o'clock in the evening. Workers unions in some of the larger towns, were expected to stay with the com- These societies were purely local, pany for a year. Otherwise they although sometimes they estab- were not entitled to a regular dis- lished contact with similar groups charge. The company would hire in nearby towns. Some of these so- no one except those who attended cieties were interested in little more church regularly. Such rules were than collecting funds to help their usual in the early New England members in case of sickness or mills. death. Most of them, however, were Long hours, low pay, and harsh like the unions of later years. They rules provide the background for were interested primarily in obtain- labor unions. Workers finally came ing higher wages, shorter hours, and to the conclusion that they must better working conditions, organize, if conditions were to im- As the years went on, these local prove. A strong union might bring unions often set up city-wide or- better conditions. Now that many ganizations like the Central Labor workers were brought together in Unions of today. Here delegates factory towns, it was possible for from each little craft union in the them to unite for this purpose. city met to discuss the problems of Another thing which prepared labor in the entire city. The next 310 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY step was the founding of national various local unions should join in unions. A national organization in- a great organization just as the eluded all of the "locals" in the states after the Revolution joined in same craft throughout the country, a federal union. The first of these Such national unions could come efforts to meet with any success was only after transportation and com- the Knights of Labor, munication had improved. Rail- The Noble Order of the Knights roads and telegraph lines made such of Labor, however, did not begin as national unions possible. a federation. It started, as we have By the time of the War Between seen, in a little local union of nine the States there were at least a dozen garment workers. Gradually other national unions. Others were workers in other trades founded formed in the following years until similar locals and joined with the today there are almost 150 such first parent union. As it grew in im- unions. Among the early national portance, various national unions unions which remain to the present joined it until it finally became a time are the "Railroad Brother- real federation, hoods," or the "Big Four," as they The great days of the Knights of are sometimes called, the conduc- Labor were in the 1880's when its tors, the firemen, the engineers, and membership reached over 700,000. the trainmen. They were founded It even extended into European during and after the war when the countries, and into Australia and railroads were rapidly growing. New Zealand. The Knights of La- They have never joined with one bor welcomed all workers black another and have always remained and white, skilled and unskilled, independent of any larger groups, men and women. They believed that all workers had certain prob- The Knights of Labor attempt to lems that were the same and that all unite all labor. Labor unions dur- should stand together, ing these early years worked for The Knights of Labor declined many reforms. Most important of more rapidly than it grew. Too all was their demand for a ten-hour rapid growth may have been one day. Unfortunately, little progress cause, poor leadership another. Fail- was made. Conditions were particu- ure of some of its unions in impor- larly bad after the War Between the tant strikes hurt it. Perhaps the States. A business slump brought a United States was not yet ready for decline in wages and widespread a federation of both skilled and un- unemployment. Hundreds of thou- skilled workers. In any event, a ri- sands were jobless and others on the val appeared the American Feder- verge of starvation. ation of Labor which pushed the As conditions grew worse, many Knights into the background, labor leaders felt that their only hope was to unite all labor into a Under the leadership of Samuel nation-wide federation. They be- Gompers, the American Federation lieved that the national unions and of Labor rises to power. Delegates LABOR ORGANIZES INTO UNIONS WORKERS TURN TO UNIONS NUMBER MEMBERS (MILLIONS) 14 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 from various national unions, dis- satisfied with the Knights of Labor, met in 1 886 and founded the Amer- ican Federation of Labor. The new federation differs from the K. of L. chiefly in three ways. First, it is more loosely united than were the Knights. The American Federation of Labor is simply a loose federation of 100 or more national unions. Each of these unions has its own constitution, makes its own rules, and grants charters to its own locals. The governing body of the Ameri- can Federation of Labor has little power. In the second place, the Ameri- can Federation of Labor from the start has been largely made up of skilled workers. It has contained some unions of unskilled workers, but the unions of skilled workers have always controlled the organiza- tion. Finally, the goals of the Amer- ican Federation of Labor have been higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions. Unlike the Knights of Labor, which was interested in many kinds of reforms, the American Federation of Labor stuck mainly to these three de- mands. The policies of the American Federation of Labor came largely from its leader, Samuel Gompers. The son of Jewish immigrants, Gompers arrived in America at the age of 13. Like his father, he be- came a cigar-maker. While still a boy he began to take an active part in union affairs. Later he helped to found the American Federation of Labor. The American Federation of Labor elected him president in U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Samuel Gompers for almost 40 years was the most important leader of American labor. Here he is shown in 1924 testifying before the House Judiciary Committee. Gompers at this time was 74 years of age and died a few months after this picture was taken. (Wide World) 1886 and, except for one year, he held that office until his death in 1924. A born leader, Gompers' long life was a battle for what he be- lieved to be the rights of labor. What were the policies of Gom- pers and the American Federation of Labor? First of all, insisted Gom- pers, the unions must work for higher wages, shorter hours, better working conditions. These may come slowly, but in the end they can be obtained. There is no use, he insisted, wasting energy in trying to remake the world. The unions should work for what they have a chance of getting. Gompers and the American Fed- eration of Labor preferred to ob- tain these demands by peaceful means. They insisted that the em- ployer recognize the union and then bargain with it. If the em- ployer refused, the unions were prepared to strike. In Europe labor had organized political parties, but Gompers be- lieved that this would be unwise here. He insisted that labor should work through the old parties. He did believe, however, that labor should vote for its friends and pun- ish its enemies. Like many other groups, the American Federation of Labor established headquarters in Washington to watch Congress and prevent legislation harmful to la- bor. The government forces the employ- er to deal with labor. Although labor unions had existed in Amer- ica for over 100 years, organized labor was still weak when Franklin D. Roosevelt became President in 1933. The American Federation of LABOR ORGANIZES INTO UNIONS 313 Labor and the Railroad Brother- by the employer, the worker had hoods together numbered only little power. about 3,000,000. This was less than One of the principles of the New one-tenth of the workers who might Deal legislation of Franklin D. have been organized. While Ameri- Roosevelt was to build up the can industry had grown by leaps strength of the weaker groups, and bounds, organized labor had Then all could bargain and corn- lagged behind. pete on equal terms. Each group For this slow growth labor was employer, worker, farmer, and oth- partly responsible. The American ers could obtain a fairer share of Federation of Labor had spent most the nation's income. No group of its energies in organizing skilled should have too much power over labor, but the labor in the new others. Power should be as equally American industries was largely un- divided as possible, skilled. It takes time, skill, and To strengthen organized labor, money to carry on organizing cam- Congress passed the National Labor paigns. The American Federation Relations Act (1935). This gave la- of Labor did not have enough of bor the "right to organize and bar- any of these to organize the rapidly gain collectively" free from inter- growing labor force. ference of the employer. It forbade The greatest difficulty of organiz- employers from doing anything to ing, however, was the opposition of prevent labor from organizing into the employer. During the long years unions. The law set up a National of labor strife, the employer had Labor Relations Board to hear corn- learned many ways of preventing plaints and enforce the act. the growth of unions. One method It is clear that this act made il- was the lockout. Sometimes an em- legal the blacklist and the lockout, ployer could crush a union by It also made illegal the labor spy simply closing his factory locking and the company union, if these out his workers. were used to prevent the forming of Among other methods was the unions. If unions could persuade blacklist. Employers could and did workers to join them, the employer keep lists of workers active in un- must not interfere. Encouraged by ions and refuse to hire them. An- this law the unions went to work, other weapon was the yellow-dog Within a few years millions of new contract. Workers were required to members joined the unions (see sign contracts that they would not graph, page 311). join a union. Many employers also hired labor spies from detective The Congress of Industrial Organi- agencies to watch their workers, zations rises to meet the needs of Some employers organized unions millions of unorganized workers. of their own known as company un- While organized labor grew rapidly ions. Their purpose was to keep out- during the 1930's, it split into two side unions from getting into the great bodies. The split arose over a factory. Since they were controlled conflict between the craft and in- U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY TWO WAYS OF ORGANIZING LABOR CRAFT UNION INDUSTRIAL UNION FOUR UNIONS IN ONE FACTOR OFFICE WORKERS ASSEMBLY LINE FIREMEN mM^mm ONE UNION FOR ENTIRE FACTORY pj I OFFICE WORKERS ASSEMBLY LINE FIREMEN HELPERS dustrial unions. An industrial un- ion is one in which every worker in factory or mine, no matter what his work may be, belongs to the same union. A craft .union is one in which the members do a certain kind of work. One type organizes by industries, the other by crafts. How this works out in a single plant may be seen by the chart on this page. If the plant is organized in an industrial union, the firemen, the machine workers, the office staff, and all others belong to the same union. If the plant is organized on a craft basis, each group would have a separate union depending on the kind of work which it did. There might be 15 or 20 unions in a single plant. There had always been both kinds of unions in the American Federation of Labor. In fact, the largest union in the Federation, the United Mine Workers, was an in- dustrial union. In general, however, the American Federation of Labor was largely made up of skilled work- ers organized into craft unions. As a whole, the American Federa- tion of Labor had been successful in organizing skilled workers. But times were changing. Labor-saving machinery and the assembly line were pushing the skilled worker out of the factory. The new "mass in- dustries," such as steel, automobiles, rubber goods, radios, electric prod- ucts, used few skilled workers, but many unskilled. If labor was to catch up with the mass industries, it must organize the unskilled. LABOR ORGANIZES INTO UNIONS Many labor leaders believed this could be done only through indus- trial unions. In the middle 1930's the annual convention of the American Federa- tion of Labor pledged itself to or- ganize the "mass industries." When the Federation failed to do this, certain leaders interested in organ- izing industrial unions formed a committee to do it. This was the Committee for Industrial Organiza- tion. The American Federation of Labor Executive Committee then ordered the C. I. O. to disband. When the C. I. O. refused, the un- ions connected with it were sus- , pended from the American Federa- tion of Labor. The C. I. O., however, contin- ued. It organized the steel, auto- mobile, rubber, radio, and many other industries. Then the C. I. O. unions decided to separate entirely from the American Federation of Labor. They founded the Congress of Industrial Organizations (1938) with its own constitution and offi- . cers. Now there were two federa- tions. By 1944 the American Fed- eration of Labor claimed over 6,000,000 members and the C. I. O. over 5,000,000. Labor Unions, the Govern- ment, and Employers To- gether Improve the Conditions of the Wage Earners .... Labor unions struggle hard to win their victories. If one depended on newspapers alone for his informa- tion about unions, he might think they did almost nothing but carry on strikes. A strike, of course, is big news and it gets into the papers. The day-by-day activities of unions are hardly noticed. Most unions rarely call a strike. This is particularly true of old and well-established unions. They usu- ally have long-term agreements with employers covering wages, hours, and working conditions. If a dispute arises, they iron it out through representatives from both sides. Neither the employer nor the worker wants a strike. Both are anx- ious to avoid it, for both suffer. The employer loses heavily when his fac- tory closes down and his machinery stops running. The worker loses his wages, and it is not long before he and his family lack the necessities of life. The strike is the last resort when all else has failed. When a strike once starts, how- ever, both sides use every weapon which they have. The union ap- points a strike committee to plan and direct the strike, as an army staff would direct a campaign. The first move is to throw a picket line around the factory. A picket line is a parade of strikers to advertise the strike and persuade other workers not to enter the factory. If the strike is a long one, the committee must secure funds to buy food, clothes, and shelter for the strikers. It must also organize meetings to keep up the spirit of the strikers. Few important strikes can suc- ceed without winning the sympathy and support of the public. The un- ion does what it can to explain its 316 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY side and advertise its grievances, ployers have done much to promote Sometimes it buys space in the the welfare of the workers. Most newspapers or hires time on the well-run factories have lunch rooms radio. It may go as far as to urge where workers can obtain good food union members and their friends at cost. They often provide medical not to buy the products of the com- care with visiting nurses. Some com- pany against which it is striking, panics build houses which the This is known as a boycott. The workers may buy at close to cost, boycott is a strong weapon, for no Almost all support athletic teams company likes to lose business. and encourage clubs of various On its side, the company often kinds. tries to keep the factory going by All employers want their work- hiring strikebreakers. If the picket men to do a better job. Many corn- line interferes with them, the com- panics offer prizes for suggestions as pany demands police protection, to better methods of manufactur- Sometimes it goes to the courts and ing. Some provide courses where asks for a court order forbidding workers can increase their knowl- picketing. Like the unions, the com- edge and obtain better jobs. This, pany advertises its side and tries to helps the worker as well as the corn- win public sympathy. pany. Strikes naturally cause much bit- Employers are also interested in terness. Sometimes they result in promoting the loyalty of their work- violence and bloodshed. There is ers. They want the worker to be as always loss on both sides and surfer- interested in the welfare of the com- ing to the strikers. Most of this is pany as they are. This has led some unnecessary. Good will on each side companies to encourage their work- could settle the disputes around a ers to buy stock in their company, conference table. This is what the Purchase of shares makes the work- public wants and what the govern- er a part owner in the company. He ment tries to encourage. may have very few shares, but he still feels that he owns a part of the Many employers see the need for company as well as working for it. better working conditions. It is not Many companies have provided only labor which struggles for bet- plans for pensions. In some cases ter working conditions. Most em- the company contributes all; usu- ployers are also sincerely interested ally the worker pays part. Pensions in improving the conditions of their are security against old age, when workers. They know that contented the worker can no longer hold a workers, free from worry, will do job. They are important in win- a better job. If good wages are paid ning loyalty and co-operation, and conditions are right, strikes can be prevented. Moreover, workers The government becomes more and may then have no interest in joining more interested in the welfare of unions. the worker. Labor conditions have Whatever the reasons, the em- improved not alone because of un- LABOR ORGANIZES INTO UNIONS / LAWFUL AGES FOR CHILD WORKERS IN FACTORIES A^D STORES BY STATES, 1944 I 1 16 years of age 15 years of age 14- years of age No age minimum ions and sympathetic employers. Our governments, both state and national, have done their share. Af- ter wage earners had won the right to vote, they could bring pressure to bear upon state legislatures and upon Congress. In doing this they were often helped by many outside the ranks of labor. Until recently almost all labor legislation was passed by the states. It began more than 100 years ago when Massachusetts required that all children under 15 employed in factories be allowed to go to school three months in a year. A little later the legislature limited to ten hours the working day of children un- der 12. This was a feeble beginning, but as the years went on more laws were passed. Some states forbade entirely the employment of children in fac- tories (see map, above). They lim- ited the hours of factory work for women. Many laws were passed regarding health conditions light, air, clean rest rooms. Most states in- sisted that the workers be protected against dangerous machinery. Among the most important laws passed by the states are those which provide for compensation for in- juries. Hundreds of thousands of workers are injured each year in industry and transportation. Some- times workers are careless; some- times accidents occur for which no one is to blame. Whatever the cause, the state believes that the worker and his family should have some protection. If the worker is injured he should receive something to tide him over until he can return to work. If he is killed, his family should receive some insurance. 3 i8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY THE WORK WEEK GROWS SHORTER 1840-1940 Number of hours worked per week 68.4 66. 61.8 59. 1840 I860 1880 1900 1920 1940 Most people believe that industry should pay for this. Finally our federal government became interested in the welfare of the worker. In 1913 Congress estab- lished a Department of Labor. Its business is to study the problems of labor and give what help it can in solving them. A Secretary of Labor sits in the cabinet and advises the President on labor matters. Congress as well as the states has passed important labor laws. The National Labor Relations Act has already been mentioned. Another important law was the Adamson Eight-Hour Act. Under its power to regulate commerce between the states, Congress set eight hours as the working day on railroads. If the day is longer, the worker must get overtime pay. In 1938 Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act. It applied to trade and industries making goods which moved from one state to an- other. It limited the regular hours of work each week to 40 (see graph, above). The pay must be not less than 40 cents an hour. Labor of young people under 16 years of age was forbidden. Organized labor finds its place in the American way of life. The wel- fare projects of employers have helped the wage earner in many ways. So has the labor legislation of state and federal governments. Workers, nevertheless, still cling to their unions. They feel that they are as necessary as ever. Neither wel- fare projects nor legislation quite fill the place of unions. LABOR ORGANIZES INTO UNIONS Workers join unions because un- ions give them independence and strength. One thousand men can bargain with a company on more equal terms than one man. A union gives them power to have some say in deciding about wages, hours, and conditions of work. Each single member finds strength and protec- tion in the organization. It adds to his dignity as a human being. Most workers prefer to look after their own welfare projects. The old- er and stronger unions do this. They provide insurance against un- employment, injury, and old age. Many unions provide plans for medical and dental care. They sup- port recreational centers and sum- mer camps for vacations. One union has a program of education in which 20,000 members are enrolled. Unions believe they are necessary in a free society to protect the wage earner. Manufacturers, farmers, professional men, and other groups have their organizations to promote their own interests. They present their point of view to the public. They promote laws in their favor and oppose legislation harmful to them. If there is need for such or- ganizations, there is also a need for unions. After a long struggle unions have won a place in American life. They have done a great deal to educate the nation to the problems of the wage earner. They have insisted on better working conditions and im- proved the lot of the workers. In doing this they have made America a better place to live in for more people. Unions have done more than this. In the long run, they promote more settled conditions in industry. Agreements can be made with re- sponsible unions to keep the whole industry running. This is particu- larly important in a time of na- tional emergency, such as war. When the Second World War came to this country in 1941 responsible leaders of both the A. F. of L. and the C. I. O. immediately pledged a no-strike policy. There were, of course, strikes during the war. Considering the amount of work necessary to pro- duce war goods, the time consumed in strikes was very small. The lead- ers, as a whole, did their best to keep their pledge. Ships were built, airplanes and munitions rolled out of the factories. Labor met the test and contributed its share to victory. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? The following terms concern the development of labor in the United States. Show that you know the meaning of each. 1. union 2. skilled workers 3. unskilled workers 4. lockout 5. blacklist 6. yellow-dog contract 7. company union 8. labor spies 9. industrial union 10. craft union 11. strikebreakers 12. boycott 13. A. F. of L. 14. C. I. O. 15. strike 16. picket line 3 2o U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1886: Why is this a key year in the history of labor? 1935: Why does labor regard this as an important year in its history? 1938: What act passed in Congress in this year regulated working conditions in certain industries? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why was there little need for labor unions in colonial times? 2. What were working conditions in factories in the 1850's? Why did the workingman become interested in the right to vote? 3. What were the steps leading to the formation of national unions? Name three of our largest union organizations. 4. Why was the Knights of Labor formed? Who made up its membership? 5. In what three ways does the American Federation of Labor differ from the Knights of Labor? 6. Who was Samuel Gompers and what were his policies? In what way did he think that unions in the United States should differ from those in Europe? 7. Account for the fact that after 100 years of labor organization only one out of ten workingmen belonged to a union. 8. What were at least four methods by which employers opposed unions? 9. How did the National Labor Relations Act help labor unions? 10. Explain the difference between a craft union and an industrial union. Use not only the text but study the chart on page 314. 11. How does a labor union win its demands in disputes with employers? Is the strike the first or last step? 12. What evidence is there that many employers are interested in improving labor conditions? 13. Give three examples of legislation that help to give labor a better deal. What facts about child labor are shown on the map on page 317? 14. Summary Question: Why have workers joined labor unions? What have unions been able to do for the workers? Chapter 19. Our Country Grows Smaller as Man Conquers Distance On July 4, 1828, Charles Carroll, the only living signer of the Declaration of Independence, turned the first spade of earth to build the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the first important one in America. Today we would hardly recognize it as a railroad. The rails were strips of iron nailed on wooden beams. The cars were tiny and were drawn by horses. Nevertheless, it was the first railroad built in this country open to public use. It made profits, and it had more business than it could 1 handle. The directors of the railroad, however, were not content. They had heard that in England cars were drawn by steam engines. They asked Peter Cooper, a skillfull mechanic, if he could build them such an engine. Cooper did it, but it was a curious locomotive. The boiler was about the size of one attached to a kitchen range. The one cylinder in the engine was but three and one-half inches in diameter; the flues were musket barrels. The whole thing weighed about a ton. Cooper called it the Tom Thumb. Early in the summer of 1830 came the great day to try out the engine. Cooper attached it to an open car, which carried many of the directors of the road, and got up steam. It worked, and the two cars covered the 13 miles to Ellicott Mills in a little over an hour. The return journey, however, was a different story. A stagecoach com- pany, rival of the new railroad, had arranged to race the Tom Thumb from Riley's Tavern to Baltimore. On a second track they hitched- their best horse to one of the railroad cars, and the race started. Cooper and his Tom Thumb were winning when the engine belt slipped off. Before he could replace the band and get up steam, the horse car was so far ahead that he could not overtake it. But the race does not always go to the swiftest. The Tom Thumb proved what steam could do, and the directors of the new railroad turned from horse to steam power. New American railroads, as they were built, fol- lowed the example of the Baltimore and Ohio. 321 322 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY From the Sail Boat to Luxury Liner, Travel by Water Is Speeded up In the days of our forefathers travel over water routes is slow. Travel in colonial America was largely on water. When the settlers first came there were no roads, only Indian trails. It took many years to build even a few roads, for the settlers were poor and labor was scarce. The routes of commerce were along the seacoast or on the many rivers which ran into the Atlantic. Whenever possible, the settlers built their houses and laid out the farms along the river banks. Said a Frenchman traveling in Virginia in 1686: "None of the plantation houses, even the most remote, is more than 100 or 150 feet from a 'crik' and the people not only pay their visits in their canoes, but do all their freight by the same means." George Washington's great plan- tation on the Potomac was laid out along these same lines. It was only after the seacoast and the rivers were occupied that the settlers moved away from water. Then they built roads which led to the water so that they could export their prod- ucts. Although travel by water was easier than by land, it was slow and often difficult and dangerous. Until canals were built and the steamboat was invented, mankind depended on hand power or wind. Canoes or little boats could be paddled or rowed; the larger ones used sails. This was not so bad if one was row- ing down stream or sailing with the wind. If one was rowing against the current, sailing against the wind, or if there was no wind, progress was slow and difficult. Moreover, the ships were small and clumsy. The Mayflower was only 180 tons and could be easily set down in the main dining room of the modern 83,243 ton Nor- mandie. One can see why it took the Mayflower 65 days to sail from Ply- mouth, England, to Provincetown on Cape Cod. Even 150 years later it was common for ships to spend 100 or more days, particularly in the winter time, in crossing the At- lantic. It is not hard to imagine the diffi- culties and dangers of such a trip. Refrigeration was unknown, and the food grew stale or spoiled. Sick- ness from bad food was common. Contagious diseases spread quickly among the closely packed immi- grants. Half of the passengers some- times died on such a trip. If the im- migrants survived, there was still danger from unknown sand bars and rocky points unmarked by lighthouses. Ocean travel had improved some- what by the end of the colonial pe- riod. Larger and more comfortable sailing ships were built. The voy- ages were shorter. Better sailing maps were drawn and lighthouses built. Nevertheless, ocean travel was still difficult and dangerous. Inland water travel is improved by canals. The problem of improving inland transportation has always been important to the American people. The country was growing rapidly; settlers were moving west- OUR COUNTRY GROWS SMALLER 323 WATERROUTES 1860 Scale of Miles 100 200 300 PA. ^SC r*** _.. an d we had at-iLt twoout- Movie Palaces, Our People standing actors, Edwin Forrest and Seek Amusement in the Charlotte Cushman. Even before /rri i this time there were at least 50 stock l neater , , c companies, though most of these centered around a star imported Our theater comes of age. The stern from Europe. Although some 700 and strict Puritans and Quakers plays were produced, the quality were quite opposed to amusements, was not high. In fact, Forrest once The theater was frowned upon as offered $500 for a five-act tragedy, being a device of the devil. About His contest brought 200 entries, 1700 New York enacted a law that none of which was of great quality, forbade "play acting and prize- Many of these early plays cen- fighting." Pennsylvania passed an tered around events and characters early law that provided a penalty of of our Revolution, but the rise of $500 for anyone who built a theater slavery brought a new theme. Uncle or sold tickets for a theatrical en- Tom's Cabin swept the northern tertainment. Fortunately, this law cities and brought many newcomers 37 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY High School pupils at Technical High School, Brooklyn, New York, broadcast a play over the radio. Such an activity gives boys and girls training in writing, reading, and acting plays, as well as training in the technical work of handling equipment. (Charles Phelps Gushing) to the theater. Forrest played more than 1,000 times in The Gladiators. This play showed the slaves of Rome rising against their masters, and was more than a hint for our slaves to do likewise. Still, most of the plays continued to be imported from Europe, along with the star performers. After the War Between the States, the stock company supported by lo- cal talent was largely replaced by a touring company headed by stars. Such stars as John Drew and Mrs. Minnie Madder n Fiske captured audiences with thrilling melodra- mas and hilarious comedies. By 1900 theaters were operating in most of our leading cities. Little theaters and summer play- houses dot our land. Presently the three Schubert brothers built a string of 1,200 theaters, putting on plays at popular prices. We did not have enough first-class actors or suitable playwriters to keep up the pace. The result was that the small- er cities received second- and third- rate shows of which the public quickly tired. Because of this and of the growing competition of the movies, the number of shows on tour declined. In the meantime other events placed the theater on a firmer and more truly artistic basis. A Drama League was formed in Evanston, Illinois, to encourage better writing and producing of plays. The "little theater" movement, so popular in Europe, reached America just be- fore the First World War. Com- mencing at almost the same time in MUSIC, ART AND THEATER 371 Chicago, Boston, and New York, better production and more appre- this movement spread rapidly, ciative audiences. The theater is Within five years at least 50 of these taking a high place among the fine little playhouses were giving shows arts in our country, of real merit. Formed by people really interested in the stage, rather We become a nation of movie goers. than in profits, these theaters While thousands of people go to brought new life to the profession, plays, millions attend the movies. They, trained promising young ac- Every week more than 85 million tors and encouraged authors to try people crowd over 17,000 theaters out new themes for their plays. to see the latest shows produced by Then, near the beginning of the the two billion dollar moving-pic- First World War, a group of artists ture industry. From the small town on vacation in Provincetown, Mas- theaters to the giant movie palaces, sachusetts, designed scenery and put such as Radio City Music Hall in on a play. Out of this came the New York, our people go to see Provincetown Players. They ex- their favorite stars. The movies are panded and improved their quar- our most popular indoor amuse- ters, and attracted not only new ment, and are big business, the talent in acting but new talent in fourth largest in the United States, writing plays. The idea caught on. Less than 50 years old, this amaz- What was ordinarily an off-season ing industry developed from an in- in the theater business now became vention by Thomas Edison called a flourishing season. Summer thea- the kinetoscope. This was a little ters sprang up in resort after resort, black box with a peep hole through along the seashore and in the moun- which people could see pictures tains. that moved. Within a few years Edi- More recently the radio theater son's first motion picture studio, the has brought stars of the stage and Black Maria, established the foun- screen to people in millions of dations for a new industry, homes who have never seen a pro- The first story picture was a 750- fessional play. Beginning in the foot thriller called The Great Train 1930's, radio producers adapted Robbery. This was followed by plays to the radio. Rather crude at other pictures featuring simple love first, the plays were shortened and plots and slapstick comedy such as made more real by the use of sound the custard-pie act. Movies became effects. Today radio plays are broad- longer as Mary Pickford, Douglas cast in regular weekly perform- Fairbanks and Charlie Chaplin ances, the leading parts being taken brought new thrills and laughs to by stars of Broadway and Holly- an ever-increasing audience. Then wood. in 1914, came The Birth of a Na- These four movements, the tion. Based upon the War Between Drama League, the little theater, the States, it was the first of the the summer theater, and the radio super-pictures showing large scenes theater, seem to give promise of great battles, and masses of people. 372 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Black Maria was the first motion picture studio and was owned by Thomas Edison. The studio is mounted on a swivel so that it may be turned during the day to get the full benefit of the sunlight. This is just a crude shack compared to the modern well equipped studios. (Brown Brothers) In 1928 The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson showed that talkies were here to stay; a year later On with the Shou' brought technicolor and paved the way for later gorgeous musical shows where sparkling gowns and bright scenes made the audiences gasp in sheer wonder. Re- cently, Walt Disney has shown us the possibilities of moving color cartoons like those featured in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Slapstick comedies and cowboy pictures continue to be popular, but love and adventure are featured in most films. Several great pictures have been filmed around historical fiction and important scientific and political characters. Excellent ex- amples of these are Gone with the Wind, Madame Curie, and Wilson. The moving picture industry plays an important part in the life of our people. Perhaps it is the best example of an industry based on the talents of artists. Writers, de- signers, musicians, actors, techni- cians, photographers, and the direc- tor all work together to produce the big show. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Explain the meaning of the following words or terms and show how each played a part in the fine arts. 1. spiritual 5. jazz 9. etching 2. ballad 6. museum 10. mural 3. folksongs 7. portrait 11. stock company 4. conservatories 8. gallery 12. "little theater" MUSIC, ART AND THEATER 373 CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why didn't the early colonists spend more time on art and music? 2. What are the chief characteristics of the spirituals? What were other types of songs sung by our people? 3. How did immigrants help awaken an interest in serious music? Name an American composer of serious music and give an example of the type of music he composed. 4. What proof can you offer that "today more people play and listen to better music than ever before"? 5. Describe how jazz climbed from night club to concert hall. How has jazz influenced other music? 6. Why did our early artists go to Europe? What types of painting were most common in our country until after Lincoln's time? 7. What changes have taken place since Lincoln's time to indicate that American art is coming of age? 8. Describe an early theater. How did the attitude of people toward the theater change with the passing of the years? 9. What sort of plays were common before 1900? Can you name a star who was important before this date? 10. Give two examples of movements designed to improve the quality of acting and staging of plays. 11. Show that the movie industry is big business. What have been four im- portant developments in the movies? 12. Summary Question: In what ways have improvements in our music, art, and the theater helped to enrich the lives of our people? Chapter 22. Peoples from Many Lands Help Make the U.S.A. a Great Country ... \ '. . Carl Schurz was a brilliant young German who at the age of 19 joined a revolutionary group to establish more democratic government in his country. The plot failed and "Schurz avoided a death sentence by es- caping through a sewer and fleeing to France. Later, he made his way to London and joined a group of exiles there. He soon fell in love and married, but being an exile was a serious matter. Returning to Germany was out of the question. His father had often spoken to him about America as a "land without kings, without counts and with- out military service." He made up his mind to engage passage for New York on a sailing ship. Here is what he later wrote about this experience: "There were several hundred emigrants in the steerage, but only about twenty passengers in the cabin. Having determined to make the United States my permament home, I was resolved to look at everything from the brightest side, and not permit myself to be discouraged by any disappointment. "But we were young I twenty-three years old, and my wife eighteen. Still, I was anxious that the first impression of the new country should be bright and inspiring to her. And that wish was gratified to the highest de- gree. The day we arrived in New York harbour could not have been more glorious. When we beheld this spectacle our hearts fairly leaped with joy. We felt as if we were entering, through this glorious portal, a world of peace and happiness." Schurz was an immigrant who became one of our great Americans. Within six months he learned our language and began taking part in our life. A man of simple tastes and good habits, he enjoyed music and paint- ing, and read our literature. From Lincoln's time to that of Theodore Roosevelt, he was an outstanding figure in our politics. 374 MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 375 A New Flood of Immigrants Reaches Our Shores . . . . . Unhappy peoples from southern and eastern Europe come to the land of opportunity. Carl Schurz was only one of several million im- migrants who came to the United States before 1890. He became first a Senator and later a member of the President's cabinet. He worked for the freedom of the Negro, to wipe out dishonest politics, to im- prove conditions of our slums, and to help the Indian. His ideals were high, and he lived up to them. Schurz is a good example of many of the immigrants who came to America from Europe. He repre- sented a strain of immigration that came chiefly from northwestern Europe Germany, Sweden, and the British Isles. After 1890 a distinct change took place in the flow of peoples who came to our country. The stream from northwestern Europe dwin- dled, but that from southern and eastern Europe changed from a tiny trickle to a rushing torrent. There were several reasons for this. Agents for our railroad and steamship lines advertised in glow- ing terms the opportunities in the New \Vorld for better wages. Many of the poor peasants wished to es- cape from compulsory military serv- ice so common in European lands. Others, such as the Jews, Czechs, and the Poles, lived under govern- ments unfriendly to them and they wanted to escape. New and direct steamship service was opened to Mediterranean ports, making it convenient for these people in southern and eastern Europe to get transportation. Where did they come from? They came from Austria-Hungary, from Russia, and from Italy, Sicily, and Greece. Let figures tell the story. In the 30 years from 1891 to 1920 over ten million immigrants came from the three countries of Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. They made up more than half of all im- migration to our country in this period. Who were these people? They were Jews, Catholics, and Protes- tants. They were Italians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Bohemians, Rus- sians, and Greeks. Most of them were peasants who lived in a section of Europe that had not then been touched by the machine age. As peasants they were used to tilling the soil with simple tools. They had little training in the use of ma- chinery or in the trades. Although one out of four could not read or write, they were nevertheless a strong, sincere, and fine people who wanted a chance to get ahead. The newer immigrants became the unskilled workers in our mines, factories, stockyards, and lumber camps. They took any job at which they could pick up a day's pay. In the early 1900's over 65 per cent of the help in one steel plant employ- ing about 25,000 workers were for- eign-born. Later, three-fourths of the employees in the soft coal mines of Pennsylvania were also foreign- born. While some went on to work in the stockyards of Chicago and St. Louis or in the lumber camps of o I- cr o u. o LU CO OJ O CO tO T ^P^ / _mur* I L. L ^^ : / V9 c re 5 10 v> JO s. *U in c <0 U) (A ,5 MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 379 16 years of age who could not read. In the late 1920's another act set up a quota of immigrants allowed from each European country. These laws greatly reduced the flow of immi- gration to our shores. Yet, wiser heads could see that the new immigrants were sincere. Millions took out citizenship pa- pers, studied our history, and quick- ly adopted our customs. Their chil- dren attended our schools, and eas- ily learned our language and our way of life. Many now point out that these newcomers acted as a tonic to our ways of living. They brought new foods, folk dances, gay costumes, and interesting music that have added to and brightened our national character. The earlier fears of the "old" im- migrants for the "new" immigrants have proved unfounded. Gradually, the newer peoples have taken their places in our country. Once they acquire extra dollars they abandon the tenement districts for better homes. Many have bought farms. They and their children have proved loyal and faithful citizens during two great world wars. The "old" and the "new" by working together have helped to make this a richer and better country. Europe's Loss Is Our Gain Newcomers contribute many lead- ers to business and science. From the millions of both old and new immigrants have come many in- dividuals, like Carl Schurz, who have been a great benefit to our national life. Andrew Carnegie was one of these. Born in Scotland, he started on the ladder of success in business by working a 12-hour day in a Pennsylvania factory for $1.80 a week. By the time he was 60 he and his associates owned and controlled vast properties in the steel industry. He became one of America's mil- lionaires and was recognized as a leader among business men. Carne- gie not only showed us how to make money, but how to spend it wisely. In his later life he arranged a sys- tem by which over 350 million dollars were carefully given away. Public libraries, colleges, research groups, organizations for peace, and others received benefits from his fortune. Edward Bok came to America from Holland, and like Carnegie found it necessary to start work while very young. His fame was made as editor of the Ladies' Home Journal, a job he secured at the age of 26. He brought new ideas to women's magazines. He introduced special pages for both younger and older women. He urged women to make their homes more attractive and he made available plans of low- priced homes. He greatly appreci- ated the opportunities that America gave to him, and did his best to raise the standards of life here. Known the world over for his studies in higher mathematics and experiments with electricity was Michael Pupin, born in Serbia. Running away from home, he land- ed in New York with five cents in his pocket, but by hard work and persistent effort he earned his way U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Mexican immigrants who have come to work on the railroads in our great Southwest. Others work in mines or on cattle ranches, cotton plantations and fruit farms in the states along the Mexican border. (Charles Phelps Cushing) through Columbia College. After additional study in Europe, he re- turned to the United States to carry on his work in electricity. He was the first to make the X-ray practical and he solved difficult problems with long distance telephone serv- ice. There is a long list of scientists who, like Pupin, were among the new immigrants from Europe. It in- cludes persons like Charles Stein- metz and Nikola Tesla, wizards in electricity. More recently, Albert Einstein has brought his talents to America. Born of Jewish parents, he became the great mathematical genius of Germany. He left that country when the Nazis came to power, thereby losing most of his property. Nation after nation of- fered him opportunities to continue his studies, but he finally chose America and settled at Princeton University. These are but six men of many from Europe who have helped de- velop industry and science in this country. During the Second World War more than 150 famous Euro- peans came to the United States as refugees. Theirs are examples we should not forget. Immigrants bring their valuable talents to other fields. In the field of art Augustus St. Gaudens and Karl Bitter, sculptors, led the way. St. Gaudens came from Ireland and Bitter came from Austria. Both men have used scenes and charac- ters in American life as themes for their work. The "Lincoln" statue in Chicago shows St.-Gaudens tal- MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 381 ent for understanding one of Amer- comers. From them also have come ica's greatest men. "The Signing of some of our most thoughtful writers the Louisiana Treaty" was one of and our ablest social workers. The Bitter's masterpieces. These are but roll is too long to call, two of an increasing number of Many have taken an interest in artists who are either immigrants our political life. The Irish have or children of immigrants. l n g been active in political circles There is no field in American life from city wards to our nation's capi- that has been more enriched by im- tal. In New York the growing in- migrants than that of music. Irving fluence of the Italians was seen in Berlin led the way in popular mu- the election of Fiorello La Guardia sic, while such names as Arturo Tos- as mayor. We also find the Czechs, canini (Are-too'-roh Tos-kah-nee'- Poles, and Jews taking an increased nee), Serge Koussevitzky (Koo-sa- part in politics. They become city vif-skee), Leopold Stokowski (Stuh- mayors, Senators, and Represents - koff'-skee), and Jose Iturbi (Hoh- lives, and some have achieved the say' Ee-tur'-bee), mean top-notch honor of serving on our Supreme musical leadership in serious music. Court. Few persons have caught our in- The overwhelming majority of terest more than Yehudi Menuhin. these newcomers are here to stay Born of Russian Jewish parents and want to be "good Americans." who came to New York, this young They have ambition and willing- man has proved to be one of the ness to work. They have brought great musical geniuses of all time, their talents to a wide variety of He started study of the violin at fields in American life. Surely Eu- three, gave a concert before an au- rope's loss has been our gain, dience of 9,000 at six, and at 11 appeared with the New York Phil- harmonic Symphony Orchestra. Since then he has played in the The Negro Contributes toOur world's leading musical centers, W ay o f Ltf e anc [ l n R e t urn everywhere taking his audiences by A -, /. r\ i storrn Asks for a square Deal . . . In almost all walks of life we find talented and active workers The southern Negro fanner seeks among the newer immigrants and to free himself from the share-crop their children. In the movies, radio, system. Amendment XIII [98] made and theater we find them as actors, about four million Negroes a free directors, and producers. Such people. They were free from their names as Ingrid Bergman, Paul white masters, but slaves to their Lukas, and Eddie Cantor are fa- conditions. They were penniless, al- miliar to radio and movie fans. In most without property, living in a business the highly skilled workers land in which many of the whites and in labor unions many of the were determined to "keep them in leaders are from among these new- their place." U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY NEGROES ijf UNITED STATES 1940 States having over 25% Negro population jlljj States having 10-25% Negro population Cities with over 100,000 Negro population V" Cities with 50,000-100,000 Negro population I Outside above states Cities with 10,000-50,000 Negro population J Disappointed in their hope that every Negro would receive from the government 40 acres and a mule, they began to settle down on the land. Most settled in the South where they had lived, though a very few moved west. Without money the Negroes were unable to buy farms, stores, or any other business. They turned to a practice known as share-cropping. The Negro would go to a white planter and arrange to settle on a piece of land. The planter advanced him seed and fertilizer, and gave him a cultivator and a mule as well as a shack in which to live. The planter received no money, but at the end of the season the Negro gave him from a third to a half or more of his crop in payment for these advances. The remaining share the Negro sold, and with the money bought the provisions nec- essary for living during the winter. The next summer the same process was repeated. It is clear that under this system the Negro had little opportunity to advance himself. Planters in- sisted that most of the land be planted to cotton as that was a sure money-crop. This led to a rapid wearing out of the soil. Even as late as 1929 the average yearly in- come of share-croppers was but $38. Finally, as one authority wrote: "There are a great number of state laws to defend the planters' inter- ests. There are few laws which de- fend the tenants' interests." There was little in these conditions to en- courage thrift or ambition. Yet, in spite of these conditions, MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 383 many Negroes have struggled hard to improve themselves. Many found it to their advantage to pay a cash rent for their farm. Their annual average income was nearly double that of the share-cropper. Tenants and share-croppers together num- ber about 700,000 families. Many Negroes have purchased their own farms. In 1940 in six im- portant southern states a total of 105,000 Negroes owned in whole or in part nearly six and a third mil- lion acres of land. For the entire country in that year the total reached nearly ten and a third mil- lion acres. Still, in the South today only one out of every eight Negroes owns a farm, while two out of every five white people own theirs. In the northern cities the Negro finds life a hard struggle. Although there were some opportunities for the exceptional Negroes to get ahead on the farms, there was little chance for the great mass of these people. And so they began to turn toward the northern industrial cit- ies for jobs. While only one-twen- tieth of the Negroes lived in the North in 1860, by 1940 this had in- creased to about one-quarter. About half of them lived in the ten impor- tant industrial cities shown on the map on page 382. The Negroes met obstacles in the North as in the South. Even though most of those who went north were unskilled, many were capable car- penters, blacksmiths, and machin- ists. Northern employers were slow to take on Negro workers, except at unskilled jobs. Many did not want to mix white and colored help. Others thought that Negroes could not do skilled work. The labor un- ions, too, were unwilling to admit Negroes as members. Consequently, the Negroes found work only at un- skilled jobs such as janitors, ele- vator operators, railway porters, and odd jobs. Later, they entered the meat-packing, coal mining and steel industries. It was difficult for colored people to secure decent housing. Their pay was low and they were forced to accept slum tenements such as those in Harlem, the Negro section of New York City. As one Negro au- thor points out: "Those who came to Harlem lived in unheated rail- road flats with dirty walls ripped and unpainted, and roaches creep- ing about the floors and woodwork. From dark unlit hallways came musty odors mingling with the smell of cooking." It was the same in Chicago, Detroit, and elsewhere. Even when Negroes obtained more money and could afford bet- ter homes, they found their way blocked. Real estate dealers were unwilling to rent or sell them houses in the better neighborhoods. There are many instances on record of residents in northern communi- ties banding together to prevent the arrival of a new Negro family. Ne- groes aptly raise the question as to whether or not this is a democratic practice. In spite of these obstacles the Ne- groes have made great progress. During the Second World War, President Roosevelt issued an order demanding that all defense indus- tries stop refusing to hire Negro labor. Many labor unions now ad- U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY mil Negroes to their membership, and are helping them to get better jobs. Through the years the Negroes have made good in industry. Em- ployers are finding them efficient workers at both partly-skilled and skilled factory jobs. Their own busi- ness enterprises have increased so that today Negroes operate over 70,- 000 business concerns in over 200 different lines. In 1930 there were over 50 banks doing an annual busi- ness of 75 million dollars which were organized, financed, and man- aged entirely by Negroes. Neverthe- less, our colored citizens do not yet have equal opportunities with white people for jobs. The Negro contributes to our way of life. The Negroes have always been loyal to our country. Begin- ning with the Revolutionary War when 3,000 saw service, they have a long record of faithful service in the armed forces. In the Second World War more than half a mil- lion colored troops served with dis- tinction in the army, navy, and ma- rines. When the Negroes were freed, about 90 per cent of them could not read or write, yet many were eager for an education. Within a dozen years more than half a million, young and old, were attending school. By 1940 only one out of ten who were over 25 years old had not attended school. The average Negro has had more than five and a half years of schooling, while the aver- age white person has had about eight and three-quarters years. Con- sidering that the Negro public schools often have much less money than white schools, this is major progress in so short a time. Among the great Negro leaders was Booker T. Washington, princi- pal for nearly 35 years of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. This colored gentleman was born in slavery and had worked his way through school. When asked to take over the princi- palship at Tuskegee he found no buildings. Beginning with 30 stu- dents he cleaned an old church and opened the school. Gradually he bought more land and built more buildings. The students learned while working. Booker T. Washington always emphasized the importance of mas- tering a trade so that Negroes could get jobs. With jobs they would have an income, making possible a home and respect in the community. Many other schools have followed this idea until today thousands of young colored people are well trained for skilled jobs. Through education the Negroes have advanced. Dr. George Wash- ington Carver, also born in slavery, was one of our greatest agricultural scientists. He made over 300 prod- ucts out of peanuts and over 100 products from the sweet potato. Dr. Daniel H. Williams, a Negro, was the first surgeon in the world to per- form a successful operation on the human heart. In the arts the Negroes have given America the wonderful voices of Marian Anderson, Paul Robeson and Roland Hayes, singers who are recognized the world over for their talents. The play, Green Pastures, with an all-Negro cast of 100 char- MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 385 George Washington Carver at work studying a diseased plant that was sent to his labo- ratory. This great Negro scientist took particular delight in agricultural chemistry. He made such varied products as milk, butter, coffee, pickles, shaving lotion, ink, and other things from peanuts alone. (Wide World) acters, was one of the great theatri- cal successes in New York. The Ne- groes have also given us distin- guished poets and outstanding painters. Such stars as Joe Louis and Henry Armstrong in boxing and Jesse Owens and John Woodruff in track have been great leaders in athletics. The Negroes have, in- deed, given America much. In re- turn they ask to have a fair chance at good jobs and a square deal. Summary of the Unit .... In this unit "We, a Nation of Immigrants, Turn to the Better Things of Life," we have seen how many different streams of peo- ple have come to our shores. They have helped to make ours a better country in which to live. The main points of the unit are: 1. Horace Mann was the father of the public school movement that gives most boys and girls an oppor- tunity for an education. Junior high schools, junior colleges, and colleges have been designed to im- prove education for all. 2. Our people have brought about many reforms. We have freed the slaves, provided better treat- ment for the insane, the deaf and dumb, the poor debtors, and other unfortunates. 3 86 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 3. Courageous leaders such as Jane Addams have awakened our people to the need of wiping out the slums and of providing better opportunities for children. 4. Reforms in the use of alco- holic drinks led to the passage of Amendment XVIII in 1919 and its repeal in 1933. 5. Our people have enjoyed mu- sic more and more. Both popular and serious music have been com- posed, played, and sung increas- ingly during the last hundred years. 6. Our artists turned from sign painting and portraits in the early days to painting scenes of everyday life of our people today. 7. Our people have sought amusement in the theater. From the barn-like theaters of the early days to the movie palaces of today, able actors have carried on the show. 8. Since 1890 immigration from southern and eastern Europe has surpassed that from northern Eu- rope. Recently, Canadians and Mexicans have also come to our country to live. 9. The Negroes have gained their freedom and since that time have made remarkable progress in view of the many handicaps they have faced. 10. Both immigrants and Ne- groes have contributed a great deal to almost all phases of our na- tional life. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you understand the following terms by using each in a sentence that explains its meaning. 1. old immigration 3. share-cropper 2. new immigration 4. tenant WHY IS THIS A RED-LETTER YEAR? 1890: Why is this a convenient date to distinguish two different streams of European immigration? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why did the Europeans want to come to America? Where did some of the different groups settle and find jobs? 2. Where have immigrants from Canada settled? From Mexico? 3. Why did the "old immigrants" tend to look down upon the "new immi- grants"? What regulations have been made regarding immigration? 4. In what ways have the immigrants shown that they were sincere in their desire to be "good Americans"? 5. Give examples of immigrants who have made outstanding contributions to business and science; to the fields of art and music. What other fields have they also entered? 6. Why did the Negroes turn to share-cropping? Explain the position of the Negro in the share-crop system. 7. What evidence is there that the Negroes have improved their economic position in the South since the days of slavery? MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 387 8. What gains have the Negroes won in industry and business? 9. What advance have the Negroes made in their education? Why is Booker T. Washington considered a great Negro? 10. Give an example of an outstanding Negro in education, science, music, and sports. 11. Summary Question: Why have there been changes in attitude among our people toward the immigrants and the Negroes? Activities for Unit Seven CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Frieze. Prepare a frieze of four or five pictures on one of the following themes: (a) immigrants enter the United States (show why they came, their costumes, where they went, the jobs they took and how they lived); (b) the contributions of outstanding Americans to our music, painting, and thea- ter; (c) the work of a settlement house; (d) the Negroes in American life. 2. Cartoon. Prepare a cartoon illustrating one of the following topics: (a) We open our schools to all. (b) Reforms improve the conditions of the unfor- tunate, (c) The United States raises bars against immigration, (d) The "old" immigrant looks at the "new" immigrant, (e) What shall we do tonight: radio, movies, theater, concert? 3. Maps. Enlarge the map on Negroes in the United States shown on page 382. Prepare a short talk explaining this map to the class. Or enlarge the map on page 378 showing where recent immigrants have settled. Also pre- pare a short talk to explain this map to the class. 4. Letter. Imagine that you were a recent immigrant from some country in southeastern Europe. Write a letter home describing your trip over, the job you got, and how you are getting along. Also contrast food and other features of our life with those in the old country. For further information you might interview someone who was an immigrant. Also see the Building America pamphlets, VI, "We Americans," and IX, "Italian-Americans." 5. Table. Prepare a table of outstanding artists in one of the fields of the fine arts. In the first column place their names and in the second their accom- plishments. For additional information see the list of books under "To Find Out Who's Who." I TEST MY SKILLS G. Field Trip. Seeing is believing. Organize a field trip for one of the follow- ing: (a) to a local or nearby museum; (b) to a settlement house; (c) to a naturalization court; or (d) to a district inhabited mostly by foreign-born. Before going on the trip you should make careful preparation. First, de- cide where you are going. Second, how you are going. Third, make arrange- ments with the proper authorities for your visit. Fourth, select a spokesman to make the interviews. Fifth, be prepared to take notes on the interviews. Sixth, it is very important to be courteous, quiet, and orderly. While on this trip your actions speak not only for yourself, but for the whole school. Seventh, if any free materials are given out, be moderate in taking them. 388 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Eighth, when you are through do not neglect to thank your host for his courtesy. Finally, prepare a report of your Visit so that you may share your experiences with other members of the class. 7. Making and Using a Survey. There are often untapped gems of information right at hand. One way to find this out is to make a survey. Suppose you make a survey of the nationalities and racial groups in your class. First, prepare a brief questionnaire to be answered. You might ask: (a) Where were you born, your father, your mother, your grandfather, and your grand- mother? (b) What kind of work did your father, your mother, your grand- father, and grandmother carry on? Let each pupil take this home and get it filled out. When the replies are returned a committee of three could tabu- late the information. From this information prepare a bulletin board re- port. Separate maps would show the location of the home lands of fathers, mothers, grandfathers, and grandmothers. Well-labeled charts could be prepared to show the variety of work that these people contribute to America. Possibly from this information you could find someone who would be willing to come to your class and talk to you about his home land. WE WORK IN GROUPS 8. Play. Write a play based upon the naturalization ceremony. It docs not need to stick strictly to the actual procedure of a naturalization court, but may be adapted to bring in more of the spirit of the making of Americans. The scene could open with an empty stage to which comes an attendant to light candles placed in back of the judges' bench. Then will follow, dressed in dark robes, four assistant judges and the chief judge. Last will appear the candidate for naturalization. The judge calls the candidate before him and asks questions on his birthplace, when he arrived, the work he is doing, and if he desires to become a citizen. Then the candidate is questioned by each of the four assistants. One asks simple questions on United States his- tory and the Constitution, another inquires about the use of English and our literature, a third asks about some of our customs and laws, while the fourth asks the candidate to repeat the American's Creed and the oath of allegiance to the flag. Finally, the chief judge makes the candidate a citizen, congratulates him, and offers words of inspiration. The scene would close by the retirement of the judges and the new citizen. Then the attendant will quietly come in and snuff out the candle lights. If carefully prepared, such a play would make an excellent program for a patriotic holiday. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 9. Panel Discussion. Do you think the movies are a benefit to our way of life? Let a panel of six discuss this topic. One member would act as chairman, introducing the topic and the speakers. One member of the panel could discuss the rise of the movie industry and tell something of its importance. A second member might examine the effect of the movies on the theater. Try to decide whether the movies encourage or discourage the development of local drama groups and widespread participation in plays. The third panel-member could discuss the value of movies as entertainment. The fourth member might speak of movies as education and information. The fifth member could discuss the menace of propaganda pictures, crime MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 389 movies, cheap and poorly acted shows, and the influence of our movies abroad. Following the panel, the class could question the pupils on the stand they have taken. Excellent additional materials may be found in two Building America pamphlets, II, "Movies," and VI, "The American Thea- ter." WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 10. To Get More Information. RUGC, HAROLD, America's March Toward Democracy. Pages 212-44, 263-67, and 391^131 describe social life in the colonies, the abolition movement, and reforms. RUGG, HAROLD, The Conquest of America. Pages 337-55 give further de- tails on the immigration movement and on the life of the Negroes in America. WISE, W. E., Jane Addams of Hull-House. This book emphasizes the life of a famous woman, but Chapters 11, 12, 13, and 14 give an excellent picture of the work of a settlement house. BURK, CASSIE, AND OTHERS, America's Musical Heritage. An easy text that tells the facts about the development of music in the United States. It in- cludes the old and new, and instrumental as well as vocal music. FLOHERTY, J. J., On the Air, the Story of Radio. A well-illustrated and easily read book describing the details of broadcasting. BECKER, JOHN, The Negro in American Life. An interesting collection of pictures with brief comments showing the contributions of Negroes to our life from Revolutionary days up to the present. 11. To Find Out Who's Who. BEARD, A. E. S., Our Foreign-Born Citizens, What They Have Done for America. The lives of 47 great citizens who came to America from abroad. BAKELESS, K. L., Story-Lives of American Composers. Details about the lives of Stephen Foster, Victor Herbert, John P. Sousa, Irving Berlin, and ten others. COOPER, A. C., AND PALMER, C. A., Twenty Modern Americans. More people who have helped make the U. S. A. a great country. Walt Disney. Charles Steinmetz, Yehudi Menuhin, Drs. Will and Charlie Mayo, and Jane Addams are a half dozen that every boy and girl should know. IRWIN, GRACE, Trail-Blazers of American Art. The stories of Gilbert Stuart, Winslow Homer, James M. Whistler, Augustus St. Gaudens and John Singer Sargent are here, and others besides. EWEN, DAVID, The Story of George Gershwin. From the moment a piano entered his home this boy took to music, and became a great modern com- poser. MALVERN, GLADYS, Curtain Going Up. The story of Katherine Cornell that not only tells you about a fine actress but gives behind-the-scenes stories of the theater. GRAHAM, SHIRLEY, AND LIPSCOMB, G. D., Dr. George Washington Carver, Scientist. The life of a great Negro. Born in slavery, his persistence and curiosity brought discoveries undreamed of before, yet he shunned fame. 390 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 12. To Read a Historical Story. BISCHOFF, ILSE, Painter's Coach. The experiences of a wandering portrait painter in New England in the early 1800's. SKIDMORE, HUBERT, River Rising. York Allen decided to be a doctor. He had many adventures as a teacher in the Blue Ridge Mountains trying to earn money for his education. KNOX, R. B., Footlights Afloat. The adventures of wandering minstrels on a Mississippi showboat in the 1880's. HESS, FJERIL, Handkerchief Holiday. Marcy Curtis works among the for- eign-born and learns three important things. ANGELO, VALENTI, Hill of Little Miracles. The story of Ricco and his Italian and Irish neighbors who live on Telegraph Hill overlooking San Francisco Bay. MEANS, F. C., Shuttered Windows. A northern colored girl visits her rela- tives in South Carolina. She is so impressed with their needs that she de- cides to remain and work among them. 13. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Pageant of America: X, 244-335, about elementary and high schools and colleges; XI, entire volume devoted to painting, sculpture, music, and other fine arts; XII, a volume telling about the stage and the theater; XIII, describing architecture and houses from colonial days to the present. Building America: I, "Housing," "Health" and "Recreation"; II, "Movies"; III, "Education" and "Seeing America"; IV, "Crime"; V, "Arts and Ameri- can Craftsmen" and "Community Planning"; VI, "We Americans," "Radio," and "The American Theater"; VII, "America Discovers Its Songs" and "Libraries"; VIII, "Photography" and "Our Spanish-Speaking People"; IX, "Italian-Americans." WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 14. Headlines. Select from this unit ten outstanding events. Prepare a headline for each. Each headline should tell not only of the event but also why it is important. 15. Round Table Discussion. Man cannot live by bread alone. Let four mem- bers of the class discuss the changes and reforms by which people today live ,. richer lives than those of earlier days. Each person could emphasize one of the following: improvements in education; reforms help the unfortunate; music, theater, and art give entertainment; and Negroes share increasingly in our life. 16. Exhibit. Prepare an exhibit entitled "Richer Living." Let a committee of three plan the things to go into the exhibit. The committee might consider how music, art, and the theater have improved our ways of living as well as the reforms. They might like to have a section showing how immigrants and Negroes have added to our ways of life. Once the committee has de- cided, they will announce the program to the class. Materials will be brought in and an exhibit made up. Be sure that you have neat and at- tractive labels. Group things properly. You might invite other classes to your exhibit, appointing guides to explain each group. MANY HELP MAKE U.S.A. GREAT 391 DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 17. Table. Prepare a table that shows the development of our fine arts by periods. Use these three time periods: colonial period, 1800 to 1890, and since 1890. Other columns would be headed: art, music, and theater. 18. An Example. Can you give an example of each of the following: (a) changes in education, (b) reforms to help the poor people, (c) organizations for young people, (d) changes in immigration, and (e) progress among the Negroes? 19. Looking Back on the Artist. A possible title for the unit drawing found on pages 342-43 might be "The American Dream." What is the American Dream? What ideas in this Dream has the artist illustrated? What ideas have been omitted? Unit Eight American Democracy Marches on to Aid the Common Man 23. Government in a Democracy Operates Through Politi- cal Parties * 24. Political Bosses and Powerful Groups Sometimes Con- trol Our Political Parties 25. The National Government Responds to the Demand for More Democracy 26. The States and Cities Become Laboratories for Demo- cratic Experiments Think of American Democracy as a mighty political stream. As it travels its course in the 1800's and 1900's, it is fed by two branches. From one branch sometimes pour dark evil-looking waters. When political parties and their leaders stoop to corruption, this branch makes the main stream unclean. Special interests working through political parties also help to increase the flow of the corrupt waters. From the other branch run the clear blue waters of clean politics and increased democracy. Challenged by the rival stream, the volume of clear blue water seems to increase. This branch carries the waters of democratic reforms or improvements. Here run the hopes of a better America: civil service reform and woman suffrage among many. Through its glistening waters shine the reforms of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson and Wisconsin's Governor La Follette. Fortunately the waters of democracy and reform finally determine the nature of the main stream. //, JE \ ll. 1 h 4 <^=L f.ir Chapter 23. Government in a Democracy Operates Through Political Parties . ... * . More than 50 years ago an Englishman wrote a famous book about our government. Of our political parties, he wrote: "In America the great moving forces are the parties. The government counts for less than in Europe, the parties count for more. "There are now two great and several minor parties in the United States. The great parties are the Republicans and the Democrats. What are their principles [or rules of action]? That is what a European is always asking of intelligent Republicans and intelligent Democrats. He is always asking because he never gets an answer. After some months the truth begins to dawn upon him. "Neither party has any clean-cut principles. Both have traditions [an inherited past]. Both claim to have tendencies. Both have certainly war cries, organizations, interests, enlisted in their support. But these interests are in the main the interests of getting or keeping the patronage [offices] of the government. "Parties go on contending [fighting] because their members have formed habits of joint action. The American parties now continue to exist, because they have existed. The mill has been constructed, and its ma- chinery goes on turning, even when there is not grist [grain] to grind. "But this is not wholly the fault of the men; for the system of govern- ment requires parties, just as that of England does. These systems are made to be worked, and always have been worked, by a majority. A majority must be gathered into a united and organized body. Such a body is a Party." In the early 1900's an American compared our chief political parties to armies. "We should not be far wrong" he wrote, "if we should declare that there are two or more great armies in existence. Each is controlled by a select few whose main ambition is victory." 396 GOVERNMENT THROUGH POLITICAL PARTIES 397 Political Parties Are Neces- ever ' the one closest to the voters. IT TT/ i f It covers the smallest area, a pre- sary to the Working or a ,. 5 .~ , nn J cinct including 3aO to 400 voters on Democracy ......... the average. If the precinct leader makes good, he may rise in the A well-organized party is the key to party's organization. He is therefore political success. Political parties, usually a tireless worker. He knows we read in Chapter 8, go hand in that if he is to count on the voters hand with democracy. Like power- of his district, he must keep them ful dynamos, they keep the wheels happy between elections, of government going. If a party is The leader's office a local politi- to capture the government at elec- cal club in a large city is always tion time, it must be as well or- open to voters. The leader keeps ganized as an army. To insure sue- his eye on youth just reaching the cess, party workers must labor hard voting age. He helps the fo reign- not only before elections but also born with their citizenship papers, between elections. The secret of sue- If possible, he finds jobs for the un- cess is a good organization plus hard employed. Free legal advice is avail- work, able; and if there is need, often free Each of the great political parties medical service, too. The political has an organization that looks like club becomes the poor man's club- a great pyramid. At its broad base, house. A poor family may be helped as the chart on page 398 shows, are with gifts of food, fuel, and even the voters millions of them. Next cash if it is in temporary need, are the thousands of local organiza- The local leader is also a busy tions. These may be village, town, man socially. He attends funerals or city committees. The organiza- in the district as well as marriages tion of cities is in turn divided. The and christenings. He himself holds smallest division is the precinct, parties, picnics, and dances for while over that is a ward consisting young and old. Such methods win of two or more precincts. friendships and votes. Some lead- Above these local organizations is ers can predict their districts' vote the county committee. Next, the with amazing accuracy. That is how group that makes the party plans a party organization works in some for the entire state is the state com- of our largest cities, mittee. At the top of the pyramid Outside the larger cities the is the national committee. Natu- county committee is the important rally there is some overlapping in party organization. It usually has the work of these committees. Be- great power and is able to give or- cause of the large numbers serving ders to town and village leaders, on these various committees, real In many counties a county boss is power tends to fall into the hands of either a committee member or con- the chairmen. They become the trols the committee, higher officers of the party army. Discipline in a political army is The local organization is, how- sometimes strict. "I want to say," U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY HOW A PARTY ORGANIZES County Committee City Committee Ward Committee Town Committee Precinct Captains Village Committees Leaders VOTERS said a city leader, "that if any man does not carry his precinct, he'll be fired. If a man means anything in his precinct he can carry it. If he doesn't he has no business in poli- tics." Political parties work like a well- oiled machine. A large-scale test of party organization comes when a President is elected. The ability of the national, state, county, and local committees to work together is at stake. Sometimes there may be fric- tion between the national and state organizations, but usually peace prevails within the party. Under the leadership of the chairman of the national committee, the party prepares for the battle of the ages. In a presidential election, the na- tional committee of each party, with members from each state, has certain duties to perform. One duty is to arrange for the big national convention of the party. At the con- vention party leaders draw up a set of ideas called a platform for which the party stands. The con- vention also names presidential and vice-presidential candidates. After the convention the national com- mittee conducts a campaign. And it raises millions of dollars to carry on that campaign. How political parties can arouse the nation is il- lustrated by the campaign and elec- tion of 1860 the most important in our history. In 1 860 the Democratic party was sharply divided over the slavery question. As a result, the party split, GOVERNMENT THROUGH POLITICAL PARTIES 399 held two conventions, and put two raised and spent by the parties, presidential candidates in the field. When the campaign ended and the The northern Democrats nomi- votes were counted, Lincoln was nated Stephen A. Douglas of Illi- President-elect. The Republican nois; the southern Democrats party had won a national campaign picked John C. Breckinridge of for the first time. Kentucky. Another group called the Constitutional Union party nominated John Bell of Tennessee. For 24 Years from Lincoln What would the new Republican to Cleveland the Republicans Pa On d a ? May day in 1860, 10,000 Contr l Ur NM ^nal GoV- persons crowded into the Wigwam eminent the Republican convention hall in Chicago to learn the answer. The Lincoln Republicans combine Three days later the convention was idealism with practical measures, ready to nominate. A delegate from The Republican party was born in New York put in nomination Wil- idealism. That idealism was the Ham H. Seward, that state's able main plank of the 1860 platform, leader and the party's best-known The Lincoln Republicans were ab- member. Then Illinois named Lin- solutely opposed to the further ex- coin. "I rise to put in nomination," tension of slavery into the terri- shouted another delegate, "the man tories. On the other hand, they were who can split rails and maul Demo- opposed to abolition or the wiping crats Abraham Lincoln." On the out of slavery in the states where it third ballot Lincoln was voted the already existed. And yet it was Lin- party's candidate over Seward. The coin who became the Great Emanci- convention went almost mad with pator the President who freed the excitement. For 24 hours Chicago slaves. But that was done as a war celebrated. measure during the War Between From May until November the the States. If southern states campaign was lively, with its end- dropped out of the Avar, said Lin- less torch-light parades, mass meet- coin, their slaves would not be ings, and campaign songs. One of freed. The South did not quit, the favorite songs was "Honest Abe But the Republicans of 1860 did of the West," sung to the tune of not carry all their eggs in the basket "The Star Spangled Banner." of idealism. They were very prac- Throughout these months Lincoln tical about economic matters. They remained at his home in Spring- were also careful to have a platform field, Illinois. Douglas, on the other that would appeal to various groups hand, spoke in nearly every state, in the nation. For the farmer they The two remaining parties cam- stood for free land. They also prom- paigned wherever they believed ised the West its first transconti- they had a chance to win support- nental railroad which was to be ers. Large sums of money were built with government aid. GOVERNMENT THROUGH POLITICAL PARTIES 40! To the business men of the North and East, the Republicans promised a protective tariff. That is, a high tax would be placed on goods com- ing into the country from abroad, which competed with goods manu- factured here. This was to protect the interests of the business man and the laborer. The Republicans argued that under such protection both profits and wages would rise. Some one has pointed out that this platform was a combination of the ideas of Hamilton, the Federal- ist, and Jackson, the Democrat, which we read about in Chapter 8. The Hamiltonian ideas, however, were more emphasized than the Jacksonian. In the 24 years follow- ing Lincoln's election, the Repub- lican platform was to change in de- tail but not in basic ideas. These were the years when Abraham Lin- coln, Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, and Chester A. Arthur held the Presidency for the Repub- licans (see Appendix III, page 602). During this period the Republicans also kept a fairly firm grip on Con- gress and they controlled the Su- preme Court. After the War Between the States, the Republicans try to keep the southern Democrats in political chains. Lincoln's tragic death at the hands of an assassin at the close of the war removed a great and good President when the nation most needed greatness in its leaders. \Vith Lincoln gone, control of the party fell into the hands of men who wished to punish the South for its part in the War Between the States (1861-65). They wished also to keep out of power the proud old Demo- cratic party of Jefferson and Jack- son. Old King Cotton and his long reign must be destroyed forever. In Congress, Republicans planned a program designed to keep them in power and the Demo- crats out. Their first step was to add three war amendments to the Con- stitution. Amendment XIII [98] freed the slaves. Thus was Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation made lawful after the war. A terrific blow was also dealt the southern planters. Slaves to the value of about three billion dollars were freed without payment to the owners. Amendment XIV [100-03] gave the Negro citizenship and civil rights. It also took away political rights from many southern whites. This was done by denying to south- ern leaders the right to hold either state or federal offices. This part ap- plied only to Southerners who be- fore rebelling had taken an office- holder's oath to support the Consti- tution. By this clause the Republi- cans denied the ablest southern leaders a share in the rebuilding of the South. The Negroes' right to vote was, in a general way, granted by Amendment XV [105]. This privi- lege was granted by the Republi- cans partly because they believed that the millions of Negroes would support the Republican party the party that had freed the slaves. By these amendments, however, the condition of the Negro undoubt- edly improved. That was an impor- tant gain coming from this period of Republican leadership. Presidential candidate Abraham Lincoln sat for this photograph in June, 1860. He promised the photographer he would be "dressed up" for the occasion. This favorite campaign photograph, carefully retouched, was distributed widely. A year earlier Lincoln wrote a friend, "I do not think myself fit for the Presidency." But the voters thought otherwise about "Honest Abe." Today Lincoln stands with Washington in the hearts and minds of our people. (Stefan Lorant, Lincoln, His Life in Photographs) GOVERNMENT THROUGH POLITICAL PARTIES 403 When Lincoln's successor, An- drew Johnson, opposed Congress for some of its high-handed meth- ods, the Republicans attempted un- successfully to remove Johnson from office. This was an example of the readiness of the Republican Congress to ride roughshod over any opposition to their plan for rebuilding the South after the de- struction of the war. The plan taking leadership from the southern whites and giv- ing it to the newly freed Negroes has been called the "crime of re- construction." Putting enforcement of the plan into the hands of cer- tain white politicians from the North and South and the newly freed Negroes, proved unwise. At that time the Negroes were unpre- pared for such responsibility. Mis- rule and corruption on a large scale naturally resulted. The debts of the South already huge because of the war mounted to dizzy heights. The Republican attempt to put the defeated South in political chains succeeded, but the cost was stag- gering. The Republican party fails to ce- ment the Union and loses favor. Knowing that the political weather vane can swing violently, some northern Republicans began to fear the political effects of their actions. In the South there were signs that the whites were preparing to take over their own affairs at the first opportunity. Like Americans at all times and places, Southerners be- lieved that they were entitled to home rule. At first, southern whites used fear as a weapon. Operating through secret societies one was the Ku Klux Klan they attempted to frighten the Negroes out of all de- sire either to vote or rule. When these activities turned into vio- lence, the federal government broke up the Klan. Quarrels among those in control of southern governments led in time to their downfall in most states. When 12 years after the war President Hayes took over Republican leadership, he promptly ended the unworkable Republican plan. Now southern leadership turned to the unfinished business of rebuilding the South. When the southern whites re- gained power, they wrote new state constitutions. In the new constitu- tions the right to vote was taken away from many Negroes by setting up requirements which the Negroes could not meet. These require- ments might be taxpaying, reading tests, or tests of ability to interpret the Constitution. Since most of the Negroes had been denied educa- tional opportunities, they lost their right to vote when they could not pass the tests. Today, it is estimated that only about one-tenth of south- ern adult Negroes are registered voters. About four million are with- out the right to vote. With most Negroes denied the ballot, the whites were again in con- trol of their governments. The southern whites immediately struck back at the party responsible for the "reconstruction" period the 12 years which stirred up more hate than the war itself. They struck back at the Republi- U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY TRENDS IX PRESIDENTIAL VOTING 192O-44 Usually Republican Usually Democratic ? ? ? Uncertain - cans by forming the "Solid South." Beginning in 1880, the ten ex-con- federate states which most felt the iron heel of Republican reconstruc- tion voted the Democratic ticket in election after election (see map, above). Planters, farmers, and business men joined forces to sup- port the Democrats regardless of men or issues. The Solid South meant, then, a section voting Demo- cratic by large majorities. The Re- publicans had failed to crush the southern Democrats. In the North the Republicans were slipping. Men were sickening of the harsh reconstruction policy. Dissatisfied Republicans had even formed a liberal wing of the party. They did not believe that the Re- publicans had cemented the Union. They felt strongly that the party which had freed the slaves was ca- pable of other great things. The Old Democratic Party of Jackson Comes Back to Power for a Brief Period . .1 . . . In electing Cleveland the voters give the Democrats another chance. The great advantage of a two-party system lies in its convenience. When you tire of one, you try the other. If the "Ins" become careless and corrupt, the cry goes up, "Turn the rascals out." If the "Ins" are unable to solve the problems of the' times, then the voters turn to the "Outs." If, by chance, the "Ins" prove them- selves inefficient and corrupt at the same time, then the "Outs" are al- most certain to come back. Such an occasion is one of those rare times when almost anyone could be elected as the candidate of the "Outs." Let us glance backward a mo- GOVERNMENT THROUGH POLITICAL PARTIES 405 ment. When the old Democratic party was unable to hold a united front on the slavery issue, the new and untried Republicans were elected. Although the war was won under Lincoln's leadership, his party, after his death, did a poor job on reconstruction. When, in 1884, the voters elected Grover Cleveland, a Democrat, they simply decided that it was time to turn the government over to the Democrats. Did the Democratic platform suggest that, if given power, the Democrats would greatly change the course of government? In gen- eral, no. Except for a policy of lower tariff rates, the Democratic plat- form was not much different from the Republican stand of that year. In the last sentence of their plat- form, the Democrats expressed the hope "that the popular voice will announce in favor of new men." Give "new men" a chance, that was the real issue. The Republicans had nominated James G. Elaine, their most popu- lar man. The campaign of 1 884 was fought on differences between can- didates rather than on platform dif- ferences. The reform element in the Republican party deserted Blaine for Cleveland, which placed them in a position of being Demo- crats. They claimed, however, that they were still Republicans and in- sisted that Cleveland was "better than his party." When the reform Republicans combined with southern, northern, and western Democrats to elect Cleveland, a majority of voters was simply calling in a new doctor. His medicine (or party principles) might not differ greatly from that of the Republican doctor, but the time had come to change doctors. So the Democrats found themselves in the \Vhite House again after 24 years. Under Cleveland the Democrats steer a straight course. Grover Cleveland was a blunt, outspoken man, absolutely fearless and honest. "I have tried so hard to do right," were almost his last words in the Presidency. His record before going to Washington was a solid but not a brilliant one. The son of a minis- ter, he went from one office to an- other in the state of New York. After serving as sheriff in a western county of New York, he became the reform mayor of Buffalo, and finally reform governor of New York. Cleveland believed in the old Democratic party. But he believed that the best way for it to come back to public favor was for it to follow the straight and narrow path of clean, honest politics. A "public office is a public trust," said he, and he tried to make the Democratic party live up to that. Cleveland be- lieved also that the President should set an example of honest, fearless leadership a leadership that would represent the entire nation and not merely the party. Since the Democrats had been out of power for a long time, they were hungry for government jobs. Cleveland disappointed the poli- ticians, therefore, when he failed to remove every Republican in sight. He was famous chiefly, however, for his vetoes. He vetoed more than 200 private pension bills which would U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY President Cleveland appears in this cartoon as a doctor. Uncle Sam is saying to the little civil service girl, "Don't cry, my child, he'll look after you presently. Your brother needs attention more than you do." (The Bettmann Archive) have given special pensions to in- dividual veterans of the War Be- tween the States. After long and careful investigation the President found that some of them had been deserters, some had not enlisted at all. At least one claimed a pension because he injured an ankle while intending to enlist; another was col- lecting as many as 19 pensions. Cleveland also vetoed a bill which would have given pensions to all veterans. He vetoed a rivers and harbors bill, too. Under the latter bill, Congressmen would have been able to bring federal funds into their own districts for unneces- sary dredging of rivers and harbors. This was just an old congressional Custom. Altogether Cleveland ve- toed some 300 bills, more than twice the number vetoed by all previous Presidents. Because he believed that the tar- iff rates were too high, he recom- mended when he ran for re-election that they be lowered. This was courageous action, but it cost him the election. After a single term for the Republican, Benjamin Harri- son, Cleveland was again elected as the "most popular man in the coun- try." But his popularity was soon lost in a whole series of events, such as a depression, labor troubles, finan- cial difficulties, and strained foreign relations. In the end the President's unbending desire to do what he believed right made him a "fallen leader." But the Democratic party in the long run could look back on GOVERNMENT THROUGH POLITICAL PARTIES 407 William McKinley was elected President in 1896 when he defeated Bryan in a bit- terly fought contest. McKinley, as the "Advanced Agent of Prosperity," was strongly supported by big business. Big business was pleased with the "new" program which McKinley and the Republican party put into operation. (Harris & Ewing) Cleveland's administrations with satisfaction. That was fortunate, for the Democrats were not to occupy the White House again for 16 years. The Republicans return again with a new program. Cleveland's second administration experienced a bad depression. Depressions are bad for the party in power, because the voter holds responsible the Presi- dent in office at the time. After the depression of the 1890's, the voters wanted a change. The alarmed Democrats turned away from the conservative path trod by Cleveland. In doing so they adopted the most radical platform in their history and ran their most radical candidate, William J. Bryan. In spite of all the Democrats could do, the Republicans won the election of 1896. William McKin- ley, the "Advanced Agent of Pros- perity," and the Republicans were again in control of the federal gov- ernment, including both houses of Congress. Major McKinley, a kindly gen- tleman, had served with distinction in the War Between the States, ris- ing from the rank of a private to that of a major. He later repre- sented Ohio in Congress, and finally was Ohio's governor. McKinley was a follower of public opinion rather than a leader. He was a conserva- tive and not a reformer. Unlike Cleveland, he got along well with Congress. He believed that what the country wanted was a period of calm and quiet, during which busi- ness would be given an opportunity to develop without interference. This point of view was strongly shared by his campaign manager, a manufacturer who looked at all public questions from a business man's standpoint. The Republican platform of 1896 mirrored this view 408 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY also. It stood squarely for a pro- tective tariff and other measures de- signed to help business. Here, then, was the "new" Republican pro- gram one intended to produce na- tional and business happiness. The Republicans moved at once to turn their promises into laws. A special session of Congress passed a tariff bill which established a new high in protection. When McKinley showed no interest in legislation to regulate business, big business felt that the "new" Republican pro- gram was made to order. While Mc- Kinley was in office, big business industry, railroads, and banks be- came ever bigger. Big business was pleased when the Spanish-American War (1898) brought us new possessions and new prospects for trade and still bigger business. President McKinley was easily re-elected. With the Republi- can program, prosperity returned. Big business was pleased with its influence in government. In this chapter we have traced the activities of the major political parties from 1860 to 190032 years of Republicans and eight of Demo- crats (see Appendix III, page 602). We have seen how political parties make it possible for voters to- select platforms and candidates to their liking. We have seen how the Re- publican party handled the thorny problem of reconstruction (1865 77). Later we saw that party re- placed by Cleveland Democrats for a short period (1885-89, 1893-97). Finally, at the turn of the century, we saw the Republicans come strongly back to power with a pro- gram that promised national and business happiness. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? By using each of the following terms in a sentence, show that you understand their meanings. Give an example when possible. 1. precinct 5. political campaign 2. ward 6. Republican party 3. political conven- 7. abolition tion 8. protective tariff 4. political platform 9. Ku Klux Klan 10. Emancipation Proclamation 11. "crime of re- construction" 12. Solid South WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? I860: This date is important in our political history for several reasons. How many can you list? 1 861-65: What unfortunate event is marked by these years? If dates are pegs upon which to hang important historical happenings, why do these dates seem especially convenient for such a purpose? 1884: Why is this date selected for special mention in this chapter? 1896: What political event is marked by this date and why is it singled out for special mention? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Describe the organization of a political party, starting with the part of the organization nearest the voter. GOVERNMENT THROUGH POLITICAL PARTIES 409 2. Using the presidential election of 1860 as an example, show how national political committees work. .8. What did the Republican party tinder Lincoln's leadership stand for in 1860? 4. What were the provisions of each of the so-called war amendments to the federal Constitution? In what ways could these amendments have proved helpful to the Republican party of that time? 5. List the steps taken by the Southerners after the War Between the States to regain home rule. 6. Account for the election of a Democrat, Grover Cleveland, after 24 years of Republican Presidents. 7. Why is Grover Cleveland sometimes singled out as a great President? 8. What was the "new" Republican program under President William Mc- Kinley, and how successful was it? 9. Summary Question: This chapter traced the most important national politi- cal changes in the 40 years from 1860 to 1900. What were these changes, and why in your opinion did the American voters bring about such changes? Chapter 24. Political Bosses and Powerful Groups Sometimes Control Our Political Parties This is the story of Huey P. Long, once political boss of Lou- isiana. At the age of 25, he held his first office and immediately began building a political machine. Ten years later he became governor, and in 1930 a United States Senator. How "Boss" Long controlled Louisiana politics is well described in a reporter's words. "The legislature is in session for the fourth time in one year. Confusion seems to reign. Huey Long is ubiquitous [everywhere]. Running up and down the aisles to the Speaker's rostrum [desk] and back again. As United States Senator he has no status here beyond that of boss. This is Huey's Statehouse. Huey's legislature. Huey's state, his and his alone. Like a father romping in the nursery, he rushes about answering questions, dic- tating notes, wisecracking and clowning. Only the Long gang knows what is in the bills. Many of them have not even been printed. "On Monday at 9 o'clock in the morning the Ways and Means Committee meets on the tenth floor of the Statehouse tower. All bills go to this com- mittee made up of 17 members, 15 of whom are Huey's men. At five min- utes to nine Senator Long marches in with his bodyguard and takes full charge. 'Before I explain these bills,' he says, '/ want to hear any com- ments by opponents.' "Since the bills had only just come from the printer, the opposition, if any, is silent. Bill after bill comes up. Huey answers all questions, and scribbles amendments in his own handwriting. A motion to approve is put the gavel falls and the bill is as good as law. Thirty-four bills all de- signed to increase Long's power are approved in seventy minutes." Long's political methods, wrote another reporter, are "American politics of the machine school, plus a little gaudy drama." What Long did openly, some other bosses are likely to do quietly over an office telephone. In 1935 Long was shot in his own capitol. The Long gang soon lost power. 410 POLITICAL BOSSES AND POWERFUL GROUPS 411 The Political Machine Some- times Leads to Dishonest Politics Are political machines necessary? In the last chapter we saw that politi- cal parties are necessary. There seems to be no other way to run our government. Also we saw that, if a political party is to be successful, it must be well organi/ed. It must work like a well-oiled machine. We read, too, that local, county, state, and national committees must have chairmen. These chairmen are usu- ally selected for their leadership ability. Party committee chairmen are men who make politics their business. They are what are called politicians. A well-run party organ- ization may be and frequently is called a political machine. The American practice of calling a party organization a political ma- chine has led to certain difficulties. In the first place, because some po- litical machines have been corrupt, political machines in general have come to have a bad meaning in the minds of many. In the second place, a political leader is sometimes loosely called a "boss." This, likewise, has led to confusion, because "boss" like "ma- chine" has an evil meaning for the average person. Theodore Roose- velt in his Autobiography advises on how to tell a leader from a boss. A leader, he says, "fights openly for principles." He has a following be- cause he inspires confidence in his followers. His supporters believe that they can achieve more under him than under any one else. The boss, according to Roosevelt, 'is a man who does not gain his power by open means, but by secret means, and usually by corrupt means." He frequently works behind closed doors and relies upon greed and selfishness to gain his ends. Theodore Roosevelt answered the question, "Are political ma- chines necessary?" in this way. "A leader is necessary; but his oppo- nents always call him a boss. An organization is necessary; but the men in opposition always call it a machine." We may conclude that political machines in the sense of a well-run party organization are nec- essary. Corrupt political machines, like corrupt party leaders, are nei- ther necessary nor desirable. The political machine works day and night. In the last chapter we saw that the precinct leader is a busy man. In a large city organiza- tion the ward or district leader oc- cupies a middle position in the or- ganization. He is over the precinct leader but under the boss. The boss, of course, is the head of the party organization for the city. The ward leader is the chief means of contact between the big organization and the rank and file of the party. As a result he is a very busy man. How busy is illustrated in one day's ac- tivities of a ward or district leader of Tammany Hall, the Democratic machine in New York City. Here, in brief form, is the back- breaking schedule of a district lead- er in the 1890's. "2 A.M.: Door bell rang. Was re- quested to go to police station to bail out a saloon-keeper. Furnished 412 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY A ward leader, to keep his job. must hold the voters' support. To do this he sometimes does what seem to be strange things. Here a New York City leader is giving a party in Central Park to the children of his ward, with ice cream and cake free to all. (Brown Brothers) bail. Returned to bed at three o'clock. "6 A.M.: Awakened by passing fire engines. Hastened to fire to give aid to fire sufferers. Took tenants who had been burned out to a hotel. Supplied clothes and food and ar- ranged for temporary quarters un- til new apartments could be rented and furnished. "8:30 A.M-.: Went to police court. Secured discharge of four 'drunks' and paid the fines of two. "9 A.M.: Appeared in city court. Directed district captain to act as lawyer for a widow who was in dan- ger of losing her home. Paid rent of a poor family about to be ordered out for failure to meet payments. Gave them a dollar for food. "11 A.M.: At home. Found four men waiting all wanted jobs. Fixed them up after nearly three hours. "3 P.M.: Attended the funeral of an Italian. Hurried back to attend a Hebrew funeral. Went to the front in both the Catholic Church and the synagogue. Later attended the Hebrew confirmation ceremon- ies. "7 P.M.: Presided over meeting of district captains at district head- quarters. General conditions in the district were discussed, including a survey of all voters in the district. POLITICAL BOSSES AND POWERFUL GROUPS 413 Means were explored of winning over those who did not support Tammany. Orders were issued. "8 P.M.: Went to church fair. Took chances on everything. Bought ice-cream for the children. Kissed the little ones, flattered their moth- ers. Took their fathers out for some- thing down at the corner. "9 P.M.: At club-house again. Spent $10 on tickets for a church excursion and promised donation for a new church-bell. Bought tick- ets for a base-ball game between two teams of the district. Listened to complaints of a dozen pushcart ped- dlers in trouble with the police. Will go to Police Headquarters in morning to see about it. "10:30 P.M.: Attended a Hebrew wedding reception and dance. Had previously sent a handsome wed- ding present to the bride. "12 P.M.: In bed." Sometimes the boss uses the ma- chine for selfish purposes. A good political boss would probably also be a good boss in a large industry. He would be efficient and he would get things done. A political boss, like an occasional business man, can also be corrupt. When he is corrupt, it is usually because some business concerns are ready to join in the corruption. Both the boss and the business man hope to gain some- thing to which they have no right. And since government is involved, the public suffers. That is, the peo- ple pay more taxes for public serv- ices than they should. Or they pay for services they never receive. A corrupt boss uses the machine for his own selfish interest and that of a few higher-ups, rather than in the public interest. A boss has three things for sale. First, if he is dis- honest he sells "protection." That is, for a price he sees that unlawful practices are not interfered with by the police. This means that the boss makes deals with the so-called "un- derworld" of criminals. Second, he may again for a price bargain with certain powerful business in- terests to see that their interests are fully protected against legislation which they oppose. This brings the boss in contact with the so-called "upper world." Third, the boss of a large city or state machine has many favors for sale. Certain businesses, such as bus, gas, and electric companies, can op- erate only with public permission. Under a corrupt machine, this per- mission is for sale to the highest bid- der. Then there are contracts to let for public improvements. In each case, the boss may work hand in glove with the "upper world" of business. How a corrupt city boss lets con- tracts is illustrated by the Tweed Ring shortly after the War Between the States. Boss Tweed controlled Tammany Hall, the Democratic machine in New York City. When a courthouse was to be built, many contracts were necessary. This is how the system worked. A contrac- tor doing business with the city, which really meant the Ring or gang, was required to turn in pad- ded bills to the city treasurer. In- stead of charging the usual prices of services or materials, the contrac- tors or sellers charged much more. In the case of the courthouse, the 414 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY A group of vultures waiting for the storm of public anger to blow over, is the title of this cartoon. The cartoonist pictures Boss Tweed (foreground) and his gang as vultures pinning down the great state of New York. In front lie the remains of another victim New York City. (Harper's Weekly) contractors charged three times the real cost. When the bills were paid, the Ring got two and the contrac- tors one out of every three dollars. No wonder the bill for thermome- ters, for example, was $7,500. Or that one contractor received one million dollars for "repairing fix- tures" in the new courthouse. A courthouse which was supposed to cost one-quarter of a million cost in the end eight millions. Is there no cure for corruption? In this and other ways, the Tweed Ring stole more than 45 million dollars from New York City tax- payers. Finally, however, the forces for good caught up with Tweed, and he died in jail without money or friends. But corrupt machine rule was practiced beyond 'New York City. At one time or another nearly every large city had its cor- rupt leaders. Sometimes it was a Democratic machine; other times, a Republican. Some states have had corrupt party machines, too. After the War Between the States, even the federal government under Grant had its rings and corruption. Fortunately, the black pages in our history have not been nearly so numerous as the bright, glorious pages. Nevertheless, the black ones are there, and they do reappear POLITICAL BOSSES AND POWERFUL GROUPS 415 from time to time. Why? Is there no Th e Q l v l n g O f P Ut ical Offices cure for corruption? The answer is , p ar f v Worker? Leads to "Yes, if." But there are a number l rl J OrRCrs l^eaas of "ifs." a Demand for Reform .... Yes, if the special interests the underworld and the upper world "To the victors belong the spoils." are driven from their places of When, as we read in Chapter 8, power by an aroused public. Yes, Andrew Jackson favored the spoils if the public ceases to be amused at system, he honestly believed in it. newspaper accounts of corruption The party which won the election and stops dismissing the matter by was entitled to the non-elective saying, "Well, the boys are at it public offices, he thought. It was again." Yes, if fearless men or "re- good democratic reform to take form" administrations are elected these offices from the aristocracy of and supported in office by people officeholders and give them to the who want good government. Yes, if common people, he insisted. There elected officials enforce courageous- was more to fear, he felt, from hav- ly laws now provided for the control ing men too long in office than in of the special interests. Yes, if addi- having frequent changes, tional laws aimed at wiping out When Jackson was criticized for special privilege are passed when removing experienced men, he re- necessary, plied that "the duties of all public Yes, if Mr. and Mrs. Citizen are officers are ... so plain and sim- willing to take their democratic pie that men of intelligence may rights seriously every day in the readily qualify themselves for their year. It is not enough to vote on performance." But loyal party men election day and then leave the bus- hungry for the spoils might easily iness of government entirely in the overlook Jackson's emphasis upon hands of the professional politi- intelligence. Certainly the appli- cians. The alert citizen he who be- cant who wrote another President lieves that democracy is the greatest was not too much concerned with way of life in the world will not requirements. "Dear Sir," he wrote, laugh off corruption. He will de- "I am a young man wich I would mand investigation of it. He will like to beter my self. The busines insist that those charged with dis- I am at is Junk business, but I honesty be tried and punished if would rather have the business in found guilty. But above all, he will the govment, either in the Cabnet drive from office the party or the or as watchman." machine responsible for corruption. In the "horse and buggy age" of Democratic methods sometimes Jacksonian Democracy, Old Hick- seem to work very slowly. But sooner ory was probably right when he said or later the voters are aroused. ' that the duties of public office were When that time comes, they go to plain and simple. But as the coun- the ballot boxes with determination, try grew and especially as it became And they "turn the rascals out." a machine-age nation, everything 416 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY became more complex. Increas- ingly, the people looked to the gov- ernment for more and more guid- ance. Jackson's government never had to prepare pamphlets on how to care for a baby or what to feed chickens. Jackson's spoilsmen did not have the difficult problem of regulating hundreds of thousands of miles of transportation by rail, bus, and air. Even handling mail was easy when Jackson was Presi- dent. The machine age emphasized the need for trained and experi- enced public employees. As time passed, the Presidents began to re- bel against the spoils system. Lin- coln complained bitterly in the opening days of the War Between the States about office-seekers hin- dering the war effort. In the end, however, he removed a larger per- centage of officeholders than any other President. The war increased the number of workers in the civil service, as employees in non-mili- tary services of government are called. But it was not until after the war that the first steps were taken to find a substitute for the spoils system. The first effective step toward re- form was taken by the Republican, President Hayes, in the 1870's. Without congressional aid, he tried to clean up the New York Custom House. There five Republican offi- cials had removed 1,678 men in 1,565 business days. When Hayes removed the chief officer Collec- tor Chester A. Arthur both Con- gress and the New York machine were up in arms in defense of the spoils system. The murder of a President speeds civil service reform. When James A. Garfield succeeded Hayes, the re- formers were hopeful. Garfield had favored civil service reform for years. But four months after his inauguration, President Garfield was shot by a disappointed office- seeker. When he died at the end of the summer of 1881, the shocked nation had made up its mind. The death of a President was too high a cost to pay for an out-of-date spoils system. Politics or no politics, it must go, said an aroused nation. The murder of the President had two immediate effects. First, Vice President Chester A. Arthur suc- ceeded to the Presidency [60]. Ar- thur, you recall, was the collector of the port of New York who had been removed by Hayes because of his activities as a spoilsman. But to the credit of President Arthur he was soon to prove himself quite different from the machine poli- tician, Collector Arthur. The sec- ond effect was the public demand that Congress act immediately on civil service reform. To the surprise of many, Arthur recommended to Congress a civil service bill. He even said that he would accept any reform bill passed by Congress. Congress could no longer delay action. On one side was an angry public demanding re- form. On the other was a President pushing Congress. Over all was the spirit of a murdered President. During the debate on the reform bill, some Congressmen fought hard to save the spoils system. One die- hard member said that tossing pen- nies was a better method of select- - - '3 O V . r =1 c t S. ;* Ba be S V !2 - x c rs- 8 Ji - - - _ p QJ ' ^ 5 S c ~ .2 y = C 'i o 4; w _W * H ~ u 73 418 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY THE MERIT SYSTEM GROWS Competitive l.ooo.ooo soo.ooo Administration q ARTHUR 1884 EVELAN 1897 OOSEVELT. 1909 TAFT 1913 HOOVER 1933 [ROOSEVELT 1941 Appointive soo.ooo .000.000 -ey- employees than using the silly examination questions. Some years later a President was to reply to this by saying, "If we selected em- ployees according to the length of their noses, it would be better than the political spoils system of appointment." Finally, Congress passed the bill and Arthur signed it. The Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), as it was called, is perhaps our most important political re- form, for it laid the foundation for the merit system in civil service. The reform provided that federal civil service employees would in- creasingly be selected on the basis of merit or special fitness for a par- ticular kind of government work. The Pendleton Act explained how fitness would .be the chief require- ment. (1) Written examinations would be open to all who believed themselves prepared. (2) Appoint- ments to and promotions in office would go to those with highest marks. At first, however, the re- form applied to a limited number of offices. (3) No longer could the "Ins" remove civil employees be- cause they belonged to the "Outs." (4) A commission was to make and enforce civil service rules. (5) Presi- dents could place new offices under the merit system, as they saw fit. The merit system spreads slowly. Although the Pendleton Act laid the foundation for a great reform, it took many years before most fed- eral employees were placed on a merit basis. When the merit system POLITICAL BOSSES AND POWERFUL GROUPS 419 was started under Arthur, it in- cluded only about one-tenth of all federal employees (see graph, page 418). Just before we entered the Sec- ond World War about three-fourths of the federal government's one and one-third million civil workers were under the merit system. The war raised the number of federal em- ployees to a record total of over three millions. Although many of the new workers qualified through examinations, they were appointed only for the duration of the war. About 95 per cent of the more than three millions were under the rules of the Civil Service Commission. The reform spread into the states, too. New York and Massa- chusetts led the parade of the states in this important reform. Today, some 20 states have state-wide merit systems in use. More than half of these were adopted in the 1930's and 1940's. Cities, likewise, have seen the need of adopting the re- form, but here progress has like- wise been slow. About three-fifths of the cities of 10,000 or more peo- ple have adopted the merit system for one or more departments. De- spite progress, the use of the spoils system to build up political ma- chines still exists especially in our cities and states. Well-organized Groups Put Pressure on Politicians . . . Many organizations keep special agents to influence government. The life of the average politician is not too happy. Since he wishes to be re-elected, he almost always has his mind on the next election. And that is understandable. For in one way or another his constituents the "folks back home" whom he represents do not let him forget that the day of reckoning is coming. If he votes one w r ay, he displeases some constituents. If he votes the other way, he is bound to displease others. Sometimes they write or tel- egraph him, trying to influence his vote. When John Citizen writes his Representative or Senator or Presi- dent on his own, that is democracy at work. It is then up to the office- holder to determine what the ma- jority wants. But if the officeholder receives a number of letters and telegrams which are alike or almost so, he knows that some organized group is at work trying to make a minority sound like a majority. If such pressure does not mislead the officeholder, he may ignore it. But he is likely to be influenced by it, because he fears that the organized group has the means to defeat him in the next election. A group which organizes for the purpose of influencing public opin- ion is called a pressure group. It has a special axe to grind. It hopes that it can get the public as well as those responsible for our governments to help in the grinding of that axe. How do pressure groups operate? Some work in the open, others un- der cover. Whether under cover or in the open, they try to do three things. First, they try to influence nominations and elections. Second, they try to influence legislation. O POLITICAL BOSSES AND POWERFUL GROUPS 421 They do this, as was just pointed out, by putting pressure on the law- makers. This is done either by ap- pealing directly to the legislators or indirectly through the voters. Third, by the clever use of propa- ganda, the pressure group tries to win the public to its viewpoint (see (hart, page 120). Well-organized and well-financed pressure groups usually employ highly-paid and very capable special agents called lobbyists. The chief job of the lobbyist is to influence legislation in the state and national capitals. Washington has more than 500 lobbyists. A lobbyist can in- fluence law-making in a number of ways. He is clever at publicity. He knows newspaper and radio men. Sometimes they will help him spread his ideas. He may appear be- fore legislative committees. He may appeal to Congressmen in their offices or at social gatherings. In- directly he may even try to reach the President. In a free country as large and var- ied as ours, there are hundreds of pressure groups. Some are impor- tant and very powerful. Some may be organized for a particular occa- sion and then disappear. Among the most important and powerful pres- sure groups today are those repre- senting: (1) the farmers, (2) big business, (3) labor, and (4) war vet- erans. Pressure groups perform certain services. Pressure groups can be good or bad. In general, a pressure group is considered good if you like what it stands for; bad, if you do not like it. For example, when cer- tain business interests fight a bill which would bar "false and mis- leading" advertising of foods, drugs, and cosmetics, their pressure groups are serving certain manufacturers and newspaper and magazine pub- lishers. They are not organized tn help the consumer. In a democracy all groups have the right to protect their own in- terests. When, however, pressure groups use corrupt or underhand methods, John Citizen is likely to protest. In the 1930's a pressure group used practices which many believed unfair. A bill was before Congress to regulate the large elec- tric power businesses. Swinging into action, the public-utility pressure group had 200.000 telegrams against the bill sent to Congressmen. An investigation showed that the pub- lic utilities had overstepped. Hun- dreds of telegrams had been sent by one company's employees without the consent of the "signers." Hun- dreds of others had "signatures" of names copied from the telephone directory. This campaign cost the utilities S700.000. Sometimes pressure groups work more directly to corrupt politics. Occasionally, they may make deals with bosses or machines. Thev do not care which party they support, so long as they get the results. The power of Boss Long in Louisiana was based upon a workable under- standing between machine politi- cians and big business men. Cor- ruption was widespread. The use of corruption bv pres sure groups is, fortunately, not the rule. Many groups reach their goals only after years of patient, quiet 422 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY work. By the slow process of educa- tion, the voter is at length con- vinced. When he is convinced and sufficiently stirred up, he writes his Representative or Senator. When the pressure is great enough, Con- gress or the legislature acts. That is the story behind public education as we know it today. Fifty years of pressure \vere necessary to put woman suffrage in the Constitu- tion. Labor lobbyists worked hard to reduce labor's week to 40 hours. But the list could be made almost endless. Patience, good organization, and continued pressure can produce re- sults. Politicians tend to yield to the most powerful influence on them. Political bosses and small powerful groups can control our parties only when the people per- mit it. Organized public opinion can have the force of a hurricane. When aroused. to action, it can de- stroy bosses and reduce pressure groups to their proper influence in public affairs. Here, then, is an- other good example of desirable re- sults when democracy really works. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? The following terms are necessary to a clear understanding of certain de- velopments in our political history. Use each in a sentence, with an example. to show your grasp of the meanings. 1. politicians 5. Tweed Ring 9. merit system 2. political machine G. special interests 10. pressure groups 3. political boss 7. spoils system 11. lobbyists . 4. corruption 8. civil service WHY IS THIS A RED-LETTER YEAR? 1883: Why is this one of the most important red-letter years in the reform movement in this country? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why is it a little difficult to answer the question: "Are political machines necessary?" 2. How may a corrupt political boss use his power to the disadvantage of the people? 3. What responsibilities do citizens have to bring an end to corruption on the part of dishonest politicians? Is the politician alone to blame for corruption when it exists? 4. Why did the machine age emphasize the weaknesses of the spoils system? 5. What events forced upon Congress a reform of the civil service? 6. What is the Pendleton Civil Service Act, and how did it lay the foundation for the merit system in civil service? 7. To what extent has the merit system replaced the spoils system in national, state, and local governments? 8. In what ways may pressure groups operate? What are the most powerful pressure groups today? POLITICAL BOSSES AND POWERFUL GROUPS 423 9. Give several examples of results gained by certain pressure groups, which most people would regard as gains for democracy. 10. Can anything be done about pressure groups that do not use fair means to present their cases? 11. Summary Question: This chapter presented practical politics at work, with examples of corruption and with examples of reform. As an adult member of a political party, what could you do to see to it that the words "politics," "politicians," and "political machines" do not necessarily mean something undesirable? Chapter 25. The National Gov- ernment Responds to the De- mand for More Democracy In the early 1900' s nil ivas not well in America, as this letter to Theodore Roosevelt indicates. San Francisco, Mar. 6, 1907 My dear Mr. President: I am not seeking proof of crime and dishonesty. If I get that, I would turn it over to you or to a criminal prosecutor. What I am after is the cause and the purpose and the methods by which our government, city, state, and federal, is made to represent not the common, but the special interests; the reason why it is so hard to do right in the United States; the secret of the power which makes it necessary for you, Mr. President, to fight to give us a "square deal." In brief, I want to be able some day to explain why it is that you hare to force the Senate to pass a pure-food bill or one providing for the regulation of the railroads . . . And please dont misunderstand me. This is a point on which you, Mr. President, and I have never agreed. You seem to me always to have been looking down for the muck [meaning political filth], I am looking upward to an American Democracy. You ask men in office to be honest, I ask them to serve the public. But this I acknowledge too: Fighting dishonesty as you are, you are doing more than all the rest of us so-called muckrakers put together to show the American people that the cause of graft, and the result of all our cor- ruption, is simply misrepresentation in government, and that the cure is to regulate, to control, or, if these fail, to own those businesses which find it necessary to their success to corrupt men and cities and states and the United States . . . Yours with sincere respect, J. Lincoln Steffens 424 DEMAND FOR MORE DEMOCRACY 425 The Cry of the Early 1900' s their facts - Then the v wrote holdl > T f p f They named the names of men and IS JOr riejorm . places where corruption existed. They showed the methods used and The "muckrakers" provide ammu- the far-reaching nature of corrup- nition for the reformers. Some tion. They laid bare the evil prac- Americans were inclined to think of tices hatched by the wicked combi- corruption as an incurable disease nation of politics and business. In which now and again attacked dem- short, in turning the bright sun- ocratic government. They looked light of publicity upon the filth, upon political corruption as they they exposed corruption wherever did upon cancer. It was a terrible they found it. disease but not something to talk One writer exposed unbelievable about. Today intelligent people conditions in the meat-packing in- know that human cancer can be dustry. One a woman wrote a cured, that the thing to do is to seek history of the Standard Oil Com- medical treatment at the earliest pany, emphasizing its business sign of trouble. methods which made a monopoly. That was the position which a Another muckraker told about the small but forward-looking group of railroads and their questionable \vriters took toward corruption practices. Some gave their attention the cancer on the body politic in to patent medicines and misleading the early 1900's. They favored no advertising. Still others turned the hush-hush policy. Rather they be- spotlight on the evil practices of lieved in standing on the roof tops some other businesses. The corrup- and telling the world about the tion of the city was not overlooked. greedy political bosses and selfish Lincoln Steffens. whose letter to pressure groups that were abusing President Roosevelt was just quoted, democratic government. Like the wrote one book called T/ie Shame Populists you read about in Chap- of the Cities. He also wrote articles ter 15, the muckraker also went on corruption in the states, after the trusts and railroads. The shocking nature of these ar- The journalists or magazine writ- tides and books finally aroused the ers who dug deep into the political easygoing public. The muckrakers filth of the 1890's and early 1900's had provided plenty of ammunition were called muckrakers. They were for the reformers. All that was need- given that name by Theodore ed was a leader who would make Roosevelt. He got it from Pilgrim's the most of the situation. Progress, where he read about the man with the muckrake. This man Theodore Roosevelt captures the was so intent upon raking up the spotlight in this age of reform. As filth on the ground that he lost a occasionally happens in history, the heavenly crown. times produced that leader in the The muckrakers were fearless person of Theodore Roosevelt, writers. First, they made sure of "T.R." or "Teddy," as he was called 426 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Theodore Roosevelt was a vigorous campaigner. It made no difference to him whether he was campaigning for office or for some reform in which he believed. A thing worth talking about in public was worth getting enthusiastic about, he felt. (Wide World) by many, had just succeeded Mc- Kinley, the third President to be shot. When Roosevelt took over the Presidency, he said that he would carry out McKinley's policies. But it was soon clear that the new Presi- dent was not the man to carry out another's policies. He favored least of all the McKinley practice of a "hands-off" policy toward big busi- ness. Young Roosevelt plunged into politics soon after his college days. First, in the early 1880's, he served as a legislator in New York state. After several years spent in recov- ering his health "in cowboy land," as he called the Dakotas, he re- turned to political life. He served as chairman of the federal Civil Service Commission and still later as Police Commissioner of New York City. In each position he stood for reform. In McKinley's first administra- tion, Roosevelt was Assistant Secre- tary of the Navy. When the Spanish- American War began, he resigned to help recruit the Rough Riders, a regiment of horsemen in the army. Colonel Roosevelt returned from Cuba a military hero. With the sup- port of the Republican boss, he was soon elected governor of New York. When he proved to be too much of a reformer for the Republican ma- chine, the boss decided to "bury" him by making him Vice President on the second McKinley ticket. Usually the Vice President is con- DEMAND FOR MORE DEMOCRACY 427 sidered to be at the end of his politi- cal trail. McKinley's death unex- pectedly upset the boss' plans. Roosevelt entered the White House at the age of 42 our young- est President. There was scarcely a dull moment in the seven and one- half years he lived there. There were few days when he did not get the headlines in the newspapers. He loved publicity and he was not modest. The story is told that a printer, setting type for one of Roosevelt's many books, had to send out to the type foundry for more capital "I's." In good part, however, he used publicity to bring the need for reform to the attention of the people. To the big business interests and the old-line politicians, he became "Theodore the Meddler." The spe- cial interests also called him a "wild-eyed revolutionist." Every- body seemed to criticize him except the masses. They looked to him for leadership in the new age of reform. A prominent visiting Englishman said that the two most unusual things in America were Niagara Falls and Theodore Roosevelt. The "Square Deal" is Roosevelt's program. Theodore Roosevelt's po- litical, social, and economic ideas fitted nicely into the age of reform. He believed in the Square Deal. By this he meant fair treatment for all groups in our nation but special privileges for none. First, he be- lieved that big business should be regulated but not prohibited. Sec- ond, labor was entitled to certain rights, including the right to strike, but it must not be lawless. In the third place, all social classes should stand equally before the government. It should make no difference whether one were rich or poor, white or colored, Protestant, Catholic, or Jewish. Wrongdoers of whatever group must be punished, said the President. For this purpose, he would keep a "big stick." In other words, the government would use force upon people to make them act decently, if necessary. However, "Teddy" felt that, be- fore this Golden Rule for democ- racy could work, one important change was in order. The gap be- tween the classes and the masses must be narrowed considerably. The causes for widespread discon- tent and suffering must either be removed or greatly reduced. He did not believe that the country was in a healthy condition if the rich grew richer and the poor grew poorer. Roosevelt had one other strong conviction. He was certain that a courageous President could do much to make this country a better place in which to live. When, how- ever, he carried out his policy of leadership, he was called a dictator by those on whose toes he stepped. Jackson and Lincoln had earlier been called dictators. So, too, were Wilson and the second Roosevelt later. Taking his cue from the evils ex- posed by the muckrakers, Roose- velt went to work. Under his leader- ship, Congress passed laws further regulating the railroads. Congress also established federal inspection of all meats going into interstate commerce. Stirred by the muck- rakers and prodded by the Presi- 428 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY dent, Congress passed the first pure cause the tax increased on a step food and drug act. Striking at un- basis with higher incomes, a person ruly big business, Roosevelt started earning $15,000 paid more than ten a "trust-busting" campaign. times the tax paid on a $1,500 in- Civil service reform made good come. Many believed that this gains under Roosevelt. By fearless amendment made the Constitution leadership, he settled a troublesome more democratic in a general sense, coal strike. Through speeches and In 1913, also, Amendment XVII conferences, the need for conser- [108] was added. This change pro- vation of natural resources was vided that United States Senators brought home to a careless nation, should henceforth be elected di- Although he stirred up a storm of rectly by the people. Before this protest, Roosevelt was the first Pres- Senators had been elected by the ident to invite a Negro to dinner state legislatures. The country, the at the White House. Forty years West especially, had come to feel later the second Roosevelt was to that the old method played right have the first Negro overnight guest into the hands of the special inter- at the White House without the ests. By controlling the state legisla- event becoming front-page news. tures, the interests could make Sen- ators. So strong was this conviction The cry for reform brings four that the Senate was referred to as changes to the Constitution. Our a "Millionaires' Club." Direct elec- Constitution is hard to change. To tion of Senators was one way of re- amend it requires a two-thirds vote ducing what Steffens called "mis- of both houses of Congress and the representation in government." vote of three-fourths of the states. While the people were in a re- It is safe to say, therefore, that the forming mood, they added an Constitution is amended only when amendment which doubled the there is a strong demand. When it is number of voters in the nation. The amended four times in 20 years famous Woman Suffrage Amend- (1913-33) in the interests of more ment Amendment XIX [114] democracy, that suggests that the was added in 1 920. But this change cry for reform is both loud and is so important that the last section long. of this chapter will be devoted to it. The first change in 1913 was In one more change Amend- Amendment XVI [107], which pro- ment XX [116-17] in 1933 repre- vided for an income tax. This sentative government was made amendment gave Congress power to more democratic. Amendment XX lay and collect taxes on incomes. An required a new Congress to get earlier attempt to do this by law down to business on January 3 had been declared unconstitutional, two months after the November Amendment XVI made "ability to election. Before this the new Con- pay" the test. A person making gress did not meet in regular ses- $1,500 a year would not pay so sion until 13 months after election, much as one making $15,000. Be- Under this amendment the newly- DEMAND FOR MORE DEMOCRACY 429 SHOO! SHOO! Amendment XX provides for a session of the newly-elected Congress in January fol- lowing the November election. Before 1933 the old Congress made laws until March following election. The old Congress included members called "lame ducks" who had been defeated in the election. (McCay in the New York American] elected President was required to take office on January 20 instead of March 4. When the Constitution was made, we were in the horse- and-buggy age. Roads were poor and travel unbelievably slow. To- day's streamlined trains and fast air- planes have, therefore, made it pos- sible to speed up representative gov- ernment. Wilson Becomes President when the Republican Party Splits The Republican party splits wide open over the question of how much reform. In 1909 Theodore Roosevelt left the Presidency to his chosen successor, William H. Taft, and went to Africa to hunt big game. Taft had been Roosevelt's Secretary of War. Roosevelt be- lieved that Taft would carry on the unfinished business of reform. The public believed it too, but it looked forward to less shouting and less waving of the "big stick." Perhaps the calm and good-humored Taft would succeed in healing some of the wounds left on the Republican party by Roosevelt. Although Taft equaled and in some ways even bettered Roose- velt's record, the general feeling.was that Taft was not a reformer. Some felt that his conservative nature had led him too far in the direction of 430 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY the "standpat" or old-line Republi- can politicians. Others felt that his defense of a high tariff put him on the side of the special interests. The voters showed their displeasure with Taft by electing a Democratic House of Representatives in the next Congressional election. This looked bad for the Republicans. Frequently a strong mid-term swing against the party in power means that the party will lose the Presi- dency in the next election. About this time Roosevelt re- turned from his hunting trip. Look- ing over the situation, he soon de- cided that Taft had not carried on reform with proper enthusiasm. To make matters worse, the two ele- ments in the Republican party fell into open warfare. The liberals were fighting the conservatives. Convinced that Taft was not en- titled to a second term, "Teddy" tried to win it for himself. When he failed to keep the nomination from Taft, Roosevelt "bolted" or left the Republican party. Roosevelt took his followers into the new Progres- sive party. This was a third party movement which Republican lib- erals organized under Senator Rob- ert M. La Follette's leadership. With the Republican party split wide open, the Progressives held their convention. Singing "Onward Christian Soldiers" and the "Battle Hymn of the Republic," the gather- ing seemed more like a religious meeting than a political conven- tion. The convention adopted a for- ward-looking platform one that strongly favored reform. Then it handed Roosevelt the Progressive nomination. The new party left the convention determined to defeat Taft. The Democrats make a professor of history President. The Democrats looked upon the election of 1912 as a made-to-order opportunity to win the Presidency. The Republican party was split into two parts: the conservative Republicans and the Progressives. A good Democratic candidate ought to have no trouble winning. Under these favorable cir- cumstances, the Democratic conven- tion nominated a candidate only after a stormy battle and some 40 ballots. They nominated Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey, whose only political experience had been two years as governor. Before that he had been a college presi- dent and a professor and writer of history and government. Each party adopted a reform plat- form. The Progressive was the most radical of the three; the Republi- can, the most conservative. The Democratic platform stood between the two. So, too, did Wilson take a middle position on issues between Roosevelt and Taft. The campaign of 1912 was one of the most impor- tant in our history. Roosevelt took the spotlight as he stormed the country. Finally, toward the end of the campaign, he was shot by a crazy man. Not seriously wounded, "Teddy" insisted upon making his scheduled speech before going off to the hospital for a few weeks. The polished and dignified pro- fessor-candidate, Wilson, toured the West. In his speeches he made a strong appeal for what he called the New Freedom. By this he meant an DEMAND FOR MORE DEMOCRACY 43 1 ELECTION OF rf?ft;-S~v?:;.Vv.WHSI Jv:/;. ; .\vKANS,> : :?:j fgiyg Wilson Taft Roosevelt America free from certain influ- ences that were interfering with democracy. First, he wanted an America free from the control of the special interests. Second, he wanted business free from the con- trol of a few big businesses. In short, he was opposed to monopoly. He wanted to give the little business man a chance. Third, he wanted Congress free from the high pres- sure and underhand methods of powerful lobbies. When the votes were counted, Wilson, a "progressive with the brakes on," was elected (see map, above). The split in the Repub- lican party put a Democrat in the White House for the first time in 16 years. And it was only the second time since the War Between the States. Wilson's New Freedom sug- gested that the Democrats would carry on where Roosevelt's earlier Square Deal had left off. Under Woodrow Wilson the Demo- crats carry on the reform program. Wilson's record as governor of New Jersey also indicated that he was sincerely interested in reform. But we will understand his reform rec- ord better if we understand some- thing of Wilson the man. He was a man of considerable knowledge and of great self-confidence. He be- lieved, moreover, that a matter was either right or wrong. He found it hard to meet opponents half way or to compromise, as the politicians put it. He was, therefore, accused of having a one-track mind. This he did not deny. His views on presidential leader- ship are important. He believed that a President must assume lead- ership over Congress. He consid- ered himself the party leader. The results of Wilson's leadership were, many thought, good for the party and the country. They were also 432 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Outgoing President Taft accompanies incoming President Wilson from the White House to the Capitol for Wilson's first inauguration. The electi6n of 1912 put a Princeton graduate in the White Hduse in exchange for a Yale nian. The third con- tender Theodore Roosevelt, a son of Harvard had been there before Taft. (Brown Brothers) good for reform. To impress his program on Congress and the pub- lic, he delivered his congressional messages in person. No President had done this since the days of Washington and John Adams. Losing no time, Wilson forced through Congress a series of reform acts which struck boldly at the spe- cial interests. He drove through Congress a lower tariff, the most difficult of all bills. It proved to be the lowest tariff since Lincoln's time. Next in order was the Federal Reserve Act which aimed at further regulation and reform of banking. Then two bills were passed which struck at big-business monopolies. In a year and a half Wilson had done much to check the privileged few. .How far he might have carried the New Freedom, we will never know. The outbreak of the First World War and the problems of protecting our rights, pushed re- form into the background. "Political progress," wrote a great reformer, "comes in waves. After each crest there is bound to be a recession [backwash], but then comes a new crest. And our faith in democracy promises us that each succeeding wave will wash a little higher up on the beach than the one before." Woodrow Wilson w.as responsible for making the waves DEMAND FOR MORE DEMOCRACY 433 of political progress wash higher on year a Woman's Rights Convention the American political and eco- was held at Seneca Falls, New York, nomic beach. There 100 women and men adopt- ed a Declaration of Sentiments, which followed the form of the Women Win Their Long Dedaration of Independence. The y chief grievance was the denial of Struggle for the Right to Vote voting rights to women. The news- papers looked upon these reformers A few brave women demand the as cranks. Women's work in the right to use the ballot. The long War Between the States caused struggle for the right of women to many men to change their minds, vote is the story of one of the na- But when the war was over, women lion's greatest reforms. Victory fi- were again pushed aside. They were nally came in Wilson's time. In or- told, "This is the Negro's hour, the der to win the right of suffrage, women's hour will come." women had to overcome a great A handful of women did what handicap. Both in the Old World they could to hasten that hour. Im- and .the New women were consid- mediately after the war the struggle ered inferior to men. Even girls took on new life. In one year (1869) learned dancing that men might be three important events occurred, pleased. "Take care what you are The territory of Wyoming granted about," a girl was sharply reminded woman suffrage. Two woman suf- at a colonial dance. "Do you think frage associations were formed. A you came here for your pleasure?" constitutional amendment granting An early colonial governor the right of women to vote was pro- warned women about meddling "in posed. Although Congress was cool such things as are proper for men to the appeal", the West was not. By whose minds are stronger." 'For about 1900 the campaign was show- years women did not challenge ing results. At that time there were man's high and mighty position. In four woman suffrage states Wyo- 1776, however, the first blast came, ming, Colorado, Idaho, and Utah John Adams' wife, Abigail, sent this all west of the Mississippi, warning to her husband while he The outstanding woman suffrage was attending the Continental Con- pioneer was Susan B. Anthony, a gress. "If particular care and atten- born reformer. She left teaching to tion are not paid to the ladies," she work for freedom for slaves and for wrote, "we are determined to fo- temperance or moderation in drink- ment [stir up] a rebellion. . . . ing. But the greater part of her life [We] will not hold ourselves bound was spent in fighting for woman suf- to obey any laws in which we have frage. Twice she was arrested for no voice or representation." unlawful voting when she tried to Needless to say, Abigail Adams prove that women could vote under did not start a rebellion. Little hap- Amendment XIV, which granted pened, in fact, until 1848. In that citizenship rights to Negroes. 434 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY VOTES FOR. WOMEX BEFORE 19th AMENDMENT *^^. : ARK. / I __ States with Equal Voting Rights Upstates allowing the Right to Vote for Some Offices te>S3 No Statewide Suffrage Dates show when States granted Equal Voting Rights "Votes for women" is written into the Constitution. By the time we entered the First World War, about a dozen western states had joined the parade of \voman suffrage states (see map, above). Women's part in the war rapidly broke down the old opposition to their plea for vot- ing rights. Then, too, women were more and more being accepted in the business world. Less was heard about Avoman's place being the kitchen.. That the women were gaining ground was shown by the action of the political parties. The Progres- sive party came out for woman suf- frage in 1912. Four years later both the Republicans and Democrats said they favored votes for women. Neither party, however, was ready to meet the issue squarely. During the war the women put pressure on Congress and the Presi- dent. For a year and a half women picketed the White House and the Capitol. At last President Wilson surrendered. He asked Congress to act on the proposed amendment that had been before it for years. Prompt action followed. The states likewise acted without delay. By the terms of Amendment XIX [114], sex was no longer a bar to voting. Fifty years had passed since the Susan B. Anthony amendment had been proposed. In 1920 women of every state helped to elect a Presi- dent for the first time. Did women really want to vote? Would they use the ballot? Such questions were asked frequently. The answers are hard to get at because there are no statistics or figures covering the number >f women voting in all the states. Ac- cording to one estimate, about one- third of the votes cast in the 1920 DEMAND FOR MORE DEMOCRACY 435 PRESIDENT WILSON Woman suffrage ivas favored by both the Republican and Democratic parties for the first time in 101G. But the re-elected Wilson did not press the matter enough to suit the women. Then (hey turned from parading in our c ities to picketing the White House and the Capitol. (Kuropean) Presidential election were those of women. In the 1940 election it is believed that about one-half of the votes were cast by women. If these estimates are reasonably accurate, the answer is "Yes" to both ques- tions. Accurate statistics in the com- munity in which one of the authors teaches point in the same direction. In 1920, 46 per cent of the total vote was cast by women. In 1940 more women than men voted 53 per cent, to be exact. There is no doubt that women are more awake to political issues than they once were. As mothers they have shown more and more interest in the public education of their children. They therefore not only vote on such matters, but fre- quently are elected members of school committees. Women's organ- izations, such as the League of Women Voters, are increasingly ac- tive. In the presidential election of 1944 women were greatly concerned over the war and postwar isssues. While the Second World War was being fought, a movement got under way to give the ballot to young men and women between the ages of 18 and 21. Georgia was the first state to take this step. To what extent other states follow Georgia re- mains to be seen. Many believe that this may be the next important step taken to extend democratic rights. The demand for more democracy raised in the early 1900's left its mark on the national government. Roosevelt's Square Deal was fol- lowed in time by Wilson's New Freedom. The Constitution was amended four times in 20 years to make it more democratic. Democ- racy was marching on for the com- mon man and the common woman. 436 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you understand the following terms by using each in a sentence. Give an example when possible. 1. muckrakers 3. income tax 5. the New Freedom 2. Square Deal 4. Progressive party 6. woman suffrage WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1912: Why is this date given emphasis in this chapter on democratic reform? 1913: Two events of first importance are suggested by this date. What are they, and why are .they important? 1920: In the story of American democracy this is a date that ought to be on a historical time line. What event does it mark? 1933: In terms of the Constitution and democracy why should this date be emphasized? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What kind of ammunition did the muckrakers provide for the use of the reformers? 2. Why was Theodore Roosevelt a good leader for the new age of reform? 3. What did Theodore Roosevelt do in a practical way to help along the cause of reform? 4. In 20 years (1913-33) four amendments were added to the Constitution in the interests of greater democracy. What did each amendment provide, and how did each increase democracy? 5. Why did Roosevelt break with President Taft and thus split the Republi- can party? 6. Why did Woodrow Wilson win the election of 1912? For what did he stand? 7. What were Wilson's ideas on presidential leadership, and what were the results for reform? 8. Why were women denied the right to vote before 1920? 9. What were the important steps that finally led to the adoption of the Woman Suffrage Amendment? 10. Summary Question: A quotation in this chapter states that "our faith in democracy promises us that each succeeding wave [of reform] will wash a little higher up on the beach than the one before." What evidence is there in this chapter that this may be true? Chapter 26. The States and Cities Become Laboratories for Democratic Experiments . . This is a true story about the "tool makers" of democracy and the "tools of democracy." It is also the tale of some advice given as well as some received by a great Oregon reformer of the early 1900' s. Although this man was a lawyer by training, he was also a blacksmith. This is the advice given by the reformer and some questions he asked. "Blacksmithing is my trade. And it has always given colour to my view of things. For example, when I was very young, I saw some of the evils in the conditions of life, and I wanted to fix them. I couldn't. There were no tools. "We had tools to do almost anything with in the shop, beautiful tools, wonderful. And so in other trades, arts and professions; in everything but government. "In government, the common trade of all men and the basis of all social life, men worked still with old tools, with old laws, with constitutions and charters which hindered more than they helped. Men suffered from this. There were lawyers enough; many of our ablest men were lawyers. Why didn't some of them invent legislative implements [tools] to help the peo- ple govern themselves? Why have we no tool makers for democracy?" These were the questions of a reformer who, as a boy, wanted to grow up to be a Moses. He wished to be a great lawgiver who could, like Moses, lead the people out of darkness into the land of promise. At the age of seven this reformer-in-the-making received some advice from his blacksmith- father. The lad his name was William U'Ren had been called a liar by another boy. Since William had been told by his mother that only "dogs delight to bark and bite," he did not settle the matter on the spot. He decided, however, that the insult required some action. But first he sought his father's advice. After some thought, the father said to the son : "Never hunt a fight, boy, but never run from one ; never suffer wrong or injustice." 437 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY OFFICIAL PRESIDENTIAL BALLOT -County of Wayne Tuesday, November 7th, 1944 VOTING INSTRUCTIONS-PUee crow either in the circle at the lop of the preferred p.rly column or in *he Mjuare before lh tumet of the preferred candidate*. Btfi,t Itanng Ik, & ttht 10 Mol M in.f /i \ ^ / c '/,. 8 COUNCIL A MAYOR APPOINTS JUDGES a CLERK MUNICIPAL COURT PUB. SERVICE SAFETY UTILITIES WELFARE 2 \l FINAN BOARD OF EDUCATION APPOINTS SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS DIRECTOR OF SCHOOLS LIBRARY BOARDS Then he explained to the people why he did it. Thus by bringing public pressure on the legislators, he would finally turn defeat into victory. Also every such occasion gave La Follette a chance further to show up machine politics. By his methods and his program, "Fighting Bob" hoped to "reclaim and preserve for our children, not only the form but the spirit of our free institutions. And in our chil- dren must we rest our hope for the ultimate [final] democracy."' La Fol- lette, it is clear, was both a practical man and an idealist a man with his feet on the ground but his head in the clouds. Whether it was La Toilette's "Wisconsin Idea" or U'Ren's "Oregon System," the West led in the struggle for greater de- mocracy. The Cities Experiment wiih New Forms of Government A tidal wave forces Galveston to try a new form of city government. Just as the cry for reform arose in the states, so it was heard sooner or later in the cities. The existence of widespread dishonesty in city gov- ernment was described in Chapter 24. At the bottom of much of the corruption in our city governments was the old-fashioned mayor-council type of government. As the chart shows (see above), the govern- ment consisted of three depart- ments. There were the mayor, the council or law-making body, and the courts. In some cities the coun- cil had two houses. Under such a system there was so 448 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY [SUPT.OF PUBLIC SAFETY COMMISSION GOVERNMENT V'a COMMISSION OR CITY COUNCIL APPOINTS SUPT OF ACCOUNTS 8 FINANCE 1 MAYOR SUPT. OF PUB. AFFAIRS SUPT. OF STREETS PUB. IMPROVE MENTS* SUPT. OF PARKS PUB. PROPERTY much division of authority that it was difficult to place responsibility. Even honest city officials found that there were too many bosses. In a small city of 26,000, for example, the head of the water department had to please 20 bosses: the mayor, the city councilors, and the water board members. While here and there "reform" mayors were able to operate the mayor-council govern- ment efficiently, in general it was not satisfactory. A disaster in Galveston, Texas, created a substitute for the old mayor-council type of government. One night in 1900 that city was visited by a terrible storm and tidal wave. About one-third of the prop- erty and one-sixth of the population were lost. The old city government was unable to handle the emer- gency. Five business men stepped in and took over the business of gov- ernment until matters could be straightened out. So well did this "commission," as it was called, do its job that in the following year it officially replaced the old govern- ment. A study of the chart of commis- sion government on this page will make clear what commission gov- ernment means. It is much simpler than the mayor-council type. (1) Usually there are five commission- ers who are nominated and elected by the voters. These commissioners have two duties. Meeting together they make the laws. As individuals each heads a department such as public safety. One the mayor is DEMOCRATIC EXPERIMENTS 449 CITY-MANAGER GOVERNMENT JL >r /m I BOARD OF I J EDUCATION! -'$\ CITY PLAN [COMMISSIONER CITY COUNCIL OR COMMISSION APPOINTS CITY MANAGER APPOINTS 01 RECTORS OF LAW. FINANCE PUB. UTILITIES ft OTHER NEW DEPTS. JUDGES a CLERK] MUNICIPAL COURT! ;iVIL SERVICE COMMISSIONER also expected to get the other com- missioners to work together closely. The mayor as first commissioner also presides at public ceremonies. The commissioners' duties com- bine, therefore, legislative and ex- ecutive affairs. (2) The school board and city judges are not a part of the commis- sion. But, like the commissioners, they are elected by the voters. (3) The voters control the commission, schools, and courts through the bal- lot which can include the initiative, referendum, and recall. The chief advantage of commis- sion government is its simplicity. If anything goes wrong with the city government, one of five men is re- sponsible. He or all can be called to account. Disgust with the old form of government led to the use of the commission form elsewhere. Today it is used in over 300 cities, with New Orleans the largest city in the group. Some communities introduce the city manager as an expert in govern- ment. Use of commission govern- ment showed, however, that it had at least two weaknesses. First, the commissioners did not always co- operate so closely as was possible or desirable. Second, they were quite likely to be business or professional men. Frequently, they divided their time between their businesses and their commissioners' duties. Rarely were they experts in government. To take care of these weaknesses, the city-manager form of govern- 450 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY ment was tried in several small enjoyed. During the period the city cities. But again a disaster seemed spent one and one-quarter millions necessary to introduce it in a large on public improvements without city. A bad flood in Dayton, Ohio, borrowing a dollar. Moreover, taxes, brought city-manager government which had paid for these improve- to that city in 1914. ments, had been reduced. In addi- The city-manager form of gov- tion, some money borrowed by the ernment, as the chart shows (see old government had been paid back, page 449), is a slightly changed com- Although the city-owned water and mission form plus an expert. (1) light plants had cut rates in half. The commissioners make what laws they still operated at a profit. Final- are necessary. They also select and ]y, paved streets were doubled un- supervise the city manager. In other der city management, words, the commissioners no longer Today most people would agree have charge of departments. (2) The that our states and cities are better city manager is an expert who is governed than in the early 1900's. supposed to manage the city. That Certainly the people have a larger is, he is a non-political official whose share in their governments. As a re- success depends upon his ability to suit of this greater democracy, the give the citizens the best kind of states and cities have been more services at the lowest possible cost, willing to try new ideas. They are, As an expert the manager is simi- indeed, the political laboratories of lar to a superintendent of schools our democracy, or the manager of a large industrial plant. If the city manager is not efficient or for any reason is un- Summnry of the Unit . . . . satisfactory, it is up to the commis- sioners to find a better one. If they In this unit "American Democ- fail to do so, the voters can vote racy Marches On to Aid the Corn- other commissioners into office. Al- mon Man" we have followed the though city managers do not always story of American politics in action, avoid politics, city-manager govern- Viewing both the good and the bad, ment has proved popular. One of we have seen that: the outstanding examples of city- 1. The Republican party which manager government is Cincinnati, came into power with Lincoln arose Ohio. This form of government has out of idealism but quickly slumped spread rapidly. Today it is used in for a time into the revenge of the about 600 cities. reconstruction period. From this de- At the beginning of the Great De- veloped the solid Democratic South, pression, Dover, Delaware adopted 2. The two-party system has city-manager government. In the seemed to favor the Republicans 1940's when this community of since the War Between the States, 5,500 people noted the fourteenth for they have held the Presidency birthday of the new government, it most of the years since Lincoln's pointed with pride to the benefits time. DEMOCRATIC EXPERIMENTS 451 3. Our political history has had Theodore Roosevelt's Square Deal its black pages of corruption grow- (1901-09) and Woodrow Wilson's ing out of the spoils system, the po- New Freedom (1913-21). Then in litical machine, and the wedding of 20 years (1913-33) came four big business and politics. From the amendments to the Constitution, latter rose the power of the special which increased democracy. Chief interests. From the evils of the among them was the Susan B. An- spoils system came the merit system thony amendment giving women (1883). suffrage (1920). 4. When a party became corrupt 7. In the states, beginning about or careless in office, it was sooner or 1900, four new democratic tools later replaced by the "Outs." Occa- were invented and put to use: the sionally the times called for new or direct primary, initiative, referen- third parties. dum, and recall. The leading re- 5. When corruption raised its former of state governments was ugly head too high, a demand for "Fighting Bob" La Follette of Wis- reform was heard that could not be consin. ignored. Such was the case about 8. In the cities, the commission 1900 when the muckrakers pointed and city-manager forms of govern- out the evil practices of big business ment increased the common man's and politics. democratic power. Better govern- 6. There followed in quick order ment also resulted. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Giving examples, show how each of the following terms is necessary to an understanding of our history or government. 1. Australian ballot 4. referendum 7. mayor-council government 2. direct primary 5. recall 8. city-manager government 3. initiative 6. commission government WHY IS THIS A RED-LETTER YEAR? 1900: Why should this date be singled out to mark a milestone in the im- provement ot city government? 11 this date is used as an approximate date, what political events might be tied to it? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why do we think of voting as one of the most important democratic rights? Why should we also think of voting as one of the most important re- sponsibilities? 2. What were the four new tools which the tool makers of democracy in- vented, and how do they work? 3. How successfully and wisely have the voters used the new tools? 4. What discouraging experiences did "Fighting Bob" La Follette have in his struggles to free Wisconsin from the control of the political machine? 5. What methods did La Follette use to win his state to his reform program? 452 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 6. Why has the mayor-council type of city government lost favor in this country? 7. Using the chart in this chapter, explain the chief features of the com- mission form of government. How does it differ from the mayor-council type? 8. How does the city-manager form of city government differ from the com- mission type? 9. Why is the city-manager form more widely used than the commission type? 10. Summary Question: A laboratory is a workshop in which new ideas are tried out. If found good, the public is given an opportunity to use the idea or device. What new democratic ideas were developed in our city and state laboratories in the early 1900's? Activities for Unit Eight CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Letter. As a citizen of Illinois in 1860 write a letter to your cousin in Pennsylvania, explaining why you think that Lincoln and the Republican party should be supported. Try to catch the seriousness of the election as well as the political excitement of the times. 2. Chart. Place an enlarged drawing of the chart How a Party Organizes on page 398 on the blackboard. Be prepared to explain it to the class and to answer questions that may be asked. ' 3. Illustrated Chart. Prepare an illustrated chart showing provisions of (a) the War Amendments (XIII, XIV, and XV), and (b) the amendments in- creasing democracy (XVI, XVII, XIX, and XX). 4. Cartoon. Draw a cartoon which illustrates how the merit system was an improvement over the spoils system. 5. Newspaper Article. As a newspaper reporter sent to "cover" one of La Follette's campaigns for the governorship of Wisconsin, write an article for your paper in the East. It should tell about the opposition to "Fighting Bob," what he stands for, how he campaigns, and what you think the re- sult of the election will be. I TEST MY SKILLS 6. Making and Using an Election Map. On an outline map of the United States, show the results of the last presidential election by states. Put Re- publican states in one color and Democratic states in another color. For the results by states, see "Electoral Votes for President" in the index of the World Almanac. When the map is completed, use it by answering these questions: (a) Where in general are the Republican states? (b) Where in general are the Democratic states? (c) Why do you suppose that in gen- eral the vote came out as it did? (d) How does your map compare with the one on page 404 of this book? (e) After making this comparison, what con- clusions do you reach? 7. Interview and Report. Let one pupil arrange by appointment to interview an official of one of the local government departments: police, fire, library, DEMOCRATIC EXPERIMENTS 453 or school. The chief purpose of this interview is to learn the requirements for obtaining a position in the department. Prepare vour questions in ad- vance. Be brief and businesslike in the interview. Make careful notes of the information received. You will want to know to what extent the merit system is used. Are veterans given preference? You will ask more intelligent questions if you know the facts about the Civil Service Reform Act. When the interview is over, thank the official for his kindness. Organize your information in good order for your oral report to the class. Use what notes are necessary, but do not read a report. If any printed in- formation was given you, study it well. If any statistics are to be used, put them on the blackboard before you make the report. If any illustrative material is available, use it at the proper time. Be prepared to answer questions that may be asked. WE WORK IN GROUPS 8. Round Table Discussion. This unit has presented the chief democratic gains since Lincoln's time. The democratic problems of the nation, state. and city have been discussed. Let five persons conduct a Round Table- discussion on the subject: "Our Democratic Progress." Under the direction of a chairman and the planning of the group, additional reading should l>e done on these topics: (a) political machines and bosses, (b) pressure groups and lobbyists, (c) democratic changes in the Constitution, and (d) reforms in national, state, and city governments. Under the guidance of the chairman, who will be responsible for the smooth conduct of the discussion, each of the other four members will present one of the above topics. When the reports are made, the Round Table members will ask questions aimed at emphasizing important points. Or, if you have a good reason, question a member's position. Avoid, how- ever, merely tripping up a friend. One purpose of this discussion is to ex- change ideas. At the end the chairman will summarize the discussion and make some conclusions on the general subject. In addition to the text these readings will be helpful: H. Rugg, America's March Toward De- mocracy, chaps, xviii, xix, xxi; H. Rugg, Citizenship and Civic Affairs, chaps, ix and xii; Building America: V, "Politics"; IV, "Women"; H. Han- lord and others, State Government, chap, ii; H. J. Akers, City Government. chaps, iii and iv. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 9. Democracy in Community, School, and Club. The theme of this unit is the march of democracy. Having started democratic government in colonial days, our problem since has been to get more of it for more people. In this exercise you are asked to think about democracy in your community, your school, and your club. For each prepare a good list of these two things: Democratic Privileges Now Enjoyed; Desirable Additional Demo- cratic Privileges. Then for each community, school, and club prepare a list entitled: My Responsibilities To. You will find these readings useful: H. G. Hix and others, Towards a Better World, chap, vii, "Applying De- mocracy in the Classroom"; L. Bryson and K. Smith, Working for De- mocracy, 127-62, 199-210, 213-28. 454 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 10. To Get More Information. RUGG, HAROLD, America's March Toward Democracy. Unit VII is "The Struggle Over Government in the Age of Big Business, 1865-1914." RUGG, HAROLD, Citizenship and Civic Affairs. Community government, political parties, government at work, and public opinion are topics dis- cussed. FLOHERTY, J. J., Inside the F.B.I. Here is a lively account of the activities of the Federal Bureau of .Investigation, showing again that crime does not pay. HANFORD. HF.LF.N, AND OTHERS, State Government. A description of the or- ganization of state governments, and how a state serves its citizens. AKERS, H. J.. City Government. A brief account of kinds of local govern- ment, with emphasis upon how a typical city government works. PAULMIER, HILAH, AND SCHAUFFLER, R. H. (eds.), Democracy Days. A col- lection of the best prose and verse on democracy, tolerance and liberty. 11. To Find Out Who's Who. MORGAN, JAMES, Our Presidents. Contains brief biographies of Lincoln, Cleveland, McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson. BOLTON, S. K., Lives of Girls Who Became Famous. The activities of woman suffrage leaders Susan B. Anthony, Anna H. Shaw, and Lucretia Mott are briefly described. HARLOW, A. F., Theodore Roosevelt, Strenuous American. Story of a frail boy who later became a powerful force in national and international affairs. SHAW, A. H., The Story of a Pioneer. The author's connection with woman suffrage and the growth of the struggle are well described. STEFFENS, LINCOLN, Boy on Horseback. Lennie Steffens' boyhood days in California of the 1870's is a true story well worth reading. 12. To Read a Historical Story. GAUDILL, REBECCA, Barrie and Daughter. There is political feuding in this story of loyal Democrats in the Kentucky mountains more than 50 years ago. HOWARD, ELIZABETH, Sabina, Pioneer Michigan of the 1840's is the setting tor a story in which the position of "Females" of that day is stressed. 13. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Pageant of America: IX, 44-75, 111-28, 130^6, 171-96, 210-14, 216-22, 239-44, 246-67, 269-84, pictorial history of the South after the war, civil service reform, the years of Cleveland and McKinley, reform under Roose- velt, Taft, and Wilson. ROGERS, AGNES, Abraham Lincoln. An excellent biography in pictures. Building America: IV, "Women"; V, "Politics." JOHNSON, G. W., Woodrow Wilson. Pages 27-1 32 a pictorial biography. DEMOCRATIC EXPERIMENTS 455 WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 14. Time Ladder. Make a time line in the form of a ladder which will show progress in our democratic life since 1860. Select your events from those listed under "Why Are These Red-Letter Years?" in each chapter of the unit. 15. Illustrated Booklet. Prepare a short illustrated booklet with original ideas, entitled "Democracy Marches On." In it show the different ways de- mocracy has marched on since 1860 to aid the common people. 16. Voices of History. Selecting five people discussed in this unit, find an im- portant statement made by each about our democratic way of life. Copv these carefully, noting where you found them. Add your own comment for each. These books will help you: R. Lawson, Watchwords of Liberty; H. D. Fish, Pegs of History; H. Paulmier and R. H. Schauffler (eds.). Democracy Days. 17. Map of Presidents. On an outline map of the United States show in what states our Presidents were born. Print the presidential names on the states. Then use a color scheme, such as red for a state with one President, blue for a state with two, and so on, to show which states can claim to be the birthplace of one or more Presidents. For information see "Presidents of the United States" in the World Almanac. DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 18. Which Way Democracy? Does democracy move forward or backward by these: Amendment XIII, Amendment XIV, Amendment XIX, the Solid South, the spoils system, the Tweed Ring, initiative, city-manager govern- ment, activities of pressure groups? Be ready to state your reasons. 19. Playlet. Prepare a short skit entitled "Votes for Women." 20. My Community Scrapbook. Make a scrapbook of this title. Include (a) a simple chart of your city's government, (b) names of chief officials by de- partments, (c) a table of government expenses for the past year, (d) a map of the community, if possible, and (e) a short historical sketch. 21. Democratic Terms. Can you explain the meaning of each of these terms with examples: political platform, Solid South, political machine, special interests, merit system, pressure groups, muckrakers, direct primary, refer- endum, commission government? 22. Uncle Sam Ponders. In the unit drawing, pages 394-95, Uncle Sam is seated on a platform labeled "We, the People." He is stroking his beard as he surveys the scene of the great American Democracy. What, in your opinion, is he thinking? Unit Nine As the World Grows Smaller, the United States Realizes Its Duties as a Leader in World Affairs 27. We Find Ourselves the Center of a World Slowly Grow- ing Smaller 28. The United States and Its Neighbors Slowly Reach a Better Understanding 29. Events Force Us to Take an Increasing Interest in the Far East 30. Step by Step We Begin to Take Our Place in the Affairs of the World The United States entered the family of nations as a tiny and weak member. Many doubted that we would survive the family quarrels. Our government early established a Department of State to deal with foreign affairs. Our official foreign policies have followed three great paths, each of which has had many side roads and byways. The first great path led to Europe. The second went to our various American neighbors. The third found its way to the Far East. It is true that we became involved in world troubles, but for the most part we have tried to follow the signposts that pointed to: "Peace, com- merce, and honest friendship." Our earlier government officials also tried to follow the signposts saying: "Keep out of the political affairs of others." In recent years our statesmen have looked more and more up the road marked: "International co-operation and good will." yfr* ^.^ >" Chapter 27. We Find Ourselves the Center of a World Slowly Growing Smaller ..... . Benjamin Franklin's apartments outside of Paris were astir with the coming excitement of the day. Louis XVI was at last to give full recognition to the Yankees across the sea. Franklin was lighthearted and gay as he made last minute preparations to visit the king. He carefully combed his thin ivhite locks and gave a last glance at his rich suit of dark brown velvet and his silver-buckle shoes. Taking his fitr cap that was the talk of Paris, he left his apartment and joined his fellow delegates for the court. The son of a candlemaker was going to visit the king of France. The crowds had heard the neivs. They lined the alleys and courtyards to get a glimpse of the famous Dr. Franklin, author of Poor Richard's Almanac and diplomat from Philadelphia. The delegates called on Foreign Minister Vergennes who immediately led them up the great royal stair- way. The huge doors of the king's apartments swung open slowly. The major of the Swiss Guards stepped forth and in a clear deep voice an- nounced: "THE AMBASSADORS OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED PROVINCES." Franklin almost wept. The aged diplomat leaned on Vergennes and another Yankee delegate. They slowly moved toward the king through a crowd of bishops, nobles, diplomats, professors, and judges. Ladies rose in their honor. Finally they reached the king. Louis greeted them easily and pleasantly, yet simply. Taking Franklin s hand, he addressed the dele- gates: "Gentlemen, I wish that you would assure Congress of my friend- ship." The youngest republic in the world had opened formal relations with the oldest and most important kingdom in Europe. Franklin was pleased. He could soon make the long journey back home. 460 WORLD SLOWLY GROWING SMALLER 461 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE ECRETARY OF STATE FOREIGN MINISTERS UNDERSECRETARY OF STATE ASSISTANT V SECRETARIES Our Foreign Affairs Are Handled by a Secretary of State Who Is the Represen- tative of the President . . . . Our Department of State deals with foreign affairs. America's first am- bassador had won the hearts of the people of France. What was even more valuable, he won the support of her king. Dr. Franklin was a great ambassador. His name appears upon ten of the earliest treaties of our country. It was he who placed our foreign affairs upon a high level. A nation cannot live unto itself alone. There are a thousand and one ways in which it must deal with foreign countries and peoples. The President, by the Constitution [64], has charge of our foreign affairs. The nerve-center of our relations with other countries is the Depart- ment of State. The Secretary of State, who heads this department, is appointed by the President and is responsible di- rectly to him. It is the duty of the Secretary to keep the President in- formed of our relations with other countries. He receives foreign rep- resentatives, extending to them the best wishes of our country. He also arranges conferences and treaties between the United States and other nations. To carry on this work the Secretary has a large staff of assistants (see chart, above). The Secretary of State is the key person who works with the Presi- 462 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY dent to determine our actions to- ward other nations. The field work of this depart- ment is in the hands of ambassa- dors, ministers, and other foreign service officials who represent the United States in foreign lands. These officials have many duties. They create good will and common understanding for the United States. They promote and protect the interests of our citizens. They gather valuable information on laws, business conditions and poli- tics that would be of interest to our government. They help draft treaties and agreements with the countries to which they have been assigned. Their offices are always open to American citizens for help and direction while traveling abroad. Regular reports are sent to Washington where specialists decode secret messages and clerks read carefully the ordinary reports. It is through these channels that the Secretary of State is able to give the President up-to-the-minute ad- vice on important events in the world. With this advice the Presi- dent, through the Secretary of State, conducts our foreign affairs. The making of a treaty between na- tions is a long and difficult task. At times it appears that war is the chief method of settling disputes between nations. Actually, most disputes and troubles between nations are set- tled by a treaty. A treaty is a written agreement between nations. The United States has taken part in nearly 1,000 such agreements as a means of regulating our affairs with foreign countries. The necessary steps for the com- pletion of a treaty can be shown by the arrangements made between the United States and Great Britain in 1932 for the return of escaped crim- inals (see chart, page 463). First, the President appointed our ambassa- dor to Great Britain to act as our representative, while the King of England chose as his agent the Sec- retary of State for Foreign Affairs. The two men met and exchanged credentials. These showed that each was given power by his government to act in this matter. Next, the two men with a small staff of assistants started work. They investigated earlier treaties that dealt with escaped criminals. They wanted to make sure not to violate other treaties that each country had signed. They listed the types of crime and the conditions under which escaped criminals would be returned. They listed the British and American possessions to which the treaty would apply. Finally, the proposed treaty was signed by the two men and stamped with the of- ficial seals of the two governments. The third step was to get this pro- posed treaty ratified, that is, it must be approved by each government. This is an important step, especially in the United States. All treaties must be approved by both the Presi- dent and the Senate, the latter by a two-thirds vote. More than once our Senate has refused to ratify a treaty, blocking its acceptance. This time the Senate, after some debate, ap- proved. The President then signed the treaty. The British government also ratified the treaty. The final step was the exchange THE MAKING OF A TREATY & PRESIDENT'S SIGNATURE EXCHANGE OF RATIFICATION PROCLAIMED A LAW 4/KrKj 464 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY of ratifications in London. At a sim- to win our independence. We also pie ceremony the delegates of each had to make arrangements to open government notified each other that again our trade with Great Britain their governments had officially ap- and other European powers, proved the treaty. Back in America Washington's aim was to keep the President issued a proclamation our country at peace in order that that made the treaty a part of the we might develop our strength and law of the land. grow. The event most disturbing It is through a similar procedure to that peace was the outbreak of that treaties of peace are made at war in Europe shortly after Wash- the close of a war, or that arrange- ington was inaugurated. The ments are made to trade with for- French Revolution had changed eign countries. We have treaties from a struggle within France to. a with almost every nation covering struggle against England and her an unbelievable variety of subjects. European allies. The key men in Sometimes a treaty can be drafted our government had to decide and ratified in a few weeks or quickly whether we should take months, but at other times it may part in these wars, take many months or even years. Opinion in our country was di- All of these proceedings are under vided. Many citizens wanted to ig- the direction of the Secretary of nore our treaty with France and a< - State. tually aid England, while others wanted to help France. A decision had to be made. Washington con- TI , L . , T f f, suited his cabinet in which sat two Vashington and Jefferson ^ eat advisers> Hamilton and jeffer- Believe that Our Interests Are son. In spite of Hamilton's sym- D iff erent from Those of Far- P athies for the British and J effer ' j-, son's for the French, they both ad- away Europe vised Washington to stay out of the war. Accordingly, Washington is- Washington warns us against med- sued a Neutrality Proclamation. dling in the affairs of Europe. When This was a statement saying it George Washington stepped into would be unlawful for any Ameri- the Presidency he was faced with can or for the government to aid important problems in foreign af- either side in the war. Europe was fairs. The infant Republic of the much too far away for us to get United States was bounded on three mixed up in her affairs, sides by colonies of European pow- Washington also sent John Jay on ers who had little respect for us. a special mission to England to Then, too, we had a treaty with reach an agreement on the right of France by which we agreed to go to our vessels to trade with France her aid in the event she were at- and to get the British to withdraw tacked. This treaty, drafted by from the forts in the Northwest Franklin, enabled us to gain help Territory. Jay's treaty was not satisr WORLD SLOWLY GROWING SMALLER 465 factory, but for the time being it prevented war. As a result of his experiences in dealing with European nations, Washington, in his Farewell Ad- dress, advised us to trade as much as possible with foreign nations. But, he warned that we should not get tangled up in the political af- fairs of Europe. He said that our interests were different from those of faraway Europe and that we should stay out of her quarrels. The advice of Washington in his Neutrality Proclamation and in his Farewell Address became a corner- stone in our foreign policy. Its im- portant feature was: The United States should stay out of European politics and alliances. Jefferson and Madison try but fail to keep us out of a great European war. Wars in Europe continued to play a leading part in our foreign affairs during the terms of the next three Presidents. England, a great sea power, was fighting a death struggle against Napoleon's power- ful land armies. Each was trying to starve the other out. England estab- lished a blockade around western Europe to prevent the delivery of supplies and food by American ships to Napoleon's armies. Napo- leon replied to this threat by clos- ing the ports of Europe to any ships carrying British goods. Both sides began to seize American vessels that were on the way to an enemy port. The trouble came to a head dur- ing Jefferson's second term when another problem arose. The British began to search American vessels for deserters. In fact many British sailors did leave their ships for the higher pay of American merchant vessels. However, the British took not only their own sailors, but American sailors as well. Time and again Jefferson made protests, but with no success. Jefferson did not wish to involve us in a European struggle, yet he wanted our shipping to be re- spected. He asked Congress to pass a series of embargo acts which for- bade American ships to carry goods to European ports. Jefferson thought that France and England would be desperate for supplies and would agree to stop seizing our ships. Jefferson was mistaken. The embargo did hit the British and French hard, but it hit the Americans even harder. Ships that had been making prosperous voy- ages were suddenly forced to remain idle in port. \Vhile ships rotted at docks, goods spoiled on the farms and in the warehouses. Farmers, merchants, and shipowners show- ered Congressmen with letters pro- testing the embargo. The laws were soon withdrawn. Madison followed Jefferson as President and continued to try further peaceable means of settling the disputes. Congress passed a law that again opened trade with both France and England. It also stated that if one of the two powers agreed to treat our shipping fairly we would remain friendly to that power and stop shipping goods to the other. Napoleon immediately promised to respect our rights. Madison thought that he had won France to our side. Madison then announced that we 4 66 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY would not trade with England un- less she repealed her laws against our shipping. The English people were alarmed. They forced Parlia- ment to back down and agree to stop seizing our ships. Unfortu- nately, Congress did not know this. Just two days earlier it had voted to declare war against England. All of Jefferson's and Madison's efforts to keep us out of a European war had tailed. Our hopes of staying out of Euro- pean conflicts fade in the War of 1812. It would be a mistake, how- ever, to believe that the declaration of war against England was wholly due to troubles over shipping and the seizure of sailors. This is proved by the fact that the Congressmen from the seaboard districts voted against the war. What were the other reasons? For one thing, the people of the West turned the balance toward war. The westward movement pushed the Indians from their lands along the Ohio and Mississippi val- leys. Naturally they objected and resisted. The frontiersmen thought that the Indian uprisings were due to the efforts of the British whom they accused of furnishing Indians with arms. Westerners also objected to the earlier embargo acts and the interference with American trade by the British navy. These actions closed foreign markets to western agricultural goods. Prices fell, caus- ing a depression in the West. In the election of 1810 several Congressmen who had followed Jefferson's efforts to keep peace were defeated. Among the many new faces in Congress appeared a strong group from the new western states known as "War Hawks." It was the leadership of this group that rallied Congress to take stern measures against England. We were ill-prepared to fight a war. We had only a small navy and almost no army. Calhoun's boast "that in four weeks time the whole of upper Canada and part of lower Canada will be in our power" Avas an empty threat. We unsuccessfully tried to invade Canada at Detroit, Fort Niagara, and in the Lake Champlain region (see map, page 467). The next sum- mer our troops invaded Ontario, engaging in a closely fought battle at Lundy's Lane. Other American forces crossed Lake Erie and burned the government buildings at York. British plans fail and we sign a treaty of peace. It was on the sea that our earliest and greatest vic- tories occurred. The Constitution, later dubbed "Old Ironsides," met and defeated the British ships Guer- riere and Java in the autumn of 1812. The following summer Oliver Hazard Perry, fighting on Lake Erie, was able to send this message: "We have met the enemy and they are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop." Our navy, aided by hundreds of privateers, captured a large number of Brit- ish merchant and naval vessels. Even so, the British were too nu- merous and by the end of the war most of our ships were either de- stroyed or bottled up in port. In the meantime the British, hav- Route of American Forces Route of British Forces gULF OF MEXICO 468 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY ing defeated Napoleon, turned to be selected to determine the their full attention to America. Yet boundaries between our country their three drives into the Lake and Canada. Champlain region, up the Missis- sippi Valley and into the Chesa- peake Bay region all failed. The rm n- j TT/ T i TT/ r ? British caused the greatest damage The Firsi World War Deals when they invaded and burned the a Cruel Blow to Our Policy government buildings in Washing- O f Staying Out of Europe's ton in revenge for York. They rr, 11 were soon halted at Fort McHenry l roumes ] in Baltimore. It was at this battle, while held a prisoner on a British For nearly 100 years we follow the ship, that Francis Scott Key penned advice of Washington and Jeffer- the first verses of "The Star Span- son. Now that the War of 1812 was gled Banner." The British met over, the people of the United their severest defeat at the hands States again decided to stay out of of Andrew Jackson, hero of the European affairs, a decision that West, who rallied his frontiersmen was kept until after 1900. For nearly in a great stand at New Orleans. 100 years our government refused This turned out to be a needless to sign agreements that might in- battle. England and the United volve this country in the struggles States had agreed upon peace two of Europe. Two examples will show weeks before. how we kept out of Old World af- The treaty of peace, signed De- fairs. cember, 1814, at Ghent, Belgium, First, during Lincoln's time, only was received in America weeks after considerable discussion did we later with joy. "Bells pealed in send an observer to an international church steeples; school children conference in Switzerland. This were released for a holiday; flags conference drafted new rules of war were hung out; and taverns were to permit better care of the crowded with patriots drinking wounded by the Red Cross. Al- toasts to the triumph of a great though 20 nations accepted these cause." Yet, when the people so- rules within two years, the United berly read the terms of peace not States did not ratify them for 17 one of the issues for which they had years. We were afraid acceptance fought was mentioned. might entangle our country in the The treaty provided that fighting affairs of Europe, should cease and that the territories Again, when Cleveland was Presi- should remain as they were before dent, Germany called a conference the war started. "Not one inch of of leading powers to discuss affairs territory ceded or lost" as a slogan in the Congo region of central of the day described it. One im- Africa. The United States was in- portant provision of the treaty pro- vited to send delegates to help make vided that a special commission was arrangements to govern this "back- WORLD SLOWLY GROWING SMALLER 469 ward" region. When the treaty was brought back to the United States, President Cleveland refused to send it to the Senate for approval. It would mean that this country would be taking part with Euro- pean powers in joint control over land in Africa. Cleveland did not wish to take this step. These two incidents should not be taken to mean that we had nothing to do with Europe. "Peace, commerce and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alli- ances with none," said Jefferson. We made treaties of friendship and commerce with most of the Euro- pean powers. We exchanged am- bassadors and ministers and main- tained friendly relations with all Europe for many years. Though we remained at peace with Europe, we continued to have many problems with certain Euro- pean nations over American affairs. We had a long dispute with Great Britain over our boundary line with Canada. Two treaties silenced an- gry words and the matter was finally settled. Again, during the War Be- tween the States a Confederate ship, the Alabama, sank many Un- ion ships. Since this ship had been built by the British and sold to the Confederacy we entered claims against the British government for damages. The affair dragged on for ten years when the two govern- ments agreed to select judges who listened to evidence from both countries. The judges awarded the United States $15,500,000 which Great Britain paid. The list of our dealings with European nations from 1815 to 1900 is long, but in none of them did we make an alliance. Nor did we become involved in any of the many European wars that broke out during this time. We did indeed follow the advice of Washington and Jefferson. As our interests abroad increase, we look at the world in a new way. The passing of the years brought events that were to change the hermit-like attitude of the Ameri- can people. By 1890 our frontier had disappeared and our lands were settled. Railroads and highways spanned the continent. Soon hum- ming factories and tractors were producing more than simple tools and ploughing oxen had produced. Steamships were cutting down the time it took to carry the millions of dollars worth of goods across the mighty waters. Cables were laid and powerful presses turned out penny- newspapers. America was growing up. As America grew up she turned to new interests. The people of our nation turned from the old frontier on land to new frontiers in indus- try. Managers wanted new sources ,of raw materials to feed husv ma- chines, while the factories needed new markets for surplus products. Many of these new markets were found in foreign lands as is shown by the increase of our foreign trade. While in the 50-year period after 1800 our foreign trade just about doubled, in the next 50-year period it increased seven times. Men had money in their pockets too, and more in the bank. Bankers sought new places to loan this 470 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY money at a good rate of interest. Many found opportunities abroad in Latin America, in China, or in Japan. Even Europe welcomed sur- plus dollars to be spent there in building more factories and rail- roads. By 1911 two and one-half billion^ dollars of American money were invested in foreign lands. We now had a stake in the rest of the world. That was not all. Americans be- gan to travel. Some went to Europe for an education; others went to Asia and Africa as missionaries. Business men built sugar and ba- nana plantations in Latin America. More and more our people were learning of other lands. Such jour- neys opened the eyes of our people to new opportunities and to new ideas. Then, too, we learned something from others. The period from 1850 to 1914 was one in which the coun- tries in Europe rivaled one another to see who could secure the most colonies in the undeveloped lands of Africa and Asia. Many in the United States asked, "Do not we too have a right to look beyond the seas?" This was the spirit which began in 1850 gradually to fill the American mind. We began to turn our attention to affairs abroad and wondered just how those af- fairs affected us. Our government responds to the times and takes a greater part in world affairs. Our government be- gan to reflect the changed attitude of the American people during the era of international conferences that opened soon after our War Be- tween the States. Between 1870 and 1914 more than 50 international conferences were held. The United States took part in more than 30 of these. We signed treaties that regulated weights and measures and arranged for the interchange of postal regulations with many na- tions. We made treaties defining the rights of a naturalized citizen. A trans-Atlantic cable required trea- ties for its protection and use. We joined the Red Cross movement. Later we added treaties regulating the protection of copyrights and patents. Treaties on tariffs were fol- lowed by agreements on working conditions in mines and the use of women and children in factories. From international dealings with the everyday affairs of trade, com- merce, and decent human relations, it was but a step to political co- operation with other countries. At the turn of the present century we sent delegates to Europe to take part in two important conferences at The Hague, Netherlands. These conferences attempted to cut down the tools of war as well as armies and navies of the major powers. They also discussed and defined more clearly the rights of a neutral country in time of war. A Perma- nent Court of Arbitration was es- tablished. We showed our inten- tions to co-operate peaceably with other nations by signing in one year (1908) 25 arbitration treaties. Arbitration treaties provide that when nations are involved in a dis- pute they will refer the matter to expert judges rather than go to war. We had indeed begun to take WORLD SLOWLY GROWING SMALLER 47 Laying the first trans-Atlantic cable, completed in the late 1850's. Other cables soon followed. Today the Americas are tied to all the other continents by cables, helping to bring the world closer together. The cost of sending messages to Europe by cable dropped from SI 00 for 20 words to 25 cents a word, the approximate cost today. (Courtesy Western Union Telegraph Company) part in the world movement toward international co-operation. The Spanish-American war, which will be discussed in the next chapter, made the United States a world power, for it placed in our hands possessions in the western Pa- cific as well as in Latin America. Possession of the Philippine Is- lands forced us to take an interest in the affairs of China and the Far East. Our relations with Cuba and Puerto Rico combined with our natural interests in trade brought Latin-American affairs to our door- step. The United States regularly sent delegates to the inter-American conferences held to establish more peaceful and better business con- ditions among the American re- publics. Distances were becoming less im- portant. The world was rapidly drawing closer. Oceans were no longer barriers separating us from other continents, but were path- ways over which an ever-rising tide of contacts was made. Events in the far corners of the earth were felt in New York, Denver, and Washing- ton. As our Secretary of State said at the turn of the century: "The United States today cannot go back to what the country was fifty or a hundred years ago. Whether we will or not, whether for better or for worse, we must go forward." After 1900 we had world-wide interests. 472 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The First World War again revives the problems of Jefferson and Madison. The hopes of Americans for a peaceful world were first dimmed and then shattered as they read the headlines during the fate- ful summer of 1914. Across the At- lantic two rival camps of powers were rapidly arming, bluffing and waiting for an opportune moment to strike. The Central Powers, led by Germany and Austria, wanted more elbow room and especially more colonies. The Allies, headed by Great Britain, France, and Rus- sia, wanted to prevent the Central Powers from expanding and seizing control of their key positions. The spark that ignited the Euro- pean powder keg was an unwise visit by a young prince who was heir to the throne of Austria. He made a trip to Sarajevo, a town in an Austrian province that was full of revengeful Serbs who hated Austria. A shot rang out, and ihe prince was killed. Austria, backed by Germany, demanded satisfaction from Serbia. Unable to get her full demands, Austria declared war. Within six weeks almost all Europe was aflame. For three long years the Ameri- can people watched the conflict with mixed feelings. Most Ameri- cans sympathized with the Allies, although there were many who fa- vored the cause of the Central Pow- ers. The situation was much the same as that which faced Americans nearly 100 years earlier when Jef- ferson and Madison were in the Presidency. This time, however, it was the German Kaiser who wanted to rule Europe rather than Napo- leon. We wanted to keep out of war, and the nation approved when President Wilson almost immedi- ately declared that we would be neutral. As a neutral power our govern- ment again claimed the right of our ships to sail the seas and carry goods to both sides. The British navy blocked shipments to Germany, and we made strong protests to Great Britain for this interference. How- ever, by far the greatest amount of our trade and loans went to the Allies. Germany's hopes for victory lay in cutting off these supplies. Her submarines began sinking ships without warning. The submarine campaign was so successful that it seemed that Germany might win the war. We wanted to keep out of the war, but we wanted the Allies to win. From the beginning we were suspicious of Germany's plans. We became even more suspicious when she invaded neutral Belgium to strike France. Stories of brutal treatment by Germans of captured Belgian children aroused our emo- tions. Germany gained more ill will when she torpedoed a British liner, the Lusitania, with a loss of over 1,100 lives including 128 American citizens. President Wilson protested to Germany, and for a few months the submarine warfare let up. Two- millions of our soldiers go to Europe to fight for democratic ideals. Early in 1917, however, Ger- many announced that she would sink on sight all American mer- chant vessels within the submarine zones around the British Isles and WORLD SLOWLY GROWING SMALLER 473 LUSITANIA SUNK BY A SUBMARINE, PROBABLY 1J0 DEAD; TWICE TORPEDOED OFF IRISH COAST; SINKS IN 15 MINUTES; CAPT. TURNER SAVED, FROHMAN AND VANDERBILT MISSING; WASHINGTON BELIEVES THA T A GRAVE CRISIS IS AT HAND The sinking of the Lusitania, a British ship, on May 7, 1915, did much to arouse Ameri- can opinion against Germany, though we did not declare war until nearly two years later. (European) in the Mediterranean Sea. We could no longer remain neutral. We declared war on April 6, 1917, be- cause of insults to our flag and be- cause we wanted the Allies to win. President Wilson summed it up when he said it was a fight "to make the world safe for democracy." To most of our people the Allies rep- resented ideals of liberty, freedom, and human decency, while the Cen- tral Powers represented selfish em- perors and dictatorship. Our navy was the first to swing into action. Submarines were hunted down, and the sea lanes kept open. The navy convoyed and transported vast quantities of sup- plies and troops to Great Britain and France. Not a single American troopship was torpedoed. Our first soldiers arrived in France within three months, to be followed in the next year by two million more men. It was a tremen- dous task organizing a country to- 474 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Londo ENGLAND JVOKTH SEA Antwerp Brussels ENGLISH CHAWEL Cambrai Pcronne Quentin FII^ST WORLD WAR Front line of November 11, B!8 Line of farthest German advance Regions of chief American participation j German drives on Paris Scale of Miles 25 50 75 SWITZERLAND tally unprepared for war into the greatest war machine ever built up to that time. From civilian clothes to training camp to Europe took less than a year for many a boy. Yet during this time he was well fed, clothed, and trained to fight. The turning point of the war came in the summer of 1918. Ger- many opened a tremendous drive and steadily forced the Allies back toward Paris. As the map on this page shows, they almost reached their goal. General Pershing and other Allied commanders placed all soldiers under the single command of the great Frenchman, General Foch. American troops were spread along the lines where needed to bolster up the weak spots. The marines stopped a German drive in a furious battle at Belleau Wood. Americans under the com- mand of General Pershing helped to turn the tide toward Allied vic- tory by defeating the Germans at Chateau Thierry in a blistering three-day battle. Finally, came the victorious Meuse-Argonne drive, the greatest series of battles in which American troops engaged. Lasting 40 days, it brought over a million troops into action. In this drive alone we suffered 120,000 cas- ualties. Fighting ceased on Novem- ber 11, 1918, and preparations were WORLD SLOWLY GROWING SMALLER 475 made to draft the terms of peace, events in one part of the earth had The First World War showed important effects upon events in that Americans could not afford to other parts of the world. In this ignore events in other parts of the new world we were now a major globe. We found that in the shrunk- power, en distances of the modern age WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you understand the following terms, either by using them cor- rectly in a sentence or describing their historical importance. 1. ambassador 6. ratify 11. The Allies 2. foreign minister 7. neutral 12. The Central Powers 3. diplomatic service 8. alliance 13. armistice 4. treaty 9. embargo 14. Meuse-Argonne 5. credentials 10. War Hawks WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1812-14: Why are these dates important in our military history? 1914: What event in Europe makes this important for us to remember? 1917-18: These are important dates in our military history. Why? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What assistance does the President have in conducting foreign affairs? What are some of the duties of an ambassador? 2. From the chart on page 463 and the text, list the steps in making a treaty and putting it into effect. 3. How did the wars in Europe cause our early Presidents much trouble? 4. What two policies did Washington advise in respect to our foreign rela- tions? Which did he actually start? 5. Compare Jefferson's handling of our affairs with Europe with Madison's policies. 6. In what way was the West influential in bringing about war with England in 1812? 7. By using the map on page 467 and the text, explain whether the Americans or British were the more successful in their war plans. 8. What facts can you suggest to show that the War of 1812 was unfortunate? 9. After the War of 1812, in what ways did we try to follow Washington's and Jefferson's advice? 10. Give four examples which show that the United States began to take an increasing part in world affairs after 1870. 11. Irr what ways were the foreign problems of our government from 1914 to 1917 similar to the problems in the years 1800 to 1812? 1 2. Why did we enter the First World War? 13. What contributions did the United States make toward winning this war? 14. What lesson should we have learned from the First World War? 15. Summary Question: What have been our policies in dealing with Europe? Chapter 28. The United States and Its Neighbors Slowly Reach a Better Understanding It was Tuesday, December 1, 1936. The halls of the Argen- tine Congress rapidly filled with excited people. Photographers busily took pictures of important officials; radio experts made last minute tests; news men glanced around to get "atmosphere" for their reports. On the main floor sat 175 representatives from 21 American republics. The United States had 26 members, while Argentina and Brazil each had 18. Other countries were suitably represented. The galleries were jammed ivith guests anxious to hear the opening of the conference. Promptly the Argentine Foreign Minister called the conference to order. He presented President Augustin Justo ( Ah-goos-teen Hoos f -toh) of Ar- gentina, who made a short address welcoming the distinguished visitors to beautiful Buenos Aires. Then came the moment for which all had waited. President Franklin D. Roosevelt confidently took his place at the speaker's stand, facing microphones that would carry his voice to the en- tire world. He had been pleased at the tremendous reception given him yesterday by the people of Argentina, coolest of the nations toward the L/nited States. Today the delegates and visitors gave him another wild ovation. Photographers flashed their bulbs and snapped their pictures. Delegates adjusted their earphones, for, as the President spoke, his words were to be translated into Portuguese, Spanish, and French so that each delegate could listen to the speech in his own language. There was a lull, then President Roosevelt began his speech during which he was interrupted many times by ringing cheers and applause. Said the President: "Members of the American Family of Nations: We have learned by hard experience that peace is not to be had for the asking. We are here to dedicate ourselves and our countries to that work. ''Each of us has learned the glories of independence. Let each learn the glories of interdependence." A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 477 The Monroe Doctrine Builds felt diat increased possessions by T-, A j I r A European powers threatened our a Fence Around the Americas safety ' Engl p and> moreover> did not wish to see her strongest rivals ex- The idea of the Monroe Doctrine is pand their power. "America for the Americans." The England believed that it might conference of American republics at be an advantage if she and the Buenos Aires had been called to con- United States acted together in this sider ways of maintaining peace in a matter. England asked us if we world edging toward war. This was would join with her to check the not the first such conference. At dif- growing menace of European ri- ferent times during the past 50 years vals. Here was an important de- the nations of America had met to cision. Should we join with a power- consider their problems. Not all of ful European ally or should we the earlier meetings were marked work alone? by the spirit of good will shown at In spite of the advice of ex-Presi- Buenos Aires. To understand this dents Jefferson and Madison to join change in attitude it is necessary to with England, President Monroe fi- go back in history and trace the im- nally followed the judgment of his portant developments in our rela- Secretary of State, John Ouincy tions with Latin-American peoples. Adams. Adams felt that we should Curiously enough, our first Latin- handle it ourselves. He argued that American relations were directed England would back us up anyway toward Europe. You remember that because it would he to her interest Latin Americans were struggling to do so. Acting alone would save for their independence in the early us from becoming entangled with 1800's. These struggles had two ef- a European nation, fects in Europe. First, England ap- Accordingly, on December 2. proved of the revolutions. Inde- 1823, President Monroe sent his pendent republics not only weak- famous message to Congress that ened rival European powers, but has since been called the Monroe opened vast new markets to British Doctrine. President Monroe stressed traders. Second, Spain and her Rus- three important ideas in regard to sian, Prussian, and Austrian allies the Americas as a warning to Euro- were alarmed at the revolutions, peans. First, we had no intention of They hated republics and were fear- taking part in European affairs, ful lest they succeed. Furthermore, Second, Europe must not interfere Spain and possibly Russia would w T ith existing governments in the lose vast and valuable possessions in Americas. Third, Europe must not the Americas. set up new colonies in the Americas, Spain and her allies were plan- though we would not interfere with ning to restore the revolting colo- existing colonies. This meant Amer- nies to the mother country. Russia ica for Americans, and was the foun- was pushing her claims southward dation of our policy toward Latin toward present-day California We America. U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Uncle Sam says: "That's a live wire gentlemen!" Thtis did a cartoonist show the United Stales warning Great Britain and Germany not to overstep the Monroe Doctrine by interfering in the affairs of American republics. (W. A. Rogers in the New York Herald) The United States puts the Monroe Doctrine to work. There Avas no longer any doubt as to where the voung Republic stood in affairs that touched the American conti- nents. Foreign representatives im- mediately reported Monroe's mes- sage to their governments. The mes- sage was well received in Latin America, but was frowned upon in Europe. Soon it was almost forgot- ten. There were many early viola- tions by both France and England because we were not yet able to enforce the Doctrine. However, the day arrived when Europe discovered that Monroe's message was not to be ignored. The challenge appeared in Mexico dur- ing the War Between the States. For many years unsettled condi- tions endangered property owned by Europeans. The trouble came when certain Mexicans, wishing to establish a monarchy, sought aid from France, Spain, and England. Using the excuse of protecting their property, the three nations sent ex- peditions to Mexico. It was a clear case of European nations interfer- ing in American affairs. What would we do about it? Because the United States was in- volved in a civil war, the most we could do was to make serious pro- tests. England and Spain withdrew from Mexico, but the French forces remained. Dreaming of a great American empire, they marched on the Mexican capital and placed on the throne an Austrian prince, Archduke Maximilian. At the close of the War Between the States our government again protested vigor- ously to France, at the same time sending troops to the Mexican bor- der. France, realizing the jig was up, withdrew, leaving the Archduke A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 479 to the cruel fate imposed on him by The United States Expand* the angry Mexicans. The challenge ^ j t t ^ Carih to the Doctrine was met. The event that brought real Eu- bean Area ropean recognition of the Doctrine was a dispute between Vene/uela The Spanish- American War takes and England in the 1890's. The us into the Caribbean. Cuba and boundary line between British Gui- Puerto Rico lay at the crossroads of ana and Venezuela had long been the Americas. They were the last in dispute. The matter was brought remaining possessions of a once to a head by the discovery of gold mighty Spanish empire. For many in the "no man's land." Each coun- years Cubans had been unhappy try began to enlarge its claims. with Spanish rule. A rebellion Venezuela asked the United broke out in the late 1860's. An- States for aid. Our Secretary of State other flared up in 1895. Rather than sent England a strong note. He submit to the Spanish army, the pointed out that England's attempt Cuban forces retreated to the hills, to get more land for her colony Avas burned sugar and tobacco planta- a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. tions and destroyed large amounts Would she arbitrate the case? Eng- of property. Both the Cuban rebels land replied that she would not. and the Spanish forces used barba- Angry at the reply. President rous methods of fighting. Cleveland sent a strong message to Rival New York newspapers led Congress urging that money be the fight for our entry into Cuban raised to study the conflicting affairs. These papers aroused our claims. After the investigation we people to a fighting pitch. They would see that Venezuela got her printed screaming headlines fol- rights. England finally agreed to lowed with accounts of cruelty by arbitrate the case and the matter the Spanish soldiers, illustrated by was soon closed. Venezuela received vivid cartoons and photographs that only a small part of her greatest emphasized only one side of the claims, but the greatest naval power story. The climax came when a in the world had acknowledged the United States battleship, the Maine. Monroe Doctrine. was sunk while at anchor in Havana At another time we heard that a harbor with a loss of over 250 lives. French Company proposed to dig a Although the exact cause of the canal across the Panama isthmus, sinking remains in doubt to this We protested that control of such a day, the papers blazoned forth such canal by a European power would headlines as "DESTRUCTION OF be a violation of the Monroe Doc- THE WARSHIP MAINE THE trine. The French government de- WORK OF AN ENEMY." nied any such intention. Anyway President McKinley opposed war. the French company went bankrupt. Spain did not desire war, yet she These were among the most impor- played with President McKinley's tant tests of the Monroe Doctrine, demands to clean up the situation. 480 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The American fleet under Commodore George Dewey defeats the Spanish fleet in the battle ol Manila Bay. It was not until about ten weeks later that enough of our troops arrived to undertake land operations against the Spanish in this area in co-operation with the Filipino revolutionists. (Culver Service) Finally, Spain agreed to stop fight- ing Cubans and arrange a settle- ment. It was too late. Newspapers and excited people influenced the President to ask Congress in April. 1898, for a declaration of war. The Spanish-American War was short and popular. It lasted a little over 100 days. We trapped Spain's fleet in Santiago harbor in southern Cuba. Armed forces were quickly rushed to nearby positions and landed. Eight days later we cap- tured two important positions around the harbor. In one of these battles. Colonel "Teddy" Roosevelt caught the public eye by storming San Juan Hill with his Rough Rid- ers. With the army surrounded on land, the Spanish fleet tried to es- cape, but was caught and de- stroyed. On the other side of the world. Admiral Dewey captured the Philippines by destroying the Spanish squadron at Manila Bay. It was soon evident that Spain was beaten and peace was arranged in Paris. The United States takes control over Cuba and Puerto Rico to im- prove our defenses. When the peo- ple of the United States learned the terms of the treaty of peace, they were both pleased and surprised. We had secured Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and Guam in the far South Pacific. That pleased us. But we were startled to learn that we had taken the Philip- pine Islands in return for 20 mil- lion dollars. Puerto Rico was made a colony. A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 481 It was not yet ready for self-gov- ernment. Forty years later, how- ever, Franklin D. Roosevelt asked our Congress to grant home rule to the Puerto Ricans. Cuba presented a different problem. Congress had declared that we had no intention of seizing Cuba for ourselves. Now that we had the island, would we keep our word? We immediately established a temporary military government to restore order, to distribute food, and to disarm the Cuban rebels who had fought against Spain. We re- stored the government of cities and towns and started a modern school system. The deadly yellow fever was wiped out. A beginning was made in putting Cuba's house in order. The Cubans elected delegates to a special convention that drafted a constitution similar to that of the United States. However, one im- portant question remained. What should be the relationship between Cuba and the United States? Our government felt that it was neces- sary to act as a protector to the is- land. Cuba's position in the Carib- bean was too important to allow her to fall under the control of a foreign power. Therefore, we insisted that the Cubans accept a special addition to their constitution called the Platt Amendment. This amendment was vigorously opposed by Cubans and the following important provisions will show why. According to the amendment, Cuba must agree (1) not to give up her independence to any other foreign power; (2) not to contract debts that she could not pay; (3) to give the United States the right to step into Cuban affairs to protect life and property in an emergency; (4) to sell or lend the United States land for naval sta- tions. The Cubans finally accepted these conditions. Arrangements were completed for an election un- der the new constitution. Two and one-half years after taking over the island, the United States turned it back to the Cubans. We had kept our promise, though with a good strong string attached in the form of the Platt Amendment. In later years we pulled that string several times and stepped into Cuban af- fairs. Cuba and Puerto Rico were the first steps toward establishing our defenses in the Caribbean area. Other events were soon to follow. The need for a Panama Canal car- ries us farther into the Caribbean. Two important events showed the need for a canal connecting the At- lantic and Pacific Oceans. The first was the voyage of the battleship Oregon in the Spanish-American War. The Oregon was ordered from San Francisco to join the fleet in the Caribbean. It was necessary for the ship to make a two-month journev of more than 10,000 miles around the tip of South America before reaching its goal. The second event was the rise of two great naval pow- ers, Japan on the Pacific and Ger- many on the Atlantic. Our defenses must be improved. For many years men had dreamed of building a canal across the nar- row isthmus, either in Panama or Nicaragua (see map, page 482). The time was now ripe for action. We A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 483 The last obstacle to navigation on the Panama Canal is blown up by dynamite. Presi- dent Wilson, in the White House 4.000 miles away, pushed the button thai set off the spark. The canal is 50 miles long and cost over 350 million dollars, but it is considered a vital part of our national defense system. (Brown Brothers) must first secure permission from either Colombia or Nicaragua to use the land. A commission was se- lected to determine the better site. It first chose Nicaragua, but later it decided on Panama. Panama was at this time part of Colombia. We proposed a treaty with Colombia that would grant us a strip of land about six miles wide in which we could build and fortify a canal. In return we would give Colombia ten million dollars, plus an annual rental of $250,000. Co- lombia refused to accept the treaty, hoping to get more money than we offered. Colombia's refusal angered Presi- dent Theodore Roosevelt. Suddenly Panama revolted and declared itself a free and independent republic. An American warship prevented Colombia from sending troops to put down the rebellion. The Unit- ed States immediately recognized the new republic and signed a. treaty almost exactly the same as that of- fered to Colombia. President Roose- velt later explained the situation when he said: "I took the Canal Zone." It is one of the black marks in our relations with Latin America. It was one of the acts that made many Latin Americans suspicious of us. Ten years of hard work accom- plished the twofold task of making the Canal Zone a healthy place in which to live and to dig the "big ditch" connecting the Pacific with the Caribbean. The completion of the canal in 1914 made possible the transfer of naval and merchant ves- sels from one ocean to another with- out a 10,000 mile journey around South America. Now that we had the canal it must be protected. We already had bases in Cuba and Puerto Rico 4 8 4 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Canal Zone itself was fortified. Yet in the First \Vorld War we thought we saw a danger. If Ger- many should seize Denmark and take away from her the Virgin Is- lands, she would have a powerful nearby naval base. To remove this menace we purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917. We were moving farther and farther into the Caribbean Area. Theodore Roosevelt tries to make a policeman of Uncle Sam. People who don't pay their debts soon get into trouble. The same is true of nations. In the early 1900's Great Britain and Germany gave a "spanking" to Venezuela for not settling her debts. Acting together, the two countries seized Venezuelan gunboats and blockaded her ports. Venezuela soon came to terms. While the United States gave its consent to this episode, it was soon evident that it would be unwise to continue such a policy. What if a European power used the collection of debts as an excuse to occupy im- portant islands in the Caribbean? It would be a direct threat to our own safety and to the proposed ca- nal. Two years later the Dominican Republic became bankrupt. The custom receipts of less than two mil- lion dollars could not hope to pay the 32-million-dollar debt, most of which was owed to Europeans. To meet this critical situation, Presi- dent Theodore Roosevelt made it clear that if a Latin-American na- tion failed to run itself in an or- derly manner and pay its just debts promptly, the United States would step in and supervise its affairs. We would act as a policeman. In the case of the Dominican Re- public, the President appointed a collector of the customs houses who was to turn 45 per cent over to the Dominican government and 55 per cent to the payment of the debts. When conditions in the island be- came more unsettled we landed marines and other government offi- cials to supervise the island. The United States also became a policeman in the Negro republic of Haiti. There, too, an unsteady gov- ernment piled up a huge debt. By 1915, it appeared likely that some nation would need to establish or- der. The United States landed ma- rines and arranged a treaty with Haiti by which we helped govern the island, put her financial house in order, and started training the people for self-government. Across the Caribbean among the unsettled Central American repub- lics was Nicaragua, possessor of the other route for a canal to the Pa- cific. As in the Dominican Republic and Haiti, there was political and financial disorder in Nicaragua. We found it necessary to send marines to maintain order, and a financial expert to see that money was hon- estly collected and debts were paid. Soon we signed a treaty with Nica- ragua that gave Uncle Sam the right to build a canal as well as the right to fortify two nearby islands. In re- turn we paid Nicaragua three mil- lion dollars to be used in paying off debts. Although we later with- drew from all of these countries, none of them liked Uncle Sam's activities as a policeman. A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 45 Early Pan- Americanism organization collects and arranges TT i JL n j7\r-L reliable information of all sorts Turns into the Good Neigh- about all American republics . It OOr Policy ....'. sponsors conferences, arranges for trade and travel, promotes health Pan-Americanism means peace and and sanitary conditions. It arranges commerce among the American na- for exchanges of students between tions. The Monroe Doctrine aimed the various nations. It maintains at protecting the Americas from the Columbus Memorial Library in Europe, while the purpose of Pan- Washington, one of the best sources- Americanism was to bind the Amer- in the world for information about icas together. Forward looking lead- peoples and countries in the west- ers in Latin Ameria and the United ern hemisphere. States had dreamed of bringing the The first inter-American confer- republics of the western hemi- ence has been followed by many sphere closer together. Sim6n Boli- other conferences, each held in a var and Henry Clay were among different American country (see the first enthusiastic supporters of map, page 486). Many other scien- this ideal. Bolivar called a confer- tific and cultural meetings have also ence at Panama in 1826, but only been held. Three outstanding re- four countries sent delegates. The suits have come from these meet- United States delayed so long that ings. First, agreements have been its representatives did not arrive reached on means of settling dis- until the conference was over. putes between the nations of this In 1889 the delegates from 18 hemisphere. Second, many prob- American nations gathered in Wash- lems in relation to trade, travel, and ington for their first conference to debts have been ironed out. Third, consider ways of keeping peace and the increasing travel and exchange improving commerce among the re- of ideas among visiting delegates publics of the western hemisphere, have brought about a healthier un- The delegates took a 6,000 mile derstanding among the widely dif- journey through 41 cities to see the fering peoples. industrial growth of the United We have gained a new apprecia- States. Yet when the time came for tion of the fine qualities of Latin- representatives actually to bind American peoples and of their con- their governments to definite pro- tribution to the New World. Thev posals to preserve peace and to im- have learned that all people in the prove trade, the meeting failed. United States are not dollar crazy. The one success was the formation Pan-Americanism has taught the of the Pan-American Union. peoples of this hemisphere not only The Pan-American Union is the self-respect, but respect for each center of the movement for Pan- other. Americanism. Located in a hand- some building in Washington, Latin Amentum wonder how Pan- D. C., gift of Andrew Carnegie, this Americanism and the "Big Stick" 486 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY U N-LT D\ ST-'A T PA c in c B /R A Z L Buenos Aires^l Montevideo COKFEREJSfCES can go hand in hand. As a rule, Latin Americans have been rather cool toward the United States. At first, when the new republics were seeking independence, they wel- comed the Monroe Doctrine and our recognition of their freedom. It meant help to diem in staying free from Europe. But a series of events changed their feelings toward the United States and its policies. The first change came in the 1840's when we fought Mexico and took California and neighboring lands from her. Latin Americans began to raise their eyebrows. They asked, Was the United States using the Monroe Doctrine to keep out A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 487 Europeans so that she could have refused to sign over 50 such agree- the whole New World pasture to ments. herself? Later, our neighbors were It is important in international quick to object to unfortunate affairs to understand the effects that statements by United States offici- our actions have upon other na- als. One had said that our laws ex- tions. It is clear that our stepping tend over all this continent. An- into the affairs,, of Cuba, the Do- other said that "the frontiers of the minican Republic, Haiti, Central United States virtually extend to America, and Mexico made the Tierra del Fuego" (southern tip of United States appear as a selfish South America). greedy neighbor. If we did not want Then came President Theodore trouble on our hands, steps must Roosevelt and his "big stick" policy be taken to change the situation, by which the United States stepped in to supervise the affairs of weak The Good Neighbor Policy brings nations if they did not pay their back to life the old Pan-American debts. Many Latin Americans felt idea of co-operation and under- thai this policy had two purposes: standing. Thoughtful people real- first, to give the United States bank- ized that the United States must ers and business men first chance at make important changes in its re- the opportunities to make profits lations with Latin America. The and investments in Latin America; opening came when President Wil- second, to drive the opening wedge son agreed to allow Brazil, Argen- by which we hoped to gain control tina, and Chile to pass upon a seri- of many smaller nations, especially ous dispute between the United in the Caribbean region. States and Mexico. Our willingness Latin Americans believed that to accept the judgment of others Pan-Americanism was simply a made a good impression through- cloak to hide the real intentions of out Latin America, the United States; namely, that in Under President Coolidge our one way or another we meant to marines left the Dominican Repub- get control of many lands in that lie. Our relations with Mexico im- area for our own benefit. Many of proved and the troublesome affairs their newspapers carried articles in Nicaragua were placed on a bet- warning of the dangers from the ter basis. President Hoover made a money-lending Yankees. In spite of tour of Latin America that helped the fact that many Presidents, in- to create good will. We gave up the eluding Theodore Roosevelt, de- right to interfere in the internal clared that we did not want one affairs of Latin-American nations, inch of their land, Latin Americans Such changes began to show our were suspicious. That suspicion ac- neighbors that we wanted to be a counts for the fact that many of the friend and not a bully, governments did not ratify the The dramatic turn came at Presi- agreements signed at inter- Ameri- dent Franklin D. Roosevelt's first can conferences. Argentina alone inauguration speech. He said: "I U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Foreign ministers of the American nations met at Havana in 1940. Such conferences help to cement closer the friendships and relations among nations. The official dele- gates are seated below while the guests are in the balcony. Note the various flags that drape the balcony. (International) would dedicate this nation to the policy of the good neighbor the neighbor who resolutely respects himself, and, because he does so, respects the rights of others. We now realize that we cannot merely take, but must give as well." Our neighbors pricked up their ears at this. Did we mean it? Time would tell, and time did tell. We did not attempt to boss the next inter-American conference at Mon- tevideo as we had previously done. Not a single committee chairman- ship was held by a delegate from the United States. Moreover, we made no objection to the discussion of important political problems which our earlier officials had al- ways opposed. This change in attitude was fol- lowed by deeds. We withdrew our marines from Haiti; we made an agreement with Cuba by which we abandoned the Platt Amendment. We arranged to settle difficult ques- tions with Mexico over the problem of ownership of oil properties. Further compromises were made at the Buenos Aires meeting at which President Roosevelt spoke. We agreed to make the Monroe Doctrine a two-way doctrine, giving to Latin Americans a share in de- termining its meaning. We agreed not to interfere in the internal or external affairs of other American nations. If trouble should break out, we agreed to work jointly with our sister republics. The Latin-American people have been greatly pleased by these ac- tions on our part. Proof of it was the enthusiastic reception given President Roosevelt at Buenos Aires. We shall see, too, that almost all of the Latin-American nations supported the cause of the United A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 489 Nations in the Second World War. and in Oregon (see map, page 490). The Good Neighbor Policy put Disputes over the rights of fisher- new life into Pan-Americanism. It men have been another source of was binding the Americas closer to- friction. Patience and good will set- gether. tied all these disputes without war. In spite of these differences, there has been a growing movement to- The SecondWorld War Brings ward a closer friendship. Following .,,/.,, ,, /-,| are some definite steps that have All of the Americas Closer been taken . First , the n vo countries Together tried to improve their trade by mak- ing agreements to lower the tariff. The war brings us closer to our The first trade agreement was made northern neighbor. The relations in the 1850's, but was later can- between the United States and Can- celled. In the 1930's the United ada have been an object lesson to States, Canada and Great Britain the rest of the world. We have been made a triple-play deal that greatly at peace more than 125 years. Both reduced duties on goods. It resulted countries are very proud of the in increased trade among all three 3,000 miles of unfortified and un- nations. defended boundary. A similar ex- Second, we arranged with Canada ample cannot be found in the en- to arbitrate any dispute that could tire world. not be settled by ambassadors. Our early relations with Canada Third, during the First World War were conducted through Great Brit- we co-operated in the patrol and ain, but in 1926 Canada secured the protection of Canadian waters right to deal directly with the against the German U-boat menace. United States. The first milestone Fourth, in the 1920's we made our in our relations was the Rush-Bagot first treaty directly with Canada, agreement in 1817. This treaty be- This. provided for an International tween the United States and Great Fisheries Commission to regulate Britain provided that no armed ves- fishing along the Pacific shores of sels, except for small revenue cut- the two nations, ters, were to be allowed on the The Good Neighbor Policy ap- Great Lakes. It was the first ex- plied to Canada quite as much as to ample in modern times of two na- Latin America. The two countries tions agreeing to limit the size of agreed to co-operate in trade and their naval patrols. Furthermore, it defense. The Second World War is still in force. hastened an already growing move- While we have not been at war ment toward closer co-operation be- with Canada, at times it was a tween the United States and her "peace with friction." We had sev- northern neighbor, eral serious boundary disputes at points in Maine, Vermont, the The war shows that all of the Amer- Great Lakes, across the prairies, icas must act as one. The rise of the 49 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY BOUjfoARY SETTLEMENTS WITHOUT WAR 4Bb' Areas in dispute Line claimed by United States Line claimed by Great Britain NEWFOUNDLAND FISHING ARIA DISPUTfS ALASKAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE. / WO BOUNDARY-*,* r~!~. 45TH PARALLEL BOUNDARY 0/SfVTf Of I84t Axis Powers of Italy, Germany, and Japan was a direct challenge to the democracies of the world. One by one the countries of Europe fell before their crushing military strength. Only Britain and Russia remained to carry on the fight in Europe. People throughout the Americas became alarmed for their own safety. As the signs of danger increased, President Roosevelt took action. In the summer of 1938 he said to Ca- nadians: "I give you my assurance that the United States will not stand idly by if Canadian soil is threat- ened." Two years later Canada and the United States formed a joint de- fense board which made plans to defend North America against at- tack from either Europe or Asia. The question of joint defense with Latin America was discussed as early as 1936 when President Roosevelt visited Buenos Aires. Two years later, before the war broke out in Europe, Latin Ameri- cans and delegates from the United States met at Lima, Peru. Again they discussed the question of de- fense. It was agreed that any threat to one American nation was a threat to all. They decided that Avhenever any event threatened the peace of this hemisphere, the 21 Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the American republics would meet to decide what action to take. At the outbreak of the war in Europe (1939), nine American na- tions requested an immediate meet- ing at Panama of all Ministers of Foreign Affairs. This meeting to~ok steps to block Axis propaganda. It established a safety zone averaging 300 miles in width around the American continents. Both Axis and Allied powers were warned not to fight in this zone. Other steps were taken to keep the American nations out of the war, yet give all possible aid to the Allies. A BETTER UNDERSTANDING 49 l The most vital spot in the de- fense of the Americas was the Pana- ma Canal. What would happen if the Axis powers seized the small but important Caribbean islands held by the Netherlands and France? This problem was neatly solved at the second meeting of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs at Ha- vana. They agreed to occupy and govern the islands jointly, if they thought such a step was necessary. This made sure one important gap in the defense of the canal, and of the Americas. Other steps were rapidly taken after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December, 1941. An In- ter-American Defense Board was immediately created to plan for the wise use of the combined resources of all the nations for defense. A number of arrangements were made among the various American na- tions to exchange vital minerals, rubber, food, and other materials so necessary to carry on a war. It be- came clear that the Americas were united as never before. It was "one for all and almost all for one." WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show by using in a sentence that you understand the meaning of the follow- ing terms and their importance in our relations with Latin America. 1. interdependence 3. the Maine 5. Tierra del Fuego 2. monarchy 4. Platt Amendment 6. Axis Powers WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1823: What important foreign policy did we announce in this year? 1889: Why is this date important in inter-American relations? 1898: Why is this a key date in our military history? 1914: What important project was completed in this year? 1933: What important change in our foreign policy was announced? 1939: An event in Europe brought about increased inter-American co-opera- tion. What was the event? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What were the circumstances leading to the Monroe Doctrine? What are the three parts of this doctrine? 2. Give at least two examples showing how we put the Monroe Doctrine to work. 3. What conditions and events brought about the Spanish-American War? What were the results of this war? 4. Why did the Cubans so vigorously oppose the Platt Amendment? 5. What two possible routes might a canal take, which would connect the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans? 6. Why was the Panama Canal case a black mark in our relations with Latin America? 7. Give two examples showing how Uncle Sam acted as a policeman in the Caribbean region. 492 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 8. What have been three results of the Pan-American meetings? 9. What were some events which made Latin Americans suspicious of our intentions? 10. What evidence is there that we really meant to live by the Good Neighbor Policy? 11. Give evidence to prove this statement: "The relations between the United States and Canada have been an object lesson to the rest of the world." 12. What proof can you offer that in the Second World War the Americas were "one for all and almost all for one"? 13. Summary Question: What changes has the United States made in regard to its policies with Latin America? Chapter 29. Events Force Us to Take an Increasing Interest in the Far East .... . . The Revolutionary War was over. Captain John Green and Samuel Shaw busily checked the cargo and stores of their ship, the Em- press of China. This voyage was a big gamble. Success would mean the opening of the China trade to the United States traders, while failure would result in the loss of a fortune. All was ready. With her American flag proudly flying, the ship slowly picked up speed as the wind caught her sails and carried her out of New York harbor. She was off to Canton. Her holds were crowded with ginseng (an herb), lead, cotton, pepper, fur skins, and cloth with a value of $120,000. The ship crossed the Atlantic to the Cape Verde Islands, then sailed southward to the Cape of Good Hope. Finally, the long voyage across the tropical Indian Ocean to Java was made. European sailors looked curiously at the new flag in Oriental waters. They received it with shouts and with salutes from their guns. After a six months 9 voyage, the Empress of China tied up at Whampoa, seaport of Canton. Captain Green was amazed to see 45 European ships at anchor. A thriving trade indeed was carried on here. Samuel Shaw began inquiries on how to deal with the Chinese. He dis- covered that there were special Chinese merchants who must handle all trade with foreigners. He found that he could not wander about Chinese towns and cities, but must stay in one small section. Foreigners were re- garded as barbarians and were strictly limited in their activities. When the winter trading season began, Shaw purchased large quantities of tea, chinaware, and silk along with smaller amounts of Chinese cloth and drugs. The ship made a quick return voyage to New York. The profit on this 18 months' voyage was $30,000. It was a success. The Empress of China opened the Orient to American trade. Ever since, our people have taken an increasing interest in events in the Far East. 493 494 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Our Interest in the Far East ers of poetry, literature, and Chi- T i TT TI/ i j nese history. China was indeed a Leads Us Westward across great and ci ;. ilized nation . the Pacific .......... Millions of people lived in China. Sea captains were quick to see that Our sea captains open up new mar- if arrangements could be made to kets in the Far East. From the early enter this market a rich trade would days of our Republic, Yankee sea flourish. But there were two prob- captains followed the route of the lems that bothered foreigners. First, Empress of China. Within a year trade could be conducted at only a five ships were on their way to Can- single port and through special ton, while within five years 14 ships Chinese trading merchants. Second, were engaged in the China trade. Chinese laws in regard to foreigners From the thriving seaport towns of were very strict. There were many Salem, Boston, New York, and Phil- instances in which foreigners were adelphia, other tiny ships went cruelly punished. south to Cape Horn in South Amer- In the 1840's we made our first ica, then northward along the treaty with China. The treaty shores of the American continents opened up selected seaports to our to the Oregon country. They loaded trade. It also gave Americans the their boats with furs and continued right to be tried before a special on to Canton (see map, page 495), court in China under United States returning to America with spices, laws, and not under Chinese laws. tea, silk, and porcelains. Later treaties opened other cities At first China did not welcome to trade and gave missionaries the foreigners to her land. The Chinese right to establish and maintain mis- were proud of their great civiliza- sions throughout China. The fruits tion and did not want to bother of the voyage of the Empress of with the "barbarians" from Europe China were beginning to ripen. and America. China had a right to feel proud. She had the oldest con- Commodore Perry introduces Ja- tinuous history of any nation in the pan to the outside world. Stretching world. Up to 1 800, China had given for more than 1 ,000 miles along the the western world far more than east coast of Asia were the secluded she had received. islands of Japan. Japan was discov- We are indebted to the Chinese ered by Europeans in the 1500's. for the discovery of the arts of mak- For nearly 100 years traders and ing silk, porcelain dishes, paper, missionaries from Portugal, Spain, gunpowder, and lacquer. They also Holland, and Britain visited the is- knew the secrets of many plants for lands. Suddenly the Japanese rulers medicines, the use of the compass, decided to drive out all foreigners. and how to print with movable For 200 years Japan was closed to type. They were masters of the arts the rest of the world. of decoration and the arrangement At this time, Japan was divided of flowers. Their scholars were writ- into clans and classes much as Eu- THE FAR EAST IX THE 186O's Scale of Miles o aoo 4 496 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY rope had been in the days of serfs, knights, and nobles. The clans were constantly fighting with one an- other until finally three of the most powerful gained control and united the country. Ill feeling between the clans died out. The Japanese turned from fighting to work, and to the development of their family and social life. Once more their arts and literature flourished. Still, they were determined not to mix with other people in the world. In the early 1800's American fish- ermen and whalers were active in the north Pacific. Ships bound from San Francisco to China passed not far from Japanese shores. Ship- wrecked sailors who landed on the islands were badly treated. Many never saw the outside world again. Attempts to enter ports for water, supplies, or trade were met with warning shots. Shipping and fishing interests pressed our government for action. Finally, President Fillmore in- structed Commodore Matthew C. Perry to take a small naval force to Japan and seek a treaty of friend- ship. Perry's smoking warships astounded the Japanese when they appeared in Tokyo's bay (see map, page 495). Perry left his message and sailed to China. The following spring he returned and after six weeks of discussion he obtained a treaty. The United States secured the right to stop at two ports for sup- plies of wood, coal, water, and other necessities. Shipwrecked sailors who landed on Japanese coasts were to be treated kindly until they could be taken away. Japan soon made similar treaties with European pow- ers. In later years we gained new privileges for trade. Japan had opened her doors. Japan made a complete turn- about in her relations. She sent her young men to European and Ameri- can schools. She adopted western ways of manufacturing and trade. She built a modern army and navy, using advice of foreign experts in those fields. Japan's modernization has been among the fastest of any nation in the world. Our flag moves across the Pacific. Roving sailors from the United States had long known of tiny is- lands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. At the crossroads lay the Hawaiian Islands, inhabited by a cheerful and intelligent brown- skinned people. American mission- aries, fishers, whalers, and business men were well established on the Hawaiians by the 1850's. We made important trade treaties and se- cured control of Pearl Harbor for a naval base, the finest in the Pa- cific. As the years went by, the original Hawaiian people either died out or married immigrants. Sugar planta- tions rapidly replaced the whaling and fishing fleets in business impor- tance. The business interests, con- trolled by Americans, arranged to overthrow a new Hawaiian queen and established a republic. A com- mittee immediately petitioned the United States to annex the islands. At first the petition was denied. Finally, while we were engaged in the Spanish-American War, busi- ness and naval interests pushed 498 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY President McKinley for action. He Under our Flag the Filipinos consented to a treaty by which we T ,1 TT/ /-j^ annexed the Hawaiian islands in Learn the Ways of Democracy 1898. Our flag had moved a long distance across .the Pacific Ocean, By slow steps we lead the Filipinos as the map on page 497 shows. toward self-government. When Almost immediately we took an- American troops occupied the other giant step that crossed the Philippines they found a people Pacific. You remember that Ameri- who had no intention of becoming cans were surprised to learn that we a part of the United States. They secured the Philippine Islands at said they were free and that Spain the close of the Spanish-American had no right to sell them. A revolt War. Few people knew about the promptly broke out against occupa- islands, but in the 1890's business tion by our forces. It took two years men began to plan to tap the mar- of guerilla fighting in tropical hills kets of Asia. Great changes were to put down the revolt, rapidly taking place in Asia. Ja- Even before the revolt was pan defeated China in a war and crushed, President McKinley ap- was a rising power in the Far East, pointed a commission of five Amer- Russia, Great Britain, and Ger- icans later adding three Filipinos many were also making demands on to establish a sound government. China that threatened to shut out The commission made laws, or- United States trade. The possession ganized the government of towns of the Philippines would guard our and provinces and set things in interests in the Far East. We took order. It began constructing roads, the islands, placing our flag 6,000 A bureau of health took steps to miles from home on the front door- wipe out disease. Schools were or- steps of Asia. ganized. A sound system of money At different times we have was introduced. Lands were pur- planted our flag north and south chased from the church and made throughout the Pacific (see map, available to the people. All of this page 497). The purchase of Alaska was under the supervision of ex- gave us the Aleutian Islands that perts from the United States, extend across the north Pacific. We Soon, however, the Filipinos de- secured Midway Island at about the manded home rule. Four definite same time. At the close of the 1800's steps were taken within 15 years to we secured Guam from Spain. We prepare them for self-government, also added Wake Island. Far to die First, the Filipinos were permitted south the Samoaii Islands secured to elect a house of representatives for us naval and cable stations. In that was to share in making laws for the 1930's more island bases were the islands. The second step in- added to improve air transportation creased the number of Filipinos on across the vast distances of the Pa- the commission so that it was con- cific. Thus, step by step our flag has trolled by them, rather than by moved westward across the Pacific. Americans. Also, Filipinos replaced INCREASING INTEREST IN FAR EAST 499 many of the American experts in the government. Third, we arranged to develop the trade and agriculture of the is- lands. Tariff duties were removed from Filipino goods so that they had a ready market in the United States. American goods were like- wise admitted to the Philippines without a tax. The fourth step came in 1916 when Congress passed the Jones Act. This act declared that it was the intention of the United States to withdraw its control over the is- lands as soon as the people were capable of self-government. The act also set up a constitution for the Philippine government. Under the constitution, Filipinos elected a house of representatives and a senate that passed the laws governing the islands. The United States continued to appoint a gov- ernor-general who had the right to veto the acts of this legislature. However, he seldom used this power. Most of the government po- sitions were in the hands of Fili- pinos. At last the Filipinos had home rule. The Filipinos earn the right to be free. The Jones Act was passed un- der the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson and the Demo- cratic party. As long as this party remained in power, the Filipinos had home rule. However, they wanted complete independence. Many responsible officials declared that they should have it. The Democratic party was swept out of office by the Republican vic- tories of the early 1920's. The Re- publicans were not in favor of re- leasing control of the islands. In fact, they reversed the earlier poli- cies of our government. .Charging the Filipinos had made serious blunders in their affairs, our gov- ernment once more placed them under strict supervision. The Fili- pinos objected. They even re- quested that the new Republican- appointed governor-general be withdrawn. The Filipinos presented argu- ment after argument showing that they were capable of self-govern- ment. Yet they were denied moves that would grant them independ- ence. It was not until 1934 that Congress passed the Philippine In- dependence Act. This act provided that for ten years the islands would be self-gov- erning under our protection. The Filipinos were to draft a new con- stitution and establish a govern- ment under it. Their first president, Manuel Quezon, was inaugurated in 1935. Complete independence was to be granted in 1946. The Japanese attacked the Phil- ippines on the same day they at- tacked Pearl Harbor. The com- bined American-Filipino armies were under the command of Gen- eral Douglas MacArthur. Side by side the two armies fought the in- vading Japanese for four months. Records reveal that the Filipinos fought well. One reason for their excellent spirit was their faith that we would fulfill our promise of in- dependence. They knew perfectly well that they would not be free under Japan. The Philippine government was 500 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY recognized as one of the United Na- tions during the Second World War. Regiments of Filipinos, trained in the United States, en- tered the fight to free their country from Japan. The record is clear. Recognizing the spirit of the cou- rageous Filipinos, President Roose- velt asked Congress to advance the date of independence so that it would come soon after the end of the war. We Propose the "Open Door 11 Policy as the First Step in Giving China a Square Deal The Open Door Policy tries to guarantee equal trading opportu- nities to all nations. The possession of the Philippines in the late 1890's placed the United States squarely on the front doorsteps of Asia. For some years we had been only mildly concerned about Oriental affairs, but now we took a new interest, es- pecially in China. It appeared that foreign powers were dividing China's trade and re- sources. This was done in three ways. First, we secured special rights to trade at selected seaports. This privilege was granted first to Great Britain and then to other powers until scarcely a port remained that China could call her own. The second method was to get a concession. A concession was a special right to develop mines and resources of China. Usually a coun- try would "rent" a mine for 99 years, during which time it would have the sole right to develop the property. It might also secure special privileges to build a railroad or to construct buildings. On all of these undertakings, business men hoped to make a good profit, while their governments gained more con- trol over China. Third, China was divided by war. Great Britain forced China to give up Burma. France forced her to give up Indo-China. Japan had secured Korea and several islands. It looked as though China's 400 million customers might be lost to . American business interests if ac- tion was not taken soon. Great Britain was equally con- cerned for her future in China. She had more investments there than any other nation, yet she was afraid that other countries might unite and turn against her. One of her experts on China visited the United States. He explained the situation and suggested that we take steps to see that trade be kept open to all countries. American business interests also wanted to keep China open to our trade. Her millions of people of- fered great possibilities as a market for our manufactured goods. Ac- cordingly, Secretary of State John Hay sent letters in 1899 to each one of the foreign powers in- terested in China. He asked that each country grant to other nations equal opportunities to trade and business rights in its areas of special interests. That is, everybody was to have an equal chance to get China's trade and to develop her resources. China's doors were to be open to all. INCREASING INTEREST IN FAR EAST Chinese students mix with those from other countries at the International House dis- cussion groups in New York City. Selected Chinese students are sent to our country each year on funds from the 18 million dollars that we returned to China when she overpaid us for damages in the Boxer Rebellion. (Fritz Henle, from Monkmeyer) While all replies were not en- tirely favorable, Secretary Hay bluffed and informed the nations that their answers were satisfactory. From then on, he said, the Open Door Policy was in effect. Thus goes to John Hay the credit for laying another cornerstone in our foreign policy. It meant equal opportunity for all nations to trade in China, special rights for none, and a square deal for China and for us. "China for the Chinese" becomes the motto of her people. Foreign powers were able to secure special rights in China because she was un- able to defend herself. China was not a united land. She had no means of rapid transportation. In- stead of one language, there were many. The mass of the people were uneducated. Northern China had a different outlook on life from southern China. Furthermore, the government of the old Manchu monarchy was challenged by a ris- ing group in favor of democracy. Among the many groups were the Boxers, so-called because of their Chinese name Fists of Righteous Harmony. The Boxers carried flags and banners that read "The Gods assist us to destroy all foreigners." They said that the foreigners aimed at dividing China among them- selves. In 1900 the Boxers trapped mis- sionaries and foreign representa- tives in their quarters at Peking (Peiping). Surrounded on all sides, this small group held out for two months. Finally, an international army arrived to defeat the Boxers. It was one of the most cruel and bitter battles ever fought. 502 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The foreign governments im- These were two long steps toward a posed a stern penalty on China, square deal, but "China for the Leaders in the Boxer movement Chinese" continued to be the motto were put to death. China had to of a great people, pay 320 million dollars in damages. Foreign military forces were to be allowed in China. Chinese forts T /-/ ,i s\ j^ were destroyed and no Chinese Ja P an CloSeS ttlf P en Do0r could belong to an anti-foreign so- ciety. The United States returned Japan becomes the leading power part of its share of the money for in the Far East. Across the coastal damages. China used it to build seas, Japan pursued an entirely dif- schools and establish scholarships ferent course from that of China, for 100 Chinese to study in the Fifty years after Perry's visit, Japan United States each year. had changed from an almost un- At the height of the Boxer trou- known land to a leading world bles, the United States became power. Thoroughly united, her alarmed that the presence of foreign growing population developed a soldiers on China's soil might be feeling that they were entitled to the signal to attempt to divide the leadership in the Far East. They country among foreign powers, believed the rest of the world Again John Hay sent a letter to the looked down upon them. They re- countries concerned. He said that sented that. it was the policy of the United Japan copied western ways all too States to see that no lands were well. In the 1890's she fought and taken from China. Other countries defeated China. The victory gave followed our lead and agreed to re- her new possessions and increased spect China's territory. This helped rights in China. Within another ten to keep China for the Chinese. years she fought a war with Russia The next 40 years were difficult and defeated her. Japan gained new for China. The old monarchy was rights in Manchuria, but of greater followed by a republic, founded by importance she gained confidence. Dr. Sun Yat-sen. While some unity She had met a European power and came to China under Chiang Kai- singlehandedly defeated her. shek in the 1930's, party strife still The results of this victory kin- goes on. The Chinese have contin- died in the hearts of the Japanese ued to struggle to keep the country a flaming desire to get western na- whole and to get rid of special priv- tions out of the Orient. "Asia for ileges granted to foreigners. the Asiatics," they said. To the out- Soviet Russia paved the way in side world it was clear that the the 1 920's by agreeing to give up greatest threats to Far Eastern peace her special privileges. In the Second came from Japan. World War both the United States During the First World War Ja- and Great Britain agreed to aban- pan continued to pick up strength, don many of their special rights. She seized German possessions on INCREASING INTEREST IN FAR EAST 503 the Shantung Peninsula in China, Japan tries to extend her control and gained the right to supervise over eastern Asia. Public opinion many of the former German island in the United States was quite fa- possessions in the Pacific. Also, vorable to Japan for a number of while the rest of the world was years. After the terrible earthquake turned toward the war in Europe, and fires of 1923, our people sent she presented China with the fa- large sums of money and goods to mous 2 1 demands. Acceptance of all the Japanese to care for their home- these would have made China a less and suffering. All seemed quiet Japanese colony. While China gave in the Far East, in to some of the demands, her ap- A number of events changed the peal to the United States and other picture. First, the Chinese contin- powers saved her from the others. ued their struggle for unity. They The rise of Japan increased the demanded that foreign powers give rivalry for control of the Far East, up their special privileges. Japan In the early 1920's a program by neither wished China to be strong, the United States, Great Britain, nor did she intend to give up her and Japan to enlarge their navies interests there. Second, a world- and naval bases created even more wide depression severely hit Japa- suspicion. The United States called nese foreign trade. She must export a meeting at Washington of the or die. Unable to increase suffi- nine powers interested in the Far ciently her exports to European or East. Among the agreements an- American markets, Japan tried to nounced in early 1922, four are of seize those near at home. Third, interest to us here. the army and navy gained control First, the United States, Great of the Japanese government. Their Britain, and Japan agreed to limit aim was to conquer eastern Asia, the size of their navies. Second, no Japan's invasion of Manchuria new naval bases or fortifications in 1931 marked the beginning of were to be built in the Pacific Is- a "new order" in Asia. It was a step lands except at Hawaii, Australia, designed to give her control of the and New Zealand. We could not Far East. The Japanese quickly de- fortify Guam or the Philippines, feated the Chinese and established nor could Japan fortify her newly the new country of Manchukuo. acquired islands. Third, foreign They placed on the throne a Chi- powers, including Japan, recog- nese who was nothing but a puppet nized the Open Door in China and working for Japan. Within four agreed to respect China's territory, short years, Japan was master of a Finally, Japan made a treaty by land as large as Spain and France which she returned the former Ger- combined. man possessions at Shantung to But Manchukuo was not enough. China. This conference eased the Japan was determined to control all feeling in the Orient and for a time of China. Her ambassador said that all was well. Japan turned to devel- "Japan must act and decide alone opment of her trade and industries, what is good for China." There- INCREASING INTEREST IN FAR EAST 505 after Japan began to enlarge her many strong protests. Sometimes navy. Then she invaded and es- we acted alone, but again we tablished puppet governments in worked with Great Britain and five of China's northern provinces other powers. Most of the protests (see map, page 504). Then she were politely answered, but nothing joined with Germany and Italy to happened. form the Axis powers. In 1937 the The Japanese were determined Japanese again poured troops into to manage the trade and industries northern China, marking what of eastern Asia. When they occu- some consider the start of the Sec- pied a region, they drove out other ond World War. Within two years foreign interests and set up their she controlled northern China and own. They slammed shut the Open most of the coastal areas. Later, she Door. Our interest in the Far East seized Indo-China from France. had run up against the "new order" Throughout all of these threats for eastern Asia which seemed to and seizures the United States made say, "Asia for the Japanese." WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show how each of the following terms is necessary to an understanding of our relations with the Far East. 1. home rule 3. the Boxers 5. special rights in China 2. concession 4. Open Door Policy 6. "new order" in Asia WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1898: What additions to our territory did the United States make in this year? 1899: What important policy was announced in this year that applied to China? 1931: What events in the Far East were a direct challenge to our policies there? 1934: Why is this date of great importance to the Filipinos? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Describe how our early traders exchanged goods with the Chinese. On the map on page 495 locate Canton. 2. What evidence is there to show that "Up to 1800, China had given the western world far more than she had received"? 3. What two rights did we gain in our first treaty with China? Was this treaty made before or after Jackson's time? 4. Describe how Perry "opened up" Japan. What changes in policies did Japan make after his visit? 5. Tell how we secured Hawaii. From your text and the map on page 497, list other possessions that we have obtained in the Pacific area. 6. What steps did we take to give the Filipinos training in self-government? When will they have complete independence? 5o6 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 7. Show the three ways in which foreign powers were dividing up China's re- sources and trade. 8. What was the Open Door Policy, and how did John Hay promote it? 9. What was the program of the Boxers? What step did Hay take to help the Chinese after the Boxer Rebellion? 10. Why was it necessary for the Chinese to adopt the motto "China for the Chinese"? 1 1 . What is Japan's policy of "Asia for the Asiatics"? What has she done to carry out this policy? 12. What were the terms of the Washington agreement reached in the early 1920's between the United States, Japan, Great Britain, and other powers interested in the Pacific? 1 3. How has Japan tried to close the Open Door? 14. Summary Question: What have been oxir policies in regard to the Far East? Chapter 30. Step by Step We Begin to Take Our Place in the Affairs of the World . . . . Did you know that a learned New England blacksmith led the fight for world peace? Connecticut- born Elihu Burritt early learned the blacksmith's trade. While his strong skilled hands made tools at the forge and anvil, his alert mind explored ideas in such varied languages as Hebrew, Polish, German, and French. In fact, he mastered some 60 languages in his lifetime, although he had but a few months of schooling. He left his native state to seek work and more education in Massachu- setts. He was offered a chance to study at Harvard but he did not accept. To his earnings from the forge he added more as a lecturer. While prepar- ing a lecture on "the anatomy of the earth" he suddenly had an idea. If nature with its great varieties of climate, land, and plants could live together in harmony, why couldn't the peoples of different nations get along without war? He made up his mind to work for world peace. His first step was to use his meager earnings to publish a weekly paper. Week after week his articles urged nations to co-operate for peace. His paper had an influence far beyond its size, for it fell into the hands of editors, ministers, and educators. Not content to work in America alone, Burritt in the 1840' s sailed to Europe where he traveled widely, everywhere working for the cause of greater international co-operation and peace. He even urged the workers of the world to strike against war. Elihu Burritt represents a spirit that throbs in. most American hearts. The United States has long been the home of movements that worked for peace. While many urged that the United States government take an ac- tive lead in promoting international co-operation, there have been those who have opposed its taking such a lead. Yet, slowly but surely, the people of the United States have wanted our government to do its share in co-operating to keep peace throughout the world. 507 5 o8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY esE- 1 - "All Drawing Against His Account" is the title of this cartoon by Brown in the Chicago Daily News. This cartoon appearing in the 1920's shows how wars eat up the earnings of the workers who must pay taxes to support large armies, navies and air corps. We Early Stand for the Ideal of World Peace The cruelty and waste of war lead us to work for peace. Men have fought wars since the dawn of his- tory, but in recent years war has become more and more destructive. The costs of the First World War were so staggering that they are al- most unbelievable, as the estimate of one authority shows. "The total cost of the First World War to all nations was $400,000,- 000,000. This is equal to the na- tional wealth of the United States in 1929. These billions of dollars would have built a $2,500 house, furnished it with $1,000 worth of furniture, and placed it on five acres of land for every family in the United States, France, Belgium, Germany, Russia, the British Isles, Canada and Australia. In addition, these billions could have given each city of 100,000 inhabitants in the countries named a $5,000,000 li- brary and a $10,000,000 university. In addition, it could have provided a staff of 125,000 teachers and 125,- 000 nurses, with a salary of $1,000 for all time to come. In addition, it could have bought up all farms, homes, factories, railroads, street cars, and other things of value in France and Belgium." To this enormous bill must be added 30 million lives. Many thoughtful people have felt that if we do not destroy war, war will destroy us. The United States has long stood for peaceful settlement of disputes between na- tions. In Washington's time we agreed in a treaty with Great Brit- ain to refer certain disputes not settled by treaty to an arbitration committee. A red-letter year in our history was 1817 when we also agreed with Britain not to fortify our boundary with Canada, an agreement that has lasted for more than 125 years. WE TAKE OUR PLACE IN WORLD 509 As the story of Elihu Burritt from Chapter 27 that most disputes shows, the United States has been between nations are settled through the home of great peace move- ambassadors and other diplomatic ments. Beginning in the early officers. Further, you recall that the 1800's various groups organized to United States began to take part in promote peace. These groups joined an increasing number of interna- to form the American Peace So- tional conferences, ciety. This and other organizations Among the results of these con- kept a steady flow of articles and ferences was the agreement by na- materials urging greater interna- tions to settle more of their disputes tional co-operation. Their efforts by arbitration. There are three bore fruit. The United States, along main features to arbitration. First, with other nations, began to sign nations at dispute select their own arbitration treaties treaties by judges. Second, the dispute is set- which we promised to submit cer- tied according to international law. tain disputes to a committee of ex- Third, the nations must accept the pert judges in international law. decision of the arbitration commit- Another step toward interna- tee. Many countries will not agree tional co-operation was made at two to submit all disputes to arbitra- conferences held during the Presi- tion, but the peoples of the world dencies of McKinley and Theodore are coming to have more faith in Roosevelt at The Hague, the Neth- this method of settling troubles, erlands. The first conference estab- The United States has taken the lished a Permanent Court of Arbi- lead in the use of arbitration. The tration which consisted of a list of case of the Pribilof Islands will judges. If two nations had a dispute, show how we resorted to arbitra- they could select from this list three tion to settle an important diffi- to five judges to hear the case. The culty. The Pribilof Islands are United States and Mexico were the breeding grounds of seals and are first nations to use the Court, and a located in the Bering Sea, off the famous American, Andrew Car- coast of Alaska. Seals were not sup- negie, gave money to build The posed to be killed while swimming Hague Palace of Peace which was or floating in water. However, the the Court's headquarters. high price of seal-skin coats made it profitable for Canadians on schoon- Nations settle many disputes ers to kill large numbers of seals around the conference table, just outside the islands. The United The meetings at The Hague gave States revenue cutters seized several new support to the idea that na- of these ships, tions could settle even the most The Canadians were angry, serious of their disputes without Through the mother country, Great going to war. More and more Britain, they lodged vigorous pro- the nations of the world were turn- tests with our government. There ing to the conference table rather was even talk of war. Finally both than to the sword. You remember sides agreed to arbitrate the case. U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Hague Palace of Peace was the gift of Andrew Carnegie. It was built to house the Permanent Court of Arbitration created by the Hague conference of 1899. Carnegie, like many other Americans, was interested in promoting peace. In addition to putting up this building he set aside large sums of money to study causes of war. (International) Great Britain and the United States selected seven judges who met in Paris, and listened to evidence. The arbitration commission said that the United States was wrong because we had seized the ships while on the high seas. We had to pay damages. Further, the commission made sug- gestions for new rules designed to save the seals. Thus men around a conference table had settled a diffi- cult case in a peaceful manner. Many other cases were settled by arbitration, yet greater progress was prevented by the Senate. President Taft attempted to arrange treaties with France and Great Britain, pro- viding for the arbitration of nearly all disputes that might arise be- tween our country and theirs. The United States Senate, feeling that its power in foreign affairs was threatened, objected and failed to approve the treaties. Said Presi- dent Taft: "We must begin all over again." That task was left to an- other man, Woodrow Wilson. Out of the First World War Come the League of Nations and the World Court ... . Woodrow Wilson, statesman, goes to Paris to fight for world peace. The man who proposed to take the United States farther along the path of world co-operation was Woodrow Wilson. Born in Vir- WE TAKE OUR PLACE IN WORLD 511 ginia of strict, well-educated par- pared lectures and intimate talks ents, he was named Thomas Wood- inspired Princeton students with row Wilson. The Wilson family the ideals of democracy as well as moved to Georgia and later to the practical workings of politics. North Carolina. Among his earliest FROM COLLEGE PROFESSOR TO A memories was the cry: "Lincoln is WAR PRESIDENT. Wilson's next step elected and there will be war." in leadership was as president of Tommy knew the South well and the college, a position he held for learned at first hand the troubles eight years. To Wilson's mind, the faced by that region after the War students spent too much time at so- Between the States. cial clubs that were snobbish and Shy, rather frail, he enjoyed the too little at the serious business of hours spent with his father. The education. Wilson worked hard to gifted parson shared his experiences make the college and its social life and wisdom with his son. From him more democratic. He succeeded in Tommy learned clear cold think- many ways, but on many projects he ing. He did not learn to read until was opposed by wealthy men who he was nine, but once he learned he influenced university affairs, read constantly. In 1910 New Jersey was ripe for At 16 Tommy started college in important political changes. The North Carolina, but illness forced Democratic party had a good chance him to return home. Two years to win the governorship if it could later he entered Princeton College secure an able candidate. Wilson in New Jersey. He was an excellent was persuaded to run for the office, student in history and government, Resigning as president of Prince- but he did not care for mathematics ton, he gave his full time to the cam- and science. Tommy was an out- paign for governorship. Through- standing debater in days when de- out his campaign he urged many re- bating teams were more important forms to make New Jersey a bet- than football teams. ter example of democracy. His He also liked to write. Not only election as governor carried him did he edit the weekly paper at the up another rung on the ladder of college, but he prepared an article public leadership, comparing our government with Two years later came the great the British government. It was pub- presidential election of 1912. The lished in a national magazine. It task of the Democrats was to select a was as an author that he decided to strong candidate. In spirited coin- drop his first name and adopted the petition with three other men, Wil- practice of signing "Woodrow Wil- son was finally nominated as the son." Democratic candidate on the 46th After marrying he became a col- ballot. You already know the story lege professor. He taught at two of his election and of his work as a colleges before Princeton called great liberal President who led the him back to teach history and poli- nation forward along the path of tics. For 12 years his carefully pre- democracy. Woodrow Wilson as President championed many reforms under a banner called the New Freedom. The First World War made him a student of foreign affairs. He be- lieved there must be some kind of a world organization, and he was bitterly disap- pointed when his country failed to accept membership in the League of Nations. Of this defeat he said: "I would rather lose in a cause that will some day win, than win in a cause that will some day lose." (Harris & Ewing) WE TAKE OUR PLACE IN WORLD 513 The First World War brought tremendous problems to Wilson. He was bothered by the propa- ganda of both the Allied and Cen- tral Powers. The German subma- rine warfare caused many of our people to rise in angry protest, de- manding war. Wilson tried des- perately hard to keep our nation at peace, but without success. PRESIDENT WILSON FIGHTS FOR WORLD CO-OPERATION. Wilson be- lieved in international co-opera- tion. Even before the war broke out, his Secretary of State under- took to get nations to sign "cooling- off" treaties. Countries which signed these agreements promised to submit their disputes to a com- mission for settlement. They agreed not to go to war for at least a year. This would give "hot heads" time to cool off. From the outbreak of the war Wilson determined to work for a "peace without victory." He did not want the bitterness of defeat to be the seed of another war. He set be- fore Congress his peace plans in a message in 1918. He proposed Four- teen Points as the framework around which leaders could arrange a just peace. Most important was the four- teenth point in which President Wilson urged that a league of na- tions be formed to have power to settle differences among all nations. Wilson's message reached millions of people outside of the United States. It raised their hopes that after the war a better world would result and that the United States would help to build it. Germany asked for a peace, using the Four- teen Points as the basis on which order should be restored. War ceased and a great peace conference was called. President Wilson, now a world statesman, worked for what he be- lieved to be the best interests of all nations. Gathering a host of ad- visers, he sailed to Europe for the coming conference. While the ex- perts went to Paris, the seat of the conference, Wilson made a tour over parts of Europe telling the peo- ple of his plans. Disappointed in their own leaders, the common peo- ple rallied behind his ideas. But this was dangerous business. Presi- dent Wilson was preaching democ- racy and co-operation in a Europe that still believed in monarchies. At the conference table it was difficult for the President to keep alive his ideas for world co-opera- tion. Secret treaties and promises made before the war came to light. Still he insisted, though he was forced to compromise many times. Finally, the conference completed a treaty of peace and drafted a charter for the League of Nations. Wilson's tireless efforts were re- warded. Before the entire gathering of delegates he quietly yet proudly read the text of the Covenant (char- ter) of the League of Nations. Peo- ple hoped that through this organi- zation the world would co-operate to keep world peace. A United States President stood at the top of the ladder of world leadership. The League of Nations and the World Court are experiments in world co-operation. What was the League of Nations as proposed at 54 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The "Big Four" at the Paris peace conference. From left to right they are Premiers Lloyd George from Great Britain, Vittorio Orlando from Italy, Georges Clemenceau from France, and President Woodrow Wilson. The major decisions at this peace con- ference were made by these four men. (Brown Brothers) the peace conference? It was an or- ganization made up of delegates from the different nations of the world. The League was to have power to investigate any dispute that threatened the peace of the world. The chart on page 515 shows that the machinery of the League consisted of four bodies. First, the Assembly was made up of delegates from every country that was a member of the League. Each nation was entitled to have three delegates chosen by the head of the country which they represented. Although each country might have three delegates, it had but one vote. At one time or another 63 out of the 65 or more independent na- tions of the world have been mem- bers. The Assembly met once a year nnd voted the budget. It had power to consider almost any mat- ter that a nation might wish to bring to its attention. Second, the Council was the steering committee of the League. It consisted of five permanent mem- bers and four rotating members. Membership rules of the Council changed several times, but the idea that the great powers should have permanent seats while lesser powers should rotate remained. The Coun- cil met at least once a year. Spe- cial sessions could also be called. The Council has investigated many disputes between nations. It has set- tled many peaceably, while with others it has not been so successful. Third, the Secretariat consisted of a regular staff of full-time work- WE TAKE OUR PLACE IN WORLD 55 LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND WORLD COURT World Court International Labor Office MEMBER GOVERNMENTS OF LEAGUE .ASSEMBLY SECRETARIAT T COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSIT HEALTH 1 ECONOMICS AND FINANCE TECHNICAL ORGANIZATIONS ers. The Secretariat has many di- visions, each of which has a group of experts who gather facts and opinions about special fields. Be- fore the Second World War the Secretariat employed about 700 people. The home of the League was at Geneva, Switzerland. Fourth and separate from the League of Nations was the Perma- nent Court of International Jus- tice or the World Court. Its head- quarters are at The Hague, the Netherlands. The Court was made up of 15 judges selected by the League, each of whom served a nine-year term. The Court handled legal disputes between nations, though no nation could be com- pelled to submit a case to it. On re- quest, the Court gave advice in cer- tain disputes which the Council and the Assembly might be considering. The League of Nations and the World Court, spending less per year than the cost of a destroyer, represented the greatest forward stride toward peace up to that time. Some of the "founding fathers" of the League and the Court lived to see them settle serious disputes and serve as a powerful agency for world peace. We Reject Wilson's Plans bat Nevertheless Co-operate in World Affairs . . . .... . Suspicious Senators turn a deaf ear to the advice of our President. With the treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations tucked safely in 516 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY his baggage, President Wilson re- vote. The Republicans controlled turned to America confident of vie- the Senate by a small majority, tory. The country in the spring of When President Wilson placed the 1919 seemed willing and ready to treaty before the Senate it was im- accept both the treaty and the mediately referred to the Commit- League. Yet, within a year, the Sen- tee on Foreign Relations. The ate of the United States refused to chairman was Henry Cabot Lodge, ratify Wilson's plans. Why was ardent Republican and bitter foe there this change in feeling? of Wilson. First, there was a bitter fight to Senator Lodge and his friends win the coming presidential elec- quickly set about defeating the tion. Republicans, seven years out treaty by suggesting changes. Presi- of office, seized every possible dent Wilson resolved to stir the chance to poke holes in and make people of the country against these light of the President's achieve- changes. He made a speaking tour ments. Second, there was a bitter of the nation during which he was feeling between some of the high taken critically ill. Bed-ridden, he ranking Republicans and the Presi- was no longer able to take the issue dent. In making up the peace com- to the people, while the Senators mission to go to Paris, Wilson had used every possible means to keep ignored men who expected to be their views before the public, included. For these and other rea- Finally in the spring of 1920 sons Senators Lodge, Johnson, and came the vote in the Senate. Forty- Borah began a campaign to dis- nine Senators voted to ratify the credit the treaty of peace and the treaty and the League, while 35 League of Nations. They said that voted against them. The treaty and their acceptance would involve the League were dead as far as the United States in Europe's quarrels. United States was concerned. They Third, when proposals were had failed of the necessary two- made by Republican Senators to thirds majority by seven votes, change the treaty, President Wilson stubbornly refused to consider Our Presidents see the need for them. To him it was the whole sending delegates to conferences on treaty or none. Finally, there was a world affairs. When the Republi- growing feeling that the war had cans swept the Democrats from brought the United States nothing power in 1920, they turned Amer- but debts, death, and ill will. Many ica again toward the path of isola- opponents said that Washington tion. The signs along this path read: and Jefferson were right. We must "Take no part in the affairs of the stay out of Europe's troubles and rest of the world." The low point attend to our own business at home, of the path was quickly reached The fight for the treaty and the when our Secretary of State refused League of Nations took place in the to answer letters from the League Senate, which, you remember, must of Nations. However, we soon dis- approve all treaties by a two-thirds covered that the path of isolation wa.- where would* ieen- tn 6. YotuC sUfr >itm out: TlflC Cor Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and A. Lawrence Lowell, President of Harvard University, debate our acceptance ot the League ot Nations. Senator Lodge, upper left, opposed the League, while President Lowell, upper right, supported the League. Over 3,000 people jammed Symphony Hall, Boston, to hear this famous three-hour discussion. Reporters came from foreign countries to cover it, especially for the attitudes expressed by Senator Lodge who was Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. (Pollier in the Boston Herald) 5 i8 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY contained many boulders and had many blocked passages. It seemed best to try a crossroad and join the path marked "To international co- operation." The first step along the crossroad came in 1922 when President Hard- ing sent unofficial observers to meetings called by the League. Un- official observers could listen and report back to Uncle Sam, but they could not take official action in con- ferences. Two years later we be- gan to appoint official delegates to many of the League's conferences. Within ten years we had taken part in more than 40 conferences and had actually joined in at least 13 international agreements started by the League. We often worked indirectly with the League. If the League wished to gain information from the United States, it would send a questionnaire to us. We returned it to Holland, who in turn handed it back to the League. A little later an American served on a League commission to settle a European boundary dispute. In the 1930's we promised that we would not take any action that would hinder the efforts of the League to punish Italy when she invaded Ethiopia. As the World Court piled up a record of useful service by making fair international decisions, many Americans felt that we should be- come members. Four Presidents and both major political parties urged us to join. Each time the Senate voted it down, but twice only seven votes short of the neces- sary two-thirds majority. Even so, many citizens praised the Court's work, and four of its judges have been from the United States. Our Presidents have also urged world co-operation by calling im- portant international conferences or sending delegates to them. We called a conference to deal with the affairs of the Pacific and to reduce the size of the world's great navies. The result was four important treaties that sank more battleships than an admiral had ever sunk. We joined France in an impor- tant treaty by which the two coun- tries agreed to "outlaw war." Over 60 nations later signed this treaty. We attended three European naval conferences and many conferences with Latin Americans. More and more the United States co-operated with other countries to work for world peace. Summary of the Unit .... In this unit "As the World Grows Smaller, the United States Realizes Its Duties as a Leader in World Affairs" we have seen how the United States took its place among the nations of the world. The main points of the unit are: 1. Our foreign affairs are con- ducted through the State Depart- ment. The Senate, too, has very im- portant powers because it must ap- prove all treaties by a two-thirds vote. 2. George Washington laid a cornerstone in our foreign policy when he advised us to remain neu- tral in Europe's wars and not to make alliances with European pow- ers. WE TAKE OUR PLACE IN WORLD 519 3. We were forced in 1812 and us the Philippines, the war ex- in 1917 to protect our rights as neu- tended American possessions across trals by use of force. the Pacific to the doorsteps of 4. We also thought it to our in- Asia. terest to keep European powers 8. We trained the Filipinos for from expanding in Latin America, self-government and promised them The Monroe Doctrine (1823) led their freedom soon after the close to several incidents, none of which of the Second World War. resulted in open war. 9. We proposed and secured re- 5. Our relations with our neigh- spect for the Open Door Policy bors have been improving. We have (1899) by which all nations were to never had a war with Canada, and have equal trading privileges in since 1817 our boundary has been China. unfortified. Until recently Latin 10. Japan has challenged the Americans have been cool to us, Open Door Policy by her policy of especially after the Panama affair "a new order in eastern Asia" which in the early 1900's. opened with the invasion of Man- 6. To improve our relations churia in 1931. with Latin America we adopted 11. Our people have always sup- under Franklin D. Roosevelt the ported the peace movement. While Good Neighbor Policy, an out- the hopes of President Wilson for growth of the earlier Pan-American United States membership in the meetings begun in 1889. League of Nations were shattered 7. The Spanish-American War by the Senate, later Presidents have of 1898 was important for two rea- co-operated with the League and sons. First, it carried us farther into other agencies working to maintain Latin America. Second, by giving world peace. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Show that you understand the following terms by explaining what they mean or relating them to some important event or organization in foreign affairs. 1. arbitration 4. covenant 7. the Secretariat 2. cooling-off treaties 5. the Assembly 8. unofficial observers 3. Fourteen Points 6. the Council 9. World Court WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1817: Why is this year especially important in our relations with Canada? 1918: What important proposal was made as a basis for establishing world peace at this time? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What proof can you give that war is an expensive method of settling international disputes? 520 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 2. How have the people of the United States felt about war? Before the First World War, what steps had our government taken toward the ideal of international co-operation? 3. Illustrate three features of international arbitration by using the Pribilof Islands' case. 4. What part of our government has been most opposed to entering into more arbitration treaties? Why? 5. What qualifications did Woodrow Wilson have for President of the United States? 6. Why could Woodrow Wilson rightfully be called a "world statesman"? 7. Name the three parts of the League of Nations, and describe the activities of each. 8. What is the World Court? What is its relationship to the League? 9. Explain why the United States did not join the League of Nations in 1920. 10. In what ways have the United States government of the citizens of our country promoted world co-operation? 11. Summary Question: To what extent has our government been willing to take part in international co-operation? Activities for Unit Nine CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Cartoon. Choose one of the following topics and make a cartoon to illus- trate the main ideas involved: (a) Two million soldiers go to Europe to fight for democratic ideals, (b) Jefferson and his embargo act. (c) We tack on the Platt Amendment, (d) We take the Panama Canal Zone, (e) The Good Neighbor or the Big Stick which? (f) China opens her ports, (g) Perry opens Japan, (h) Filipinos earn the right to be free, (i) Japan closes the Open Door, (j) Senators turn a deaf ear to Wilson's plans. 2. Chart. Enlarge the chart that shows the steps by which a treaty is made in the United States. Or enlarge the chart showing the organization of our diplomatic service. Under the words "Secretary of State" place the name of the person who holds this position. This and other names can be found in the World Almanac by looking under "U. S., government roster." 3. Poster. Make a poster that might have been used to start a war-loan drive in the First World War. Be sure to show why the boys were fighting. Or make a poster urging the United States to join the League of Nations. Or make a poster urging nations to settle their international disputes around the conference table, rather than go to war. 4. Map. On a map showing the Pacific Ocean locate the places that the United States claimed before the Second World War. Or on a map of the Carib- bean region show our possessions and places where Uncle Sam has acted as a policeman. 5. Booklet. Prepare an illustrated booklet called "Military History." This will contain the wars described in this unit. You should include maps showing the chief campaigns of each war. There should also be a list of the leaders on each side, a statement of the causes and of the results of the WE TAKE OUR PLACE IN WORLD 521 wars. Pictures could be added to make it more interesting, but do not destroy a good book to cut out a picture. I TEST MY SKILLS 6. Comparison and Contrast. It is often interesting to compare and contrast the policy of our government in two different areas. Cuba and the Philip- pines are both in the tropics. After carefully studying pages 479 to 481 and 488 as well as pages 498 to 500, answer the following questions: (a) How did each of these feel about Spanish rule? (b) To which did we give more home rule first? (c) On occupation of the islands, did we establish the same kind of government in both cases? (d) Did the United States make attempts to improve the lot of the natives in both cases? (c) Has Uncle Sam's word been equally good in both cases? 7. Using Figures. Figures are the basis for many statements. Show that you can use a table of figures by answering the questions below these two tables. FOREIGN TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES AVERAGE 1910-1914 Continent Exports To Imports From Total North America South America Europe Asia $ 501,095,000 121,028,000 1,350,300,000 121,042,000 $ 347,136,000 206,858,000 836,498,000 258,534,000 $ 848,231,000 327,886,000 2,186,798,000 379,576,000 Total $2,093,465,000 $1,649,026,000 $3,742,491,000 1939 North America South America Europe Asia $ 802,196,000 329,127,000 1,289,753,000 561,572,000 $ 580,630,000 317,267,000 617,166,000 699,582,000 $1,382,826,000 646,394,000 1,906,919,000 1,261,154,000 Total $2,982,648,000 $2,214,645,000 $5,197,293,000 (a) Did we export more before the First World War or in 1939? (b) Before the First World War with what continent did we trade the most? The least? (c) In 1939 was our trade with Europe in the thousands, millions, or billions of dollars? (d) With what continent or continents did our exports double in the second period over the first? Our imports? (e) From which continent did we import more than we exported in 1939? WE WORK IN GROUPS 8. Radio Play. Prepare a radio play of the life of Wilson. You will need a director, authors, sound effects engineer, as well as actors. We suggest four scenes: boyhood, professor, governor, President and world statesman. Re- view the biography in Chapter 30, as well as materials in Chapter 25 deal- ing with his work as President. We suggest that you select a committee of three to work out each of the four scenes separately. Finally, the director 522 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY with one member from each of these committees will work with the teacher to revise and put the finishing touches on the play. Select the cast, and arrange for at least two rehearsals. Put on as a radio play before the class or the school. It will not be necessary to memorize the parts. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 9. Panel Discussion. Let a panel of five discuss the topic "Does War Pay?" Divide the panel into four parts, one person acting as chairman. One member could deal with what the United States has gained by war and by peace. As a hint, what territories have we gained by war and what by peace? A second member could explain other methods of settling dis- putes. A third member could get estimates on the cost of wars including not only dollar costs, but lives as well. A fourth person could tell about the results of war, other than costs. Excellent additional materials can be found in Building America, III, "War or Peace"; V, "Can America Stay Neutral"; VII, "Total Defense" and "Training for National Defense." WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 10. To Get More Information. RUGG, HAROLD, America's March Toward Democracy. See chapter ix on the War of 1812; chapter xxii on the Spanish- American War; and chapter xxv, describing how we entered the First World War and what we did in it. BAILEY, T. A., "America's Foreign Policies: Past and Present." (Headline Books). A good account of our relations with Europe, Latin America, and the Far East. PAULMIER, H., AND SCHAUFFLER, R. H., Pan-American Day. Excellent col- lection of stories, verse, and articles relating to Pan-Americanism and the Good Neighbor Policy. STEWART, M. S. (ed.), Our Neighbors Across the Pacific. Chapters on China and Japan tell the story of these countries and their development through the centuries. Emphasis is on life today. SPENCER, CORNELIA, Made in China; The Story of China's Expression. A delightful account of China's gifts to world civilization. DULLES, F. R., "Behind the Open Door: The Story of American Far Eastern Relations." One of the best accounts of the problems in the Far East, especially as related to our Open Door Policy. FOLLETT, HELEN, Ocean Outposts. An attractive, well-illustrated book that gives the story of each of our island possessions in the Pacific. FINGER, C. J., Our Nairy: An Outline History for Young People. A story of Uncle Sam's navy and the part it has played in our history. 11. To Find Out Who's Who. MORGAN, JAMES, Our Presidents. Short biographies and highlights of the administrations of Presidents Madison, Monroe, Theodore Roosevelt, and Wilson can be found here. NICOLAY, HELEN, Boys' Life of Benjamin Franklin. An excellent story of one of America's most famous men. WE TAKE OUR PLACE IN WORLD 523 STEVENS, W. O., David Glasgow Farragut, Our First Admiral. An interest- ing biography of an early and great admiral who served from the War of 1812 through the War Between the States. FAST, HOWARD, Goethals and the Panama Canal. The story of how this great engineering project was carried out and the man who did it. PARKMAN, M. R., Fighters for Peace. Pages 229 to 257 tell the story of Gen- eral Pershing in the First World War. The lives of 11 other Allied leaders are also to be found in this book. JOHNSON, G. W., Woodrow Wilson. An excellent biography with many ex- cellent pictures. 12. To Read a Historical Story. EDMONDS, W. D., Tom W hippie. Tom ships aboard a vessel bound for Russia. He meets the Emperor and presents a gift brought from Mount Vernon. TONER, R. J., Midshipman Davy Jones. Davy Jones at 15 on the Constitu- tion took part in the fight with the Guerriere, and served under Perry un- til the end of the War of 1812. NORDHOFF, C. B., AND HALL, J. N., Falcons of France, A Tale of Youth and the Air. Adventures of an American youth in the Lafayette Flying Corps during the First World War. CROCHETT, L. H., Capitdn; The Story of an Army Mule. The story of a mule that saw service in Cuba, the Philippines, China, Mexico, and France. 13. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Building America: V, "Can America Stay Neutral"; VI, "America and Foreign Trade"; III, "War or Peace"; VII, "America's Outposts"; V, "Our Latin-American Neighbors"; VI, "Our Northern Neighbors." Pageant of America: IV, 23-38, our early trade with the Far East; VI, 288-326, the events in the War of 1812; VII, 182-207, facts about the Spanish-American War and the Boxer Rebellion; IX, 193-214, our war with Spain and the Open Door Policy, and 293-329, materials on the First World War and the League of Nations. WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 14. Time Line. This line will cover the period from 1790 to 1940. Select the main events listed under "Why Are These Red-Letter Years?" 15. Outline. This unit has developed our main foreign policies in respect to the various regions of the world. Under each of the following headings, give in outline form short statements that explain our policies under that topic, (a) Our Policies toward Europe, (b) Our Policies toward Latin America, (c) Our Policies toward the Far East, (d) Our Policies in Respect to International Co-operation. 16. Who's Who. Prepare a list of seven Presidents who have played a key part in determining our foreign policies. Under each President list the policies for which he was responsible. 524 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 17. Examples. Can you give an example of: (a) Our country being divided over which side to support in a European war? (b) A President seeking the ad- vice of earlier Presidents before making up his mind what policy to pursue? (c) The United States submitting a dispute to arbitration? (d) An unwise war? (e) Our interfering in the affairs of other nations? (f) Our working for international co-operation? (g) A President who failed to have the support of the Senate in getting a treaty ratified? 18. Language of History. Can you use each of the following terms correctly: ambassador, foreign minister, treaty, neutral, ratify, embargo, armistice, the Allies, the Central Powers, "new order in Asia," concession, arbitra- tion, covenant, the Assembly, the World Court, isolation, and interna- tional co-operation? 19. Using Symbols. Artists often find symbols better than words to put across ideas. Turn to the unit drawing on pages 458-59 and answer these ques- tions. What symbols are used to represent: (a) the United States, (b) war, (c) peace, and (d) justice? What invitation is being offered to Uncle Sam? Do you think he is ready to accept the invitation? Unit Ten A Rapidly Changing World Creates New Problems and Forces the Amer- icas to Look to the Future 31. The New Deal Seeks New Solutions to Long-standing Problems 32. The Americas Join the United Nations in Defense of Freedom 33. Living Together in Today's World Places New Respon- sibilities on All Nations Wars create more problems than they solve. Since the end of the First World War, the world has been one of trouble and confusion. The First World War left Europe a land of poverty and destruction. Instead of peace and happiness, came revolutions, dictators, and wars. Little wars finally developed into a Second World War. America thought it might escape all this. It did for a while during the prosperous 1920's. But the effects of the war finally helped to bring the greatest depression yet suffered by the American nation. Nor could America escape the effect of the Second World War. The world had be- come too small. Efforts to protect our own interests and to help the na- tions we believed in brought us into war. After Pearl Harbor we were part of a world conflict fighting for our way of life and our very existence. We were also fighting for a decent and peaceful future. It was a future which could only come by world planning and co-operation. ^ .'<%'*-*..-- %S>! c . w . *- *> ^ .^ *>' Chapter 3 1 . The New Deal Seeks New Solutions to Long-stand- ing Problems . . . . J . V A barometer, as everyone knows, is an instrument which indicates changes in the weather. People have long considered the stock market, located in the financial district of New York, as a barometer of business conditions. The stock market is a place where shares of stock, which represent ownership in industries, railroads, and other kinds of business, are bought and sold. When business is good, people want to buy stock and the price goes up. When business is poor, many owners sell and the price goes down. The price of stocks is a rough barometer of the prosperity of the country. During the 1920' s prices fairly boomed on the stock exchange. The sky was the limit. Many thought prosperity would last forever. But over- night the whole picture changed. On the fatal day of October 29, 1929, the boom collapsed. An account of that fateful day follows: "The big gong had hardly sounded in the great hall of the Exchange at ten o'clock Tuesday morning before the storm broke in full force. Huge blocks of stock were thrown upon the market for what they would bring. Not only were innumerable small traders being sold out, but big ones, too. Again and again the specialist in a stock would find himself surrounded by brokers fighting to sell and nobody at all even thinking of buying. The scene on the floor was chaotic. Within half an hour of the opening the volume of trading passed three million shares, by twelve o'clock it had passed eight million, by half-past one it had passed twelve million, and when the closing gong brought the day's madness to an end the gigantic record of 16,410,030 shares had been set." This hectic day marked the beginning of the great depression. But it was only the beginning. For almost four years prices of stock went down- ward as industry slowed up and unemployment increased. What the de- pression did to the country, and how the nation attempted to meet it under the New Deal will be told in this chapter. 528 NEW DEAL SEEKS SOLUTIONS 529 The Great Depression Brings s ods : some are unable to P 3 ? their TT 7 rwr i f\ n 7 debts and go out of business. As Hard Times to Our People dmes grow * vorse suffering is widc . spread. Our business life has its ups and During the years after the First downs. If you will look at the heavy World War the United States en- line on the chart on page 530, you joyed a period of great prosperity, will get a rough picture of the his- Jobs were plentiful and wages high, tory of American business. During Manufacturers enlarged their fac- the years when the line is up, the tories. Merchants did a good busi- United States enjoyed prosperity, ness. Money was easy to make. When the line is down, the nation Much of this prosperity was due to suffered from depression or hard the expanding automobile business times. You will also note that peri- and to the building of roads. But ods of prosperity are followed by the prosperity spread to many other periods of depression, and depres- types of business. The future looked sion by prosperity. bright indeed. Nothing could illustrate better Then suddenly, in 1929, the how business conditions contin- whole business world collapsed like ually change. The situation never a house of cards. Factories closed remains the same very long. When down. Over 13,000,000 workers lost business is active, jobs are plentiful, their jobs. People had little money Manufacturers and merchants make to buy from the merchants or to good profits, and the nation is pros- pay for the services of doctors and perous. When business is poor, the other professional men. Even the merchants sell fewer things, the fac- towns could hardly collect their tories produce less, and the worker taxes. The hopes of the 1920's often loses his job. These are the turned to despair, days of depression. Many different reasons are of- Joe Smith and his family feel the fered for this continual change, pinch of the great depression. Few Students of business agree, how- people feel a depression more ever, on one thing. When condi- quickly than the factory worker, tions are good and people have That is what Joe Smith found out. money, they are tempted to spend Joe was a skilled worker in a steel too freely. They often buy more mill. His wages were good enough than they can afford and borrow to to support his wife and three chil- spend more. Factories produce dren in reasonable comfort. He more goods and merchants stock up could afford a decent house, own an with products to meet the demand, automobile, and buy household Finally the consumer can buy no equipment for his wife. He could more. Then the factories slow down even manage to save a few dollars and lay off their workers. As unem- a week. ployment spreads, there is less mon- Joe Smith was a good workman ey to spend. Merchants sell fewer and he felt safe about the future. NEW DEAL SEEKS SOLUTIONS 53 EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT PERCENT 100 80 60 40 20 EMPLOYMENT UNEMPLOYMENT ill i i i i i i i i I i i i i I i 1920 Atlfrnano 1925 1930 1935 1940 He read in his paper that factories were closing, but he was not wor- ried. How could there ever be a time, he thought, when the country would not need steel? Steel was used to make machinery, automo- biles, city skyscrapers, railroad cars, and a thousand other things. Life could not go on without steel. But Joe was mistaken. One Sat- urday with his pay check was a note saying that his services were no longer needed. Searching out the superintendent, Joe asked him what the trouble was. "Is my work un- satisfactory?" asked Joe. "Your work is fine," answered the superintend- ent, "but there just is no work. The country has quit buying steel." Like millions of others Joe looked for another job. Everywhere the same answer, "No work! We are laying off men all the time." Joe was hopeful and it took weeks to convince him that even a strong man eager to work could not find a job. For a short time the Smiths got along. Their savings tided them over for a few weeks. When these gave out, they borrowed a little. Everyone knew Joe Smith as an honest and dependable person. Joe's good friend, the corner grocer, gave him credit. Other merchants allowed him to charge things. But this did not go on long, for many others like Joe were in the same boat. If the merchants gave credit too long, they would go out of busi- ness. In the meantime Joe had to pay the rent. Maybe he had to make payments on an automobile or 532 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY washing machine bought on the in- stallment plan. His family needed food, clothes, and the services of a doctor or a dentist. Only another job or help from the government could pull the family through the depression. What happened to Joe Smith, happened to millions of other work- ers. It also happened to thousands of merchants, doctors, teachers, and others who lived on the wages that Joe Smith and his fellow workers earned. The situation was desper- ate. What could be done to halt the depression and end the suffering? How could the nation be put on its feet again? These were the ques- tions everyone was asking. The great depression puts Franklin D. Roosevelt, the New Dealer, in the White House. The need pro- duced the man and in Franklin D. Roosevelt Americans found a Presi- dent to lead them out of the depres- sion. Unlike many famous Ameri- cans, Roosevelt was not born in a log cabin. He never faced poverty nor did he have to fight the long battle to win financial security. His parents were prominent and well- to-do, and he spent his boyhood days on the large family estate over- looking the Hudson. Until he was 14 he was educated at home by private tutors. When it was time to choose a school, young Roosevelt wanted to go to the Naval Academy at Annapolis. His father, however, finally persuaded him to go to Groton, a preparatory school, and to Harvard College in prep- aration for a law course at Colum- bia. Roosevelt was always interested in outdoor life, particularly any- thing which had to do with the wa- ter. He was a swimmer and sailor. He early began a collection of ship models, paintings, and books on the American navy, which became one of the most valuable collections in the country. During the Presidency of Woodrow Wilson, Roosevelt had many opportunities to serve in Washington. He chose the post of Assistant Secretary of the Navy and served there during the First World War. Later as President he was Commander-in-Chief of both the army and navy. At school and college Roosevelt seemed to have time for everything. He took part in sports, joined stu- dent clubs, and became editor of the college paper. And, needless to say, the Harvard Crimson was a live paper while he was editor. De- spite all this activity, Roosevelt completed a four years' course in three years. He then entered the Columbia Law School. THE YOUNG POLITICIAN. After law school Roosevelt practiced law with a New York firm. But his first law career was short. In 1910 he turned to politics just as his distant relative, Theodore Roosevelt, had in earlier years. He accepted the Democratic nomination for state senator from his own district at Hyde Park. Democratic senators from rural New York are as scarce as hen's teeth. Only one Democrat had been elected from this district in more than 50 years. No one ex- pected Roosevelt to win. Roosevelt put on a whirlwind campaign. He won, and did it with g c w ~- E o 0. rt o O. .2 II C re ^ c = C u II - c 534 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY little help from the outside. When he arrived in Albany he found the Democrats in control of the legisla- ture and ready to elect a United States Senator picked by the bosses of the party. Unlike many a young politician, Roosevelt had no inten- tion of taking a back seat and voting as the bosses told him. He quickly became the leader of a few inde- pendent Democrats who insisted on a more progressive candidate. This group battled for weeks and held up other business until they forced the election of a candidate satisfac- tory to them. A leader among the young pro- gressive Democrats of New York, Roosevelt worked hard for the nom- ination of Woodrow Wilson for President. After Wilson's election Roosevelt resigned from the state senate to spend the next seven years as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. His splendid record here was one reason his party in 1920 nominated him for Vice President of the Unit- ed States. BATTLE FOR LIFE AND HEALTH. After the defeat of the Democrats in 1920, Roosevelt retired from pol- itics and returned to the practice of law. Shortly after, he was stricken with infantile paralysis. Roosevelt may never have fought the bitter battle for financial security that faces most men, but he now faced a struggle that would have discour- aged anyone but the strongest. Paralyzed in his lower limbs, Roosevelt had no intention of spending the rest of his life as an invalid. After he had won his fight for life, he began to carry on his business from his bed. In a year or so he was going to his office. By 1924 he was sufficiently recovered to appear at the Democratic conven- tion to nominate his friend, Alfred E. Smith, for the Presidency. During these years of illness, Roosevelt had been helped most by swimming at Warm Springs, Geor- gia. Determined to aid others strick- en with the same illness, he estab- lished the Warm Springs Founda- tion and contributed to it a large part of his private fortune. Later he took out insurance policies of $560,000 on his life for the benefit of the Foundation. Even as Presi- dent he has given time and energy to the welfare of Warm Springs. GOVERNOR AND PRESIDENT. In 1928 the Democrats needed a strong candidate for governor of New York. Against his own wishes they persuaded Roosevelt to run. The na- tion went Republican, but Roose- velt carried New York. Two years later he was re-elected. Two terms as governor gave him the executive experience which prepared him for the more important work ahead. They also strengthened his reputa- tion throughout the country as a progressive statesman. The election of 1932 came in the midst of a deep depression. Unem- ployment and suffering were every- where. The people were dissatisfied with the way* the federal govern- ment had handled the depression. They wanted a change and a new President. Who, they thought, could do the job better than the progres- sive governor of New York? In the hope that Roosevelt would lead the nation back to a better day, the Democrats nominated him for NEW DEAL SEEKS SOLUTIONS 535 the Presidency. Roosevelt accepted the challenge and in his campaign speeches promised a "New Deal" to agriculture, labor, and other groups. When the votes were counted, he had carried 42 states. Once President, Roosevelt took the leadership and gave the nation much of what he had promised. Congress accepted his program and one important act after another was quickly passed. Some of these acts were intended to lift the country out of the depression. Others pro- vided for reforms. They came so fast and made so many changes that many agreed that they had brought a "New Deal." As conditions improved, Rcose- velt's popularity increased. Four years later, in his second campaign he carried all the states but Maine and Vermont. By the end of his second term most of the New Deal program had been completed. But a new problem had appeared a war in Europe. Eager to carry on his foreign policy of aid to the pow- ers fighting Germany, Roosevelt de- cided to run again. This meant a break with the old American prac- tice of only two terms. Roosevelt was bitterly criticized by many, but easily won. During his first term Roosevelt faced the responsibility of leading the nation out of a deep depression. Before his third term ended the country was in the midst of a Sec- ond World War. The President be- lieved that the responsibility of leading the nation to a final victory was his, if his party wanted him. Again the Democrats nominated him and again he was elected. The New Deal Comes to the Aid of the Farmer The farmers are the first to feel the coming of the depression. At the beginning of this chapter we pointed out that the period of the 1920's was one of great prosperity. In general this was true. Unfor- tunately, however, there were some Americans who did not profit from this prosperity. The most important groups were the farmers, particu- larly those who specialized on a single crop which they sold. Let us explain this by telling what happened to a typical farmer. Bill Jones, a wheat farmer in Ne- braska, raised 5,000 bushels of wheat at the opening of the First World War. When the war started, millions of acres of farm land went out of production in Europe. Im- mediately there was an increased demand for American wheat. W r hen the United States entered the war, the demand was even greater. By the time the war ended the price per bushel had tripled. As the demand for wheat in- creased, Bill Jones, like other Amer- ican farmers, tried to grow more. This was particularly true when the government urged all to raise more food. Bill Jones plowed up land that had never been used before. He borrowed money and bought more land and machinery. Soon he was raising 7,000 bushels instead of 5,000. What Jones was doing with wheat, other farmers were doing with cotton, cattle, hogs, and other products. All this was fine as long as the U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY During the depression thousands of farms were foreclosed and sold at auction. At this auction of equipment on a farm in Illinois, neighbors bought wagons for five cents and cows for a dime to return to the original owner. The entire sale brought in only $4.90. The mortgage holder telegraphed the governor, "There is anarchy in our midst." (Acme) demand continued and prices were high. But the prosperity ended as quickly as it had started. When the war was over Europeans went back to raising food. In the meantime other nations Canada, Argentina, Australia also had increased pro- duction of wheat, and other farm products. Farmers were now raising more food than could be sold. When the war started Bill Jones got 90 cents a bushel for his wheat. During the war the price jumped to $2.70. Then it declined until in 1932 it was only 38 cents, the low- est price in 300 years. Bill Jones and 10,000,000 other American farmers were in a tough spot. They had bor- rowed money to buy land and ma- chinery. Now they could not get enough for their products to pay their debts or the interest on them. Jones and his fellow farmers had other troubles. While the prices of farm products went down, the cost of manufactured goods which the farmers bought did not decline so much. Farmers wondered how they could get along as the price of cloth- ing, household equipment, and other things remained high. Farm- ers were demanding better roads to market their products and better schools for their children. Thus their taxes remained high. NEW DEAL SEEKS SOLUTIONS 537 Aid to farmers is given by both state and federal governments in many different ways. Here a father and son in Vernon County, Wisconsin, are watching a soil tester at work with scientific equipment. This test will help the farmer decide what kind of fertilizer to use. (Office of War Information photograph by Arthur Rothstein, from a negative now in the Library of Congress) The farmers turn to the govern- ment in time of need. The situation had become so bad that something had to be done. Farm organizations, such as the Grange, demanded ac- tion. Congressmen from the farm states urged new legislation. Stu- dents of agriculture proposed defi- nite remedies. Congress was finally stirred to action. During the 1920's the govern- ment tried various remedies. Con- gress increased the tariff duties on farm products to keep out foreign food. This did not help much be- cause we were already raising more than we needed. In fact, we were trying to sell our products abroad. Congress also passed legislation to make it easier for farmers to borrow money. This helped a little, but did not go far enough. During the Presidency of Her- bert Hoover Congress passed the Agricultural Marketing Act. This allowed the government to buy large amounts of farm products in the hope that this would raise prices. The act also encouraged farmers' co-operatives, that is, groups which might buy and sell together. It was hoped that through co-operatives farmers might sell their goods at a higher price and buy what they needed more cheaply. This might have helped, but the U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY same year the act was passed the The main idea of this program great depression started. The condi- was M keep production of crops tion of the farmer became worse under control and prices at a fair than ever. Many a farmer who had level. With the Second \Vorld War voted the Republican ticket all his the whole picture changed. The ob- life turned against Hoover and ject now was to produce as much as voted for Roosevelt and the New possible. When the war ends, how- Deal, ever, the farmer may again face the Under Roosevelt new laws were old problem too much production quickly passed. For example, the and too low prices. Agricultural Adjustment Act of- fered payments to farmers, if they would reduce the acreage of their crops. The idea was to raise less The Government Helps BllS- food so that prices would go up. i ness But at the Same Time If prices advanced, farmers would p J f Tt actually make more money by grow- ^ ing fewer crops and the farmers would be saved. Another example The government loans money to was a law that allowed farmers to businesses in distress. Unlike agri- borrow money for a long period of culture, industry enjoyed great time at low rates of interest so that prosperity in the 1920's. Goods they could buy back farms on which flowed from factories in increasing banks and others had foreclosed the amounts. There seemed to be no mortgages. limit to the demand for manufac- When the Supreme Court de- tured goods. clared the AAA unconstitutional, In tbe end, however, industry Congress tried again. This time it suffered from the same illness that reduced crops by paying farmers to troubled agriculture. By 1929 the restore and improve their land, booming factories were turning out This meant taking many acres out more goods than they could sell, of cultivation while scientific meth- Machines were stopped; workers ods were used to rebuild the land, lost their jobs. The whole country Finally Congress passed a second sank into a depression. Agricultural AdjustmentAct(1938). As the business world cracked up, Under it each farmer who raised President Hoover and Congress wheat, cotton, corn, tobacco, and finally stepped in. Congress created rice agreed to produce a certain a great loaning company, the Re- amount and no more. On its part construction Finance Corporation, the government agreed to maintain The RFC might loan money to a price which would allow the farm- banks, railroads, insurance compa- er a fair profit. The amount raised nies, and manufacturing concerns allowed for a surplus to be stored facing bankruptcy. It kept many in case of drought or other misfor- concerns from going out of business tune. and saved many a job for the work- NEW DEAL SEEKS SOLUTIONS 539 ers. It helped to pull the nation out at a fraction of their cost. The gov- of the depression. The RFC proved ernment loaned money to buy and so useful that it was continued un- build new ships. It paid rates to der Roosevelt on a much greater carry mail at higher than cost. We scale. kept a merchant marine on the seas, The small home owner also suf- but it was still too small to meet the fered in the depression. Most homes needs of a Second World War. are built on borrowed money, often on the installment plan. Without Congress passes laws requiring bet- jobs the owners could not make ter business practices. When the payments and lost their homes. To government began to help business, halt this Congress set up a Home it insisted on better business prac- Owners Loan Corporation to loan tices. It was not only the depression money to home owners to meet pay- that brought hard times to business ments and make repairs. This but also careless and wasteful meth- helped both home owners and ods. Prosperity and easy profits had banks. It also helped the building encouraged practices harmful both industry. to business and to the nation as a Although most American indus- whole. tries were prosperous in the 1920's, One example of this was banking, one industry faced serious difficul- Banks had been too easy in loaning ties. This was the business of ship- money and too careless in investing building and ocean transportation, their own money. Some had gone Its history is much like that of agri- beyond banking and set up corn- culture. When the First World War panics to invest money for other came, there were not enough ships people. Between 1922 and 1932 to carry goods to the nations at war. about 10,000 banks had failed, an The situation became worse after average of 1,000 a year. German submarines destroyed many Under Roosevelt Congress estab- ships. lished more careful regulations. It Helped by government orders, forbade banks going into the invest- the shipbuilding industry enjoyed ment business. They must now stick a great boom. Hundreds of new to banking. Congress required cer- ships helped to Avin the war. When tain banks to insure their deposits peace came, however, the world had up to $5,000 for each depositor, more ships than it needed. Ameri- This protected the little depositor can ships now had to compete with in case the bank should fail, those of other nations. One of the most important New Americans were determined to Deal acts concerned companies keep an American merchant marine dealing in electricity and gas. Dur- on the seas. This might help to pre- ing the 1920's these companies had vent a shortage in a future war. grown rapidly. By means of holding Only government help could do it. companies they had spread far and Congress ordered the government wide, some companies selling elec- to sell its ships to private companies tricity in many states. States had U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY DEPOSITS INSURED BY The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation WASHINGTON, D. C. cRnnn MAXIMUM INSURANCE cRfifin

. In November, 1941, the Japanese government sent a special representative to Washington to discuss the Far Eastern situation. The United States offered a plan which might have solved the Far Eastern problem. It included the recognition of Chiang Kai-shek's Chinese Gov- ernment and the withdrawal of Japanese troops from China. While our government awaited Japan's reply reports came of Japanese troop movements into Indo-China. Disturbed by this, President Roose- velt sent a personal message to the Japanese Emperor urging that he act to bring peace to the Far East. On the next morning, Sunday, December 7, the Japanese representa- tive and the Japanese ambassador asked for an appointment with Secre- tary Hull. That afternoon they appeared with an answer to this country's proposals. At the very moment Mr. Hull received them, the White House heard its first news of the bombing of Pearl Harbor. Mr. Hull took the document given him and began to read. The Japanese had flatly turned down our offer. Wrote the Japanese: "Ever since the China affair broke out, . . . the Japanese government has striven .... for peace." It "has always maintained an attitude of fairness and modera- tion and did its best to reach a settlement. . . . On the other hand, the American Government, always holding fast to theories in disregard to realities [facts], and refusing to yield an inch on its impractical princi- ples, caused undue delay in the negotiations." The United States, said the document, by trying to impose its own "selfish views upon others" pre- vented any solution. As Mr. Hull read this document his eyes blazed. Looking at the Jap- anese envoys he said, "I have never seen a document that was more crowded with infamous falsehoods and distortions infamous falsehoods and distortions on a scale so huge that I never imagined until today that any Government on this planet was capable of uttering them." 545 546 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The Shadow of a Second tria > and Russia had been thrown World War Hangs Over the ? u ' f of P er - New y had to be set up in central and east- Westem Hemisphere ... ern Europe. Moreover, the defeated nations believed that they had been Dictators challenge the democratic unjustly treated in the peace treaty. way of life. The First World War Dissatisfaction with the boundary ended in the autumn of 1918. lines established by the Treaty of Twenty-one years later a second and Versailles was widespread. greater World War broke out. All this was fertile ground on Those who had sacrificed, suffered, which ambitious and unprincipled and fought in the First \Vorld War men could rise to power. It was hoped that the victory over Ger- also fertile ground for spreading ly- many would mean a long period of ing propaganda against the democ- peace. Those who had helped to racies who had won the last war. found the League of Nations hoped Rising politicians like Mussolini in that there would be no more great Italy and Hitler in Germany de- wars. One of the slogans of the First nounced the treaty of peace as un- World War was that it was "a war just. They pictured the democracies to end wars." as weak and declining in power. Unfortunately the high hopes of They told their people that only the founders of the League proved through a firm and strong govern- groundless. The First .World War ment could the defeated nations did not end wars. The years follow- ever again be great. ing were only a "long armistice," The people swallowed this propa- a long truce before another great ganda and allowed Mussolini, Hit- war broke out. In fact, it was not ler, and other dictators to take pow- even an armistice. Minor wars went er. Then these dictators grabbed on during most of these 21 years, more and more power until noth- There were revolutions, bloodshed, ing was left for the people. They a"nd civil wars in Italy, Russia, did this in part by spreading dis- Spain, and elsewhere. There were unity. They set one race against an- wars between Greece and Turkey, other and one religious group between Poland and Russia, Italy against another. Soon Italy and Ger- and Ethiopia, and Japan and China, many had lost democracy and lib- The causes for this period of un- erty. Intolerance, persecution, and rest and disturbance are not hard to suffering flourished. find. The war left deep scars on Central Europe. The old way of life The United States awakens to the was torn up by the roots. Destruc- danger of the Nazi menace. No tion of life and property left Eu- sooner were the dictators firmly es- rope in poverty. It took years of tablished than they began to plan hard work to rebuild industry, agri- foreign conquests. Italy annexed culture, and business. The former Fiume and other surrounding land ruling families of Germany, Aus- from Yugo-Slavia. Then she invaded AMERICAS JOIN UNITED NATIONS 547 Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia, contrary to his promises, and put an end to the inde- pendence of this freedom-loving nation. Here his troops are rolling into Prague, capital of Czechoslovakia. (International) and annexed Ethiopia, a weak and helpless state in eastern Africa. This, Mussolini told his people, was the beginning of a new Italian Em- pire like that of ancient Rome. During these years Germany was rearming. Then Hitler sent his army into the Rhineland and forti- fied it against France. Under the Treaty of Versailles this region was to be part of Germany but remain unfortified. In 1938 Hitler invaded Austria and annexed it to Germany. The following year he demanded the western part of Czechoslovakia. When France and England failed to prevent it, he also annexed this region. In the meantime Japan had been making war on China for al- most 10 years to establish her power on the mainland of Asia. During all of these years the United States tried to follow her life-long policy of keeping out of Europe's political affairs. But far- seeing Americans became more and more disturbed as they watched the Fascists of Italy and the Nazis of Germany crush political liberty. They were sickened by the reports of political and religious persecu- tion and uneasy over Hitler's talk of racial superiority. This sort of thing might spread to America and en- danger our way of life. When would the conquests of Germany, Italy, and Japan end? How long before our own interests might be entan- gled in world conquests? Roosevelt warns the Fascist powers. No one saw this danger more clearly than President Roosevelt. He set out definitely to do two things: first, to make our people aware of the danger; second, to warn the 548 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Fascist powers of our attitude. In the need of preparedness. In the 1937 Roosevelt made a famous late 1930's Congress began to in- speech in which he said that a "fear crease the grants to the army and of calamity" hangs over the world navy. After the outbreak of the Eu- and that peace-loving nations must ropean war Congress gave its chief make a joint effort to oppose na- attention to national defense. The tions breaking treaties and ignor- regular army and navy were in- ing human rights. creased in size. After Japan joined The next year Roosevelt deliv- Italy and Germany in a triple al- ered another warning. In case Ger- liance the danger in the Pacific in- many or Japan should attack the creased. Then Congress decided to British Empire, Roosevelt pledged build a two-ocean navy, that "the people of the United Events in Europe and Asia also States will not stand idly by if ... brought the Selective Training and Canadian soil is threatened." Roose- Service Act (1940). All male citizens velt was trying to make clear to the between 21 and 36 had to register dictators of Europe and Asia how and could be called for 12 months' the American people felt about de- training. This period was raised to velopments abroad. At the same 18 months the next year. Men time, as we pointed out in Chapter called for training could be used for 28, we were co-operating more service in the Western Hemisphere closely with Latin America for the and in the possessions of the United defense of the Western Hemi- States including the Philippines, sphere. This was the first time in our his- tory that compulsory military serv- The Americas prepare to defend ice had been required in peace the Western Hemisphere. Although time. the world had been upset by local Defense of the United States and wars for 20 years, the Second the Western Hemisphere was great- World War began on September 1, ly strengthened by an agreement be- 1939, when Germany invaded Po- tween Great Britain and the United land. Two days later Great Britain States in 1940. Great Britain grant- and France declared war on Ger- ed to this country the right to lease many. Italy joined Germany in naval and air bases for 99 years in 1940 and in that year Germany, Newfoundland, Bermuda, Baha- Italy, and Japan (the Axis Powers) mas, Jamaica, St. Lucia, Trinidad, signed treaties of alliance. In the Antigua, and British Guiana (see meantime Germany overran Po- map, page 549). The sites in New- land, Denmark, Norway, Holland, foundland and Bermuda were gifts; Belgium, France, Czechoslovakia, the rest were in exchange for 50 Yugo-Slavia, Greece, and other Bal- "over-age" destroyers, kan nations. In 1941 she invaded This string of bases stretching Russia (see map, page 555). from Canada to South America Even before this the United provides an important line of de- States was thoroughly aroused to fense for our eastern seaboard and 55 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY the Panama Canal. The line was strengthened the next year when we occupied Greenland and Ice- land. The President was not only in- terested in greater preparedness, but also in giving "all-out" aid to the nations fighting the Axis pow- ers. When Congress met in Janu- ary, 1941, Roosevelt asked for pow- er to sell, exchange, lease, or lend any war equipment to any nation where this would help our own de- fense. Congress after a long debate, granted these powers. Since then we have spent each year billions of dol- lars to carry out the "lend-lease" program of mutual aid. The War Comes to the Americas The Japanese force the United States into the Second World War. From the time that Nazi Germany began her conquests of other na- tions, the eyes of most Americans were fixed on Europe. It was the events in the Far East, however, that brought the United States into the Second World War. Like Ger- many in Europe, Japan in the Far East had set out on a career of con- quest. Just as Germany had made up her mind to control central, southern, and western Europe, Ja- pan proposed to control eastern Asia. As we pointed out in Chapter 29, japan began her conquests with the invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Four years later she invaded north- ern China and in 1937 began defi- nitely to make war on China. After occupying northern China and most of the seacoast she moved south to take over the French colony of In- do-China. This looked like a first step to the invasion of Thailand and India (see map, page 555). Against all of these moves the United States protested. We con- sidered them a violation of our Open Door Policy and of solemn treaties signed with Japan at the Washington Conference (1921- 22). After the invasion of Indo- China our government warned Ja- pan that any further steps toward military conquest would compel us "to take immediately any and all steps" necessary to safeguard the "rights and interests of the United States." The British government immediately took the same posi- tion. During the fall of 1941 represen- tatives of Japan and the United States tried to work out agreements which would solve the Far Eastern problem. Since Japan would not give up her program of conquest, and control of eastern Asia, nothing could be done. President Roosevelt, as we noted at the beginning of the chapter, sent a personal appeal to the Japanese Emperor in the inter- ests of peace, but without success. As Americans sat around their radios on Sunday afternoon, De- cember 7, the programs were sud- denly interrupted with the news that Japan had launched an air and submarine attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands. The attack came before any declaration of war and while Japanese representative* were AMERICAS JOIN UNITED NATIONS 55' in Washington supposedly on a mission of peace. This cowardly at- tack cost us a large part of our Pa- cific fleet. The next day Japan de- clared war on the United States and Great Britain. War had come and on Monday, December 8, Congress declared war on Japan. Two days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. Congress without a dissenting vote recognized a state of war with these two nations. The war was now in fact a world war. Many of the Latin-American nations, including Brazil and Mex- ico, soon joined us in war against one or more of the Axis Powers. In January, 1942, representatives of the nations at war met in Washing- ton and formed the United Nations, pledging their resources to fight the Axis Powers. The United States becomes the "Arsenal of Democracy." With the declaration of war, preparations of all kinds were speeded. Plans were made for an army and navy of at least 10,000,000 men. Congress im- mediately removed restrictions in the Selective Service Act to allow the use of troops outside the West- ern Hemisphere. The act was ex- tended to allow the calling for mili- tary service of all men from 18 to 44. Later acts encouraged the en- listment of women in the army, navy, coast guard, and marines. All men of 18 to 64 years were required to register for possible use in de- fense work. To carry out this program Con- gress voted money in almost un- heard of amounts. The First World War had cost the national govern- ment about $35,000,000,000. By the end of 1944 Congress had voted ten times that amount to carry on the Second World War. It was not hard for Congress to vote money and call men into the armed service. A more difficult job was to provide all of the equipment needed to carry on a world war. Ships, guns, tanks, airplanes, medi- cal supplies, and thousands of other needs must be provided. Factories must be turned from peace-time production to the manufacture of war materials. More than a year before the United States entered the war the President appointed a Committee of National Defense composed of five members of his cabinet. Under the general direction of this com- mittee various boards and commis- sions were set up. The most impor- tant of these was the War Produc- tion Board. Its business was to de- cide how much iron, aluminum, and other raw materials were need- ed for both the armed forces and civilian needs and to get them pro- duced. The WPB was aided by many other government organizations. The War Manpower Commission helped to find millions of men and women to work in war plants. The Office of Defense Transportation aided the railroads in doing a rec- ord-breaking job. With one-third less equipment American railroads almost doubled their freight and passenger business over that of the First World War. A National Rub- ber Conservation Director speeded the production of synthetic rubber. 552 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Women played an important part in the great war effort, particularly in the plane industry. Here are a group working on a dismantled airplane quite unconscious of the grease on their faces and fingers. (Press Association) The Petroleum Administrator had pipe lines built to get oil to the Atlantic coast for the use of the navy. The result of this combined ef- fort amazed the world. By the sec- ond year of the war (1943) shipyards were producing at a rate of 18,000,- 000 tons a year while aircraft fac- tories turned over to the govern- ment 66,000 planes. Production of other war supplies increased be- yond all expectations. Not onlv were we supplying our own needs, but about 15 per cent went to our allies through lend-lease. Without the miracle of American produc- tion, said Premier Stalin of Russia, victory would be impossible. This could never have been done without the skill and patriotism of engineers, factory managers, and labor. Every group promised all-out support. Leaders of both the Ameri- can Federation of Labor, and the Congress of Industrial Organiza- tions pledged a no-strike policy. With the help of the War Labor Board most of labor-management troubles were ironed out. The home front takes its part in an all-out war. By the time we entered the Second World War it was clear that modern wars concern everyone in the country. The war could not be won alone by the army, navy, and the workers in factories. It was everybody's war. Having heard of the destruction of air raids in Europe, Americans prepared to protect themselves. Thousands of civilians offered to act as air raid wardens and airplane spotters. Following the methods used in Great Britain, preparations AMERICAS JOIN UNITED NATIONS 553 were made to give the alarm, to get was helped by local committees who civilians into shelters, and to take gave much effort to this work. Ra- care of the wounded. tioning began with sugar, coffee, The co-operation given by civil- gasoline, and fuel oil and was grad- ians in air raid defense was carried nally extended to many other things, into every defense activity. Civilians The work of the OPA was wider and members of the armed forces than simply rationing. Its business bought war stamps and bonds to was also to control prices. When help finance the war. By the end of there is a scarcity of products, prices 1944 the nation had bought about will run away. Under acts of Con- $ 100,000,000,000 worth of bonds, gress the OPA put ceiling prices on Every bond drive had been over- rents in defense areas. Gradually bought. The country in the same they extended these ceilings to way gave generously to the Red cover food, clothing, and other Cross and the United Service Or- things. Price control kept down the ganizations to provide help and rec- cost of living and prevented much reation for the soldiers. suffering. Millions of adults gave their blood to be sent to the battle fronts to help save the lives of our fight- ing men. Women wrapped band- * rl United IMdtlonS LlOSe in ages for the Red Cross. But the war on the Dictators . . . ... . effort was not limited to adults; children and young people in their We fight Japan from Alaska to Aus- 'teens also did their part. Many tralia. The sneak attack of Japan on bought war stamps and bonds. They Pearl Harbor so crippled our Pacific helped in the salvage drives in col- fleet that it could do little more for lecting rubber, aluminum, and pa- six months than fight on the defen- per. They did their part in the vie- sive. Immediately after Pearl Har- tory gardens. bor Japan captured the United Although farmers and factory States islands of Guam and Wake workers performed miracles, there and invaded the Philippines. Our was not enough of everything to line of defense now ran from Dutch supply the armed forces, our allies, Harbor in the Aleutians to the and civilians. When factories turned Hawaiian Islands, Samoa, and Aus- to guns, tanks, and airplanes, they tralia, with Midway as an out- could not produce automobiles, post (see map, page 555). electric refrigerators, and radios. In Japan now carried out a smash- such a situation, the government ing offensive in the South Pacific, had to divide these products accord- She captured the British colony of ing to need. Hong Kong on the southern coast This dividing or rationing was of China and the British naval base done through various government at Singapore (February, 1942). Then boards, particularly the Office of she occupied the Malay Peninsula, Price Administration. The OPA the Dutch East Indies, and parts of 554 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY the British East Indies almost to ward to occupy other islands and to the coast of Australia. aid the Australians in fighting the These conquests gave Japan tin, Japanese in New Guinea, rubber, and oil necessary for carry- Our first task was to hold our de- ing on war. Moreover, the occupa- fense line. Our second was to save tion of the Malay region endan- Australia and push the Japanese gered India and cut off the Burma back from the south. Our third was Road. This was the route over to help the British hold back the which the Chinese government at Japanese in Burma and give what Chungking obtained supplies to aid we could to China. Finally, it fight Japan. was the job of the navy to drive the Gradually the United States Japanese out of the Aleutians, and gathered her resources to fight back, establish bases in the Pacific nearer Nothing helped more to give us and nearer to Japan. The Japanese this chance than the brave defense were driven from the Aleutians in of the Philippines by a tiny army of 1943. The long drive across the UnitedStates and Philippine troops. Pacific began to speed up in 1944 Immediately after Pearl Harbor the with the capture of Tarawa (Gil- Japanese landed in the Philippines, bert Islands), Truk (Caroline Is- They quickly occupied the island lands) and Guam, Tinian and Sai- of Luzon except the mountain areas pan (Marianas Islands). In October northwest of Manila and the island General MacArthur landed a large of Corregidor in Manila Bay. With- invading force at Leyte the first of out ships, airplanes, or fresh sup- a succession of landings in the Phil- plies, our forces under Generals ippines. Early in February they MacArthur and Wainwright held entered Manila. We were on the out until May, 1942. road to Tokyo. In the meantime we were pour- ing troops and supplies into Aus- North Africa is the springboard tralia, now defended by General for the invasion of Italy. Mean- MacArthur. A Japanese effort to while, the United Nations planned break this supply line ended with a an invasion of Europe. The opera- severe defeat in the Coral Sea. tion began early in November, Shortly after, a Japanese fleet set 1942, when an American and Brit- out to smash our main defense line ish expeditionary force under Gen- and capture Hawaii. Again they eral Dwight Eisenhower landed in were defeated with heavy losses Morocco and Algeria in northern near the Midway Islands (1942). Africa (see map, page 555). It was The victory at Midway was the now clear that the United Nations turning point in the war. After that planned to drive the Germans out the United States took the offensive, of North Africa and then invade A land and sea attack established southern Europe, our forces in Guadalcanal (August, For many months the British had 1942). With this as a starting point fought the Germans and Italians United States forces pushed north- back and forth across the deserts of 556 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY Egypt and Libya. Shortly after the whole operation lessened the men- Americans arrived the British be- ace of air and submarine attacks in gan to push the enemy westward in- the Mediterranean and opened up to Tunisia and Bizerte. Now the the Allied route to the East through Americans advanced eastward from the Mediterranean Sea. It also gave Algeria to catch the Germans in an us air fields in Italy from which al- east-west nutcracker. Defeated on lied planes could bomb Nazi-held land and blasted from the air, the southern Europe, entire German army was beaten into surrender. The invasion of western Europe Less than two months after the brings about the downfall of Nazi surrender of the last Germans in Germany. The conquest of Italy, as Africa, the Allies were ready for the it turned out, was not the main next move. An immense fleet of front. The great battle of Europe over 3,000 transports and landing was to be fought on the plains of barges accompanied by warships, Russia and in France. Germany, bombers, and righting planes set out who had a treaty with Russia that for Sicily in July, 1943. The land- neither nation would attack the ing was not very difficult, but it other, suddenly invaded the Soviet took the Allies more than a month Republic late in June, 1941 (see to smash the Germans and drive map, page 555). them out of Sicily. German armies swept into Rus- Early in September General sia from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Clark's American Fifth Army ac- At one point their army got to the companied by British divisions suburbs of Moscow. Brave defense crossed the straits and established a and the bitter Russian winter final- toehold at Salerno on the Italian ly halted the advance. During the mainland. The main British army next year Germany turned her at- landed at Taranto inside the Italian tention to the south and advanced heel and moved up the east coast of eastward to Stalingrad. Russia's he- Italy. After bitter fighting at Sa- roic defense of Stalingrad halted the lerno the Fifth Army pushed north- Germans. Stalingrad was the turn- ward toward Rome. The Germans ing point of the eastern war. From contested every foot of ground and that time on the Russians took the the Allied armies did not drive the offensive, gradually driving the Ger- Germans out of Rome until June, mans out of Russia, Poland and 1944. Hungary. Late in 1944 Russian ar- The conquest of Sicily brought mies finally began the invasion of the surrender of Italy, and Musso- Germany herself, lini fled to the protection of Hitler. In the meantime Britain was pre- Most Italians, who hated the Ger- paring to attack Germany from the mans and their control of Italy, now west. When France was invaded and co-operated with the Allied nations, occupied in the spring of 1940, the The surrender of Italy brought with last British troops were driven from it possession of the Italian fleet. The the continent of northern Europe. AMERICAS JOIN UNITED NATIONS 557 American men and jeeps pour ashore out of the opening doors of a landing craft on the beach of Normandy, France. Here the Americans with their British and Canadian allies opened the long-awaited second front in western Europe. (Press Association) From that time until Germany in- vaded Russia a year later, England was repeatedly bombed by the Ger- man air force. Gradually, however, the British with the aid of lend- lease supplies, fought them off and created a great air force of their own. After the United States en- tered the war, an American air force joined them. By 1943 the combined British and American air forces were so large that the tables were turned. Now British and American air men were bombing German war facto- ries, oil plants, transportation lines, and anything else that might be use- ful in war. This was partly in prep- aration for the great day when the United Nations would again land on the continent and open a second front in western Europe. After two years of thorough prep- aration under the direction of Gen- eral Eisenhower all was ready. Pro- tected by an immense naval escort and an umbrella of thousands of airplanes, the soldiers of the United Nations hit the northern coast of Normandv on the earlv morning of June 6, 1944. A landing was quickly made and soon Cherbourg fell to the Americans. After two months of the bitterest fighting the Germans were driven out of Normandy and the Allies were moving eastward on the plains of Brittany. At this point a new landing was made on the southern coast of France. By Octo- ber nearly all France was in Allied U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY hands and our armies had invaded nese home islands heavily, softening German soil. them up for a possible invasion. German armies were again Large parts of Tokyo, Osaka and caught in a nutcracker. United other Japanese cities were laid in States, British, Canadian, and ruins. Then on August 6 we French armies drove into Germany dropped the first atomic bomb on from the west, and the Russians the city of Hiroshima. The damage swept in from the east. Early in May was almost beyond belief. This one the Russians took Berlin. The Ger- bomb had destroyed almost a whole mans had already announced Hit- city. It had more power than 20,000 ler's death. Resistance in Germany tons of TNT. A new scientific force collapsed and on May 8, 1945, she had been brought into the war far surrendered. greater than anything ever known before. Victory over Germany speeds the Three days later Russia entered fight against Japan. After V-E Day the war against Japan. Her armies victory in Europe the Allies pressed the Japanese in Manchuria were able to send more troops and and northern China. A second supplies against Japan. Giant air atomic bomb was dropped on the transports and ocean liners poured Japanese city of Nagasaki. Even be- troops and armaments into advance fore the use of bombs, the Japanese bases stretching from Australia leaders realized how hopeless was north to the Philippines and west their cause. They had asked for to China and India. The plan was to terms of surrender, close in on Japan from all sides (see On August 14 an eagerly waiting map, page 555). world heard the news. Japan had Step by step bombing bases were accepted the surrender terms. Ex- established closer and closer to cept for a few days of scattered fight- Japan. In June we took the Japa- ing in the remote jungles, V-J Day nese Island of Okinawa after more brought an end to the fighting. The than 80 days of bitter fighting. By Second World War, the greatest July we had completely retaken the and most costly war the world has Philippines and had established ever known, came to an official end superfort bases in China. The com- on September 2, 1945. On that day bined naval and air forces of the Japanese and Allied officials signed Allies destroyed or bottled up the the terms of surrender on the decks Japanese navy and supply ships. of the battleship Missouri at anchor Our Superforts bombed the Japa- in Tokyo Bay. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? By using these words and terms in a sentence, show that you understand them. When possible give examples. 1. armistice 4. two-ocean navy 7. "arsenal of democracy" 2. Fascists 5. United Nations 8. War Production Board 3. Nazis 6. rationing 9. Office of Price Administration AMERICAS JOIN UNITED NATIONS 559 WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1939: This date marks a European event that was to affect the lives and hap- piness of many millions of the world's peoples. What was it? 1941: December 7 of this year is a day that will long be remembered in the United States. Why? 1945: Why will this year go down in military history? CAN YOU FIND THE ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. Why was the "long armistice" the years between the First and the Second World Wars a period of the rise to power of dictators in Europe? What was the program of the dictators? 2. What were the chief conquests of Mussolini and Hitler before war broke out in 1939? 3. What events show that the United States was aware of the danger of the spread of the dictators' power? 4. Name four steps taken by the United States to defend the Western Hemi- sphere against invasion. Use the map on page 549 to illustrate one of these steps. 5. What events in the Far East finally brought us into the war in December, 1941? 6. What was the "miracle of American production" that contributed so heav- ily to the victory of the United Nations? 7. Name at least five ways in which Americans at home helped in an all-out effort to win the war. 8. Using the map on page 555, show how gradually our army and navy be- gan to close in on Japan. What were our chief victories in the Pacific? 9. Why was the successful invasion of North Africa of great importance to the United Nations? 10. Why should the Battle of Stalingrad be considered one of the most impor- tant battles of the war? 11. Before the United Nations forces could invade western Europe in the summer of 1944, it was necessary that the Nazis be weakened there and elsewhere. In what ways was this done? 12. Summary Question: We know that the Americas joined the United Nations in the Second World War. (a) Why did we join? (b) What were our chief contributions? (c) What were the results? Chapter 33. Living Together inTo- dafs World Places New Re- sponsibilities on All Nations "Only by working together can we learn to work together, and work together we must and will" So spoke President Roosevelt to the delegates of 44 nations at the first United Nations conference, held at Hot Springs, Virginia, in May, 1943. This conference made long-range plans for rebuilding the world's agriculture in order that the people of the world might be free from hunger. It was one of the first steps in co- operation toward the day of peace. Another step was taken at the White House the following November when delegates from these same 44 nations the United Nations and those associated with them met to establish a new agency. Again President Roosevelt addressed them. "The people of these forty- four nations include approximately 80 per cent of the human race. You gentlemen who repre- sent them have just signed an agreement creating the United Nations Re- lief and Rehabilitation Administration commonly known as UNRRA." The UNRRA delegates selected Herbert H. Lehman, former governor of New York, as director. Several committees were formed to study and carry out the details. Delegates from tiny Greece and the Netherlands worked side by side with those from Soviet Russia, Great Britain, and the United States. They decided that the purposes of UNRRA should be to help the people in liberated areas get on their feet and so end the need for relief as quickly as possible. UNRRA would provide food, clothing, temporary shelter, and medical aid. It would aid in restoring urgently needed agri- culture and industry. It would help repair water, light, power, sanitation, and other necessary services. In effect, every one of the United Nations agreed to take on important responsibilities during the war, and continue with them into the period of peace. This was but one conference of many. Others were yet to come. 56o NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 561 The United Nations Face the cure needed supplies and raw ma- r LI TI/ j r terials to develop a higher standard Problems of War and Peace of Hving Finally p peac * ful means of settling disputes should take the We fight for a better world. The place of armed might, people of the United Nations did Many nations, large and small, not want to go to war. Yet, when it accepted the Four Freedoms and became clear that the Axis Powers the Atlantic Charter as their goals, threatened their whole way of life, They joined the fight to wipe out they picked up their banners of the menace of Axis tyranny and to freedom and began the fight for re-establish peace. As our Vice complete victory. President said: "The peace must What did the banners of freedom mean a better standard of living tor say? They said that we fight for a the common man: not merely in the better world. President Roosevelt United States and in England, but in a message to Congress early in also in India, Russia, China, and 1941 gave us a banner called the Latin America not merely in the "Four Freedoms." This banner em- United Nations, but also in Ger- phasized that in the future world of many, Italy, and Japan." In short, peace people everywhere must have we fight for a better world, freedom of speech and expression. People everywhere should be able The United Nations learn to work to worship as they please. Finally, together and plan for the future. people should be free from want After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, and fear. These freedoms, the core the United States joined with 25 of democracy and of our way of other nations in signing on Janu- life, were directly challenged by the ary 1, 1942, at Washington the Nazi beliefs and conquests. Declaration of the United Nations. Another banner labeled the "At- This Declaration adopted the ideas lantic Charter" was drafted jointly of the Atlantic Charter and pledged by President Roosevelt and Prime each government to use its full Minister Churchill in August, 1941, strength against the Axis Powers, on a ship in the North Atlantic. In It also pledged each government this statement the United States and not to make a separate peace with Britain made five important the enemy until a complete victory pledges. First, they were not seek- was won. As the war continued, ing more power or territory for other nations joined the agreement, themselv es. Second, no changes in Many steps were taken to carry on territory would be made without the war which brought the United the consent of the peoples con- Nations closer together. Joint mili- cerned. Third, the people of any tary boards helped to plan the war. liberated country should have the Lend-Lease (or Mutual Aid) Agree- right to choose their own form of merits made available large quan- government. Fourth, all countries tides of supplies to Russia, Britain, should have an opportunity to se- China, and other nations. In the 562 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY The "Big Three" meet at Teheran, Iran, in the late fall of 1943 to plan the military campaign against the Axis powers and to start plans for peace. Seated from left to right are Premier Stalin of Soviet Russia, President Roosevelt of the United States, and Prime Minister Churchill of Great Britain. (Press Association) first three years (1941-1944) we pro- vided more than 22 billion dollars worth of goods and services to our allies. Of this amount about 70 per cent went either to Britain or Russia. They in turn sent us many necessary raw materials and fur- nished food and quarters for our troops abroad. In the fall of 1943 four great con- ferences brought new and closer co-operation. The UNRRA con- ference was one. At Moscow the Foreign Ministers of the United States, Russia, and Britain met with the ambassador from China. They made plans to speed up the war and for the peace that was to follow. This meeting paved the way for two other conferences. First, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek at Cairo, Egypt, where it was agreed that Japan should be stripped of all territories taken by her since the 1890's. It was agreed also to send China more military aid. Second, Roosevelt and Churchill had a series of talks with Premier Stalin of Russia at Te- heran, Iran, marking the first time that the leaders of the "big three" had met. Plans were worked out for direct attacks against Germany and for dealing with the conquered na- tions after the war. As President NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 563 Roosevelt said: "Work together we must and will." Another step in co-operation was the creation of the Allied Military Government (AMG). This pro- vided machinery to govern the areas occupied by Allied troops until the people in those territories were ready and able to take over the gov- ernment themselves. The World Searches for a Way to a Lasting Peace . . . The United Nations plan a world organization. Surveys in the early 1940's indicated that most people believed that some sort of world or- ganization was necessary to main- tain peace. The United States took the lead and called the Dumbarton Oaks conference in Washington in the early fall of 1944. Experts in in- ternational affairs from the United States, Great Britain, Soviet Russia, and China created there the frame- work of a proposed organization called the United Nations. It was published and submitted to the public as well as to the other allies for discussion, criticism, improve- ment, and adoption. The proposed organization of the United Nations would consist of four important bodies. The key unit would be the Security Council made up of representatives from 1 1 nations. Five countries would have permanent seats in this Council. They would be the United States, Great Britain, Soviet Russia, China, and France. The remaining six members would be elected by the General Assembly, each serving two years. The Security Council would have the right to investigate any situa- tion or dispute that seems likely to disturb the world's peace. If all peaceful means of settling disputes fail, the Security Council would have the right to take stronger ac- tion, even to use of armed force, to bring the troublemakers to terms. To furnish these armed forces each nation would be expected to guar- antee a certain number of men. When needed, these forces would be under the direction of the Mili- tary Staff Committee which would be directly responsible to the Se- curity Council. The General Assembly would consist of representatives of all na- tions who are members of the United Nations Organization. It would elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council. It would approve the expenditures of the organization and distribute the expenses among the member nations. On recommendation of the Security Council it could suspend or admit members to the organiza- tion. The General Assembly would elect also an Economic and Social Council made up of experts in those fields. While many decisions- in the General Assembly would be by a simple majority vote of those pres- ent and voting, some decisions would require a two-thirds vote. This body would have the right to consider general methods of keeping world peace. However, ac- tion on such matters must be re- ferred to the Security Council. It could discuss also any question re- 5 6 4 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY lating to international peace brought before it by any member or by the Security Council. Thus, it is clear that the General Assem- bly would be primarily an advisory body. The third body would be an In- ternational Court of Justice to which all members of the United Nations would automatically be- long. The Court would hear and decide cases involving international law. Upon request it could give legal advice to the Security Coun- cil. Finally, there would be a Secre- tariat made up of experts and oth- ers who keep and publish the rec- ords of the agencies of the United Nations Organization. How the United Nations Organi- zation would work. Let us imagine that country A and country B be- cpme involved in a dispute. Im- agine that country A is an inland manufacturing country without a seaport. The most direct route to a seaport is through country B which places a high tax upon country A's goods as they pass through. Coun- try B is entirely within its rights in doing this. But the taxes make the price of A's goods so high that it is no longer profitable for her to ex- port them. The two countries attempt to reach a solution to the problem through their ambassadors, but without success. Tempers begin to rise and country A begins to build up its army and turn to the manu- facture of war goods. Not to be caught napping, country B does likewise. Neighboring country C brings this matter to the attention ot the General Assembly because a situa- tion has developed that definitely threatens peace and security. The General Assembly decides that some action needs to be taken, and turns the matter over to the Security Council. The Security Council asks the International Court of Justice for advice on the question: Is this a dispute that can be settled by in- ternational law? The Court investi- gates the facts and might advise that there is no treaty or interna- tional law that applies to this situa- tion. Therefore, the case cannot be settled by the Court. The Security Council then asks country A and country B to submit the dispute to an arbitration com- mittee. They do so, but country A refuses to abide by the decision. The Security Council then decides that country A is wrong and asks all members of the United Na- tions to stop all trade and business relations with that country. The Security Council may ask that all other means of communication be cut off until country A decides to come to terms and stop warlike preparations. However, these measures do not stop determined country A. Then the Security Council asks its Mili- tary Staff Committee to order air and ground forces to make prepara- tions to step in and punish country A by bombing or invasion. Each member of the United Nations rushes to the Military Staff Com- mittee such forces as it agreed to furnish. Country A finally sees that it is cornered and must use peace- ful means of settling the dispute. NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 565 Experts in international affairs meet at Dumbarton Oaks mansion in our nation's capital to draft plans for a new world organization. Before meetings such as this can be held it is necessary for experts to gather a vast amount of detailed information. Because the interests of each nation differ from those of others, it is often difficult to get all nations to agree on all details, though they may thoroughly agree on the main ideas. Seated from left to right are: Peter Loxley and Sir Alexander Cadogan from Britain, Edward Stettinius of the United States, A. A. Gromyko, A. A. Sobolev and Valentine Berezhkov of Soviet Russia. Standing in the rear are J. C. Dunn and Leo Pasvolsky of the United States. (International) It then asks the General Assem- bly to have the Economic and So- cial Council undertake a study as to how to overcome the hardship it suffers by not having a seaport. The experts attack the problem and perhaps a satisfactory solution is found. War does not break out. Other steps might be taken, but this case gives an idea of how the new machinery might be set to work. How the United Nations differs from the old League of Nations. In many ways the new organization would be similar to the old League of Nations established after the First World War (see page 515). Both provide for an Assembly in which all nations are represented. Both provide for a Council in which some members have perma- nent seats, while other members change. Both provide for a Secre- tariat. There are, however, at least sev- en important differences. First, the new organization would be much speedier than the old organization. The old League of Nations had to get the unanimous consent of the 60-odd members of the Assembly before it could take action. The 5 66 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY "Both Pillars Are Needed." This cartoon appeared during the Second World War. It points out that peace after the war depends not only upon a military victory, but upon some sort of world organization. (Bishop in the St. Louis Star-Times) United Nations can get action from the relatively small Security Coun- cil which would be in almost con- tinuous session. Second, the Security Council would have far wider powers than either the Council or the Assembly under the old League. Third, the old League of Nations could act only when "acts of aggression" or war had already taken place. The new organization can step in when any situation develops that threat- ens world peace, and does not need to wait until war breaks out. Fourth, the old League had no means of calling together armed forces to bring to terms a country that does not abide by the rules. The new organization would have available in each country reserves for such purposes. Fifth, changes in NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 567 policies in the Assembly of the old estimates that Europe needs nine League had to be made by a unani- million tons of food in the two years mous vote. In the new organization after the close of the war. Condi- decisions usually would be decided tions in the Far East may be even by a majority vote, though there worse. are some questions which would In the meantime, efforts must be require a two-thirds vote. It is far made to get the war-torn regions easier to get even a two-thirds vote again producing their own food. It than a unanimous vote on any was for that purpose that the dele- strong policy. gates met at Hot Springs and that Sixth, the International Court of UNRRA was set up. One authority Justice would be made a definite estimates that Europe must have part of the United Nations Organi- 400,000 tons of seeds to replant the zation and would not be a separate fields of that continent. In addition body as it is under the League of the people will need fertilizer and Nations. Finally, the new organiza- tools. With good luck and favorable tion would be entirely separate weather, Europe may have normal from the treaties of peace that will food production two years after the be drafted after the war. The old close of the war. League of Nations was a definite A second problem concerns the part of the Treaty of Versailles, return of homeless people. Between That is one reason why the United 20 and 30 million are scattered over States refused to sign the Treaty of Europe. In the Far East over 40 Versailles. million Chinese have been driven President Roosevelt died in April, from town to town by the Japanese 1945, just before a conference of the invaders. All must be resettled in United Nations in San Francisco be- their homes. gan. Shocked and saddened by the Third, governments must be re- sudden death of the President, the established. While exile-govern- world was heartened when it learned ments of Nazi-occupied countries that the delegates from 50 nations have carried on, these may be no accepted, with some changes, the longer acceptable to their citizens Dumbarton Oaks plan. Roosevelt's now that the war is over. New gov- successor, President Truman, ernments must be chosen. New gov- pledged his support. ernments must also be established in Germany, Italy, and Japan. Per- WOTS Produce More Prob- haps some of the old boundaries be- ? JL TTL n j tween countries will be discarded lems than They Solve .... ^ new lines drawn> It is a difficult A war-torn world faces pressing task to change land from one na- problems. The end of the war tion to another and have all the brought problems as pressing as war people satisfied, itself. First is the problem of feed- Fourth, bombing and the ing huge populations who have "scorched earth" policy wiped out been near starvation. One expert many cities, homes, and factories. 5 68 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY An American soldier among the ruins of a battered Italian town. Destruction such as this is common throughout much of Europe and parts of Asia. It will be years before the people will have their homes restored and go back to normal agricultural and in- dustrial life. (Press Association) They must be rebuilt. Water sup- plies, sewerage systems, roads, and electric power lines need to be re- stored. New machinery will be needed for factories. A sound system of money must be set up so that once again people may trade and go about their daily business. Fifth, schools must be rebuilt. Many of the school buildings were completely destroyed or badly dam- aged during the war. New, fully- equipped buildings must again be made available to the young people in war-torn lands<. The ideas taught in some of the school systems, par- ticularly those of Italy, Germany, and Japan, must be changed. Train- ing for hate, fear, and race superi- ority must be replaced by tolerance, faith, and willingness to accept the peoples of all nationalities and races as individuals with rights. Finally, and perhaps most diffi- cult is the problem of wiping out the feelings of suspicion and fear that so long have held the world in their grip. These and other rea- sons make it difficult to restore the people of battle-worn lands to a balanced outlook on life. The United States makes plans for a nation at peace. Even before the end of the war many groups made plans for the day of peace. The iia- NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 569 tional government and some states this and later periods to provide drafted plans for their future ac- jobs. tivities. Organizations such as the Business leaders have plans to National Association of Manufac- supply new automobiles, refrigera- turers, the American Federation of tors, radios, houses, and hundreds Labor, the Congress of Industrial of other things to an eager market. Organizations, and the National New products are planned by many Grange put forth ideas on business, companies which promise to make labor, and farming. life better and more comfortable. The armed forces will not remain These plans offer hope for employ - at Avar-time strength. The discharge ment to those who want work. of large numbers from the armed The government owns several services and their return to jobs has billion dollars worth of war plants brought many problems. Those who and machinery. Should the govern- had jobs before entering the serv- ment keep them, or should it sell ices are entitled to have them back, them to private companies? The But there are millions of others who government also has surplus stocks had no previous jobs. of supplies, such as socks, shirts. Congress made provision to help shoes, jeeps, and many other things, them by passing a law called the Plans are made to dispose of these "G. I. Bill of Rights." This law pro- to the public without upsetting vides money to increase hospital prices or injuring the business of and other facilities for care of the private manufacturers in those wounded and those with nervous lines. All of these plans look for- difficulties due to action in the war. ward to a better life with the na- While seeking work, veterans can tion at peace, secure $20 a week unemployment benefits up to a period of one year. "We here highly resolve that these The government will also grant to dead shall not have died in vain." veterans money for further educa- Thus spoke President Lincoln tion or additional specialized train- while dedicating the National Cem- ing for jobs. etery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The end of the war brought Seventeen acres of the great Gettys- other problems for which the gov- burg battlefield had been set aside ernment and other groups must as a burial-ground for the soldiers plan. Factories stopped work on of both the Union and Confederate war-time goods. They must be re- forces who fell in that battle, tooled before they can make peace- In his Gettysburg Address, Presi- time goods. Can employment be dent Lincoln pointed out that our maintained during this period of nation had been born in liberty, change-over? Many people believe with the ideal that "all men are not. They feel that the federal, state, created equal." The War Between and local governments should step the States was a civil war testing in and start building schools, roads, whether or not our nation could and other public projects during continue with those beliefs, and the 57 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY war was still in a critical stage when Lincoln spoke. Lincoln also said that there was much "unfinished work" to be car- ried on. That, he said, was the great task remaining before us. "That this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." The situ- ation today is somewhat like that of Lincoln's time. The Second World War was also fought to maintain the ideals of democracy. Millions of men from the United Nations have died for that common pur- pose. We, too, have "unfinished work" before us. We have yet to establish a world in which people may be free. Millions of our people do not yet have decent homes, enough to eat or adequate clothing. We have not yet learned to use wisely and well all our resources. Never before have the people of this hemisphere been so closely united. Yet, now that the war is over and our common enemy is defeated, will these "good neighbor" rela- tions continue? The answer de- pends in part upon the people of our country. The United States is one of the most powerful nations of the world. Will we use this power to promote justice, international co- operation, and peace? Our neigh- bors, north, south, and across the seas, will watch for the answer. The end of the war opened new frontiers and new opportunities for those who are prepared. There are frontiers yet unseen in science, business, farming, and the fine arts. To provide all our people with decent homes, adequate food, and clothing is a challenge to the com- ing generations. Our people eagerly await better pictures, finer music, more books, and time to enjoy them. The opportunity to carry on this "unfinished work" lies with Amer- ica. It has been bought with the blood of millions of men on the battlefronts over the entire world. Shall we meet the opportunity and the challenge "with faith in one an- other, with faith in our common fu- ture, which these men fought to make free"? Summary of the Unit .... In Unit Ten "A Rapidly Changing World Creates New Problems and Forces the Americas to Look to the Future" we have told the story of the great depres- sion and the part taken by America in the Second World War. 1 . After a period of prosperity, a great depression fell upon the United States in 1929. 2. The depression brought a po- litical overturn and the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. 3. During Roosevelt's Presidency Congress passed many acts to help the nation out of the depression and provide for a more secure future. Among the most important were a Public Utility Holding Company Act (1935) to regulate electric com- panies, a Social Security Act (1935) to encourage unemployment in- surance and provide old-age pen- NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 57 sions, and an Agricultural Adjust- ment Act (1938) to aid the farmers. 4. While the United States met the problems of depression by in- troducing reforms, Germany, Italy, and other nations established dic- tatorships. 5. Having crushed democracy and liberty at home, Germany, Italy, and Japan set out to conquer other lands, and started a Second World War (1939). 6. The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor (1941) brought the United States and many Latin- American nations into the war to fight as partners with England, Rus- sia, and our other allies. 7. Backed by a loyal home front, our armed forces fought a victori- ous war on world-wide fronts. 8. Even before the war was over the President and Congress were making plans for our nation at peace. They were also discussing methods to prevent further wars through some kind of world organi- zation. WHAT DO THEY MEAN? Explain the meaning of each of the following terms. 1. UNRRA 3. Allied Military Government 5. exile-government 2. Lend-Lease 4. "G. I. Bill of Rights" 6. the United Nations Organization WHY ARE THESE RED-LETTER YEARS? 1941: What important document was issued in this year? 1942: Why was the first day in this year important in the history of the Second World War? 1944: What important plan for world peace was proposed in this year? CAN YOU FIND ANSWERS TO THESE? 1. What are the purposes of UNRRA? What idea does the story of the Hot Springs conference and the drafting of the UNRRA agreement illustrate? 2. What are the Four Freedoms? 3. What pledges did the United States and Britain make in the Atlantic Charter? 4. What were at least four steps taken during the war that brought the United Nations closer? 5. What would be the four main bodies of the United Nations Organization proposed by the Dumbarton Oaks conference? 6. Why would the Security Council be considered the key unit in the organization? 7. Explain how the machinery of the United Nations Organization would be put to work in event of a threat to world peace. 8. In what ways would the new organization for world peace be similar to the old League of Nations? 9. What are at least five differences between the proposed organization of the United Nations and the League of Nations? 572 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY 10. What are at least three important problems the world faces as a result of the Second World War? 11. What plans are groups in the United States making for the period of peace? 12. What is the "unfinished work" that lies before America and the world today? 13. Summary Question: The chapter title is: "Living Together in Today's World Places New Responsibilities on All Nations." What are some ot tbs responsibilities of the United States in today's world? Activities for Unit Ten CAN YOU MAKE IT? 1. Poster. Make a poster showing the evils and dangers of a depression. Or one showing the evils and dangers of dictatorship. Or one showing the need for planning a lasting peace. 2. Graph. Prepare a graph which shows the record by years of the sale of war bonds and stamps in your school or in the entire school system. 3. Map. Make a large colored map of the nations and the Second World War. Show in blue the United Nations and their allies, in red the Axis Powers and their allies, and in green the "neutral" nations. Draw parallel red lines over those countries occupied by the Axis Powers at any time. You may wish to add arrows to this map to show the major strategy of the war. 4. Make Chart. On the blackboard or on a large sheet of heavy paper make a chart of the United Nations Organization. Be prepared to explain to the class the way in which the organization is supposed to work to enforce world peace. 5. Newspaper Headlines. Prepare newspaper headlines announcing these events: (a) the President's signing of the Social Security Act, (b) the Japa- nese sneak attack on Pearl Harbor, (c) the invasion of Germany, (d) the fourth election of Roosevelt, (e) the American invasion of the Philippines. I TEST MY SKILLS 6. Generalization. A generalization is a statement of a general rule or propo- sition. To be accurate it must be based on a number of particular facts which support it. Further, the number of facts supporting it must outweigh those which do not. Generalizing is not easy. Some people generalize from too few facts, from inaccuracies, or from no facts at all. On page 529 is this generalization: "During the years after the First World War the United States enjoyed a period of great prosperity." Below are given some statements which support this generalization, some that partly support it, and some that do not support it at all. On notebook paper ar- range the statements in these three groups: In Full Support; Partly in Sup- port; No Support. (Do not write in this book.) a. Jobs were plentiful and wages were high. 1). The automobile business expanded and the sale of rubber dropped, c. Manufacturers enlarged their factories. NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 573 d. The number of voters increased. e. The farmers did not share in this prosperity. f. Money was easy to make and living costs were dropping. g. The stock market was booming and prices of stocks were increasing, h. Child labor decreased. (Four of the above are in full support, two partly in support, and two give no support to the generalization.) Perhaps the class will prefer to do this exercise under the teacher's guidance. 7. Reading a Picture. Photographs of historical events of importance are included in textbooks to make the past seem more real. Men, women, and events of the past seen through the eyes of a camera take on meaning which words alone cannot give them. But pictures, like words, must be read with care, if one is to get their full value. Let us read a very important picture in this unit. Turn to the picture of Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill on page 562, and study it with these questions to guide you. (a) What is the main purpose of this picture taken at the Teheran Con- ference late in 1943? (b) What do you regard as the most important thing shown in the photograph? (c) Of the three leaders, who appears to be the oldest and who the youngest? (What was the age of each late in 1943?) (d) Why are military and naval uniforms worn on this occasion? (e) Who might be the men in the background? (f) What else does this picture reveal to you about the period? WE WORK IN GROUPS 8. Panel Discussion. Under the leadership of a chairman, let a group of five discuss this subject: "Dictatorship vs. Democracy." Four phases of the sub- ject might be: (a) Rise of Dictators; (b) Beliefs and Practices of Dictators; (c) German Dictatorship; (d) The Democratic Way. Following these brief talks, the panel might discuss the subject in an informal way, to be fol- lowed by questions from the class. One or more of these books should be consulted: G. Hartman, The Making of a Democracy, Part III; O. Brown. Youth Under Dictators; A. Carr, Men of Power, 207-72; H. Rugg.C/iang- ing Governments and Changing Cultures, chap, xxv; S. V. Benet, America. WE THINK FOR OURSELVES 9. The World's Challenge. The theme of this unit is a rapidly changing world with its many new problems and responsibilities. All of this forces Ameri- cans to think hard about the future. You have come to the end of the course, and you, too, are in a position to think about problems as you have not done before. Consider this: "How Will I Meet the Challenges of This New World?" This big problem can be broken down into smaller ones such as: (a) How will I fit into the new America? (b) What should be my attitude toward Europe? (c) Toward Asia? (d) Toward our Latin-American and Canadian neighbors? Read from the following on any one of these topics, and make a floor talk on the new ideas learned: Building America: IX, "The Challenge to Ameri- can Youth"; VIII, "Pacific Neighbors: The East Indies"; VI, "Our North- ern Neighbors"; V, "Our Latin-American Neighbors"; N. L. Engelhardt, Toward New Frontiers of Our Global War; C. H. Lawrence (ed.), New 574 U.S.A. AN AMERICAN HISTORY World Horizons; W. L. Willkie, One World, chap. 14; and these pam- phlets: H. Motherwell, "Rebuilding Europe After Victory" (Public Af- fairs Pamphlet); V. M. Dean, "On the Threshold of World Order" (Head- line Series); W. C. Johnstone, "The Changing Far East" (Headline Series). WE TURN TO OTHER BOOKS 10. To Get Information. RUGG, HAROLD, The Conquest of America. Chapter xxxi treats the early years of the New Deal. RUGG, HAROLD, Changing Countries and Changing Cultures. The latter units deal with Europe and Asia since the First World War. PEET, CREIGHTON, Defending America. A simple description of our armed forces, showing how men and machines combine to protect us on land and sea and in the air. AYLING, KEITH, Semper Fidelis: The U. S. Marines in Action. Here is the thrilling story of the heroic fighting of the marines in the Pacific. CHILDS, J. F., Nary Gun Crew. A naval lieutenant tells about the navy gunners aboard merchant ships during the war. SHANE, TED, Heroes of the Pacific. How the sons of a great democracy fought on the long road to Tokyo. ENGELHARDT, N. L., Toward New Frontiers of Our Global War. Some of the things you may expect to find in the air-age world are here. DEAN, V. M., "On the Threshold of World Order" (Headline Series Pam- phlet). A forward look into the world after the war for the mature reader. 11. To Find Out Who's Who. MOSES, BELLE, Franklin Delano Roosevelt; The Minute Man of '33. A full-length account of the four-time President from boyhood to the first inauguration. CARR, ALBERT, Men of Power. Dictators of the past 300 years, including Mussolini, Hitler, and Stalin. FLOHERTY, J. J., The Courage and the Glory. True stories of Bulkeley, Kelly, and other heroes of the Second World War. COOK, DON, Fighting Americans of Today. The life stories of the men who commanded our armed forces in the war. RECHNITZER, F. E., War Correspondent. This is an account of Quentin Reynolds whose career as a war correspondent was filled with unbelievable adventure. 12. To Read a Historical Novel. CRAWFORD, PHYLLIS, Second Sliift. The story of young America at war. Judy Pond does her part by working in a war plant. FROST, FRANCES, Legends of the United Nations. Tales popular among boys and girls in 17 of the United Nations. DEUTSCH, BABETTE, The Welcome. A story about a boys' school, a thought- less American boy, and a refugee from the Nazis. NEW RESPONSIBILITIES 575 FERNALD, H. C., Jonathan's Doorstep. A young girl faces the problems of peace and sees herself a citizen of the world. 13. To Look at the Past in Pictures. Building America: II, "Social Security"; V, "Our Latin-American Neigh- bors"; VI, "Our Northern Neighbors"; VII, "America's Outposts"; VIII, "Pacific Neighbors: The East Indies," "Wartime Living for Peacetime Security"; IX, "The Consumer in War and Peace," "American Democracy in Wartime," "The Challenge to American Youth." WE SUMMARIZE THE UNIT 14. New Deal Table. Prepare a table summarizing the New Deal under these headings: Chief Problems Facing It; What It Did; What I Think About It. 15. Time Line. Make a time line showing the major events of the unit. Put peace-time happenings in blue on one side of the line and war-time events in red on the other side. 16. Military Booklet. Make an illustrated booklet entitled "Military History." This will be the military and naval story of our part in the Second World War: causes, major battles, leaders on both sides, and results. Include a map showing the main strategy. If you started a military booklet earlier, add this as another chapter. 17. United Nations Who's Who. Prepare for the four major countries United States, Britain, Russia, and China brief biographical sketches of the war leaders. For each include the head of the nation, the leading general and admiral, and such other figures as you think important. 18. Current Events Scrapbook. This unit raised many unsolved problems. Make a scrapbook with these major sections: Economic, Political, Social, Foreign Affairs. Collect for a period of two weeks important items from newspapers dealing with these ever-present problems. Arrange them neatly under the above headings. Add your comment to each item, indicating why you think it is important. DO WE UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF THE UNIT? 19. Which Way the World? Was progress advanced or checked by these events: depression of 1929, passage of the Public Utility Holding Company Act, passage of the Social Security Act, rise of the dictators in Europe, Second World War, passage of the Lend-Lease Act, the proposal for a world organization to enforce peace? 20. War and Peace Terms. Can you explain the meaning of each of these words and terms: New Deal, public works, social security, armistice, Fascists, Nazis, United Nations, rationing, "arsenal of democracy," lend-lease, UNRRA? 21. The Artist's View. At the beginning of this unit is a two-page drawing by the artist, James Daugherty, who is famed as an illustrator of books for young people. Like you, Mr. Daugherty read the unit. Then he made the drawing which represents certain ideas he found in the unit. Study this drawing carefully. What unit ideas has the artist expressed? Do you agree with his interpretation of the unit? If not, what changes would you make? Appendix Appendix I THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 1 IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776 2 THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of die earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to die opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes whidi impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator widi certain unalienable Rights, dial among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That when- ever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Govern- ments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and ac- cordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is dieir duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish die right of Representation in die Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called togedier legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 1 The spelling, capitalization, punctuation and paragraphing of the original document are here followed, as issued by the Department of State. This famous charter of liberty is now preserved in the Library of Congress. 2 Adopted on this date by the Second Continental Congress. Curiously enough, the first "Fourth of July" celebration occurred July 8, 1776, for it was on that date in Philadelphia that the document was first read to the public. It was upon this occasion, according to old tales, that the "Liberty Bell" in the State House (now known as Independence Hall), with its famous lettering "Proclaim Liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof," was rung to call the citizens together. In 1835 the historic crack appeared in the bell as it was being tolled for the funeral of Chief Justice John Marshall. 579 580 APPENDIX fortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. -He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdic- tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by jury: For tnmsjxming us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offenses: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary govern- ment, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit in- strument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Gov- ernment here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited do- mestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an un- distinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Op- pressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Briuish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpa- APPENDIX 581 dons, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acqui- esce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. WE, THEREFORE, THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. John Hancock 3 Button Gwinnett Lyman Hall Geo Walton. W m Hooper Joseph Hewes, John Penn Edward Rutledge. Tho* Heyward Jun r . Thomas Lynch Jun r . Arthur Middleton Samuel Chase W m . Paca Tho'. Stone Charles Carroll of Carrollton George Wythe Richard Henry Lee. Th Jefferson Benj" Harrison Tho' Nelson Jr. Francis Lightfoot Lee Carter Braxton Rob' Morris Benjamin Rush Benj*. Franklin John Morton Geo Clymer Ja". Smith. Geo. Taylor James Wilson Geo. Ross Casar Rodney Geo Read Tho M: Kean W m Floyd Phil. Livingston Fran". Lewis Lewis Morris Rich". Stockton Jn Witherspoon Fra". Hopkinson John Hart Abra Clark Josiah Bartlett W m . Whipple Sam 1 Adams John Adams Rob* Treat Payne Elbridge Gerry Step Hopkins William Ellery Roger Sherman Sam' 1 Huntington W 1 ". Williams Oliver Wolcott Matthew Thornton 3 Hancock, whose large signature has become so well known, was president of the Congress. The formal signing of the Declaration took place August 2, 1776. Appendix II THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1 THE PREAMBLE 2 1. Reasons Are Given for Establishing the Constitution. We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and se- cure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE. I. THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT SECTION 1. THE CONGRESS 2. A Congress of Two Houses Has Legislative Power. 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION 2. THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 3. The People Elect Their Representatives. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors 3 of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 4. Who May Be Representatives? 2. No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 5. Representation in the House Is Based on Population. 3. Representatives and direct Taxes 4 shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, [which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. 5 ] 9 The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed 1 The printing of the Constitution as issued by the Department of State is here followed, except for the headings in heavy-faced type, the insertion of brackets and the use of italics. 2 The preamble is merely an introduction. It states the general purposes in the minds of the framers of the document, but grants no powers. Its clauses, however, have been used to read meaning into clauses in the body of the Constitution. 3 "Electors" here means voters. 4 The income tax, as a form of direct tax, may now be levied under the provisions of the Sixteenth Amendment [107]. 5 "Persons" here refers to slaves. The word "slave" does not appear in the Constitution, al- though the word "slavery" is found in the Thirteenth Amendment. The three-fifths provision has been replaced by the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments [98 and 101]. Citizenship has now been granted to the Indians. 6 Brackets with the italics indicate parts no longer in effect. 582 APPENDIX 583 one for every thirty Thousand, 7 but each State shall have at Least one Representative: [and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be en- titled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.] 6. Vacancies in the House Are Filled by Election. 4. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. 7. The House Selects its Speaker and Alone Has Power to Impeach. 5. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. SECTION 3. THE SENATE 8. Representation in the Senate Is Based on the States. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, [chosen by the Legislature thereof]* for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 9. One-third of the Senators Are Chosen Every Two Years. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. [The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year,] 9 so that one third may be chosen every second Year; [and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tem- porary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.] 10 10. Who May Be Senators? 3. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have at- tained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 11. The Vice President Presides over the Senate. 4. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 12. The Senate Chooses its Other Officers. 5. The Senate shall chuse their other Offi- cers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. 13. The Senate Alone Has Power to Try Impeachments. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all Impeachments. 11 When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. 14. Conviction May Result in Removal from and Disqualification for Office. 7. Judg- ment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, 7 Under the 1940 census there was one representative for about every 300,000 persons. 8 Replaced by the Seventeenth Amendment [108]. 9 A temporary provision. 10 Changed by the Seventeenth Amendment [109]. "Thirteen impeachments have been brought by the House, with four convictions by the Senate. The persons convicted and removed from office were judges. 584 APPENDIX and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor. Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to In- dictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. SECTION 4. ELECTION AND MEETINGS OF CONGRESS 15. The State Legislatures and Congress Determine Conditions of Elections. 1. The Times. Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Sena- tors. 16. Congress Must Meet Once a Year. 2. [The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.] 12 SECTION 5. ORGANIZATION AND RULES OF THE HOUSES 17. Each House Has Power to Reject Members. 1. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. 18. Each House Makes its Own Rules. 2. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concur- rence of two thirds, expel a Member. 19. Each House Must Keep and Publish a Record of its Proceedings. 3. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, except- ing such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of die Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Pres- ent, be entered on the Journal. 20. Both Houses Must Agree Regarding Adjournment. 4. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. SECTION 6. PRIVILEGES OF AND PROHIBITIONS UPON CONGRESSMEN 21. Congressmen Receive a Salary from the United States and Are Entitled to Cer- tain Privileges. 13 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 22. A Congressman Must not Hold any Other Federal Civil Office. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Per- son holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. 12 Changed to January third by Twentieth Amendment [117]. 13 Popularly the term "Congressman" means a member of the lower House, but properly it means either a Senator or Representative. Senators and Representatives receive $10.000 a vear. APPENDIX 585 SECTION 7. METHOD OF PASSING LAWS 23. Revenue Bills Must Originate in the House. 14 1. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or com ur with Amendments as on other Bills. 24. The President May Veto Congressional Bills, but Congress by a Two-thirds Vote Can Override the Veto. 2. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representa- tives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objec- tions at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsidera- tion two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Per- sons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House re- spectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. 25. The President's Qualified Veto Extends to All Congressional Measures. 1 "' 3. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which Concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations pre- scribed in the Case of a Bill. SECTION 8. THE ENUMERATED POWERS OF CONGRESS 16 26. Congress Has Power to Lay and Collect Taxes. 1. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 27. Congress May Borrow Money. 2. To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; 28. Congress Regulates Foreign and Interstate Commerce. 3. To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; 29. Congress Legislates Concerning Naturalization and Bankruptcies. 17 4. To estab- 14 A revenue bill is any bill drawn up mainly to raise money lor governmental purposes. In practice, appropriation or money-spending bills tend to originate in the House, although there is no such constitutional requirement. In the case of either bill, the Senate can amend as it desires. In effect, then, the financial powers of the two Houses are equal. 15 Proposals of amendment to the Constitution and concurrent resolutions congressional expressions of opinion do not require presidential approval. 16 An "enumerated" power is a listed power. Additional powers of Congress are granted in Amendments XIII-XVI [98-107] and XIX-XXI [114-24]. 17 Bankruptcy is a legal process enabling an individual unable to pav bis debts in full to divide his property fairly among his creditors, thus releasing him troui further legal obligation for the debts in question. State laws regulated bankruptcy procedure until Congress legis- lated in 1898. thus establishing "uniform" but not exclusive regulation. 586 APPENDIX lish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bank- ruptcies throughout the United States; 30. Congress May Provide for Coining Money. 5. To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; 31. Congress Has Power to Punish Counterfeiting. 6. To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States; 32. Congress May Establish a Postal Service. 7. To establish Post Offices and post Roads; 33. Congress May Grant Copyright and Patent Privileges. 13 8. To promote die Prog- ress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; 34. Congress May Establish Inferior Courts. 9. To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; 35. Congress May Punish Crimes Committed on the High Seas. 19 10. To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; 36. Congress Has Power to Declare War. 11. To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, 20 and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; 37. Congress Raises and Controls Size of the Army. 12. To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; 38. Congress Provides for and Controls Size of the Navy. 13. To provide and main- tain a Navy; 39. Congress Makes Rules for Regulation of the Army and Navy. 14. To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces; 40. Congress May Call Out the State Militia. 15. To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel Invasions; 41. Congress and the States Control the State Militia. 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 42. Congress Alone Has Power over the District of Columbia. 17. To exercise ex- clusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of die Government of die United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for die Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; And 43. In Addition, Congress Has "Implied Powers," Resulting from die Elastic Clause. 18 A copyright protects the exclusive rights of publication and sale of a writer, artist, musi- cian, photographer and similar producers for a period of 28 years, with the right of renewal for a like term. A patent grants an inventor protection on the profits of his invention for a period of 17 years. Patent renewals are rare and only by special act of Congress. 10 "High seas" are the ocean waters beyond the three-mile limit, beyond which no country has exclusive rights. Piracy, or robbery at sea, was more or less common in the 1700's. Felonies are serious crimes punishable by death or imprisonment. The law of nations is international law. 20 Letters of marque and reprisal are governmental commissions to privateers or privately owned and operated ships to make war on the ships of the enemy. No commissions were issued for the War Between the States or later wars. APPENDIX 587 18. To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Govern- ment of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. SECTION 9. POWERS DENIED TO THE UNITED STATES" 9 44. Congress Must not Limit Immigration before 1808. 1. [The Migration or Im- portation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten . dollars for each Person.] 2 - 45. Congress Must not Suspend the Writ of Habeas Corpus Except During Rebel- lion or Invasion. 2. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus 23 shall not be sus- pended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. 46. Congress Must not Pass Bills of Attainder or Ex Post Facto Laws. 24 3. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 47. Congress Must not Levy Direct Taxes Unless in Proportion to Population. 4. No Capitation, or other direct, 25 Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 48. Congress Must not Levy Export Taxes. 5. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Arti- cles exported from any State. 49. Congress in its Regulations Must not Favor One Port over Another. 6. No Pref- erence shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. 50. Congress Controls All Expenditures. 7. No Money shall be drawn from the Treas- ury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law: and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. 51. Congress Cannot Grant Titles of Nobility. 8. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolu- ment, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. SECTION 10. POWERS DENIED TO THE STATES 26 52. The States Are Denied Certain Important Powers. 1. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin 21 Other restrictions on the United States will be found in Amendments I-X [86-95], 22 A temporary clause referring to the importation of slaves a subject for compromise in the Constitutional Convention. 28 A writ of habeas corpus is a court order demanding that the person being detained (in prison, asylum, or elsewhere) be delivered over to the court, which will determine whether the person is being legally or properly detained. 24 A bill of attainder is a law which punishes without judicial trial. An ex post facto law is legislation which makes criminal an act which was not contrary to law when done, or which in any way works to the disadvantage of the person accused of a crime committed before the law was passed. 25 A poll tax and a tax on land are the only forms of direct taxes. Since incomes may come from the ownership of land, the Sixteenth Amendment was necessary in order to levy an in- come tax [107]. 28 Additional restrictions upon the States will be found in Arnendmems XIII-XV [98-106], and XIX fl 14-15]. 588 APPENDIX Money; emit Bills of Credit; 27 make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligations of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. 53. The States Must not Lay Import or Export Duties. 2. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Pro- duce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on .Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 54. The States Must Limit their Military Activities. 3. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage.-" keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE. II. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT SECTION 1. THE PRESIDENT AND THE VICE PRESIDENT 55. The President Is the Chief Executive Official. 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows 56. The President Is Elected Indirectly by State Electors. 2. Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 57. The President Is Elected by a Majority of the Electoral Votes. 3. [The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certifi- cates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Mem- bers from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the great- est Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should re- 27 Bills of credit are paper money. 28 Tonnage duties are placed upon vessels according to their size. This prohibition therefore prevents an indirect means of charging import and export duties. APPENDIX 589 main two or more who have equal Fates, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.] 2 * 58. Congress Sets the Time for Election and the Meeting of the "Electoral Col- lege." 30 4. The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. 59. Who May Be President? 5. No Person except a natural born Citizen, [or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution,] 31 shall be eli- gible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resi- dent within the United States. 60. Vacancy in the Presidency Is Filled by the Vice President. 6. In Case of the Re- moval of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to dis- charge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death. Resignation or Inability both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 32 61. The President's Salary Cannot Be Changed During his Term. 33 7. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. 62. The President Is Required to Take an Oath of Office. 8. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: "I do sol- emnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." SECTION 2. THE POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT 63. The President Is the Highest Military Officer; He Can Also Check the Federal Judiciary. 1. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual 29 Entirely replaced by the Twelfth Amendment [97]. 30 Presidential electors are chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November of each "leap year." The electors, consisting today of iliat group of party electors receiving a plurality of the slate's popular votes, meet in their respective state capitals on the first Mon- day after the second Wednesday in December and cast their ballots for President and Vice President. On the sixth day of January, the votes of the Electoral College are counted in Con- gress and the election officially declared, though the results were known to the country in November. The above days for the casting and counting of electoral votes are the dates set by Congress as required by Amendment XX [116]. 31 This clause is of historical significance only. It was inserted so that foreign-born citizens (such as Alexander Hamilton, James Wilson, Robert Morris and William Paterson) of able leadership should not be excluded. 32 The Presidential Succession Act (1886) provides that heads of executive departments (cabi- net members) succeed the Vice President in order of the creation of their departments, be- ginning with the Secretary of State and ending with the Secretary of the Interior. 33 The President's annual salary has been increased, effective with the next term of office, from $25,000 in 1789 to $50,000 in 1873. The present salary, set by Congress in 1909, is $75.000. with a travel allowance of $25,000. Additional appropriations cover certain White House ex- penses of a public nature. The Vice President receives $15,000 a year. APPENDIX Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the Executive Departments, 34 upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons 35 for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 64. The President's Power to Make Treaties and Appointments Is Subject to the Senate's Approval. 36 2. He shall have, Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall ap- point Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein other- wise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 65. The President May Make Recess Appointments. 37 3. The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. SECTION 3. THE DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT 66. The President May Use Legislative Influence. 1 . He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, 38 and recommend to their Con- sideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may ad- journ them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. SECTION 4. IMPEACHMENT 67. The President May Be Impeached. 1. The President, Vice President and all Civil Officers of the United States, 39 shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, 34 In practice President Washington began to meet with the executive heads, thus giving rise to a cabinet. But, it will be noted, there is no constitutional provision for a cabinet. Indeed, the cabinet was not recognized by law until more than 100 years after its creation. The salary of a cabinet member is $15,000 a year. 35 A pardon is freedom from a penalty imposed by the courts. A reprieve is partial relief from or postponement of a sentence. A general pardon, granted to a group, is an amnesty. By proclamation in 1865 President Johnson granted pardon to all Southerners, except the leaders, who had fought in the Confederate cause in the War Between the States. 36 Approval of treaties requires a two-thirds vote of the Senators present, although war may be declared by a majority vote of Congress. Approval of appointments requires a simple ma- jority vote in the Senate. 37 Occasionally a President will resort to recess appointment when the Senate withholds ap- proval of a nominee particularly desired by the President. 38 The Presidential Message was delivered in person by Washington and Adams, but Jeffer- son preferred written messages. Jefferson's successors continued his practice until Wilson again appeared before Congress to read his messages. 39 "All Civil Officers" means all federal executive and judicial appointees, such as cabinet members, ambassadors, judges, and postmasters. Military and naval officials are not subject to impeachment, nor are members of Congress. Members of Congress are official representatives of their respective states, not civil officers of the United States. But Congress may expel its own members for misconduct [18], and military and naval officials are subject to court-martial. APPENDIX 59 and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. 40 ARTICLE. III. THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT SECTION 1. THE FEDERAL COURTS 68. Only the Supreme Court Is Established by the Constitution. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during the Continuance in Office. 41 SECTION 2. THE JURISDICTION OF THE COURTS 69. The Federal Judiciary Is Supreme. 1. The judicial Power shall extend to all cases, in Law and Equity, 42 arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; 43 to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; to Controversies between two or more States; between a State and Citizens of another State; 44 between Citizens of different States, between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 70. Two Classes of Cases Come to the Supreme Court Directly; AH Others Are Ap- pealed from Lower Courts. 2. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. 45 In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as toLaw and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. 71. Trial Is by Jury in Federal Criminal Cases. 3. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. SECTION 3. TREASON AND ITS PUNISHMENT 72. Treason Against the United States Is Defined. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, 40 Treason is denned by the Constitution [72]. The phrase, "high crimes and misdemeanors," has been interpreted to mean serious misconduct in office. 41 Salaries of Supreme Court justices are $20,000, except the Chief Justice, who receives $20300. 42 Equity, applying to certain kinds of civil cases only, developed out of need for relief from the shortcomings of ordinary law. Cases in law follow after the violation of the law- is charged; cases in equity attempt "preventive justice," that is, seek to prevent an injustice being done. To prevent a wrong being done, the court will issue an order, called an injunction, restraining freedom of action. A judge may order a public official (or a corporation or individual) to do or not to do (as is usually the case) a certain action. ^Admiralty and maritime law deals with controversies arising out of the use of the high seas. 44 This clause has been changed by the Eleventh Amendment [96]. 45 "Original jurisdiction" is the right to hear and determine a case in its first appearance in court; "appellate jurisdiction" is the right to hear a case appealed from a lower court. 592 APPENDIX giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. 73. The Power of Congress to Punish Treason Is Limited. 2. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. ARTICLE. IV. RELATIONS OF THE STATES SECTION 1. PUBLIC ACTS 74. A State Must Recognize the Public Acts and Records of Other States. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. SECTION 2. RIGHTS OF CITIZENS OF ONE STATE IN ANOTHER STATE 75. Citizenship in One State Also Means Certain Rights in Another State. 1. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 76. Fugitives from Justice Must Be Returned to the State from Which They Fled. 2. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, 40 or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. 77. Fugitive Slaves Must Likewise Be Returned. 3. [No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Conse- quence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.]" SECTION 3. NEW STATES AND TERRITORIES 78. Congress Admits New States. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 48 79. Congress Has Full Control over the Territories. 2. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 46 Crimes punishable by death or imprisonment are usually classified as felonies. 47 So far as "person" here means slave, the clause is set aside by the Thirteenth Amendment [98]. 48 The creation of West Virginia and its admission to the Union in 1863 under the unusual conditions of the War Between the States were without the consent of the parent State of Virginia. Other instances of the division of a state were the separation of Maine from Massa- chusetts in 1820, Vermont from New York, 1791, and Kentucky from Virginia, 1792; in each case separation was with the consent of the state being reduced in area. APPENDIX 593 SECTION 4. PROTECTION OF THE STATES BY THE UNITED STATES 80. The United States Guarantees each State a Republican Government and Pro- tection against Invasion. 1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, 49 and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legis- lature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. ARTICLE. V. THE PROCESS OF AMENDMENT 81. The Constitution May be Amended in Any One of Four Ways. 1. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amend- ments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided [that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and] that no State, without its Con- sent, shall be deprived of it's equal Suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE. VI. THE SUPREME LAW OF THE LAND 82. The Federal Government Assumes the Debts of the Confederation. 1. All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Con- federation. 83. The Constitution Is the Supreme Law of the Land. 2. The Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof: and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 51 84. All State and Federal Officers Are Bound by Oath to Support the Constitution. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the sev- eral State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Consti- tution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ARTICLE. VII. THE RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 85. The Constitution Is Established when Nine State Conventions Ratify. 1. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. 49 Republican form of government is not denned by the Constitution, but is considered to be the representative form of government in existence in the states when the Constitution was framed. 50 A temporary clause. 51 In case of conflict between federal and state Constitutions and laws, the order of authority is: Constitution of the United States, laws and treaties of the United States; constitutions of the states, laws of the states, ordinances of cities and towns. If a federal law and treaty conflict, the one more recently enacted or ratified, holds. 594 APPENDIX done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Sev- enteenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, G Washington Presid' and deputy from Virginia Attest William Jackson Secretary New Hampshire John Langdon Nicholas Gilman Massachusetts Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King Connecticut W". Sam 1 . Johnson Roger Sherman New York Alexander Hamilton New Jersey Wil: Livingston David Brearley W m . Paterson Jona: Dayton Pennsylvania B Franklin Thomas Mifflin Rob' Morris Geo. Clymer Tho'. Fit/Simons Jared Ingersoll James Wilson Gouv Morris Delaware Geo: Read Gunning Bedford jun John Dickinson Richard Bassett Jaco: Broom Maryland James M c Henry Dan of S' Tho'. Jenifer Dan 1 Carroll Virginia John Blair James Madison Jr. North Carolina W m . Blount Rich". Dobbs Spaight. Hu Williamson South Carolina J. Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler. Georgia William Few Abr Baldwin AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AMENDMENT I RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL FREEDOM 52 86. Congress Must not Interfere with Freedom of Religion, Speech or Press. Con- gress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 53 or prohibiting the 52 The first ten amendments, proclaimed in effect late in 1791, are restrictions on the federal government. These ten amendments are termed the Bill of Rights, although only the first ei*ht guarantee specific rights to the people. 53 As far as the federal government is concerned, the separation of church and state is estab- APPENDIX 595 free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; 54 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. AMENDMENT II RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS 87. Congress Must not Deny the States a Militia. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, 55 shall not be infringed. AMENDMENT III QUARTERING SOLDIERS 88. Congress Must not Quarter Soldiers on the People. 56 No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. AMENDMENT IV SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 89. Federal Officials Must not Authorize Unreasonable Searches. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. AMENDMENT V RIGHTS IN CRIMINAL PROSECUTION 90. Federal Courts Must not Violate Certain Rights of the People. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 57 of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be de- prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, 38 nor shall private prop- erty be taken for public use, without just compensation. lished. But the clause does not restrict state governments from regulating religion, and several states continued with established religions lor some years after 1791. Nearly all state constitu- tions now guarantee religious freedom. 54 In practice this clause does not mean absolute freedom to speak without thought of the effect of one's speech. For example, one may be held accountable for what one says. 53 The original intent of this clause was to protect the states against a possible tyranny of the federal government. State laws now regulate the use of firearms. 56 This is an ancient English grievance and is found among the grievances in the Declaration of Independence. 57 Indictment is the finding of the grand jury, in the form of a written accusation, that there is probable cause for trial of the accused. 58 A similar restriction is placed on the state governments in the Fourteenth Amendment [100]. Thus the Constitution strongly guards property rights against unlawful acts by either state or federal government. "Due process of law" implies a fair trial one that hears before it condemns under the rules established for judicial proceedings. This does not necessarily mean trial by jury. 596 APPENDIX AMENDMENT VI RIGHTS IN CRIMINAL PROSECUTION 91. Federal Courts Must Guarantee Certain Rights to the Accused. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. AMENDMENT VII RIGHT OF TRIAL BY JURY 92. Federal Courts Must Guarantee Jury Trial in Civil Suits. In Suits at common law, 39 where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. AMENDMENT VIII EXCESSIVE BAIL, FINES AND PUNISHMENT 93. Federal Courts Must Avoid Extremes. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 60 AMENDMENT IX UNENUMERATED RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE 94. The Federal Government Exercises no Power over the Unlisted Rights of the People. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. AMENDMENT X POWERS RESERVED TO STATES OR PEOPLE 95. All Undelegated Powers Remain with the States or the People. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 61 AMENDMENT XI (1798) SUITS AGAINST STATES 96. A State Cannot Be Sued by a Citizen of Another State. The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- menced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. 62 59 This guarantee applies to "suits at common law." Common law is, briefly, a set of judicial usages that began to de\elop in medieval England without the authority of parliamentary legislation. Brought to America by the colonists, courts continued to use it along with statutory law (legislative acts) and constitutional law or the highest law. Amendment VI [91] guarantees jury trial in federal criminal cases. 60 Again, an excellent example of the fear of the tyranny of government which the people had learned in their past struggles for liberty. 61 Under this very important amendment the greater part of governmental power remains with the states, where it had originally been. Education and the control of crime are two examples of undelegated power remaining with the states. 62 This changes Clause 1, Section 2, Article III [69], over which a difference of opinion arose. This amendment is intended to protect the independence of the states, and was caused by a suit brought against the state of Georgia by a citizen of South Carolina. APPENDIX 597 AMENDMENT XII (1804) ELECTION OF PRESIDENT AND VICE PRESIDENT 97. Changes Are Made in the Manner of Electing the President and Vice President.* 3 The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; 04 The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not ex- ceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, [before the fourth day of March next following], 65 then the Vice- President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole num- ber of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President: a quorum for the pur- pose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office'of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. AMENDMENT XIII (1865) FREEDOM FOR THE SLAVES SECTION 1. SLAVERY PROHIBITED 98. There Shall Be no Slavery in the United States. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdic- tion. 66 63 Replaces Article II, Section 1, Clause 3 [57] and was adopted as a result of the Jefferson- Burr tie for the Presidency in 1800. Three changes are made: (1) provisions for separate bal- lots; (2) number of candidates suitable tor consideration by House and Senate in event no candidate receives a majority vote in the Electoral College; and (3) provision on qualifications of Vice President previously omitted. Under this amendment election of the President by the House occurred in 1824. In the 1876 election a dispute was finally settled by a special commis- sion. In 1888 our election method proved undemocratic, for the candidate with the largest popular vote did not win. 64 See [58], note. 65 Changed by Amendment XX to "noon on the 20th day of January" [116]. 66 This amendment wiped out slavery in the states of Delaware and Kentucky. Federal and state action had previously freed the slaves in the other states and territories. 598 APPENDIX SECTION 2. POWER OF ENFORCEMENT 99. Congress Has Power of Enforcement. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AMENDMENT XIV (1868) CIVIL RIGHTS FOR THE NEGROES SECTION 1. CITIZENSHIP 100. Who Are Citizens, and What Are Their Rights? AH persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." 7 No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, 68 nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. SECTION 2. REDUCTION OF REPRESENTATION 101. States Denying Male Suffrage Shall Have Their Representation Reduced. 69 Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their re- spective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding In- dians not taxed. 70 But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a' State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the Linked States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. SECTION 3. Loss OF POLITICAL PRIVILEGES 102. Many Southern Leaders Are Disqualified for Federal and State Offices. No per- son shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. SECTION 4. PUBLIC DEBT 103. The War Debt of the Confederacy Is not Payable. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of 87 Note the provision for two kinds of citizenship. 68 This clause extends to the states a restriction already placed on Congress [90]. Intended in part for the protection of the Negro, in time it resulted largely in increased power of the federal courts over the states, as state laws regulating corporations and their actions were declared in conflict with this clause. Many corporations, but few Negroes, have brought suit under this clause. 69 This section and the next two represent congressional effort to punish the South for its participation in the War Between the States. Section 2 has not been enforced. 70 This provision sets aside Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 [5]. APPENDIX 599 pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. SECTION 5. ENFORCEMENT 104. Congress Has Power of Enforcement. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. AMENDMENT XV (1870) POLITICAL RIGHTS FOR THE NEGROES SECTION 1 . RIGHT TO VOTE 105. Ihe Negro Is Made a Voter. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 71 SECTION 2. ENFORCEMENT 106. Congress Has Power of Enforcement. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AMENDMENT XVI (1913) INCOME TAX 107. Congress May Lay Income Taxes without Apportionment. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 72 AMENDMENT XVII (1913) POPULAR ELECTION OF SENATORS 108. Senators Are Elected Directly by the People. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, 73 for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. 109. Vacancies Are Acted upon by the State Governor. 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower die executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by ele'ction as the legislature may direct. 110. This Change Does not Affect the Senators in Office. 3. [This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it be- comes valid as part of the Constitution.] 7 * 71 Note that voting privileges shall not be denied for three specific reasons. A state may, and nearly all do, set up other qualifications for voting. 7 - Changes Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 [51. "Replaces Article I, Section 3, Clause 1 [8]. 74 A temporary provision only. 6oo APPENDIX AMENDMENT XVIII (1919) NATIONAL PROHIBITION SECTION 1. PROHIBITION OF LIQUOR TRAFFIC 111. The Manufacture, Sale or Transportation of Intoxicating Liquors for Beverage Purposes Is Prohibited. [After one year from the ratification of this article the manu- facture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.] 15 SECTION 2. ENFORCEMENT 112. Congress and the States Have Joint Power of Enforcement. [The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.] SECTION 3. CONDITIONS OF RATIFICATION 113. Amendment Must Be Ratified within Seven Years. [This article shall be in- operative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.] 76 AMENDMENT XIX (1920) WOMAN SUFFRAGE 114. Women Are Made Voters. 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. 115. Congress Has Power of Enforcement. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AMENDMENT XX (1933) COMMENCEMENT OF CONGRESSIONAL AND PRESIDENTIAL TERMS SECTION 1. END OF CONGRESSIONAL AND PRESIDENTIAL TERMS 116. Terms of President, Vice President and Congressmen Begin in January of Certain Odd Years. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin. 77 SECTION 2. REGULAR CONGRESSIONAL SESSIONS 117. Congress Assembles January 3d of Each Year. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 78 SECTION 3. CONGRESS PROVIDES FOR ACTING PRESIDENT 118. Congress Provides by Law for Failure of President to Qualify in Time. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall 75 Under this clause the amendment was put into operation in 1920, but repealed 13 years later by Amendment XXI [122-24]. 7(i A temporary clause and the first amendment to have a time limitation on the period of its ratification. " Replaces a clause in Amendment XJI [97], note. 78 Sets aside Article 1, Section 1, Clause 2 [16]. APPENDIX 601 have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified: and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, de- claring who shall then act as President, or die manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified. 73 SECTION 4. CONGRESS HAS POWER OVER UNUSUAL ELECTIONS 119. When the Election Goes to Either House, Congress Provides by Law if Death Intervenes among Eligible Candidates. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of -the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them. SECTION 5. DATE IN EFFECT 120. Amendment Is Effective in October Following Ratification. [Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.]* SECTION 6. CONDITIONS OF RATIFICATION 121. Amendment Must Be Ratified within Seven Years. [This article shall be in- operative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.]* AMENDMENT XXI (1933) REPEAL OF NATIONAL PROHIBITION SECTION 1. REPEAL 122. The Eighteenth Amendment Is Repealed. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed. 81 SECTION 2. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT PROTECTS "DRY" STATES 123. The Transportation of Intoxicating Liquors into "Dry" States for Use Therein Is Prohibited. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or posses- sion of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited. SECTION 3. CONDITIONS OF RATIFICATION 124. Amendment Must Be Ratified by State Conventions within Seven Years. 82 [This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Con- gress.] 90 79 This and the next provision strengthened Amendment XII [97]. 80 A temporary clause. 81 Like other replaced parts, Amendment XVIII [111-12] becomes merely a historical pro- vision of the Constitution. " 2 This is the first amendment to be submitted to conventions in the states, although the original Constitution was ratified by conventions [85]. Appendix III OUR PRESIDENTS: THEIR TERMS AND PARTIES George Washington John Adams Thomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy Adams FEDERALISTS IN POWER, 1789-1801 1 789-1 797" 1797-1801 JEFFERSON'S REPUBLICANS, 1801-1829 1801-1809' 1809-1817" 1817-1825" 1825-1829 Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren W. H. Harrison and John Tyler James K. Polk Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore Franklin Pierce James Buchanan DEMOCRATS IN AND OUT, 1829-1861 1829-1837* 1837-1841 1841-1845 1845-1849 1849-1853 1853-1857 1857-1861 REPUBLICANS IN CONTROL, 1861-1885 Abraham Lincoln 1861-1865 Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson 1865-1869 Ulysses S. Grant 1869-1877' Rutherford B. Hayes 1877-1881 James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur 1881-1885 Federalist Federalist Republican Republkan Republican National Republican Democrat Democrat Whig Democrat Whig Democrat Democrat Republican Republican Republican Republican Republican REPUBLICAN-DEMOCRATIC CHANCE, 1885 TO DATE Grover Cleveland 1885-1889 Benjamin Harrison 1889-1893 Grover Cleveland 1893-1897 William McKinley 1897-1901 William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt 1901-1905 Theodore Roosevelt 1905-1909 William H. Taft 1909-1913 Woodrow Wilson 1913-1921" Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge 1921-1925 Calvin Coolidge 1925-1929 Herbert Hoover 1929-1933 Franklin D. Roosevelt 1933-1945" Harry S. Truman 1945- Two terms. b Three terms and 83 days of fourth term. Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Republican Republican Republican Democrat Republican Republican Republican Democrat Democrat 602 Appendix IV THE STATES OF THE UNION ToTWUT^ ORDER LAND 1940 CENSUS STATE I U1INC.U UNION IN OF JOINING UNION AREA IN SQUARE MILES Population Number of Repre- sentatives Alabama 1819 22 51,078 2,832,961 9 Arizona 1912 48 113,580 499,261 2 Arkansas 1836 25 52,725 1,949,387 7 California 1850 31 156,803 6,907,387 23 Colorado 1876 38 103,967 1,123,296 4 Connecticut 1788 5 4,899 1,709,242 6 Delaware 1787 1 1,978 266,505 1 Florida 1845 27 54,262 1,897,414 6 Georgia 1788 4 58,518 3,123,723 10 Idaho 1890 43 82,808 524,873 2 Illinois 1818 21 55,947 7,897,241 26 Indiana 1816 19 36,205 3,427,796 11 Iowa 1846 29 55,986 2,538,268 8 Kansas 1861 34 82,113 1,801,028 6 Kentucky 1792 15 40,109 2,845,627 9 Louisiana 1812 18 45,177 2,363,880 8 Maine 1820 23 31,040 847,226 3 Maryland 1788 7 9,887 1,821,244 6 Massachusetts 1788 6 7,907 4,316,721 14 Michigan 1837 26 57,022 5,256,106 17 Minnesota 1858 32 80,009 2,792,300 9 Mississippi 1817 20 47,420 2,183,796 7 Missouri 1821 24 69,270 3,784,664 13 Montana 1889 41 146,316 559,456 2 Nebraska 1867 37 76,653 1,315,834 4 Nevada 1864 36 109,802 110,247 1 New Hampshire 1788 9 9,024 491,524 2 New Jersey 1787 3 7,522 4,160,165 14 New Mexico 1912 47 121,511 531,818 2 New York 1788 11 47,929 13,479,142 45 North Carolina 1789 12 49,142 3,571,623 12 North Dakota 1889 39 70,054 641,935 2 Ohio 1803 17 41,122 6,907,612 23 Oklahoma 1907 46 69,283 2,336,434 8 Oregon 1859 33 96,350 1,089,684 4 Pennsylvania 1787 2 45,045 9,900,180 33 Rhode Island 1790 13 1,058 713,346 2 South Carolina 1788 8 30,594 1,899,804 6 South Dakota 1889 40 76,536 642,961 2 Tennessee 1796 16 41,961 2,915,841 10 Texas 1845 28 263,644 6,414,824 21 Utah 1896 45 82,346 550,310 2 Vermont 1791 14 9,278 359,231 1 Virginia 1788 10 39,899 2,677,773 9 Washington 1889 42 66,977 1,736,191 6 West Virginia 1863 35 24,090 1,901,974 6 Wisconsin 1848 30 54,715 3,137,587 10 Wyoming 1890 44 " 97,506 250,742 1 Totals 2,977,128 131,669,275 435 603 Appendix V A BOOKSHELF To Get Information Books Ayling, Keith, Semper Fidelis: The U. S. Marines in Action. Houghton, 1943. Barnes, R. A., / Hear America Singing. Winston, 1937. BeneX S. V., America. Farrar, 1944. Benz, F. E. ( Talking Round the Earth, The Story of the Telephone. Dodd, 1942. Bonner, M. G., Canada and Her Story. Knopf, 1942. Burk, Cassie and others, America's Musical Heritage. Laidlaw, 1942. Carpenter, Frances, Our South American Neighbors. American Book, 1942. Davis, Julia, No Other White Men. Button, 1937. Dawson, G. S., California: The Story of Our Southwest Corner. Macmillan, 1939. Dill, C. C., Our Government. Clarence C. Dill, Bowen Bldg., Washington, D. C., 1939. Earle, A. M., Home Life in Colonial Days. Macmillan, 1898. Engelhardt, N. L., Toward New Frontiers of Our Global World. Noble, 1943. Finger, C. J., Our Navy, An Outline History for Young People. Houghton, 1936. Floherty, J. J., Inside the F.B.I. Lippincott, 1943. Floherty, J. J., On the Air, The Story of Radio. Doubleday, 1937. Gaer, Joseph, Men and Trees. Harcourt, 1939. Gill, R. C. and Hoke, Helen, The Story of the Other America. Houghton, 1941. Goetz, Delia, Half a Hemisphere: The Story of Latin America. Harcourt, 1943. Hartman, Gertrude, Machines and the Men Who Made the World of Industry. Mac- millan, 1939. Hartman, Gertrude, Medieval Days and Ways. Macmillan, 1937. Hartman, Gertrude, The Making of a Democracy. Day, 1941. Hartman, Gertrude, These United States and How They Came to Be. Macmillan, 1935. Huberman, Leo, "We, the People." Harper, 1932. Lucas, M. S., Vast Horizons. Viking, 1943. Montgomery, R. G., Young Northwest. Random House, 1941. Outhwaite, Leonard, Unrolling the Map; The Story of Exploration. Day, 1935. Peck, A. M., The Pageant of Canadian History. Longmans, 1943. Peck, A. M., The Pageant of South American History. Longmans, 1941. Peet, Creighton, Defending America. Harper, 1941. Reck, F. M., The Romance of American Transportation. Crowell, 1938. Rugg, Harold, America's March Toward Democracy. Ginn, 1937. Rugg, Harold, Changing Governments and Changing Cultures. Ginn, 1932. Rugg, Harold, Citizenship and Civic Affairs. Ginn, 1940. Rugg, Harold, The Conquest of America. Ginn, 1937. Spencer, Cornelia, Made in China; The Story of China's Expression. Knopf, 1943. World Almanac and Book of Facts. New York World-Telegram, annual. 1 This bookshelf of 100 titles is selected from those used in the educational activities of this book. It is representative of each unit and period of history. It meets the reading requirements of all groups in the upper grades, with emphasis upon the needs of the average reader. 604 APPENDIX 605 Pamphlets Bailey, T. A., "America's Foreign Policies: Past and Present." (Headline Books) Foreign Policy Association, 1943. Dean, V. M., "On the Threshold of World Order." (Headline Series) Foreign Policy Association, 1944. Dulles, F. R., "Behind the Open Door, the Story of American Far Eastern Relations." Webster, 1944. Johnstone, W. C., "The Changing Far East." (Headline Series) Foreign Policy Associa- tion, 1943. Motherwell, Hiram, "Rebuilding Europe After Victory." (Public Affairs Pamphlet) Public Affairs Committee, 1943. To Find Out Who's Who Bakeless, K. L., Story-Lives of American Composers. Stokes, 1941. Baker, N. B., Juarez, Hero of Mexico. Vanguard, 1942. Beard, A. E. S., Our Foreign-Born Citizens, What They Have Done for America. Cro- well, 1939. Beaty, J. Y., Luther Burbank, Plant Magician. Messner, 1943. Bolton, S. K., Lives of Girls Who Became Famous. Crowell, 1941. Burlingame, Roger, Whittling Boy; The Story of Eli Whitney. Harcourt, 1941. Cooper, A. C. and Palmer, C. A., Twenty Modern Americans. Harcourt, 1942. Cottier, Joseph, Champions of Democracy. Little, 1936. Daugherty, James, Abraham Lincoln. Viking, 1943. Daugherty, James, Daniel Boone. Viking, 1939. Daugherty, James, Poor Richard. Viking, 1941. Eaton, Jeanette, Leader by Destiny, George Washington, Man and Patriot. Harcourt, 1938. Eaton, Jeanette, Narcissa Whitman; Pioneer of Oregon. Harcourt, 1941. Eaton, Jeanette, Young Lafayette. Houghton, 1932. Fast, Howard, Goethals and the Panama Canal. Messner, 1942. Fast, Howard, Haym Salomon, Son of Liberty. Messner, 1941. Floherty, J. J., The Courage and the Glory. Lippincott, 1942. Garst, Shannon, Custer, Fighter of the Plains. Messner, 1944. Graham, Shirley and Upscomb, G. D., Dr. George Washington Carver, Scientist. Mess- ner, 1944. Hamilton, J. G. deR. and M. T., Life of Robert E. Lee for Boys and Girls. Houghton, 1917. Harlow, A. F., Theodore Roosevelt, Strenuous American. Messner, 1943. Hodges, C. W., Columbus Sails. Coward-McCann, 1939. Irwin, Grace, Trail-Blazers of American Art. Harper, 1930. James, B. R. and Marquis, The Courageous Heart; A Life of Andrew Jackson for Young Readers. Bobbs, 1934. Kenton, Edna, With Hearts Courageous. Liveright, 1933. Lansing, Marion, Liberators and Heroes of Mexico and Central America. Page, 1941. Lansing, Marion, Liberators and Heroes of South America. Page, 1940. Lenski, Lois, Indian Captive: The Story of Mary Jemison. Stokes, 1941. Morgan James, Our Presidents. Macmillan, 1935. Moses, Belle, Franklin Delano Roosevelt; The Minute Man of '33. Appleton-Century, 1933. 6o6 APPENDIX Nicolay, Helen, Boys' Life of Alexander Hamilton. Appleton-Century, 1927. Nolan, J. C., The Story of Clara Barton of the Red Cross. Messner, 1941. Regli, A. C., Rubber's Goodyear, The Story of a Man's Perseverance. Messner, 1941 Steffens, Lincoln, Boy on Horseback. Harcourt, 1935. Van Loon, H. W., Thomas Jefferson. Dodd, 1943. Wise, W. E., Jane Addams of Hull-House. Hartourt, 1935. To Read a Historical Novel Brink, C. R., Caddie Woodlawn. Macmillan, 1935. Bowman, J. C., Pecos Bill: The Greatest Cowboy of All Time. Whitman, 1937. Caudill, Rebecca, Barrie and Daughter. Viking, 1943. Coatsworth, Elizabeth, Sivord of the Wilderness. Macmillan, 1936. Edmonds, W. D., Tom Whipple. Dodd, 1942. Fernald, H. C., Jonathan's Doorstep. Longmans, 1943. Forbes, Esther, Johnny Tremain; A Novel for Young and Old. Houghton, 1943. Gaggin, E. R., Down Ryton Water. Viking, 1941. Gray, E. J., Meggy Macintosh. Doubleday, 1930. Hewes, A. D., Glory of the Seas. Knopf, 1933. McMeekin, I. McL., Journey Cake. Messner, 1942. Means, F. C., Shuttered Windows. Houghton, 1938. Means, Philip, Tupak of the Incas. Scribner, 1942. Nordhoff, Charles and Hall, J. N., Falcons of France, A Tale of Youth and the Air. Little, 1929. Pease, Howard, Long Wharf; A Story of Young San Francisco. Dodd, 1939. Schmidt, S. L., New Land, A Novel for Boys and Girls. McBride, 1933. Singmaster, Elsie, Swords of Steel; The Story of a Gettysburg Boy. Houghton, 1933. Swift, H. H., Railroad to Freedom; A Story of the Civil War. Harcourt, 1932. To Look at the Past in Pictures Building America, vols. I-IX. Published for the Department of Supervision and Cur- riculum Development, N.E.A. Distributed by Americana Corporation, 2 West 45th Street, New York 19, N. Y. Hoffman, Sylvan (ed.), News of the Nation. Garden City Pub. Co., 1943. Johnson, G. W., Woodrow Wilson. Harper, 1944. Rogers, Agnes, Abraham Lincoln, A Biography in Pictures with Accompanying Text. Little, 1939. Rogers, Agnes, From Man to Machine, A Pictorial History of Invention. Little, 1941. Inde x Act of Union, 166 Adams, Abigail, quoted, 433 Adams, John, 146, 149, 178, (illus.. 118) Adams, John Quincy, 181, 477 Adams, Samuel, 79, 119 Adamson Eight-Hour Act, 318 Addams, Jane, biography of, 349-53, (illus., 350) Africa, explorations of, 8-10, and map of, 9' and Portuguese trading posts, 24. and Sec- ond World War, 554-55 Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938). 234, 538 Agricultural Marketing Act (1929), 537 Agriculture, in Latin America, 42, (on map, 43, illus., 83); in New France, 46; in colonial South, 47-48; in New England and Middle Colonies, 48, 50; in Mexico. 161-62; on Great Plains, 213-14; early developments in, 229-31; government aid to, 231-33, 266- 68, (illus., 233); and conservation, 233-35; and farm machinery, 235-39, (illus., 236, 237, 238); department of, created, 231; re- gions of, map, 232: and cotton, 242-44, (illus., 243); problems of, 258-60, (illus., 259); and farmers' revolt, 260-66, (illus., 261, 264, 266, 267); and New Deal, 535-38, (illus., 536, 537) Air and naval bases, 548-50, (on map, 549) Alabama, 243, 286 Alabama claims, 469 Alamo, the, 187-88, (on map, 189) Alaska, purchased, 190-91, 498, (map, 191, on map, 497); resources of, 191; and national defense, 191; and Second World War, 191 Alaska highway, 191, (on map, 191) Albany, 196, (on map, 196) Albany Plan of Union, 123 Aleutian Islands, 498, 553, 554, (on map, 547) Allen, Ethan, 68-9 Allied Military Government (AMG), 563 Amazon River, illus., 30 Amendments to Constitution, I, 54, 117; Bill of Rights, 134-36, (chart, 135); XIII, 254, 381, 401; XIV, 401-433; XV, 401; XVI, 428; XVII, 428; XVIII, 356; XIX, 428, 434; XX, 428-29, illus., 429; XXI, 356; text of, 594- 601 America named, 12 American Dream, 146-47, 150, 153 American Federation of Labor (A. F. L.), 311- 15, 552, 569, (illus., 312) American Telephone and Telegraph Com- pany, 293, 297 Amundsen, Roald, 20-21 Andes Mountains, 88, 90, (illus., 90, 215) Anderson, Marian, 384 Annapolis Naval Academy, 532 Anthony, Susan B., 433 Antietam, battle of, 241, 253. (on map. 250) Antigua Island, 39, 548 Anti-Saloon League, 355 Appomattox Court House, 254, (illus., 253) Arabia, 8 Arbitration, defined. 470, 489, 509-10, (map, 490, illus.. 510) Architecture in Virginia, (illus.. 116}: and Thomas Jefferson, 116; colonial, 359 Argentina, 28, (on map, 27); independence of, 90-91 Arizona, 29, 211 Arkansas, 17, 243 Armstrong, Henry, 385 Art, colonial. 359. in early republic, 364-65; later, 365-69, (illus., 365, 366, 367, 368) Articles of Confederation, 125-27 Arthur, Chester A., 401, 416 Ascuncion, 28. 217, (on map, 27) Asia, trade routes to, 7-10, 12, (on map, 9) Astor, John Jacob, 182 Astrolabe, 7 "Atlantic Charter," 561 Atomic bombs, 558 Australian ballot, 438, 439, (illus., 438) Austria, 375, 472 Automobiles, 327-28 Aviation, 6, 329-32, (map, 330, chart, 331) Azores Islands, 9 Aztec Indians, 14-15 Babcock, Stephen M., 233 Bacon's Rebellion, 112 Bahama Islands, 11, 548 Bahia, Brazil, 30, (on map, 27) Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 15, 26 Baltimore, Md., 321, 326, 468 Baltimore & Ohio R. R., 326 Bank of the United States, 144, 152 Banks, and New Deal, 538-40, (illus., 540) Baptists, 55 Barbados, 39 Barbed wire, 213-14 Barry, John, 75 Beebe, William, 21 Belgium, 472, 548, 558 Bell, Alexander Graham, 333 Belleau Wood, battle of, 474, (on map, 474) Bemis Heights, battle of, 72, (on map, 73) Benton, Thomas, 368-69, (illus., 367) Bergman, Ingrid, 381 Berlin, Irving, 364 Bermuda, 548 Bessemer, Sir Henry, 284 6o8 INDEX Bibliography, 604-06 Big Business, growth of, 292-97, (charts, 292, 297, illus., 294); benefits of, 298-99, (illus., 298); bad practices of, 299-301, (illus., 300); regulation of, 301-02, 427-28, 432, (illus., 302); and government, 303-04, (map, 303, illus., 304); and McKinley, 408 Bill of Rights, in state constitutions, 79-80; in England, 107; in federal Constitution, 134, 136, (chart, 135); and Bolivar, 156 Biloxi, Miss., 18 Bitter, Karl, 380-81 Blaine, James G., 405 Bleriot, Louis, 329 Blind, 348, (illus., 349) Bok, Edward, 379 Bolivar, Simon, biography of, 84, 86-88, 96. (illus., 85, 87, and map, 89); quoted, 156- 57; and Pan -Americanism, 485 Bolivia, independence of, 88, 161 Bon Homme Richard, 75, (illus., 76) Books, list of, 604-06 Boone, Daniel, 176-77, 195, 365, (illus., 178) Boonesboro, Ky., 176-77, (on map, 196) Borah, William, 516 Bosses, political, 411-14, 442-47, (illus., 412, 414) Boston, Mass., founded, 36. and music, 359, 361; and art, 365, 368, and theater, 371 Boston Latin School, 55 Boston Massacre, 68 Boston Tea Party, 68 Boulder Dam, 218-19 Boxer Rebellion, 501-02, (illus., 501) Boy Scouts, 354 Bradford, William, 35 Brandywine, battle of, 72, (on map, 73) Brazil, discovery of, 17; settlement of, 29-31, (on map, 27, illus., 30); mining in, (illus., 44); colonial living in, 45; colonial govern- ment in, 45; independence of, 92-93, (illus., 92); as a republic, 163-65; and westward movement, 217; and navel orange, 232; and Second World War, 551 Breed's Hill (Bunker Hill), battle of, 70, (on map, 73, illus., 71) Brewster, William, 35 British North America Act, 166 Brooklyn, N. Y., illus., 370 Brown University, 55 Bryan, William Jennings, 262, 265 Buenos Aires, 28, 217, 476, 488, (on map, 27, 486, illus., 161) Buffalo, 196, 405, (on map, 196) Bull Run, battle of, 253 Bunker Hill, battle ot, 70, (on map, 73, illus., 71) Burbank, Luther, 233 Burgesses, House of, 109, 112, (illus., 110) Btirgoyne, Gen. John, 72, (on map, 73) Burr, Aaron, 149 Burritt, Elihu, 507, 509 Byrd, Richard E., 21 Cabinet, 141 Cabot, John, 18, 20-21, (and map, 20) Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, and map, 16; discovers Brazil, 17 Cadillac, Antoine, 18 Calhoun, John C., 246-47, 466 California, 12; settled, 29, 209, 217; conquest of, 189, (on map, 189); routes to, 197, 201; and gold, 208-09, (illus., 211); and oranges. 232: a state, 246; and junior colleges, 347 Calvert family, 36, 53 Cambridge, Mass., 106-07, 110 Camp Fire Girls, 354 Canada, early explorations in, 18-20, (on map, 20); settlement of, 31-33, (illus., 32, on map, 38); conquest by Britain, 66; mi- gration of Tories to, 79; government in, 165-67, (chart, 167); Dominion of, 166, (chart, 167); exploration and settlement of frontier, 204-06, (map, 205); immigrants from. 377; and War of 1812, 466, 468, (map, 467); and arbitration, 489-90, 509-10, (map, 490); and Second World War, 548, 557, 558 Canals, 195, 196, 323-24, (on map, 196, map, 323) Cantor, Eddie, 381 Cape of Good Hope, 9, 493, (on map, 9) Cape Horn, 12, 209, 494 Cape Verde, 9, (on map, 9) Captaincies, defined, 29 Carnegie, Andrew, 379, 485, 509, 510 Carroll, Charles, 321 Carder, Jacques, 18, (illus., 19, and map, 20) Carver, George Washington, 384, (illus., 385) Catholic Church. See Roman Catholic Church Caudillos, defined, 158-59 Central America, discovery of, 12, 26, (on map, 27); independence of, 91-92 Champlain, Samuel de, 18, (and map, 20) Chancellorsville, battle of, 253 Chaplin, Charlie, 371 Charleston, S. C., 75, 326, 359, (on map, 78) Charlestown, Mass., 70, (illus., 71) Chateau Thierry, battle of, 474, (on map, 474) Chattanooga, Tenn., 251, 254, 326 "Checks and balances," 132-33, (chart, 132) Chemistry, and rubber, 299; and agriculture, 385 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 324 Chiang Kai-shek, 545, 562 Chicago, and railroads, 326; and Hull-House, 351-52; and theater, 371; and immigrants, 375; and Negroes, 383; and Republican con- vention (I860), 399 Chicago, University of, 296 INDEX 609 Child labor, 317, 354, (map, 317) Children, 354 Chile, 28, (illus., 83); independence of, 90-91, (illus., 157, 215); and frontier, 217 China, 8; early American trade, 181, 493-94; Open Door policy, 500-03, 505; Boxer Re- bellion, 501-02, (illus., 501); and Second World War, 545, 550, 553, 554, 558 Chungking, 6 Churches. See names of church groups and Religion Churchill, Winston, 561, (illus., 562) Cincinnati, Ohio, settled, 194; and city-man- ager government, 450 Cities. See Urban life City-manager government, 449-50, (chart, 449) Civil liberties, in Bill of Rights, 134, 136, (chart, 135) Civil service, and Cleveland, (illus., 406); re- foVm of, 416-19, 428, (chart, 418) Civil War. See War Between the States Civilian Conservation Corps, 542, (illus., 541) Clark, George Rogers, 74, 177-78, (on map, 74) Clark, Gen. Mark, 556 Clay, Henry, 246, 485 Clayton Anti-Trust Act, 301 Clemens, Samuel (Mark Twain), in unit illus., 342-43 Clermont, the, 324 Cleveland, Grover, 265, 404-07, 468-69, 479, (illus., 406) Cleveland, Ohio, settled, 194; and oil refining, 293, 295 Clinton, Gov. De Witt, 323-24 Cloud, Henry Roe, 204 Club, 4-H, 354 Colleges and universities, in Latin -America, 44-45; in English colonies, 55 Colombia, first settlement in, 28, 96, 217, 483 Colorado, 210-11, 433 Columbia River, 182, 184, 219, (map, 219) Columbia University, 361-62 Columbus, Christopher, 7, 10-12, 21, (illus., 11, map of route, 16) Commerce, colonial products, 24, 30, 32-33; in New France, 47; in English colonies, 50- 51, (illus., 49, chart, 51); restrictions on, 65- 68; in Latin America, 81, 94; under Articles of Confederation, 126-27; and Constitution, 130; and Marshall, 149; and China trade, 181 Commission government, 448-49, (chart, 448) Committees of correspondence, 79, 117 Common Sense and The Crisis, 64, 69 Communication, by telegraph, 332-33; by cable, 333, (illus., 471); by telephone, 333; by wireless, 333; by radio, 333-34 Compass, 7 Compromise of 1850, 246 Comstock lode, 210-11 Concession, defined, 500 Concord, battle of, 68, 70, (on map, 73) Confederate States of America, formed, 249, (map of, 248) Conferences, Inter- American, 476, 485, 488, 490, (map, 486, illus., 488); Washington, 503, Atlantic, 561; Teheran, 562; Moscow, 562; Cairo, 562; Dumbarton Oaks, 563-67, (illus., 565) Congregationalists, 53 Congress, 129, 132-33, 149 Congress of Industrial Organizations (C. I. O.), 313-15, 552, 569, (chart, 314) Connecticut, founded, 36, 194, (on map, 38) Conservation, and irrigation. 218-19, (map, 219); and agriculture, 233-34; and forestry, 234-35 Constitution, description of, 128-36; chart on division of power, 131; chart on checks and balances, 132; chart on Bill of Rights, 135; interpretation by Hamilton and Jefferson, 143.-44, 147-48; interpretation by Marshall, 148-49; in Latin America, 156; in Mexico, 161-63; British North American Act, 166- 67; Philippine, 499; text of, 582-601. See also Amendments and States Constitution and Gueniere, 466 Constitutional Convention, 127-33 Continental Congresses, 68-70, 123, 125 Coolidge, Calvin, 487 Cooper, Peter, 321, 326-27, (illus., 326) Co-operation, 123-24, 125-27, 509-18, 561- 70, (illus., 124) Co-operatives, in Latin America, 161; in United States, 537 Copley, John Singleton, 359, 364 Coral Sea, battle of, 554 Cornell, Ezra, 333 Cornell University, 333 Cornwallis, Lord, 77 Coronado, Francisco, 17, (and map, 16) Corporations, defined, 292, (illus., 292); at work, 292-93 Cortes, Hernando, biography of, 12-15, 24, 29, (illus., 13, and map, 16); and mining, 215-16 Costa Rica, 26 Cotton, in Brazil, 30; in the South, 242-44 (illus., 243) Cotton gin, 242-44 Council of the Indies, 81 Country life, 242-44, 258, 279-SO Coureurs-de-bois, defined, 47 Cowboys, 212-14, (illus., 213, 214) Creoles, 82, 86, 91, 93; defined, 83 Crusades, 7-8 j >~ Cuba, 11-12, 15, 26, 479-81, 488, (illus., 158) Cumberland, Md., 195-96, (on map, 196) 6io INDEX Cumberland Gap, 177, 195, (on map, 196) Curtiss, Glenn, 329 Cushman, Charlotte, 369 Custer, Lt. Col., George A., 202 Cutler, Rev. Manasseh, 193 Czechoslovakia, 375, 547, 548, (illus., 547) Dakotas, 232 Dame school, illus., 54 Damrosch, Walter, 363 Dartmouth College, 55 Davis, Jefferson, 247 Davis, John, 20 Dawes, William, 70, (on map, 73) Dayton, Ohio, 329, 450 Debtors, poor, 348 Debts, and Shays' Rebellion, illus., 126; and Articles of Confederation, 126; and New Deal legislation, 538-39 Declaration of Independence, adopted, 69; and Rights of Man, 115-16; signing of, illus., 118; text of, 579-81 Defense. See National defense De Koven, Reginald, 362 Democracy, and pressure politics, 419, 421-22, (chart, 420); and the "new" democracy, 428-29, 433, (map, 434, illus., 435); in the states, 438-47, (illus., 438, 440, 441, 442. 444); in cities, 447-50, (chart, 447, 448, 449) Democratic party, 152, 247, 404-07, 430-33, (chart, 145, map, 404) Democratic-Republican party, 146, (chart, 145) Depression of 1929, 528-29, 531-32, (chart, 530, 531) De Soto, Hernando, 15-17, (and map, 16) Detroit, Mich., 18, 333, 383, 466 Dewey, Admiral George, 480 Diaz, Bartholomew, 9, (on map, 9) Diaz, Porfirio, 161 Dictatorship, in Latin America, 94, 96, 158- 59, 165; in Virginia, 112; in Brazil, 165; in Italy, 546; in Germany, 546; in Japan, 546 Discoverers. See Explorers Disney, Walt, 372 Dix, Dorothea, 348 Dolores, Mex., 91, (on map, 89) Dominican Republic, 484 Donelson, Fort, 251 Dorset, Marion, 232 Douglas, Stephen A., 247-48, 399 Dover, Del., 450 Drake, Edwin L., 293 Drew, John, 370 Dumbarton Oaks, 563-67, (illus., 565) Eakins, Thomas, 367-68, (illus., 366) Ecuador, 96 Edison, Thomas A., 371-72 Education, in Europe, 7; in Latin America, , 94, 159, 162-63; in English colonies, 54-55, (illus., 54); public, 55, 345-48, (illus., 346, chart, 347); Jefferson's influence on, 115, 117; in Mexico, 162-63, (illus., 162); and General Education Board, 296; unit illus., 342-43; and Horace Mann, 345; and music, 361-63; and Negroes, 384 Einstein, Albert, 380 Eisenhower, Gen. Dwight, 554, 557 Election of 1788, 139; 1800, 146; 1828, 150; 1844, 184, 188; 1856, 248; 1860, 248-49, 399, 401, (illus., 400); 1884, 405; 1892, 262-63, 265; 1896, 262, 265, 407-08; 1912, 430-31, 434, 445, (map, 431); 1920, 434; 1924, 445; 1932, 534; 1936, 535; 1940, 435, 535; 1944, 535 Electricity, and TVA, 303-04, (illus., 304); and X-ray, 380 El Salvador, 26 Emancipation Proclamation, 241, 254 Empress of China, 493, 494 Encomiendas, defined, 42 England. See Great Britain Episcopalians, 25, 41, 53, 55 Erie Canal, 323-24, (map, 323) Ethiopia, 546-47 Europe, and Far East, 7-10, 18-20 Evanston, 111., 370 Evans, Oliver, 328 Espanola, 11, 15,26 Expansion. See Territorial expansion Explorers, unit illus., 4-5; Portuguese, 8-10, (and map of, 9, 16); Spanish, 10-17, (and map of, 16, illus., 11, 13); French, 18, (illus., 19, on map, 20); English, 18, 20, (on map, 20); recent, 21 Factories. See Industrial Revolution Fairbanks, Douglas, 371 Fair Labor Standards Act, 318 Far East, trade routes to, 7-10, (and map, 9); and the French, 18-19; and the English, 18, 20, 23; and the Portuguese, 24; early American trade with, 493-94, (on map, 495) Farm Security Administration, (illus., 259, 537) Farmers' Alliances, 263 Farms and farmers. See Agriculture Farragut, Admiral David, 251 Fascism, 546-47 Federal Farm Loan Act, 268 Federal Reserve System, 268, 432 Federal Trade Commission, 301 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, 539, (illus., 540) Federalist party, 144, 146, (chart, 145) Ferdinand VII (of Spain), 84, 88 Ferdinand and Isabella, 10-11 Field, Cyrus, 333 Field, James, 262 INDEX fin Fillmore, Millard, 4% Fiske, Minnie, 370 Florida, discovered, 15; settled, 29, (on map, 38); annexed, 181, (on map, 180); and cotton, 243 Food and Drug Administration, illus., 302 Ford, Henry, 286-87, 328, (illus., 287, 298) Foreign relations, unit illus., 458-59. See also Conferences; Good Neighbor policy; Mon- roe Doctrine; Neutrality; Open Door; Pan- Americanism; Peace movements; separate countries; Treaties; Wars Forrest, Edwin, 369-70 "Forty-niners," 209 Foster, Stephen, 360-61, 364 "Four Freedoms," 561 "Fourteen Points," the, 513 France, 7, 10; early explorations of, 18, (illus.. 19, on map, 20); and the Far East, 18-19, 500; American settlements of, 31-33, (illus., 32, on map, 38); immigrants from, 52; aid from, 72, 78-79; and relations with United States (1789-1812), 464-66; and First World War, 472-74, (illus., 474); and Mexico, 478; and Second World War, 547, 548, 550, 557, (on map, 555, illus., 557, 558) Franklin, Benjamin, minister to France, 72, 75, 177-78, 460-61; signing Declaration of Independence, illus., 118; and Albany Plan of Union, 123; and Constitutional Con- vention, 127 Fraser, Simon, 204, (and map, 205) Fredericksburg, battle of, 253 Fremont, John C., 248 French Canadians, 165-66 French and Indian War, 123, 195 French Revolution, 83-84 Frobisher, Martin, 20, (and map, 20) Frontenac, Count, 31 Frontier, unit illus., 174-75; life on, 198-200, (illus., 197, 199, 201); and Indians, 200-04, (illus., 200, on map, 203); in Canada, 204- 06, (map, 205); in Latin America, 215-17, (illus., 215); ranching on, 216-17. See also West Fulton, Robert, 324-25 Furs, and New France, 31-32, 47; and Brit- ish Canada, 204, 206 Gadsden Purchase, 190, (on map, 180) Gage, Gen. Thomas, 68-70 Galveston, Tex., 448 Gama, Vasco da, 9-10, 21, (on map, 9) Garfield, James A., 401, 416, (illus., 417) Garrison, William Lloyd, 348 Gaucho, denned, 216-17 General Motors Company, 293, (illus., 288) Genoa, Italy, 8, 10 George III, 68 Georgia, settled, 37, (on map, 38); colonial life in, 47-48; and westward movement. 195, 243; and voting age, 435 Germans, as settlers in Pennsylvania. 41, 52 Germantown, battle of, 72, (on map, 73) Germany, 7, 25, 468, 472-74, 498, 546-48, 550-51, 554-58, (on map, 555, illus., 557) Gershwin, George, 363-64 Gettysburg, battle of, 253-54, (illus., 252) "G.I. Bill of Rights," 569 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 33 Girl Scouts, 354 Gold, in Latin America, 24, 42, (illus., 44, on map. 43); in California, 208-09. (illus.. 211); in Colorado, 210; in Nevada, 210-11 Gompers, Samuel, 310-12, (illus., 312) Good Neighbor Policy, 476, 487-89 Goodyear, Charles, 284 Government, in colonial Latin America, 42, 45; in New France, 46; in English colonies, 66, 106-13, (illus., 110); in Latin America after revolutions, 94, 96; representative gov- ernment defined, 107; of Articles of Con- federation, 126-27; under Constitution, 128-36, (charts, 131, 132, 135); compared with Latin-American, 156; in Canada, 165- 67, (chart, 167); of Confederate States of America, formed, 249, (map, 248); and po- litical party organization, 396-99; and ma- chine politics, 411-15; and greater democ- racy, 428-29, 433, (map, 434, illus., 435); in states, 438-47, (illus., 438, 440, 441, 442. 444); in cities, 447-50, (chart, 447, 448, 449). See also Amendments Grand Coulee Dam, 218-19, (map, 219) Grange, 265, 267, 537, 569, (illus., 266) Grant, Ulysses S., as President, 401, (illus., 164); in War Between the States, 251, 251, (illus., 253) Gray, Capt. Robert, 181-82 Great Britain, 7, 10, 18, 20; explorations in America, 18, 20, (map, 20); American set- tlements of, 33-37, 39, (on map, 38); immi- grants from, 52; and Canada, 165-67, (chart, 167); and treaty of Paris, 177-79; and Oregon, 182, 184; and Industrial Revo- lution. 281-82; and relations with United States (1789-1815), 464-68; and First World War, 472-74; and Venezuela, 479; in Far East, 498; and Second World War, 547, 548, 550, 551, 552, 554-58, (on map, 555) Great Plains, 212-14 Greece, 7, 10, 375, 546 Green, Capt. John, 493 Greenback party, 260, 262-63, 265 Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 77, (on map, 78) Greenland, 10 Guadeloupe Island, 33 Guam, 480, 498, 553, (on map, 497, 547, 554) Guatemala, 26 6l2 INDEX Haciendas, denned, 44 Hague Conferences, 470 Hague Palace of Peace, 509, (illus., 510) Haiti, 11, 179, 484 Hamilton, Alexander, unit illus., 104-05; and Constitutional Convention, 127; quoted. 138; as Secretary of Treasury, 141-42, (il- lus., 143); and Federalist party, 144, 146, (chart, 145); and Constitution, 143-44; death of, 149; policies continued by Mar- shall, 14^49 Hancock, John, illus., 118 Harding, Chester, 365 Harding, Warren G., 518 Hargreaves, James, 242, 281 Harriman, Edward H., 291 Harrison, Benjamin, 406 Hartford, Conn., founded, 36; first school for the deaf, 348 Harvard College, 55, 362 Hatch Act (1887), 232 Havana Conference, on map, 486 Hawaii, 231, 496-97, 553, (on map, 497, 547) Hay, John, 501, 502 Hayes, Roland, 384 Hayes, Rutherford B., 401, 403, 416 Henderson, Judge Richard, 177 Henry, Patrick, 74, 79 Henry, Prince, of Portugal, 9, 21 Hepburn Act, 266 Herbert, Victor, 362 Herkimer, Gen. Nicholas, 72 Hessians, 69, 72, 78 Hidalgo, Father Miguel, 91 Hill, James J., 291 Hiroshima, 558 Hitler, Adolf, 546, 547, 556, 558 Holding company, 296-97, (chart, 297) Holyoke, Mass., 308-09, (illus., 308) Home Owners Loan Corporation, 539 Homer, Winslow, 368, (illus., 365) Homestead Act., 213 Honduras, 26 Hooker, Thomas, 36 Hoover, Herbert C., 487, 537-38 Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 185 Housing, 353-54 Houston, Sam, biography, 184-87, (illus., 186) Howe, Elias, 284 Howe, Samuel G., 348 Howe, Gen. William, 70, 72 Hudson, Henry, 20 Hudson Bay, 20, (on map, 20) Hudson's Bay Company, 182, 204, 206 Hull, Cordell, 545 Hull-House, Chicago, 351-53, (illus., 352) Idaho, 211, 433 Illinois, 195, 286, 349 Immigration, colonial, 52, 65; into Mississippi Valley, 195; "new," 375, 377, (chart, 376. map, 378); from Canada and Mexico, 377, (illus., 380) Inca Indians, and Pizarro, 15 Indentured servants, defined, 48, 307 Independence Hall, illus., 128 India, 10, (on map, 9), 558 Indiana, 195, 286 Indians, and Cortes, 12-15, 25; and Pizarro, 15, 24; and de Soto, 15; and religion, 26, 28; Iroquois, 31, 74; and the pilgrims, illus., 35; and Penn, illus., 37; in Latin America, 42, 44-45, 91, 93, 159, 215-16; and Chero- kees, 184-85; on frontier, 200-04, (illus., 200. on map, 203); and reservations, 202-04, (map, 203); and Sioux, 202; and Cheyenne, 202 Industrial Revolution, unit illus., 276-77; in Great Britain, 281-82; in United States, 282-89, (illus., 287, 288, map, 283, chart, 289) Initiative, 439, (illus., 440) Insane, treatment of, 348 Inter- American Defense Board, 491 International relations. See Foreign relations. Treaties Interstate Commerce Act and Commission, 266, 302, 540 Intolerable Acts, 68 Inventions, compass, 7; astrolabe, 7; agricul- tural, 235-39, 242-44, (illus., 236, 237, 238); unit illus., 276-77; spinning wheel, 281; steam engine, 282; sewing machine, 284; rubber, 284; cheap steel, 284; steamboat, 324-25; steam locomotive, 321, 326; auto- mobile, 327-28; airplane, 329; telegraph. 332-33; telephone, 333; wireless, 333; radio, 333-34; kinetoscope, 371 Iowa, and farmers' revolt, 260-62 Irish, 52 Irrigation, 218-19, (map, 219) Italy, 8, 10, 375, 546, 551, 556 Iturbi, Jose, 381 Iturbide, Agustin, 91 Jackson, Andrew, as President, 150-53, (illus., 151); and Sam Houston, 185, 187; quoted, 282; and spoils system, 152, 415-16; and War of 1812, 468 Jackson, Gen. Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), 253 Jamaica, 26, 39, 548 Jamestown, founded, 33-34, (illus., 34) Japan, opening of, 494, 496, (on map, 495); attacks Pearl Harbor, 499, 550-51; expan- sion of, 502-03, 505, 547, 550, (on map, 504); "new order" in Asia, 503-05, (on map, 504); and First World War, 502-03; and Open Door, 502-03, 550; and Second World War, 505, 545, 550-51, 553-54, 558, (on map, 555) Jay, John, 178, 464 INDEX 613 Jazz. See Music Jefferson, Thomas, and religious freedom, 54; and Declaration of Independence, 69; and Brazilian revolution, 92; unit illus., 104-05; biography of, 113, 115-17, (illus., 114, 116, 118); quoted, 138, 139, 246, 286; as Secretary of State, 142, 144, (illus., 143); and Repub- lican party, 144, 146, (chart, 145); and Con- stitution, 143-44; as President, 146-48; and Louisiana Purchase, 179; as farmer, 230-31; and foreign affairs, 464-65 Jews, 52, 375, 381 John, King of England, 107, (illus., 108) John, King of Portugal, 92-93 Johns Hopkins University, 351 Johnson, Andrew, 190, 401, 403 Johnson, Hiram, 516 Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., 253 Joliet, Louis, 18 Jolson, Al, 372 Jones Act, 499 Jones, John Paul, 74-75, (illus., 76) Juarez, Benito, 161 Judiciary, and Supreme Court, 132-33; and Act of 1789, 141; and Marshall, 148-49, (illus., 148) Justo, Augustin, 476 Kansas, exploration of, 17; Populist party in, 257 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 247^*8 Kearny, Col. Stephen W., 188-89, (and map, 189) Kelly, wmiam, 284 Kentucky, settlement of, 176-77; and War Between the States, 249, 251 Key, Francis Scott, 468 Knights of Labor, 310-11 Koussevitzky, Serge, 381 Ku Klux Klan, 403 Labor, colonial, 307; definitions, 313-16; and the factory system, 307-09, (illus., 308): or- ganization of, 309-15, (chart, 311, 314, illus., 312); and government, 316-18, (chart, 318); and employers' welfare plans, 316; and de- partment of, 318; and Second World War, 319 Labor unions, in Latin America, 159, 163; in Mexico, 163; in United States: Railroad Brotherhoods, 310-13, Knights of Labor, 310-11, American Federation of Labor, 311- 15, Congress of Industrial Organizations, 313-15, union welfare work, 319 Labrador, 18 Lafayette, Marquis de, 77, 2-30 La Flesche, Francis, 204 La Follette, Robert M., and Progressive move- ment, 430; biography of, 442-45, (illus., 444, 446); and the "Wisconsin Idea," 445-47 La Guardia, Fiorello, 381 Lake Champlain, 18, 466, 468, (map, 467) Lame-Duck," 428-29, (illus., 429) La Salle, Robert Cavalier, 18, 31-32, (map. 20, illus., 32) Latin-American relations. See Central Amer- ica; Good Neighbor policy; Monroe Doc- trine; Pan-Americanism; South America, and separate countries League of Nations, organization, 513-15, (chart, 515); rejected, 515-16, (illus., 517); co-operation with, 516-18 Lee, Richard Henry, 69 Lee, Gen. Robert E. 253-54, (illus., 253) Lehman, Herbert H., 5 Lend-Lease. 550, 561-62 Lewis and Clark, 182, (on map, 210) Lexington, battle of, 68, 70, (on map, 73); and opening of first public normal school, 345 Liberator, the, 348 Libraries, 379 Lilienthal, Otto, 329 Lima Conference, on map, 486 Lincoln, Abraham, signs Morrill Act, 231; and slavery, 241, 399; and election of 1860. 248-49, 399, 401, (illus., 400); and War Be- tween the States, 241, 249, 253; as presi- dential candidate, illus., 402; Gettysburg Address, 569-70 Lisbon, Portugal, 10 Livingston, Robert, 179, (illus., 118) Lobbyist, defined, 421 Lodge, Henrv Cabot, 516, (illus., 517) London. 6 Long, Huey P., 410, 421 Long Island, 36 Los Angeles, 209; origin of name, 28; founded, 29 Louis, Joe, 385 Louisiana, and cotton, 243; and Huey P. Long, 410. 421 Louisiana Purchase, 147, 179, 181, (on map, 180) Lowell, Mass.. 309 Lowell, A. Lawrence, illus., 517 Lowell, Francis Cabot, 285 Lukas, Paul, 381 Lundy's Lane, battle of, 466 Lusitania, the, sinking of, 472-73, (illus., 473) Lutherans, 25, 41 MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 499, 554 McClellan, Gen. George B., 253 McCormick, Cyrus, 235-38, (illus., 236, 238) MacDowcll, Edward, 361 McKinlcv. William, 407-08, 498. (illus., 407) McLoughlin, Dr. John, 182 Madeira Islands, 9-10 Madison, James, and religious liberty, 117; <>l 1 INDEX aiul Constitutional Convention, 127; as President, 147-48; and foreign affairs, 465- 68 Magellan, Ferdinand, 6, 7, 17, (map, 16) Magna Charta, 107, (illus., 108) Maine, boundary, 179; separate state, 245 Maine, the, 479 Manchukuo (Manchuria), 502, 505-05, (on map, 504), 558 Manchuria (Manchukuo), 502, 503-05, (on map, 504), 558 Manila, battle of, 480; liberation of, 554 Manitoba, 206, (on map, 205) Mann, Horace, 345 Manufacturing, restrictions on colonial, 65- 66; restrictions ended, 80; colonial, 279-81, (illus., 280); and Industrial Revolution, unit illus., 276-77, 281-89, (map, 283, illus., 287, 288, chart, 289) Marconi, Guglielmo, 333 Marquette, Father Jacques, 18 Marietta, Ohio, 193-95 Marion, Gen. Francis, 77 Marshall, James, 208-11, (illus., 211) Marshall, John. 148-49, 152, (illus., 148) Martinique Island, 33 Maryland, founded, 36, (on map, 38); and re- ligion, 53-54; and War Between the States, 249, 253 Mass production, 278, 286-87, (illus., 288) Massachusetts, 25, settlement of, 3436, (on map, 38) Massachusetts Bay Colony, 36, 109 Mayflower, the, 322 Mayflower Compact, 35, 109 Mayor-council government, 447-48, (chart, 447) Maximilian, of Mexico, 478 Meade, Gen. George G., 253 Meat Inspection Act, 302, 427 Medicine, in Uruguay, 161; and Texas fever, 228; and slums, 353 Mediterranean, 7-8 Mendoza, Pedro de, 28 Menuhin, Yehudi, 381 Merit system. See Civil service Mestizos, denned, 45, 91, 93 Meuse-Argonne, battle of, 474, (on map, 474) Mexican War, 188-90, 246 Mexico, conquest of, 12-15, 17; independence of, 91-92; after independence movement, 96; democracy in, 161-63; revolution in, 161; and constitution of 1917, 161-63; and Texan independence, 185, 187-88, (on map, 189); mining in, 215-16; ranching in, 216; frontier in, 217; immigrants from, 377, (illus., 380); and France, 478-79; and oil difficulties, 162, 488; and Second World War, 551 Mexico City, 14-15, 26, 91, 188-89, 217. << map. 27, 189) Michigan, 195, 375, (illus., 438) Middle Ages, 7-8 Midway Island, 498, 553, 554, (on map, 497 549); battle of, 554 Mining, in Latin America, 42, 215-16, (on map, 43, illus., 44, 215); in the West, 208- 11, (illus., 211) Miranda, Francisco de, 81-82, 87. (illus., 87) Missionaries, Jesuits, 18; in Latin America. 26, 28; in California, 29, 209, (illus., 32); in Latin America, 42, 44; in Hawaii, 496 Mississippi, and cotton, 243 Mississippi River, 15, 17, 18, 31-33, 178, 191- 95, 249-52, (illus., 32, 74, on map, 74, 250) Missouri, 195, 201 Missouri Compromise, 245^16 Mobile, Ala., 195, (on map, 196) Mohawk River, 31, 72 Money, and farmers' revolt, 260-61, 267-68: and legislation, 538-39 Monitor and Merrimac (Virginia), 252 Monopolies, rise of, 299-301, (illus., 300); regulation of, 301-02, (illus., 302) Monroe Doctrine, 477-79, (illus., 478) Monroe, James, 147-48, 179, 477 Montana, 202, 211, 239 Montezuma, 1415 Monticello, 117, 230, (illus., 116) Montreal, Can., 19, 31, 47 Morelos, Father Jose 1 Maria, 91 Morgan, J. P.. 291 Morrill Act, 231, 347 Morristown, battle of, 72, (on map, 73) Morse, Samuel F. B., 332-33 Moscow, Russia, 6 Mount Vernon, Va., 139, 229-30 Moving pictures, 371-72 "Muckrakers," the, denned, 425, 427 Music, colonial, 359; Negro, 359-61, (illus., 360); orchestral, 361; operatic, 361-62; jazz, 363-64, (illus., 363) Mussolini, Benito, 546, 547, 556 Nagasaki, 558 Napoleon, Bonaparte, 84, 86, 92-93, 147, 179, 465 Natchez, Miss., 195, (on map, 196) National Association of Manufacturers, 569 National defense, and Alaska, 191 National Labor Relations Act, 313, 318 National Road, 196, (on map, 196) Nationalism, denned, 148 Nationalities. See Immigration Natural resources, in Latin America, 42, 215- 16, (on map, 43, illus., 215); in United States, 208-11, 254-55, (illus., 211, map, 283) Nazis, 546-47 Nebraska, 199, 232 INDEX 615 Negroes, in Brazil, 30-31, 45; in French West Indies, 47; in southern colonies, 48, 52; in Latin America, 94; and cotton, illus., 243; as share-croppers, 254, 381-83; and music. 359-61, (illus., 360); on map, 382; in north- ern cities, 383-84, (map, 382); contributions of, 384-85, (illus., 385); and wars, 384; and education, 384; and war Amendments, 401; and voting rights, 403 Netherlands, the, 30, 35, 548, 553, 558 Neutrality, defined, 464; and Washington, 464; and War of 1812, 465-66; and First World War, 472 Nevada, 210-11 Nevin, Ethel bert, 362 New Amsterdam, settled, 37 New Brunswick, 166 New Deal, 535-43, (illus., 536, 537) New England Confederation, 123 New Granada, independence of, 88 New Hampshire, founded, 36, (on map, 38) New Haven, Conn., 278 New Jersey, settled, 37; canals in, 324; and Woodrow Wilson, 430, 511 New Mexico, exploration of, 17; settlement of, 29, 211 New Netherland, settled, 36 New Orleans, 33, 179, 251-52, 361, 419, 468, (on map, 38) New York, 36, (on map, 38); colonial govern- ment, 109-10; and Grover Cleveland, 405; and F. D. Roosevelt, 532-34 New York City, illus., 49; as federal capital, 139; and slums, illus., 353; and music, 359, 361-62; and art, 368; and theater, 369, 371; and Negroes, 383; and- Tweed Ring, 413- 14; and China trade, 493 Newbold, Charles, 235 Newfoundland, 18, 33, 77, 548 Newport, R. I., 77, (on map, 78) Nicaragua, 26, 481, 483-84 Nobel Peace Prize, 353 Normandie, the, 322, 329 Norris, George W., 303-04 Norsemen, 10 North Carolina, settled, 37, (on map, 88); colonial life in, 47-48; and the Revolution, 75, 77, (on map, 78); and Regulators, 113; and westward movement, 195 North-West Company, 204, 206 Northwest Passage, 20-21 Northwest Territory, the, 193, 195, 244-45, 247 Nova Scotia, 18, 31, 166 Office of Defense Transportation, 551 Office of Price Administration (OPA), 553 Oglethorpe, James, 37 Ohio, 195, 286, 407 Ohio Company, 193 Oil, and Mexico, 162, 488 Oklahoma, exploration of, 17 Old-age pensions, 543 Omaha, Neb., 327 Ontario, 166, 206, 466, (on map, 205) "Open Door" policy, 500-03, 505, 550 Opera. See Music Orchestras. See Music Oregon, exploration, 181-82; settlement, 182- 84, 217, (illus., 183); annexation, 184, (on map, 180) Oregon Trail, 182, (on map, 210) Owens, Jesse, 385 Paine, Thomas, 64, 69, 119 Painting, colonial, 359; in early republic, 364-65; later, 365-69, (illus., 365, 366, 367, 368) Palestine, 7-8 Palos, 11 Pan-American Union, 485 Pan-Americanism, early efforts toward, 485; "big stick" policy, 486-87 Panama Canal, 481, 483-84, (map, 482, illus., 483) Panama, City of, 26, (on map, 27) Panama, Isthmus of, 15, (on map, 16, 27, 26) Panics. See Depressions Paraguay, 28. (on map, 27); independence, 91, 16i Parliament, origin of, 108; denned, 108 Parties. See Political parties Pastorius, Francis Daniel, quoted, 41 Peace movement, in Latin America, illus., 161; and Jane Addams, 353; in the United States, 508-10, (illus., 508, 510); during Second World War, 561-70 Pearl Harbor, 491, 496, 499, 550 Pedro I, 92-93, (illus., 92) Pedro II, 163, (illus., 164) Pendleton Civil Service Act, 418 Penn, William, 25, 37, 41, 53-54, (illus., 37, 124) Pensions, 405-06 Pennsylvania, founded, 25, 37, (on map. 38); and religion, 53-54, (illus., 124); and steel, 286, (on map, 283); canals in, 324; and theater, 369 Perkins Institution for the Blind, 348 Permanent Court of Arbitration, 509 Perry, Commodore Matthew C., 494-95 Perry, Commodore Oliver H., 466 Perching, Gen. John J., 474 Peru, conquest of, 15, 28, (on map, 16); set- tlement of, 26; independence of, 90-91: mining in, 215-16; frontier in, 217 Petersburg, siege of, 254 Petition of Right, 107 Philadelphia, Pa., 68, 72, 127, (illus., 128); 164, 326, 328, 333, 344-45, 361 6i6 INDEX Philippine Independence Act, 499 Philippine Islands, 6, 17, 480, 498-500, 554, 558, (on map, 497) Pickens, Gen. Andrew, 77 Pickett, Gen. George E., illus., 252 Pickford, Mary, S71 Pilgrims, 25, 34-36, (illus., 35); defined, 36, 53, 109 Pioneer. See Frontier and West Pitt, William the Younger, 81-82 Pittsburgh, 195-96, 326, 333, (on map, 196) Pizarro, Francisco, 15; route of, on map, 16; conquest of Peru, 24, 28; and mining, 215 Platt Amendment, 481, 488 Plymouth Colony, 35-36, (illus., 35, on map, 38) Poland, 375, 546, 548 Political parties, 602; origin of, 141-44, (chart, 145); Federalist, 144, 146; Republican (first), 144, 146; Democratic, 145, 152, 404-07, 430- 33, (map, 404); Democratic-Republican, 146; Whig, 152; Republican (second), 248, 399- 404, 407-08, 425-30; Populist, 25"7, 260, 262- 63, 265, (illus., 266); Greenback, 260. 262-63. 265; unit illus., 394-95; organization and working of, 397-99, (chart, 398); and ma- chine politics, 411-15; Progressive, 430, 434, 445. See also party names Polk, James K., 184, 188 Ponce de Leon, Juan, 15 Pope's Line, 17, (on map, 16) Populist party, 257, 260, 262-63, 265, (illus., 266) Port Royal (Annapolis), 31 Portugal, explorers of, 8-10, 17, (map, 9, 16); American settlements of, 29-31, (ou map, 27, illus., 30); and trading posts in Africa and Far East, 24; and Brazilian revolution, 92-93 Possessions. See Territorial expansion Potosi (silver mines), 216 Presbyterians, 25, 41, 53, 55 Prescott, Col. William, 70 Presidency, and Constitutional Convention, 132; and foreign affairs, 461-62, 464, (chart, 461, 463) Presidents, list of, 602 "Pressure groups," defined, 419, 421-22; (chart, 420) Pribilof Islands, 507 Primary, direct, 439 Primogeniture, defined, 80 Princeton, battle of, 64, 72, (on map, 73) Princeton College, 55, 511 Prison reform, 348 Progressive movement, 430, 434, 445 Prohibition, defined, 355; movement, 355-56 Promontory Point, Utah, 327 Propaganda, 419, 421-22, (chart, 420) Providence, R. I., founded, 36 Provincetowh, 35, 371 Public health. See Medicine Public Utility Holding Company Act (1935), 540 Public utilities, 539-40 Public Works Administration, 542 Puerto Rico, 26, 231, 479-81 Pupin, Michael, 379-80 Pure Food and Drugs Acts, 428, (illus., 302) Puritans, 25; defined, 36, 53, 109 Putnam, Gen. Rufus, 193-94 Pyle, Howard, illus. of, 19, 49, 67, 71, 124, 140, 151 Quakers, 25, 37, 53, 348 Quebec, 18; settlement of, 31, (on map, 38); life in, 45-46, (illus., 46); expedition against, 68, (on map, 73); province of, 166, 206, (on map, 205) Queen Mary, the, 331 Quezon, Manuel, 499 Radio, 333-34, 362-63, 371, (illus., 370) Railroads, in Canada, 206, (on map, 205); in American West, 212, 326-27, (map, 327); regulation of, 265-67, (illus., 267); expansion of, 321, 326-27, (illus., 326) Raleigh, Sir Walter, 33 Ranching, in Latin America, 42, 216-17, (on map, 43); on Great Plains, 212-14, (illus., 213, 214) Recall, 440 Reconstruction in the South, 254-55 Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 538-39 Recreation. See Moving pictures; Music; Radio; Theater Red Cross, 468, 470, 553 Red Sea, 8 Referendum, 439-40, (illus., 441) Reform. See Big Business; Blind; Child labor; Civil service; Debtors; Education; Govern- ment; Insane, treatment of; Labor; Peace movement; Political parties; Prison reform; Prohibition; Muckrakers; Railroads; Slav- ery; Social security Religion, as a background for American set- tlement, 24-25; Pilgrims and Puritans, 34- 36, 53, (illus., 35); in Latin America, 42, 44; in English colonies, 52-53; freedom of, in Virginia, 117; and Canadian politics, 166 Representative government. See Government Republican party (first), 144, 146, 152, (chart, 145); (second), 248, 399-404, 407-08, 425-30, (illus., 400, map, 404) Revere, Paul, 70, 359, (map, 73) Revolutionary War, influence on religion, 54; causes of, 65-68, (illus., 67); the battles of, 69-79, (map, 73, 74, 78, illus., 71, 76); on frontier, 176-77 INDEX 617 Revolutions, unit illus., 62-63; American Rev- olution, 64-80; in Latin America, 81-97, 157-59, (illus., 158); in France, 83-84, 464; Bacon's Rebellion, 112; Regulators in North Carolina, 113; Shays' Rebellion, illus., 126; Whiskey Rebellion, 142; in Mexico, 161; in Brazil, 163-65; in Canada, 165; in Texas, 185, 187-88, (on map, 189); in China, 501-02 Rhode Island, founded, 36, (on map, 38); and religion, 53-54 Richmond, Va., 249, 252, 254 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 30, (on map, 27) Rio de la Plata, 28, 216, (on map, 27) Roads, 195, 196, 322, 325-26, (on map, 1%) Robertson, James, 177 Robeson, Paul, 384 Rockefeller Center, 358, 371 Rockefeller Foundation, 296 Rockefeller, John D., biography of, 295-96, (illus., 294) Rockefeller, John D., Jr., 358 Roman Catholic Church, 7; split in, 24-25; and founding of Maryland, 25, 36; and mis- sionaries, 26, 28, 209; members of, 41; Latin America, 42, 44-45, 94; Canada, 165 Rome, 7 Roosevelt, Franklin D., and Indian policy, 203-04; and conservation, 218-19; and farm policy, 268; and labor, 312-13; and Good Neighbor policy, 476, 487-89; and Canadian policy, 490; and Philippines, 500; biog- raphy of, 532, 534-35, (illus., 533); and Second World War, 547-51, (map, 549, illus., 562); and world peace, 560-63; death of, 567 Roosevelt, Theodore, and conservation, 218; establishes forest service, 235; and monop- olies, 291; on bosses and machines, 411; as President, 425-28, (illus., 426); in 1912 elec- tion, 430; and Spanish-American War, 480; and Panama Canal, 483; and "big stick" policy, 484, 487 Rubber, first practical, 284, 299; improvement of, 299; synthetic, 299, 551; in Second World War, 551 Rush-Bagot agreement, 489 Russia, and Alaska, 190-91, (map, 191); and wheat, 232; immigrants from, 375; and First World War, 472; in Far East, 498; war with Poland, 546; and Second World War, 556, 558 St. Augustine, founded, 29, (on map, 38) St. Christopher Island, 33, 39 St.-Gaudens, Augustus, 380 St. Lawrence River, 18-19, 33, (on map, 38) St. Louis, 33, 375, (on map, 38) St. Lucia, 548 Saipan, 554 Sacajawea, 182 Salvador. See El Salvador Samoa, 498, 553, (on map, 549) San Antonio, Tex., 187, (on map, 189) San Diego, Calif., 209, 329; founded, 29 San Franciico, Calif., 209, 332, 333; founded, 29 San Jacinto, battle of, 185, 188, (on map, 189) San Martin, Jos de, 88, 90, 91, 94, (and map, 89, illus., 90) Santa Anna, Gen. Antonio Lopez de, 187-88 Santa Fe, N. M., founded, 29 Santa Rosa, Calif., 233 Santo Domingo, 11 Sao Paulo, Brazil, 30, (on map, 27) Saratoga, battle of, 72, (on map, 73) Sargent, John Singer, 367 Saskatchewan, 206, (on map, 205) Schools. See Education Schurz, Carl, 374-75, 379 Science. See Chemistry; Conservation; Elec- tricity; Inventions; Medicine Scott, Gen. Winfield, 188-89, (and map, 189) Sculpture, 380 Seattle, Wash., on map, 219 Secession, 247-49, (on map, 248) Seigneurs, denned, 46 Selective Training and Service Act (1940), 548, 551 Senate, 129, 462, (chart, 463) Scrapis, 75, (illus., 76) Settlement, unit illus., 45; reasons for, 24- 25; Spanish, 26, 28-29, (on map, 27, 38); Portuguese, 29-31, (on map, 27, illus., 30); French, 31-33, (illus., 32, on map, 38); Eng- lish, 33-37, 39, (on map, 38) Seward, William H., 190, 399 Share-croppers, defined, 254, 381-83 Shaw, Samuel, 493 Shays' Rebellion, illus., 126 Sherman, Gen. William T., 251 Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 301 Sicily, invasion of, 556 Silver, in Latin America, 24, 42, 215-16, (on map, 43); in Nevada, 210 Slater, Samuel, 282 Slavery, in Brazil, 30-31, 45; in Latin Amer- ica, 42, 45, 94; in French West Indies, 47; in colonial South, 48, 52, 307; and three- cornered trade, 51, (chart, 51); Jefferson's attitude toward, 116-17: unit illus., 226-27; and Emancipation Proclamation, 241, 254, 399; and cotton growing, 243-44; in Loui- siana Territory, 245-46; and Texas annexa- tion, 246; and Mexican cession, 246; and Amendment XIII, 254, 401; and William Lloyd Garrison, 348 Slums, 351-53, 383, (illus., 353) Smith, Alfred E., 534 6i8 INDEX Smith, Theobald, 228, 232 Smith, Sir Thomas, 23 Smith-Lever Extension Act, 231 Social security, in Uruguay, 161; in United States, 543, (illus., 542) Sod houses, 198-99, (illus., 199) "Solid South," the, 403-04, (on map, 404) Songs. See Music Sousa, John Philip, 361 South America. See separate countries South Carolina, settled, 37, (on map, 38); colonial life in, 47-48; and the Revolution, 75, 77, (on map, 78); and ballots, -139 Southwest, the Old, 195, 243 Spain, explorers of, 10-17, (map of, 16, illus., 11, 13); American settlements of, 26, 28-29, (on map, 27, 38); immigrants from, 52; colonial policy of, 82-83; and the Missis- sippi River, 179; and Florida, 180; and colonial mines, 215 Spanish -American War, 408, 471, 479-80, 496, 498, (illus., 480) "Spoils system," the, denned, 152; and Jack- son, 152; and Cleveland, 405; and corrup- tion, 415-16, (illus., 417); and reform of, 416-19, (chart, 418) Stalin, Joseph, 552, 562, (illus., 562) Stalingrad, battle of, 556 Stamp Act, 67, 68, 106, (illus., 67) Standard Oil Company, 293, 295-97, 300, 425 Stanford, Leland, 327 States, constitutions of, in Revolutionary period, 79; and new southern constitutions, 403; government in, 438-47, (illus., 438, 440, 441, 442, 444); map of, 578; list of, 603 Steffens, Lincoln, 424-25 Steinmetz, Charles, 380 Stettinius, Edward, illus., 565 Stock exchange, 528 Stokowski, Leopold, 381 Stuart, Gilbert, 359, 364 Sucre, Gen. Antonio Jose de, 88 Suffrage. See Vote, right to Sugar, 24, 30, 47, 66, (chart, 51) Sugar Act, 66-67 Sullivan, Gen. John, 74 Sully, Thomas, 365 Sumter, Fort, 249, (on map, 250) Sumter, Gen. Thomas, 77 Sun Yat-sen, 502 Supreme Court. See Judiciary Sutler, John Augustus, 208-10, (illus., 211) Swedes, 52 Taft, William H., 429-30, 440. 510, (illus., 432) Tammany Hall, 411-13 Tarawa, 554 Tariff, 408; colonial, 66-67; protective, de- fined, 401;' and Cleveland, illus., 406; and Wilson, 432; Philippine, 499 Taxation, in English colonies, 66-68, 106, 112; and the Articles of Confederation, 126; and the Constitution, ISO; and Whiskey Re- bellion, 142 Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 188, (map, 189) Tea Act (1773), 68 Telegraph, 332-33 Telephone, 333 Temperance, denned, 354; movement, 354- 56, (illus., 356) Tennessee, settlement of, 177 Tennessee Valley Authority, 218, 303-04, (map, 303, illus., 304) Territorial expansion, Louisiana Purchase, 147, 181, (on map, 180); Florida, 181, (on map, 180); Oregon, 181-84, (illus., 183, on map, 180); Texas, 184, 188, (on map, 180, 189); Mexican Cession, 189-90, (on map, 180, 189); Gadsden Purchase, 190, (on map, 180); Alaska, 190-91, (map, 191); Philip- pines, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, 480, 484; in Pacific, 4%, (on map, 497, 498) Tesla, Nikola, 380 Texas, 17; settlement of, 29; annexed, 184, 188, (on map, 180, 189); and campaign of 1844, 184; Revolution of, 185, 187, (on map, 189); as Lone Star State, 185, 187, 188; ranching in, 212; and cotton, 243; and an- nexation, 246; and War Between the States, 187, 251 Theater, colonial, 369; in early republic, 369- 70; later, 370-71; and "little," 370-71 Thompson, David, 204 Ticonderoga, battle of, 68-69, (on map, 73) Tigris and Euphrates valleys, 8 Tinian, 554 Tobacco, 24, 34, 47, 66 Toleration Act, 53 Tom Thumb, 321, 326-27, (illus., 326) Tories, 79 Toscanini, Arturo, 381 Town meeting, 106-07, (illus., Ill); defined, 110 Transportation, colonial, 322; by canals, 323- 24, (map, 323); by river steamboat, 324-25; by ocean travel, 325; by stage coach, 325- 26; by railroads, 321, 326-27, (illus., 326, map, 327); by automobile, 327-28; by air- plane, 329-32, (map, 330, chart, 331) Travel time, of Mayflower, 322; of Clermont, 324; of stage, 325-26; chart of, 331; by rail- road, 331; by air, 331-32; trans-Atlantic, 331 Travis, Col. William B., 187 Treaties, Paris (1783), 77, 177-79; Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), 189-90, 209, (on map, 189); Gadsden Purchase, 190, (on map. 180); Alaska, 190-91, (on map, 191); making of, INDEX 619 462, 464, (chart, 463); of Ghent (1814), 468; at Washington Conference, 503; Versailles, 513, 546, 547 Trenton, battle of, 64, 72, (on map, 73) Trinidad, 548 Truk, 554 Truman, Harry S., 567 Trusts. See Big Business Tupper, Gen. Benjamin, 193 Turkey, 7, 546 Tuskegee Institute, 384 Twain, Mark (Clemens, Samuel), in unit illus., 342-43 "Tweed Ring," the, 413-14, (illus., 413) Uncle Tom's Cabin, 260, 355, 369-70 Unemployment, in England, 25; in the United States, 528-32, 541-43, (chart, 531, illus., 541) Union Pacific Railroad, 327 United Mine Workers, 314 United Nations, the, 500, 551, 560-67, (map, 555) United Nations Organization, the, 563-67 United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), 560, 562, 567 United States Housing Authority, 543 United States Steel Corporation, 297 Urban life, growth of, 288-89, (chart, 289); and Negroes, 383-84, (map, 382) U'Ren, William, 437. 442, 447 Uruguay, 161; independence of, 91 Utah, 433 V-E Day, 558 V-J Day, 558 Valley Forge, 72, 75, 79, (on map, 73) Vargas, Getulio, 165 Venezuela, 28, 87, (on map, 27, illus., 85); independence of, 88, 96; ranching in, 216; frontier in, 217 Venezuela Affairs, 479, 48 1 Venice, Italy, 8 Vera Cruz, Mex., 14-15, 26, 188-89, (on map, 16, 27, 189) Vermont, founded, 36, (on map, 38) Verrazano, Giovanni, 18, (on map, '20) Vespucci, Americus, 12 Veto, denned, 133, (chart, 132) Vicksburg, Miss., 251 Vincennes, 74, (on map, 74) Virgin Islands, 484 Virginia Company, 23, 34, 35, 109 Virginia, founding of, 23, 33-34, (on map, 38); colonial life in, 47-48; and religious freedom, 54; and the Revolution, 77, (on map, 78); colonial government of, 109, (illus., \IQ); and westward movement, 195; and War Between the States, 187, 249, 251, 253; travel in colonial, 322 Virginia, University of, 1 16-17 Vote, right to, and Constitutional Conven- tion, 131; and manhood suffrage. 150; in Latin America, 159; Canada, 167; Negroes, 403; women, 433, (map, 434, illus., 435) Wainwright, Gen. Jonathan, 554 Wake Island, 553, (on map, 547) Waltham, Mass., 285 War Between the States, and unit illus., 226- 27; plans in, 249-51, (map, 250); and west- ern campaign, 251, (map, 250); and blockade of South, 251-52, (map, 250); and eastern campaign, 252-54, (map, 250, illus., 252, 253); results of, 254-55 War of 1812, 148, 284-85, 466, 468, (map, 467) War Hawks, 466 War Labor Board, 552 War Manpower Commission, 551 Wars, American Revolution, 64-80; between France and England, 66; French and Indian, 123, 195; War of 1812, 148, 284-85, 466, 468; Mexican, 188-90, 246; War Between the States, 249-55, 286; Spanish-American, 408, 471, 479-80; First World War, 472-75; Second World War, 545-74 Washington, Booker T., 384 Washington, George, and the Revolution, 64, 70, 72, 77, 79, (and map, 73, 78); quoted, 79, 243; and the Articles of Confederation, 126; and Constitutional Convention, 127; as President, 139, 141-42, (illus., 140, 143); as farmer, 229-30; and theater, 369; and foreign affairs, 464-65 Washington Conference, 503, 550 Washington, D. C., 6 Watson, Elkanah, 231, (illus., 230) Watt, James, 282, 324 Weaver, James B., biography of, 260-63, (illus., 261) Webster, Daniel, 246, 344, 348 West, the American, political influence of, 150; unit illus., 174-75; causes for west- ward movement, 194; settlement of Missis- sippi Valley, 194-95, (illus., 197, 199); routes to, 195-97, (on map, 196); and the Indians, 200-04, (illus., 200, on map, 203); the Ca- nadian, 204-06, (map, 205) West, Benjamin, 359. 364 West Indies, 11-12, 26. (on map, 27); French settlements in, 33, 47; English settlements in, 37, 39; and sugar exports, 66-67; immi- grants from, 377 West Virginia, a state, 249 Whig party, 152, (chart, 145) Whiskey Rebellion, 142 Whistler, James McNeill. 365 Whiteman, Paul, 364, (illus., 363) Whitman, Walt, in unit illus., 342-43 Whitman, Marcus, 182 620 INDEX Whitney, Eli, 242-43, 278, 286-87 Wilderness Trail, 195, (on map, 196) William and Mary College, 55, 115 Williams, Roger, 36, 53-54 Wilson, Woodrow, and Federal Farm Loan Act, 268; as President, 430, 432-33, (map, 431, illus., 432); and woman suffrage, 434, (illus., 435); and "new democracy," 440; and First World War, 472-75, 512-15, (illus., 514); and "A B C" powers, 487; and Philip- pine Islands, 499; biography of, 510-13, (illus., 512, 514); and League of Nations, 513, 515-16; and F. D. Roosevelt, 534 Windmills, 214 Winthrop, John, 36 Wisconsin, IQ5, 442-47 Women, in Latin America, 159; and reform, 354; and right to vote, 433-35, (map, 434, illus., 435); in Second World War, 553, (illus.. 552) Women's Christian Temperance Union, 355, (illus., 356) Wood, Grant, 369, (illus., 368) Woodruff, John, 385 Works Progress Administration, 542-43 World Court (Permanent Court of Interna- tional Justice), 515, 518 World War, First, background of, 472; reasons for our entry, 472-73, (illus., 473); military operations, 473-74, (map, 474); co-operation between United States and Canada during, 489; and Japan, 502-03; cost of, 508; failure of, 546 World War, Second, 6; and Alaska, 191; and copper; illus., 215; and rubber, 299, 551; and labor, 319; and Negroes, 384; and civil service, 419; and voting, 435; Pearl Harbor, 499; Philippine campaign, 499-500; and Japan, 505; unit illus., 526-27; and agricul- ture, 538; causes of, 546-48, (illus., 547); American preparations for, 548-50, (on map, 549); declaration of war, 550-51; civilian front, 551-52, (illus., 552); in the Pacific, 553-54, (on map, 555); in North Africa and Italy, 554-56, (on map, 555, illus.. 568); in Russia and western Europe, 556-58, (on map, 555, illus., 557); peace movements during, 561-70 Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 329 Wyoming, 433 Wyoming Valley Massacre, 74 Yale College, 55, 362 York (Toronto), 466, 468, (map, 467) Yorktown, victory of, 77, (on map, 78) Yugo-Slavia, 546, 548