Univ.^i ill. Library 52 stj ^ ****** # '•*%' r rr^if*-- v •* * if ^ .. . — Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/collierscycloped00robi_0 BUNKER Hill. J Ul'M The Centennial PPOMATOX — L -j F- y « t~' n - ' 77 ■ bj-i^JTlliiSicbjp Collier’s Cyclopedia OF COMMERCIAL AND SOCIAL INFORMATION AND TREASURY OF USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING KNOWLEDGE ON ART, SCIENCE, PASTIMES, BELLES-LETTRES, AND MANY OTHER SUBJECTS OF INTEREST IN THE AMERICAN HOME CIRCLE. COMPILED BY NUGENT ROBINSON. This Edition has been carefully Revised to Date . NEW YORK PETER FENELON COLLIER & SON MCM Copyright, 1882, By p. f. collier Z2.fi -4 * -4A+ T no period in the history of the United States has the necessity for a cheap but perfect Cyclopedia of Useful Knowledge been so imperative. So keen is the competitive spirit of the age, that the advan- tage of knowledge m the struggle for advancement is apparent to all. A good education is the best legacy we can leave to our children. It is the best investment we can make for ourselves. The educated man, in every walk of life, carries with him his own capital — a capital unaffected by monetary crises — an investment whose interest is not regulated by the success of specula- tion — a legacy which none can dispute, and of which none can deprive him. This is essentially a practical book. Its aim and object is to enable people to educate themselves. The ambition of the Publisher is to place in every American home this treasury of knowledge, invaluable as a manual of study and a work of reference; and while it is simple, progressive and interesting in style, is a veritable power, from the manner in which it enforces education. A reference to the list of contents will show, that under various heads are included those numerous branches of study essential to the varied walks of life, while its social forms convey those instructions which so qualify persons of both sexes for appear- ing to the highest advantage in society. Collier’s Cyclopedia and Veritable Treasury of Knowledge contains a complete digest of Mercantile Law , together with forms of Legal Documents, Government Bonds, and a dictionary of law terms, enabling every man to become his own lawyer. The newest and best system of Phonography is copiously illustrated. Bookkeeping in all its branches ; arithmetic and algebra, together with a lightning calculator, form prominent features in this invaluable work. PREFACE. The Complete Letter Writer is a gem in its way; and the selections of English prose and verse, from the works of the most renowned authors, are as chaste as they are elegant and classical. A very important section in this Treasury of Knowledge is the self teaching of French and German, and the self instructor — illustrated — for the Piano and the singing voice. The Golden Rules of Etiquette will prove invaluable to those desirous of entering into, and shining in society; and the indoor games, parlor magic, etc., will serve to render the winter nights “bright as day;” while the outdoor, com- prising gymnastics, riding, driving, etc., cannot fail to work the most beneficial and healthful results to those who are enabled to profit by the instruction. The laws of health also form a portion of the Cyclopedia; nor have the all important items of agriculture or gardening been omitted. A glance at the Index will convey some slight idea of the numerous and varied subjects which the compiler has dealt with. Never within the scope of any one volume have so many subjects been so skilfully compressed, each of which is handled in so able a manner as to render its study a source of intense enjoyment, while affording the most advanced information. The Publisher has spared no expense in editing and illustrating, while the volume, for beauty, finish and cheapness, is a marvel of taste and progress. Grammar X A Compendious English Grammar 7 Synonyms of Words in General Use 33 Favorite Poems:— After, P. B. Marston 59 Again, Anon 56 Angel’s Whisper, S. Lover 63 Antony and Cleopatra, W. H. Lytle 80 Apple Blossoms, E. S. Phelps 60 Auf Wiedersehen, J. R. Lowell 75 Baby, George Macdonald 62 Bell, T. B. Aldrich 61 Baby’s Shoes, W. C. Bennett 64 Battle-Hymn of the Republic, Julia Ward Howe 77 of Blenheim, Robert Southey 84 Bedouin Song, Bayard Taylor 69 Begone, Dull Care, Anon 53 Beware, Longfellow 67 Bingen on the Rhine, Mrs. C. E. Norton 86 Blue and the Gray, F. M. Finch 93 Break, Break, Break, Tennyson 60 Brookside, The, R. M. Milnes 70 Bugle Song, Tennyson 61 Burial of Sir John Moore, C. Wolfe. 92 Changes, Robt. Bulvver Lytton 68 Charge of the Light Brigade, Tennyson 88 Child Musician, The, A. Dobson 65 Elegy, The, Thomas Gray 78 Evelyn Hope, R. Browning 72 Excelsior, H. W. Longfellow 90 Exile of Erin, T. Campbell 77 Fare Thee Well, Lord Byron 74 Fond Kiss, Ae, Robt. Burns 71 For a’ that and a’ that, Robt. Burns 58 Forget Thee ? J. Moultrie 71 Glove and the Lions, Leigh Hunt 87 Good-by, R. W. Emerson 59 Good night, Wm. M. Praed 71 He That Loves a Rosy Cheek, T. Carew 66 Health, A, E. C. Pinckney 76 Hohenlinden, Th os. Campbell 88 I Remember, I Remember, Hood 57 If, May Riley Smith 64 If We Knew, May Riley Smith 66 In School Days, J. G. Whittier 73 Jenny Kissed Me, Leigh Hunt 69 Jester’s Sermon, The, Anon 95 John Anderson, My Jo, R. Burns 68 Lady Clara Vere de Vere, Tennyson 74 Lady’s Yes, The, Mrs. Browning 69 Landlady’s Daughter, J. L. Uhland 67 Little Breeches, Anon 94 Lochinvar, Walter Scott 85 Locksley Hall, Tennyson 80 Love-Knot, The, Nora Perry 75 Love’s Philosophy, P. B. Shelley 70 Maidenhood, H. W. Longfellow 56 Maiden’s Choice, Henry Fielding 68 Match, A, A. C. Swinburne 76 Maud Muller, J. G. Whittier 90 My Life is Like the Summer Rose, R. H. Wilde. 60 Mind to Me a Kingdom is, W. Byrd 53 Valentine, Albert Ellery Berg 72 Nearer Home, Phoebe Cary 96 Never Again, R. H. Stoddard 56 Old Clock on the Stairs, Longfellow 57 Oaken Bucket, S. Woodworth 61 One by One, Adelaide Proctor 58 Only Waiting, Frances L. Mace 95 Our Own, Margaret E. Sangster 66 Philip My King, Mrs. Dinah M. Craik 65 Picket Guard, The, Ethel L. Beers 93 Plain Language from Truthful James, Bret Harte 94 Plighted, Mrs. Dinah M. Craik ~6 Resignation, Longfellow 64 Revelry in India, B. Dowling 93 Seven Ages, The, Shakespeare 53 She is Not Fair, H. Coleridge 67 Walks in Beauty, Lord Byron 69 Was a Phantom of Delight, Wordsworth. 67 Somebody’s Darling, Marie R. Lacoste 73 Thanatopsis, W. C. Bryant 79 Tired Mothers, May Riley Smith 63 Too Late, Mrs. Muloch Craik 70 Unsung, T. B. Aldrich 59 Vagabonds, The, J. T. Trowbridge 89 Village Blacksmith, The, Longfellow 87 Voiceless, The, O. W. Holmes 59 We Have Been Friends Together, Mrs. Norton.. 70 Wet Sheet and Flowing Sea, A. Cunningham. . . 61 Willie Winkle, William Miller 63 Popular Songs of All Nations:— Annie Laurie, Douglass 131 Auld Lang Syne, Burns 130 Austrian National Hymn, Haschka 113 Blue Bells of Scotland, Mrs. Grant 133 British Grenadiers, The 138 Bruce’s Address to His Army, Burns Ill Charlie is My Darling, Nairne 159 Coming Through the Rye 1:39 Dr arest Mae, Lynch 154 Die Waclit am Rhein no Dutch National Song, Anon 117 Evening Song to the Virgin, Mrs. Hematis 156 German Cradle Song, Hiemer 343 Gi>-1 I Left Behind Me . 143 Glory, Glory! Hallelujah! C. S. Hall 118 Hail Columbia! Hopkinson 104 Harp That Once Thro’ Tara’s Halls, Moore 161 Kathleen Mavourneen, Mrs. Crawford 134 Katy Darling 121 Keep in de Middle ob de Road, Hays 152 Killarney, Music by Balfe 140 Last Rose of Summer, Moore 132 Loreley, Heine 128 Love Not 119 Marseillaise Hymn, The, De Lisle 108 My Country, ’Tis of Thee, S. F. Smith 101 O Susanna, S. C. Foster 150 CONTENTS. Oft in the Stilly Night, Moore 134 Old Folks at Home, S. C. Foster 145 King Cole 164 Partant pour La Syrie, Queen Hortense 114 Robin Adair, Keppel 144 Rock of Ages, Toplady 166 Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep, Willard 162 Rule Britannia! Dr. Arne 106 Russian National Anthem, Joukovvsky 112 Sally in Our Alley, Carey 132 Shells of Ocean, Lake 105 Star-Spangled Banner, F. S. Key 100 Those Evening Bells, Moore 161a ’Tis But a Little Faded Flower, Mrs. Howarth. 160 Uncle Ned, S. C. Foster 148 University Song, Gaudeamus Igitur 157 Viva L’ America, Millard 99 Wearing of the Green, Boucicault 136 Within a Mile of Edinburgh Town, D’Urfey.... 158 Yankee Doodle, Pyrenees Air 102 Penmanship 167 Phonography, or Short Hand 176 Languages 181 The Letter Writer 183 Various Forms of Invitations 195 Speeches 200 Toasts and Sentiments 203 Bookkeeping „ 207 Arithmetic 221 Arithmetical Amusements 228 The Lightning Calculator 234 Algebra 242 Gymnastics 249 Riding 262 Indoor Gardening 268 Seven Wonders of the World 271 Lessons in Bicycle Riding 272 Swimming 277 Drowning 281 Rowing 283 Mercantile Law 288 Forms of Legal Documents 304 Government Bonds 314 Dictionary of Law Terms 317 Miscellaneous Tables 330 Brief History of the United States 351 Declaration of Independence 366 Constitution of the United States 368 Outdoor Games 375 Parlor Games 390 Games of Cards 396 Games of Skill 414 Parlor Magic. 431 Physics without Appliances 444 Astronomy 449 The Rules of Debate and How to Conduct One 455 Phrenology 471 Knots and Splices 477 A Full-rigged Ship 482 Home Studies for Young Ladies 483 Architecture 488 French, Self-taught 495 German, Self-taught 512 Agriculture 525 Cattle 541 The Horse 545 Poultry 563 The Cultivation of Fruit 577 Carving 585 Etiquette for Ladies 589 Etiquette for Gentlemen 597 Etiquette for Party and Ballroom 604 Etiquette of Courtship and Matrimony 617 Etiquette of Mourning 627 Golden Rules of Etiquette 631 The Language of Flowers 636 How to Preserve your Health 645 The Nursery 653 Hints to Housekeepers 662 Commerce 675 Money 680 How to Make Up for Amateur Theatricals 688a Geology 692 Miscellaneous: Legal Holidays in the U. S 688a Principal Articles of Import of Tw r enty Coun- tries 689 Principal Articles of Export of Twenty Coun- tries 689 Navies of Twenty Nations in 1896 689a Armies (Peace Footing) of Twenty Nations in 1896 690 Debts of Twenty Prominent Countries 690 Distances in Miles from New York to One Hun- dred Prominent Cities 690 Debts of Prominent Countries 690 Length and Cost of American Canals 690 Exempt from Forced Sales in the Different States 691 Noted Events in the World’s History 691 How to get up a Fair 700 A Digest of the Laws Relating to the Rights of American Women 709 Sculpture— Modeling 717 Brass Work 720 Civil Service Rules 724 Civil Service Regulations 726 Instruction to Ladies Desirous of Entering the Civil Service 729 Photography 731 Painting 737 The Hygiene of Beauty 741 GRAMMAR. * GRAMMAR is the sci- ence of language, and its principal use is to en- able those who study it to express their thoughts with correctness and propriety, so as to be under- stood by those whom they address. It must always be remem- bered that grammars can only define , but cannot de- termine, the correct use of language. This depends, in every instance, upon the forms of thought and meaning to be conveyed ; and in all languages was settled and employed long before the studies of grammarians commenced. And at this very time it may be seen how com- pletely powerless are all the grammatical treatises on our own tongue, now existing, to prevent such changes as the disuse of the subjunctive mood of verbs, etc., from being made in the forms of the English language ; by which the power of express- ing some finer shades of meaning must be greatly circumscribed, if not entirely lost. The best method, therefore, to be pursued by any one who desires to become practically and thor- oughly acquainted with his mother-tongue, is care- fully to read some select works of our best authors, in the manner now to be described, with the help of such a compendious grammar as that contained in the following pages. This method, by the peculiar interest it excites, relieves the study of all drudg- ery ; and at the same time furnishes one of the most satisfactory means of intellectual training, and an available introduction to the study of any other language to which the attention may afterward be directed. 2. The following paragraphs form the commence- ment of Lord Bacon’s Essay, “OF STUDIES. “ I. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. “ II. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring ; for ornament, is in discourse ; and fo: ability, is in the judgment and disposition of busi- ness. * “ III. For expert men can execute and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one ; but the general counsels and the plots, and marshaling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. “ IV. To spend too much time in studies is sloth ; to use them too much for ornament is affectation ; to make judgment only by their rules is the humor of a scholar. “V. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience ; for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study, and studies them- selves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. “ VI. Crafty men contemn studies; simple men ad- mire them ; and wise men use them, for they teach not their own use ; but that is a wisdom without them and above them, won by observation. “VII. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted ; nor to find talk and discourse ; but to weigh and consider.” 3. In the first paragraph we find somethin? stoken of, “ studies,” and something said about them, viz., that they “ serve ” for certain purposes, as “ for delight," 2 GRAMMAR. “ ornament,” and “ ability.” The several parts may be arranged thus : Studies serve.... for delight, for ornament and for ability. They are thus distinguished according to their offices in the paragraph, which can readily be no- ticed, when thus arranged, without the employment of any names for them. 4. The paragraph numbered (2) may be arranged in this manner : — Their chief use... ( privateness for delight... .is. ...in-< and ( retiring ; for ornament. .is. ...in discourse; and l judgment for ability is inthe-j and ( disposition f of f business. Here the three purposes mentioned in the former paragraph are the things spoken of ; and certain things are said about each of them, though not ex- actly in the same manner as those purposes were said to be answered by “ studies,” above. These two parts, therefore — something spoken of, and some- thing said about it — we may note as essential to a complete and intelligible sentence of the kind before us ; and we may adopt the names given to them by grammarians — subject and predicate; which, signifying precisely what has just been said, require no further explanation. 5. Paragraph (3) we arrange thus: ( execute ) For. ..expert men... can-1 and but.. the general counsels and 1 plots the < and | marshaling [of ( judge of ) affairs particulars, one by one, perhaps; j from those that are j learned best. Both subjects and predicates here are somewhat complex. “ Expert ” is prefixed to “ men ; ” “ gen- eral ” to “ counsels ; ” and to “ the plots and mar- shalling ” are appended the words “ of affairs ; ” just as in paragraph (2) “chief ” was prefixed to “ use,” and “ for delight, for ornament, and for ability ” added to the same word, with the evident intention of circumscribing and defining it. And with a simi- lar intention, the meaning of “ can execute and judge of ” is carried out and completed by “ particu- lars ” and “ one by one ; ” and that of the latter predicate, “ can judge of,” is further limited by the word ' perhaps ” being attached to it. In the sec- ond part of the paragraph, also, “ from those that are learned,” and “ best,” are appended to the predicate “ come.” And so in paragraph (1), “ for delight, for ornament, and for ability,” follow the word “ serve ; ” and in paragraph (2), after “ is,” comes “ in private- ness and retiring, in discourse,” etc. It is evident that these appended words and phrases, although they are of the highest moment to the full and precise expression of the thoughts, when regard is had to the structure of the sentences alone, are not essential, but subordinate parts there- of. And they have accordingly received from gram- marians distinct names ; those employed to describe and define subjects being designated attributives ; and those employed with predicates, for the purpose of modifying and supplementing their meaning — objects ; which terms we will use for the future, to avoid trouble and confusion. 6. But we may observe further, that the attribu- tives, which have occurred in these paragraphs, are of two kinds. One kind (like the subjects) consists of names of things, called by grammarians nouns ; as “ delight,” “ ornament,” “ ability,” “ business,” “ affairs ; ” and these have before them the little words “ of ” and “ for,” which are known as prepo- sitions, to attach them to the subjects. The other kind consists of epithets merely, and not of names, as “ chief,” “ expert,” “ general ; ” and they are called adjectives. In paragraph (3) we find another word, “ the,” used very much in the same way as adjectives are used ; except that its sole force is to point to the subject particularly spoken of ; whence it has been named the demonstrative. And in paragraph (2) there is a word, “ their,” in form closely resembling it ; but (in this instance) meaning, “of studies.” It is plainly an adjective ; but it is also called a pro- noun, from its being thus used instead of a noun. One other word, “ and,” which occurs in the sub- jects of these paragraphs, requires a passing glance. Its use is obvious ; it connects certain parts of sen- tences together, so as to save much repetition, and the inconveniences that must result from it, and it is designated a conjunction. 7. Before we speak of the different kinds of object- ive words and phrases which we meet with in these paragraphs, some further notice should be taken of the predicates. In paragraph (1), and in the second example in paragraph (3), they are perfectly simple, consisting of the words “ serve ” and “ come ” alone ,* GRAMMAR. 3 words which convey assertions, and speak of some sort of action, and are called verbs. “ Can execute and judge of ” (observe the use of the conjunction) are also verbs, but the latter has a preposition at- tached to it, to bring it into a particular relation with the objects that follow ; and to both of them is prefixed the word “ can,” which alters their force from the assertion of action to the assertion of the mere capability of it. In paragraph (2), again, we have for predicates, “ in privateness and retiring,” in “ discourse,” etc., — which are plainly nouns with prepositions ; and the quality of predicates is given to them by the employment of the word “ is ” with each, which changes them from attributives into as- sertions. “ Is ” must consequently be called a verb, although it only expresses being and not action. The complex character of these predicates must be observed ; and the conjunctions, the demonstrative, and the addition of the attributive, “ of business,” to one of them (which happens because they are actu- ally nouns) carefully noted. 8. Turning now to the objects, we see in para- graph (1) that they indicate the purpose or effect of the action expressed by the verb ; and, in this ex- ample, are nouns attached to the verb by the help of prepositions, — “ for delight,” “ for ornament,” etc. In paragraph (3) the first object, “particulars,” which is also a noun, indicates that on which the action represented by the verbs “ execute and judge of,” takes effect. Observe, also, that just as in the words “ studies,” “ plots,” and “ affairs,” the fact that more than one of the kind is meant, is shown by the addition of the letter “ s ” to the ordinary word ; whilst in the instance of “ men,” the same fact is indicated by the change of the vowel sound from “ a ” in man. The second object, “ one by one,” is of a dif- ferent kind. It indicates the manner of execution and judgment ; and consists of a word signifying number, called a numeral, repeated, with a preposi- tion. “ Perhaps,” which is the third object, belongs to the predicate, “judge of,” only; and is inserted for the purpose of lessening the strength of the assertion conveyed by the predicate. Words like it are called by grammarians adverbs. The second object in the other example contained in this para- graph, “ best,” is of the same class of words ; but, instead of lessening the force of the predicate, it is employed to intensify it. 9. “ From those that are learned,” is a very re- markable kind of object ; for it contains a complete sentence in itself. The actual object is “ those,” attached to the predicate by the preposition “ from ; ” and indicating the source and origin of the action expressed by the verb. “ Those ” is not, however, the name of anything ; but it stands here for “ those men ; ” and thus partakes of the nature of pronouns, while it also serves demonstratively to point out the specific description of men spoken of. In consequence of its being in part a pronoun, it can have an attributive attached to it, and the sentence, “ that are learned,” serves as an attribu- tive, to define and describe the “ men ” particularly intended. The predicate of this sentence, “ are learned,” is of the same kind as those in paragraph (2), only an adjective takes the place of the nouns there used. The subject is neither a name nor an epi- thet, but a kind of pronoun, since it stands for “ men,” and plainly for the same men as “ those ” did ; and, from its having relation thus to a noun already known, is called a relative pronoun. Sen- tences used in this manner are called accessory sentences, to mark their subordinate character, and their connection with the sentences of which they form parts, distinguished as principal sen- tences. Only two words remain to be spoken of. “ For,” at the commencement of this paragraph, shows its connection in meaning with the preceding para- graph ; or, more correctly, with the last sentence in it ; for which it assigns a reason. “ But,” on the other hand, separates the two parts of this para- graph, by way of contrast ; so that it is manifest that not the first, but the second part of it, contains the reason for the assertion made in the foregoing paragraph. Both words are called conjunctions, from their thus serving to connect otherwise dis- joined and independent sentences together ; yet it is evident that they are not conjunctions of the same nature as “ and.” 10. Paragraph (4) contains the principal sen- tences : To spend to use to make . . . ( too much time I • • I in studies ( them ■l for ornament. I too much l judgment ■l by their rules t only ■} sloth ; is affectation ; the humor of a scholar. 4 GRAMMAR. Of these predicates, since they so nearly resemble those of paragraph (2), we only need to observe, that the nouns are used without prepositions to modify their meaning ; and the word “ a ” (before “ scholar ”), contracted from “ an,” is a numeral, and merely means “ one,” but in what we may call a somewhat general way. The remarkable character of these sentences lies in the subjects, which, as we can perceive at the first glance, are verbs with objects, — and yet are not accessory sentences, since no assertions are made. This form of the verb, with the preposi- tion “ to ” prefixed, differs entirely from the forms we have seen employed in the predicates. Gram- marians distinguish all verbs used in this last-named way, as being in the indicative mood ; and those with “ to ” before them as being in the infinitive mood. They are, in fact, as we see, used like nouns, only, being verbs, instead of attributives to define them, they have objects to complete them. 11. Some of these objects are in forms which we have already noticed ; “ time ” and “judgment ’’ are like “ particulars ” in paragraph (3), the direct objects of the action of the verbs they follow ; “ in studies ” represents, by a very natural metaphor, that of place, the peculiar circumstances of the ac- tion spoken of ; “ for ornament ” precisely resembles the “for delight,” &c., of paragraph (1) ; but the object, “ by their rules,” expresses the means by which the action of the verb is accomplished. “ Them,” we see, is a pronoun, as it stands for the word “ studies ; ” and it is the direct object of the verb “ use ; ” it is one of the very few words in our language which have two forms, one employed when it is a subject, “ they,” and another when it is an object, as we find it here, “ them.” Here are also two objects belonging to the class of words called adverbs, “ much ” and “ only,” both of them expressive of the manner in which the action of the verbs they follow is performed ; and the first of them has the adverb “ too ’’prefixed, for the purpose of intensifying the meaning of “ much.” The first object has the words “too much” prefixed, as an attributive ; “ too ” being here, as in the instance last noted, an adverb expressive of intensity ; but “ much,” what is termed an indefinite numeral, expressing quantity merely in a general way. There is another of the series with an attribu- tive prefixed, “ their rules ; ” but of this we have spoken in connexion with paragraph (2). 12. We find the next paragraph (5) rather com« plex, as this arrangement of it shows : (perfect nature, They •< and ( are perfected, .by experience; [by study; natural abilities are.. like.. natural plants, .that . . need. .pruning and studies themselves.. do give. directions forth, too much at large, ( in by except . they . be bounded . -t experi- ( ence. In the first part of this paragraph we find the same pronoun used as a subject, which we have just seen in its objective form. Grammarians call these dif- ferent forms cases ; and that now before us, the nominative or subjective case ; that in the last para- graph, the accusative or objective case. 13. The first predicate and object are in the same form as several we have seen above ; but the second predicate is quite new to us. It signifies that “experience perfects studies,” just as “they perfect nature ; ” but we find what should be the subject following the predicate, and the real object in the place appropriated to the subject ; the form of the predicate, too, is changed, and a preposition is inserted between it and the word “ experience.” We must admit, however, that the passage would lose immensely in compactness, vivacity, and force if it were written thus: “ They perfect nature, and experience perfects them ; ” so that the reason for using this peculiar form is manifest. It is distinguished by grammarians thus : When the agent of the verb is the subject, the verbal form employed is called active ; but when the immediate object of the verb is the agent, the form employed is called passive. And in our tongue all passive forms, just as in this instance, consist of that form of the verb which grammarians call the perfect participle — a form resembling an adjective in this, that it can be used as an attributive ; but also partaking of the nature of a verb, inasmuch as the notion it conveys is modified so as to express the completeness of the action. The object following this verb here ex- presses the means by which what is spoken of the subject is effected ; as we have seen before. How the two sentences are combined by the conjunc- tion, so that one subject serves for both, we need not more particularly point out. 14. “For,” prefixed to the second part 01 iha GRAMMAR. 5 paragraph, introduces two reasons for the last asser- tion respecting the influence of “ experience ” upon “ studies ; ” as was seen in paragraph (3). Of the first reason, we have only to say, that the real predicate of the sentence is “ like,” to which the words, “ natural plants,” are added as an object ; and that in the accessory sentence, added as a second attributive to “ plants,” whilst “ pruning ” is the im- mediate object of the verb “need ; ” “ by study ” is an object annexed to “pruning.” For this last word is another of the participles, properly the imperfect one, which, like the verb, at times requires some attempering object, as we see here. In the second reason, we must notice, first, an attributive attached to the subject, which we have not met with before, — “ themselves.” It is un- doubtedly a pronoun, and it is here used as a most emphatic demonstrative. The objective form of one part of it, “ them,” does not concern us here. Next, we notice the predicate, which is in a form we have not before seen ; but which is only equivalent to the word “ give,” alone, except that it is rather more emphatic. Grammarians call these words, “do,” “ can,” “ are,” &c., when employed as in this case, auxiliary, or helping verbs. The first and second objects to this sentence do not require particular notice ; and in the third, “ too much at large,” it is only needful to observe the use of an adjective pre- ceded by a preposition, and having an adverbial phrase, which we have met with, before it, to express the manner of the action. Of the third object, which is an accessory sen- tence, more is to be said. It is annexed to the prin- cipal sentence by means of a conjunction, “except,” which implies some limitation to the meaning of the predicate and the preceding objects ; but the form of its own predicate is different from any we have yet seen. Comparing it with the second predicate in this paragraph, “are perfected,” we find that it is a passive form; but the employment of “be ’’in- stead of “ are,” shows that the limitation hinges upon the effect of “ experience ” upon the “ studies ” spoken of. The forms of verbs which are thus used, to express contingency, have been called by gramma- rians the subjunctive mood ; they are far more rarely used now than they once were, and have, indeed, almost entirely disappeared from our spoken language. 15. Paragraph (6) affords us an opportunity of semarking some other facts in English Grammar : Crafty men .. simple men .. and wise men for .. they but . that contemn .. studies; admire .. them; use teach is .. j their own use ; I not ; { without them, atove them, won by observation. In the first three sentences there is nothing new to observe, except the use of the conjunction “and,” without any abbreviation or condensation ; it here serves only to combine all three assertions together, so that the reasons assigned in the remainder of the paragraph are seen to apply equally to all. We may, however, notice the fact, that the association of the several attributives with their objects is effected en- tirely by juxtaposition ; there being nothing in the fonns of the words specially to indicate their relation to the words they belong to. But the relation of the predicates to their subjects is shown by the agree- ment of their forms in one essential particular, called by grammarians number. Thus in paragraph (2) the noun “ use,” which is the subject, expresses but one thing ; and the form of the verb, “ is,” applies to no more than one ; whilst in paragraph (5), “ they ” (which is equivalent to “ studies ”) and “ abilities,” referring to more things than one, have the form of the verb “ are,” which also applies to more than one, in the predicates following them. And similarly here, the subjects being in the plural number, “ men,” the verbs in the predicates are also in the plural, “ contemn,” “ admire,” “ use.” In like manner the place occupied by the word “studies,” shows it to be the object of the verb “contemn ; ” but the relation of the objects to the predicates in the other two sentences is indicated not only by their position, but (as we have before observed) also, and more certainly, by the form em- ployed, “them.” 16. Little needs to be said respecting the first sen- tence, which is introduced by the conjunction “for,” most of its forms being familiar ; but we may note the use of the word “ own,” an adjective rendering the pronoun, “ their,” emphatic. In the last sentence the subject is not a relative, but a demonstrative pronoun, and its reference to the “use” of “stud- ies ” is shown by the order of the words, or, as the grammarians say, by the construction. Besides this, only the attributives to the predicate, which is here a noun, require remark ; for two of them, “without them, and above them,” are pronouns attached by 0 GRAMMAR. prepositions, exactly as we have seen nouns attached, in paragraphs (2), (3), and (4), but showing their subordinate position to the subject, by being in the objective or accusative case ; and the third, “ won by observation,” is a participle with an object ex- pressive of means. This participle is not formed in the same way as those were formed which we have before met with. “ Perfect-ed” and “bound-ed ” have been made by the addition of the final syllable ; but “ won ” is formed by the change of the vowel in the verb “ win.” 17. The last paragraph (7) we thus arrange : ( contradict ' not to -< and ( confute ; * believe and take for granted ; ( talk nor to find -< and ( discourse ; ( weigh .but to •< and ( consider. Here we have a predicate “read,” and a consider- able number of objects, but there is no subject ; yet the sense is complete. There is, however, no assertion made by the verb ; on the contrary, it conveys a command ; and the subject, if expressed, would not occupy the customary place to the left of the predi- cate, but would come between it and the objects. Grammarians distinguish the forms of verbs which signify commands as the imperative mood. The foui principal groups of objects belong to one and the same class, that which expresses the purpose or design of the action ; and they are so combined by the conjunctions, “nor” and “but,” as to enable a single verb to act as predicate to them all. The conjunction, “nor,” serves to give to the second and third groups the same negative character that is im- parted to the first by the negative object “ not ; ” and the fourth is contrasted with all the preceding groups, as stating the design that should be kept in view in reading, by the use of “ but.” Read In the expression, “ to take for granted,” we have a participle attached to a verb by means of a preposition, as an object needful to complete it ; and the next group shows two nouns, “talk and dis- course,” combined by the conjunction “and,” so as to spare the repetition of the verb “to find,” to which they both serve as “ objects.” 18. From this illustration, extending only to seven paragraphs — and those neither long nor very greatly complicated — may be seen, both what Eng- lish grammar actually is, and what a large and clear knowledge of its facts and laws may be attained by the plan of study which we have recommended. It may also be seen how completely language is the product and representation of the thought or mean- ing of those who speak or write ; and how subordi- nate is the office of the grammarian — limited, in fact, to the elucidation and interpretation of the forms and principles of language, by the most general laws and forms of thought. For not only cannot the grammarian determine what forms shall be used, and what discountenanced and avoided ; but he cannot possibly frame his declensions and conjugations, his concords and governments, so as to provide a place for every combination and inflexion and mode of giving expression to the infinitely diversified shades of meaning, even in the language of common life. 19. The following example will show how easy it is to analyze and arrange the most complicated paragraphs, so as to exhibit, without the employ- ment of a single technical term, every fact both of Etymology and Syntax contained in it. The pas- sage is from Locke’s “ Essay concerning Human Understanding.” Book iv., chap, i., § 1. “ God, having designed man for a sociable creat- ure, made him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity, to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society.” God [made"! 7 { with an inclination,! _ .fellowship . 1 under a necessity, ( » with those of his ° wn kind ' but also {• having designed { sociable creature) ( instrument furnished ... language, ... which ... was to be ... the and ( common tie 1 ) ■ c oi te 1 society. GRAMMAR. » RAMMAR is divided into two parts — one which treats of the classification, formation, derivation, and inflection of words by themselves, and is called Ety- mology ; — and another, which treats of the combination of words into sentences, &c., and is called Syntax. When languages are analyzed in any state already reached, and not in a state of transition, they be- come the subject of special grammar belonging to the province of linguistics. Comparative grammar seeks, by comparing the grammars of several lan- guages, to reach the laws of inflection and construc- tion common to them, and finally to all languages. General or historic grammar attempts to explain the growth of language within a specified group. In this short treatise the formation and derivation of words are not included under Etymology, but are added by way of illustration to the concise History of the English Language, which forms the conclud- ing portion of it. By this means, not only is some repetition spared, but, being disencumbered of that which is rather curious than useful, this Etymology is rendered more serviceable to those for whom it is specially intended. Both Etymology and Syntax, it must be ob- served, are arranged, in the first place, with a view to assist in a study of the English language ; and next, to present such an elucidation of its principal facts, and such an interpretation of its most impor- tant laws, as shall give to those who consider them attentively, some real and practical knowledge of their own tongue. And with the same intent, those technicalities only have been introduced, and those examples selected, which might be expected to aid sa the simplification and explanation of the subject. I I 1 I I ! TT-f-T I 1 1 LETTERS, ETC. a. There are twenty-six letters in the English Al- phabet ; which have always been arranged in the following order, and are of these forms in Roman type : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, LI, Mm, N n, O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z. The number of sounds to be represented by these letters is estimated at about forty ; and, in conse- quence, several of them have to stand for more sounds than one. It is somewhat remarkable that since this is the case, the letters c, q, and x should be superfluous ; the two sounds of c being repre- sented by s and k, as in cell, jell ; calends, kalends ; q , being always followed by with the sound ex- pressible by hv ; and the sounds of x differing in no respect from those of fo,gz, and z (in some words borrowed from the French). It would be of con- siderable advantage, if symbols for the sounds repre- sented now by the combinations of letters, ch, sh, th , ng, &c., could be devised and introduced ; but this is a matter of such great difficulty, as to be almost impossible. 3. The twenty-six letters are divided into two classes — Vowels and Consonants. The vowels are, a , c, /, The ch here is the terminal sound of the Scotch word “ loch and the gh, that of the Irish word “ lough. ” The letter h finds no place in this scheme, because it is, in fact, nothing but a sign of the transmission of the breath called “ aspiration,” and not of a sound at all. The sibilants may be classified thus : — Sudden. Gradual. Dental s,c z Dental and Palatal sk cA(est) Dental and Guttural (a)z(ure) j And the liquids may be arranged in this manner: c . j Guttura. Simple j Palatal l Guttural Nasal -( Dental / Labial The letter x represents the sounds of ks, gs, and sometimes of z. 5. Of the sounds expressed by the composition of various letters, both vowels and consonants, nothing more can be said, than that some of them aie identical with sounds treated of above ; and others are compounded of such sounds. Thus the sound of the word buoy is identical with that of boy ; and in “adhesive,” the sound d is pronounced dis tinctly, and followed by the aspirate, or hard breath- ing h DERIVATION AND FORMA- TION OF WORDS. With the History of our Tongue, which follows this Grammar, the subject is illustrated so as to show the relation of the English language to other lan- guages, which have formerly existed, or are spoken at the present day. Here only the “ internal rela- tions ” of words are regarded ; and the sole purpose is the illustration of the manner in which, from the radical words, wherein may be traced the ethnologi- cal connections of the English race, other words have in various ways been formed by the natural vi- tality and power of the language. 7. Radical words (called by etymologists “ roots,” simply) are either nouns, verbs, adjectives, or pronouns ; expressive of common things, condi- tions, actions, &c., &c. Primary Derivatives are constructed by slight changes in the vowel sounds, or in the consonants or in both ; and are sometimes designated “stems.” Secondary Derivatives are formed by means of prefixes and affixes, from both roots and primary derivatives. Ex. — Roots. Prim. Deriv. Second. Deriv. Bake batch baker, baxter Bear bier, birth barrow, forbear Bind band, bond, bound bandage, bondage, bundle Bite bit biter Bless bliss blessing Blood bleed bloody Brood breed Child childish Choose choice Chop chip Deal dole Die dead, death deadly Drive drove drover Duck duckling Fall (ell, foal (De)file foul, filth filthy, fulsome Find foundling Flee fleet, fly, flight Flow flood Forth further, furtherance Gape gap Gird girder, girdle Gold gild, gilt golden, gilding Good God goodness, godly, godliness Guile guilt guilty Hca}(tocovcrotJkids) hell, hole, hale, health hellish, hollow, healer Lead Lode leader, mislead l (ki)ng GRAMMAR. 9 Roots. Prim. Der***. Second. Deriv. lend loan Lie lay, law lien, lawyer, layer Lose loss, loose loser, unloose Man mannikin, manhood Milk milch Pin pen, pound Pride proud (Be)reave raven ravenous Rise raise, rouse arise, arouse See sight sightly Shake shock shocking Sing song singer, songster Sit set, seat settle, settler Speak speech speaker, bespeak Stick stake, stitch Strike stroke Strong strength Tell tale Trow truth truthfulness Wake watch waken, watchful Weave woof, web weaver, Webster Win winsome Work wright Wring wrench, wrong wrongful Wry writhe, wreath 8. Derivative words are also formed by composi- tion ; that is, by the construction of a single word out of two or more words, each capable of being used independently. These compounds differ en- tirely from the secondary derivatives, and are found in every class of English words. They are not, however, so numerous in our tongue as in the Ger- man ; and in that they are less common than in the Greek language. Ex. Sunshine , fair haired, thun- derstorm , harvestman, daybreak, nevertheless, therefore, into, everlasting , midnight, noontime , elsewhere, how- ever, undersell, overturn, because, hedgerow, ware- houseman, earthquake, steamengine , railroad. CLASSES OF WORDS. 9. The classification of words depends upon their signification as parts of sentences, which will be treated of under the head of “ Syntax.” The fol- lowing will, however, suffice as an introduction to this part of the Grammar ; and the nature of Sub- jects and Predicates, Attributives and Objects, with the various means of expressing the relations between them, will be treated of in the succeeding division. Names of things, persons, and of whatever exists, even in imagination, are called Nouns, and sometimes Substantives. Ex. Tree, stone ; man, boy ; Casar, Wellington ; virtue, hope. Words expressing an assertion respecting an ac- tion or condition, or the reception of the conse- quences of an action, or simply respecting existence, are called Verbs. Ex. To run; to strike; to sleep, to be; to be beaten. Attributives which can only in figurative language be used without a noun (which they qualify in some way) are called Adjectives. Ex. Good, bad, green, high, everlasting. These are the three principal classes of words, which represent distinct notions of things, persons, actions, qualities, &c., &c., formed in the mind. Other words express not so much the notions we have formed, as the connection of those notions with each other, or their relations to us, or some of the infinitely various associations of thoughts. 10. Pronouns serve not only to prevent the too frequent repetition of the same nouns, but yet more to indicate the relation of the persons or things spoken of to the speaker. Such are the Personal Pronouns. Others are used as attributives, but they also show the relations of the subjects they charac- terize to the speaker. Ex. I, thou, he, they; mine, thine; this, those; whom, what. Whatever exists, or acts, or is acted upon, is re- garded as being, or acting, or being acted on, in some particular time, place, manner, &c.; and these modifications of the simple notions indicated by the verb are expressed by a class of words called Ad- verbs. Ex. Now, where, so, seldom, perhaps. Many of the relations of notions one to another, also, are those of place, time, manner, means, &c.; and these are expressed by words called Preposi- tions, which serve to connect nouns and pronouns with other nouns and pronouns, and with verbs. Ex. From, by, of, to, after. The connection of things, &c., with each other, and of thoughts with other thoughts, is shown by means of Conjunctions. Ex. And, or, but, though, for. Numerals are in part names, and in part attribu- tives and adverbs; and therefore do not properly form a class by themselves. Ex. Two, four, six; first, tenth , hundredth; firstly, secondly, lastly. Interjections, which are expressions of emotion, such as fear, joy, pain, wonder, &c., and not of thought, and the greater number of which are rather sounds than words, cannot be noticed in a grammar ; although it is convenient to have such a class to which certain expressions which occur in the Dic- tionary may be referred. Ex. Ah! O! Ha/ ix. Nouns. The Gender of Nouns is determined IO GRAMMAR. by the sex of the persons or beings they represent, being called Masculine or Feminine, as they are the names of males or females. Beings without natural sex, things without life, and abstractions are called Neuter. Figuratively, sex is attributed to many beings naturally having no such distinction, and to abstrac- ;ons. Ex. The sun, he is setting ; the moon, she is rising; Charity, she is the child of heaven. Very mall beings, whatever sex they may be of, and those whose sex is not their distinctive characteristic, are spoken of as neuter. Ex. The ant, it is a patron of foresight and prudence ; the child, it knows not what it does. Very few words, in English, have terminations, or other specialties of form,, indicative of their gender ; the following are examples of the only kinds, and they are not numerous. Ex. Arbiter , Arbitressj Prosecutor , Prosecutrix ; Margrave , Margravine ; he-bear , she-bcar; Man-servant , Maid-servant. In other instances different words are appropriated to the two sexes, but without any peculiarity of termin- ation. Ex. Brother , Sister; Horse, Mare; King , Queen. 12. The only distinction of Number is that be- tween one and more than one ; the ordinary forms expressing the former, and being called Singular ; and special forms being used for the latter, called Plural. Most commonly, s or (when it ends in a sibilant or x) es is added to the singular. Ex. Sword, _ swords; fish, fishes. Wordsending in /or fie gen- erally make their plurals in ves. Ex. Calf , calves; life, lives. But all words ending in ff, except staff , staves, and several words in / or fe, add s without any change of letters for the plural. Ex. Whiff, whiffs ; grief, griefs ; fife, fifes ■ Those ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add j only ; but if a conso- nant precede the o, s or es is added. Ex. Catneo, cameos; ratio, ratios; cargo , cargoes; volcano, volcanoes; por- tico, porticoes ; solo, solos. Words ending in y after a consonant have ies in the plural. Ex. fly, flies; history, histories. A very few change the vowel sound of the singu- lar. Ex. Foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; woman , women (pronounced wimmen). One adds en to the singular — ox, oxen. One both changes the vowel and adds en — brother , brethren. Besides these, the following must be noted : Child makes children in the plural. Mouse has mice, and louse, lice; but it is the spelling only which is pecul- iar. Penny has two plurals ; when coins are meant, pennies, but when money is spoken of, pence. In like manner die, signifying a stamp for coining, has dies; but when it means a cube used in play, dice. Pea has peas and pease, the latter signifying peas collect- ively, or used for food. Kine is sometimes used as a plural to cow. Deer, sheep, swine, are used in both numbers ; and (when spoken of as food) fish, cod, salmon, arc The names of metals are made plural only when employed to signify some particular things composed of them. Ex. Irons, coppers, brasses. Articles of trade and commerce which, in ordinary language, are never used in the plural form, have plural forms in the market. Ex. Cloth, oil, sugar, tea , <5rc. On the other hand, beast, which has a regular and com- monly used plural, is employed in the singular form alone by Smithfield salesmen. Words signifying abstract qualities seldom take the plural form, be- cause they cannot have a plural meaning, except when used figuratively. Ex. The honors of the world ; the decencies of life. Names of measures, weights, of some numbers, and of terms employed numerically, are in some instances used in the singu- lar form, with a plural meaning. Ex. A ten -pound note, eighteen hundred and fifty-eight, an army of eighty thousand men, twelve dozen of wine, three brace of dogs, a fleet of twenty sail, twelve thousand foot and three thousand horse, fifteen thousand stand of arms, a hundred head of cattle, each weighing thirty stone. Alms, means, news, pains, and riches, which are plural in form, are used both as singulars and as plurals. Ashes, bellows, breeches, cates, dregs, gallows, pincers, scissors, and tongs, have no singulars, either in form or meaning. The names of some sciences, derived from the Greek language, are plural in form, but in meaning singular. Ex. Ethics, hydrostatics \ mathematics, mechanics , politics. And so is the term morals. Suds, and wages, plural in form, are singu- lar in signification ; and pulse (leguminous seeds) also plural in form, is simply collective in its mean- ing. 13. Almost all nouns, which have been simply adopted from foreign languages, retain their original plurals; but some have also plurals formed in the English fashion, and in a few instances with a dif- GRAMMAR. El ferent meaning. The following is neariy a complete list of these words : — Singular. Fulcrum, Genius, Singular. Plural Genus, Abacus, abaci. Gymnasium, Hiatus (a short). Acroterion (not used), acroteria. Hippopotamus, Addendum, addenda. Hypothesis, Alluvion, alluvium. alluvia. Inamorato, Alto-relievo, alti-relievi. Ignis-fatuus, Alumnu9, Amanuensis, alumni. amanuenses. Incubus, Amphibium (not used), amphibia. Index, Amphora, amphorm. Improvisatore, Analysis, analyses. Jeu-d’esprit, Animalculum (not used). animalcula. Lamina, Antenna, antennte. Larva, Anthropophagus (not used). anthropophagi. Lusus- (a short) naturm. Antithesis, antitheses. Lyceum, Apex, apices. Macula, Aphelion, aphelia. Madame (not used). Aphis, aphides. Magus, Apparatus (a short). apparatus (u long), apparatuses. Mausoleum, Appendix, appendices, appendixes. Medium, Aquarium, aquaria, aquariums. Memorandum, Arcanum, arcana. Memorabile (not U9ed), Asylum, asyla, asylums. Menstruum, Automaton, automata, automatons. Mephitis, Axis, axes. Metamorphosis, Bandit, banditti. Miasma, Basis, bases. Millennium, Basso-relievo, bassi-relievi. Minutia (not used)t Beau, beaux. Momentum, Bonvivant, bonsvivans. Morceau, Calculus, calculi. Monsieur, Calx, calces. Narcissus, Candelabrum, candelabra. Nautilus, Catachresis, catachreses. Nebula, Census ( u short). census (u long), censuses. Nidus, Chateau, chateaux. Nimbus, Cherub, cherubim, cherubs. Nostrum, Cheval-de-frise, chevaux-de-frise. Novus homo. Chrysalis, chrysalides, chrysalises. Nucleus, Cicerone, ciceroni. Oasis, Cilium, cilia. Orchis, Colossus, colossi. Ovum, Convolvulus, convolvuli. Parenthesis, Corps, corps, Parhelion. Crisis, crises. Perihelion, Criterion. criteria. Phasis, Datum, data. Phenomenon, Desideratum, desiderata. Polypus, Dixresis, diaereses. Premium, Dictum, dicta. Proboscis, Dilettante, dilettanti. Prima donna. Dogma, dogmata, dogmas. Radius, Effluvium, effluvia. Ranunculus, Ellipsis, ellipses. Regale (not usedX Emphasis, emphases. Rhombus. Emporium, emporia, emporiums. Sarcophagus, Encomium, encomia, encomiums. Savant, Ephemeris, ephemerides. Scholium, Erratum, errata. Scoria, Eulogium, eulogia, eulogiums. Seraph, Fasciculus, fasciculi. Series, Flambeau, flambeaux. Species. Focus, foci, focuses. Spectrum, Foramen, foramina. Speculum. Formula, formulae, formulas Sphinx, Forum, fora. fungus. fungi, funguses. Spicula, Plurai. fulcra. i genii, aerial beings. \geniuses,/cr.? 0 «x of genius. genera, gymnasia, hiatus (a long), hippopotami, hypotheses, inamorati. ignes-fatui. incubi. j indices, algebraic exponents. 1 indexes, pointers , tables op contend improvisatori. jeux-d’esprit. laminae, larvae. lusus- (u long), naturae. lycea, lyceums. maculae. mesdames. magi. mausolea. media. memoranda, mdmoranduiBfc memorabilia. menstrua. mephites. metamorphoses. miasmata. millennia. minutiae. momenta. morceaux, messieurs. narcissi. nautili. nebulae. nidi. nimbi. nostra. novi homines. nuclei. oases. orchides, orchises, ova. parentheses. parhelia. perihelia. phases. phenomena. polypi. premia, premiums, proboscides, prime donne. radii. ranunculi, ranunculuses regalia. rhombi. sarcophagi savans. scholia. scoriae. seraphim , seraphs. series. species. spectra. specula. ( sphinges, hawk-motks. sphinxes, in mythology. spiculae. i a GRAMMAR. Singular. Plural. Stadium, stadia. ! stamens, parts of /lowers. stamina, the solids of the human body . Stigma, i stigmata, in botany and surgery. | stigmas, marks 0/ reproach. Stimulus, stimuli. Stratum, strata. Stria. striae. Succedaneum, succedanea. Symposium, symposia. Synopsis, synopses. Synthesis, syntheses. tableau, tableaux. Terminus, termini. Thesis, theses. Triumvir, triumviri, triumviri Tumulus, tumuli. Vertebra, vertebrae. Vertex, vertices. Virtuoso, virtuosi. Viscus, viscera. Vortex, vortices.- 14. When a noun is the subject of a sentence it is said to be in the nominative case, and when it immediately follows a verb or a preposition it is said to be in the objective case, but its form is precisely the same in both cases. Ex. Nom. The man walks ; trees grow. Obj. I pity the man j he fells the trees ; — with the man; under the trees. When one noun, in either the singular or plural number, is used along with another attributively, and indicating its possessor or origin, 's (with an apos- trophe before it, which shows that a vowel sound has been dropped) is added to the former, except when it ends in a sibilant, when most frequently only the apostrophe is added. Ex. A soldier s life; the sol- diers' friend ; the jury's verdict ; the judges' sen- tence ; Thomas's horse (r.ad “Thomases”); the fox' (read “ foxes ”) brush ; “ He that despised Mo- ses' law, died ; ” “ If ye suffer for righteousness' sake, happy are ye.” Declension of a Noun. Singular. Plural. Nominative Case. I v.„„ v. Objective Case, \ K,n ^ Km & s ' Possessive Case. King’s, Kings*. 15. In order to individualize the application of common nouns, two words usually designated arti- cles, one a demonstrative pronoun, the , the other a numeral, an (or, as abbreviated before a consonant sound, a), almost universally precede them. The former, which is called the definite article, is used before nouns of both numbers. Ex. The man, the men ; the horse, the horses. The latter is called the indefinite article, and is used before nouns in the singular number only. Ex. A man , an hour , a tree , an enemy. Proper names, abstract nouns, names of mate* rials, and some other classes of nouns, take the ar- ticles only when they are used as common nouns. Ex. Solon , Brutus , hope, fear, water , wood ; the Solon of his country ; he is a Brutus ; the hopes and fears of youth ; the water's edge ; the wood of the ark. 16. Verbs. When the action signified by a verb takes effect immediately on any person or thing as its object, the verb is called transitive or active ; but when the action is completely described by the verb itself, or when the verb signifies a condition, it is called intransitive or neuter. Ex. We suspect deceit, he loves truth ; I walk or run, they sleep, you stand. Many verbs, as may be seen in the English Diction- ary, are both active and neuter. Ex. Toabateanui sance, the storm abated ; to account a man wise, to account for one's conduct. Transitive verbs are conjugated in two ways: one form, called active, is used when the agent is the subject of the verb. Ex. I esteem him ; they speak both French and German ; the Allies defeated the Russians. The other is used when the agent is the immediate object of the verb, and is called pas- sive. Ex. He is esteemed by me ; both French and German are spoken by them ; the Russians were de- feated by the Allies. In the conjugation of verbs, four moods are dis- tinguished— the indicative, the subjunctive, the im- perative, and the infinitive — and another class of forms, called participles. The indicative is used when the speaker asserts something as actually ex- isting or acting. Ex. He reads, we walked, they will consent, thou art punished, I was exalted, you will be confounded. The subjunctive is used when some possible or probable action or state of being is spoken of. Ex. “ If I bed. father, where is mine honor ?” “ Though thou detain me, I will not eat ; ” “If he were a prophet, he would have known who touched him ; ” “ Though these three men were ir it, they should deliver neither son nor daughter.” When a command is given, the imperative is em ployed. Ex. “ Honor all men. Love the brother- hood. Fear God. Honor the king.” The infini- tive mood consists of the substantive forms, and the participles of the attributive forms, of the verb to which they belong. The preposition to is prefixed to all infinitives, except those which follow auxiliary verbs, and such verbs as see, hear, etc., in the active voice. Ex. “To err is human : to forgive, divine : " GRAMMAR. I j to have praised , to have been blamed ; I saw him weep, he was seen to weep; erring, forgiven; " having noth- ing, and yet possessing all things.” 17. The three tenses of verbs, or the times in which an action or event may be said to take place, are the present, the past, and the future ; and in each of them, it may be considered as indefinite- ly, or imperfectly, or perfectly accomplished. Ex. (Indef. pres.) I read, (imperf. pres.) I am reading, (perf. pres.) I have read; (indef. past) I read, (im- perf. past) I was reading, (perf. past) I had read; (indef. fut.) I shall read, (imperf. fut.) I shall be read- ing, (perf. fut.) I shall have read. In the subjunc- tive mood, the tense forms express the probability or improbability of the event or action spoken of. Ex. (Prob.) “What matter where, if I be still the same ?” “ Though thou detain me, I will not eat.” (Improb.) “ If ye were of the world, the world would love his own.” "‘If ye loved me, ye would re- joice.” The imperative mood admits of no distinctions of time, but only of the completeness or incomplete- ness of the action commanded. • Ex. (Imperf.) Read thou , (perf.) Have done ! In the infinitive mood the only tense is. the pres- ent. Ex. (Indef. pres.) to read, (imperf. pres.) to be reading, (perf. pres.) to have read. And the par- ticiples admit only of the distinctions of complete- ness and incompleness of the action spoken of. Ex. (Imperf.) reading , (perf.) read. 1 8. By means of a class of verbs, called Auxiliary verbs, the capability of expressing the several rela- tions of mood, tense, etc., is greatly extended and refined. Those tenses which are formed without the assistance of auxiliaries are called simple tenses, and the others, compound. Ex. We hope, you fear, they fled; I am hoping, thou hast feared , he has fled, we shall learn. The auxiliary verbs of mood are such as may and can, which express possibility; must, ought, and shall, which express obligation; shall and will, expressing determination of will ; might, coidd, and would, ex- pressing desire ; let and may, implying permission ; do, which adds emphasis to assertion, and is em- ployed in negatives and questions, etc., etc. Ex. It may be so, he can do it, you must see that you should obey, “ these things ought not so to be," we shall see to that, I will be heard \ might it but be so ! could we but fcnotv it, would he were here ! let him do what he will, you may do as you please, we do like simplicity, it does not signify, do you see the meaning ? The auxiliary verbs of tense are such as be, be about, be going, begin, do, have, keep, shall, will, etc. Ex. You are chosen, they were laughing , we are about to depart, we are going to learn F rench, I did once think, he has seen too much, they kept expectmg what was impossible, he would dance and sing the whole day long. All the moods, tenses, etc., of the passive forms of verbs are made by the help of the verb be. Ex. 1 am praised, we were loved, they shall be beaten, to be afflicted, having been disappointed. 19. The only distinctive personal forms are those of the second and third persons singular of the pres- ent indefinite tense, and the second person singular of the past indefinite ; all the other persons in each of the simple tenses are alike. Ex. / lead, thoulead- est, he leads ( leadeth ), we lead, you lead, they lead. 1 led, thou leddest, he led, we led, you led, they led. Impersonal Verbs, of which there are but two in our language (strictly so to be called), are found only in the third person singular. Ex. "Mesecms I hear her singing loud,” meseemed ; “ methinks he breaks it,” “ methought I saw my late espoused wife.” But other verbs are often used impersonally. Ex. It rained last night, it liked him well, it behoved him to do the same. 20. By far the greater number of English verbs, including all that have been recently introduced, and almost all derivatives, are of the class called weak verbs, that is, they form their past indefinite tenses, and their perfect participles, by the addition of d (or t) to the present, or ed when the present ends in d or t. Ex. Hope, hoped; light, lighted. But it must be observed, there is a great difference between our spoken and our written language in this particular ; the forms of the latter having de- parted widely from the sounds of the former. Ex. Walk, walked (pron. walkd ) ; step, stepped (pron. slept ); stab, stabbed (pron. stabd ); bar, barred (pron. bard). The remainder form their past indefinite tenses and perfect participles either by modifying the ver- bal sound, and adding n or (en) for the participle (being of the class called strong verbs) ; by modify- ing the vowel, and adding t for the participle ; by changing the terminal d into t; or by retaining the present form for both the tense and the participle. »4 GRAMMAR. But the tendency to uniformity is so strong that many of these verbs have lost one or both of their peculiar forms, and others have two forms for the past indefinite and perfect participle. 21. The following is a complete list of these verbs, classified mainly by their present forms, yet not with- out regard to their original forms in the Anglo-Sax- on. It must be observed that the original forms of many of these verbs are obsolete, or preserved in provincial usage only (and such forms are enclosed in parentheses) ; and that sometimes the past tense is used for the participle, and sometimes the termi- nal n or en has been dropped. First Division. Verbs which change their vowel sounds, and form their perfect participles by adding en or n, or strong verbs. 1st Class. Vowels e and a , becoming e, a, or o. Present Indefi. Tense. Past Indefi . Tense. Perfect Participle. Delve (dolve, dalf) delved delved Get got (gat) (gotten) got Help (bolp, halp) helped (holpen) helped Melt (molt) melted molten, melted Sweat j (swote, swat) sweat, sweated (sweaten) sweated Swell (swoll) swelled swollen, swelled Yell (yoll) yelled yelled Burst (brast) burst (borsten) burst Beat beat beaten, beat Eat eat, ate eaten, eat Bear (bring forth ) bore (bare) born Bear (cerry) bore (bare) borne Break broke (brake) broken, broke Cleave ( adhere ) (clave) cleaved cleaved Cleave (split) (clove, clave) cleft cloven, cleft Creep (crope) crept crept (Falde) fold folded (folden) folded Freeze froze frozen Heave (hove) heaved (hoven) heaved 'Queath) quoth Lead (lode, lad) led led Leap (lope) leapt, leaped leapt, leaped Seethe (soth) sod, seethed sodden Shear (shore) sheared shorn Speak spoke (spake) spoken Steal stole (stale) stolen Swear swore (sware) sworn Tear tore (tare) torn Tread trode, trod, (trade) trodden, trod Wear wore (ware) worn Weave wove woven Weep (wope) wept wept Wreak (wroke) wreaked (wroken) wreaked Wreathe wreathed wreathen, wreathed Yield (yolde) yielded yielded (Be) been See saw seen Awake, wake awoke awaked Bake (boke) baked (baken) baked Forsake forsook forsaken Grave (grove) graved graven, graved Lade (lode) laded laden, loaden iihake shook, shaked shaken, shaked Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Tense. Tense. Perfect Participle, Shape (shope) shaped shapen, shaped Shave shaved shaven, shaved Stave stove Take took taken Stand stood stood Wax (wox, wex) waxed (waxen) waxed 2 d Class. Vowel i, becoming a , o, u, or o-u. Begin began (begon) begun Cling clung (eleng) clung Dig dug, digged dug, digged Drink drank (drunk, dronk) drunken, drunk Fling flung (flang, flong) flung Hang (hing) hung, hanged hung, hanged Ring rang, rung (rong) rung Run (rin) ran run Shrink shrank, shrunk (shronk) shrunken, shrunk Sing sang, sung (song) sung Sink sank, sunk (sonk) sunken, sunk Sling (slang) slung (slong) slung Slink (slank) slunk (slonk) slunk Spin (span) spun (spon) spun Spring sprang, sprung (sprong) sprung Stick stuck (stoke) stuck Sting (stang) stung (stong) stung Stink stank, stunk (stonk) stunk String (Strang) strung strung Swim swam, swum (sworn) swum Swing (swang) swung (swong) swung Swink (swank, swonk) swink (swonk) swinkt Win (wan) won won Wring wrung, wringed wrung Bid bade (bode), bid bidden, bid Give gave (gove) given Sit sate sitten, sate Slit (slat) slit, slitted slitten, slit, slitted Spit spat, spit spitten, spit, spat Betide betid betid Hide hid hidden, hid Light lit, lighted lit, lighted Slide slid slidden, slid Abide, bide abode abode Arise, rise arose (aris) arisen Bite (bote, bat) bit bitten, bit Chide (chode) chid chidden, chid Climb (clomb,clamb) climbed climbed Dive (dove) dived dived Drive drove (drave) driven Glide (glode, glid) glided glided Hight (hote, hete) Lie lay lien, lain Ride rode, rid ridden, rid Rive (rove) rived riven Shrive (shrove) shrived shriven Smite smote (smate), smit smitten, smit Stride strode, strid stridden Strive strove striven Thrive throve, thrived thriven Write wrote (wrate) writ written, writ, wrotgr Writhe writhed writhen, writhed Shine shone, shined shone, shined Wit (wite) (wote) wot Strike (stroke) struck stricken, struck Bind bound (bond) bounden, bound Fight fought foughten, fought GRAMMAR. *5 Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Tense. Tense. Perfect Participle. Find (fand, fond) found found Grind ground ground Wind wound (wond), winded wound 3 d Class. Vowel o, becoming e in past tense. Draw drew drawn Fall fell fallen Saw sawed sawn, sawed Wash (wesh) washed washen, washed Blow blew blown Crow crew, crowed crowed Fly flew flown Grow grew grown Hew hewed hewn, hewed Hold held holden, held Know knew known Mow (mew) mowed mown, mowed Show (shew) showed shown, showed Snow (snew) snowed snowed Sow (sew) sowed sown, sowed Strow, strew (straw) strewed, strowed strewn, strown, strewed Throw threw thrown Let (late) let let Slay slew slain Laugh (loghe, leugh) laughed laughed 4 th Class. Vowel o, shortened. Choose chose (chase) chosen Go gone Lose lost (lorn) lost Shoot shot shotten, shot Do did done 5 th Class. Come came come Note , that the participle “ sawn ” seems to have been formed analog- ically after “ drawn : ’’ also, that the word did is a contracted form ; and the vowel i does not represent the o of the present, but is the short vowel sound of a reduplication of the d. It is the only instance in our language. 22. Second Division. Verbs which change their vowel sound, but form their perfect participles in d or t : and are therefore weak verbs. 1 st Class. Vowels shortened. Bleed bled bled Breed bred bred Feed fed fed Meet met met Read read read Speed sped sped Bereave, reawe bereft, bereaved bereft, bereaved (Clepe) y-clept Deal dealt dealt Deem (dempt) deemed deemed Dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed Feel felt felt Flee fled flod Hear heard heard Keep kept kept Knee] knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled Lean leant, leaned leant, leaned MeaD meant meant Sleep slept slept Sweep swept swept Shoe •hod shod id Class. Vowels, a, e, i, and o, changed into o, au, ou. Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Tense. Tense. Perfect Participle. Sell sold sold Tell told told Catch caught, catched caught, catched Reach (raught) reached (raught) reached Stretch (s t r a u g h t, streight) stretched stretched Teach taught taught Distract distracted (distraught) distracted Freight freighted fraught, freighted Shall should Will would (woll) May (mought) might Beseech besought besought Bring brought brought Buy bought bought Own ought, owed owed Seek sought sought Think thought thought Work wrought, worked wrought, worked Note y that the y in “ y-clept ” is the old participial prefix, of which only one other instance remains in occasional use in our language, “ y-clad." Note , also, that both “ distraught” and u fraught” are formed front words derived from other languages. 23. Third Division. Contracted IVeak Verbs. Have had had Make made made Lay laid laid Pay paid paid Say said said Dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled Pen penned pent, penned Spill spilt, spilled spilt, spilled (Wis) (wist) Bend bent, bended bent, bended Build built, builded built, builded Gild gilt, gilded gilt, gilded Gird girt, girded girt, girded Lend lent lent Rend rent rent Send sent sent Shend shent shent Spend spent spent (Wend) went Cast cast cast Cost cost cost Cut cut cut Hit hit hit Hurt hurt hurt Knit knit, knitted knit, knitted Lift lift, lifted lift, lifted Put put put Quit quit, quitted quit, quitted Rid rid rid Roast roasted roast, roasted Set set set Shed shed shed Shred shred shred Shut shut shut Split split, splitted split, splitted Spread spread spread Thrust thrust thrust Wet Wet, wetted wet, wetted GRAMMAR. *6 Present Indefinite Tense. Am Clothe Go 24. Defective Verbs. Past Indefinite Tense. was clad, clothed went Perfect Participle. been (y-clad) clothed gone In the first of these, each part belongs to a differ- ent verb; in the second, “clad" and “y-clad" are derived from some word not greatly unlike “ clothe ; ” and both forms in this kind have appeared in the preceding lists. 25. Irregular Verbs. Can could Dare, durst durst It is the introduction of the / into “could," which makes the former of these irregular. The other appears to have adopted its original past tense as an additional form for the present ; when used transitively, in the meaning of “ to challenge or pro- voke,” its past tense and perfect participles are “ dared. ” 26. Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs. 1. To Be. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Sing. 1. I am, 2. Thou art, 3. He is, Plur. 1. We are, 2. You are, 3. They are. Sing. 1. I was, Plur. 1. We were, Past Indefinite 2. Thou wast, 2. You were, Tense. 3. He was, 3. They were. Subjunctive Mood. Form implying probability. Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they be. Form implying improbability. Sing and plur. (If) I wert ; thou wert ; he, we, you, they were. Imperative Mood. Sing. Be thou. Plur. Be ye. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. To be. Participles. Imperfect. Being. Perfect. Been. 2. To Have. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Sing. 1. I have, 2. Thou hast, 3 - He hath or has, Plur. 1. We have, 2. You have, 3 - They have. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. 1. I had, 2. Thou hadst, 3. He had, Plur. t. We had, 2. You had, 3 - They had. Subjunctive Mood. Probable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they have. Improbable form. Sing, and plur. (If) I had : thou hadst ; he, we, you, they had. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. To havo. Participles. Imperfect. Having. Perfect. Had. 3. To Do. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Sing. 1. I do, 2. Thou dost, 3. He doth or does, Plur. 1. We do, 2. You do, 3. They do. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. 1. I did, 2. Thou diddest or didst, 3. He did, Plur. 1. We did, 2. You did, 3. They did. Subjunctive Mood. Probable form. Sing and plur. (If) I, thou, he, we, you, they do. Improbable form. Sing, and plzir. (If) I did ; thou didst ; he, we, you, they did. Infinitive Mood. Present Indefinite. To do Participles. Imperfect. Doing. Perfect. Done. In the auxiliaries, may, can, shall, will, the only change of form is in the second person singular, which are mayest, mightest ; canst, couldst ; shalt, shouldst ; wilt, wouldst ; in the present and past tenses respectively. Let and must have no inflexions, and ought (which admits of no distinction of time) has oughtcst in the second person singular. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1 might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should be, be, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, cs shouldst be, should be, He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should be. be. Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should have been, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been, He might, could would, or should have been. Perfect Singular. I might, could, would, or should have, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst have. He might, could, would, or should have. We might, could, would, or should have been, Ye or you might, could, would, or should have been, They might, could, would, or should have been. Tense. Plural. We night, could, would, or should have, Ye or you might, could, would, or should have, They might, could, would, o» should have. Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should have had, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have had, He might, could, would, or should have had. We might, could, would, or should have had, Ye or you might, could, would, or should have had, They might, could, would, os should have had. GRAMMAR. 17 27. Conjugation of the Verb, To See. Indefinite. ACTIVE FORMS. Imperfect. Perfect. h u •ij *1 3- 2 . 3- Sing. Plur. I see. We see. Thou seest, You see. He seeth, or sees. They see. I saw, Thou sawest. He saw. I shall see, Thou shalt see, He shall see. (If) I see, (If) Thou see, (If) He see. We saw. You saw, They saw. We shall see, You shall see, They shall see. We see. You see. They see. (If) I saw, We saw, (If) Thou sawest, You saw, (If) He saw. They saw. Sing. I am seeing, Thou art seeing. He is seeing. I was seeing Thou wast seeing. He was seeing. I shall be seeing, Thou shalt be seeing, He shall be seeing. (If) I be seeing, (If) Thou be seeing, (If) He be seeing. (If) 1 were seeing, (If) Thou wert seeing, (If) He were seeing. Plur. We are seeing. You are seeing. They are seeing. We were seeing, You were seeing, They were seeing. We shall be seeing, You shall be seeing, They shall be seeing. We be seeing. You be seeing, They be seeing. We were seeing, You were seeing, They were seeing. Sing. I have seen. Thou hast seen. He has seen. I had seen, Thou hadst seen. He had seen. I shall have seen, Thou shalt have seen, He shall have seen. (If) I have seen, (If) Thou have seen, (If) He have seen. (If) I had seen, (If) Thou hadst seen, (If) He had seen. Plur. We have seen, You have seen, They have seen. We had seen, You had seen. They had seen. We shall have seen. You shall have seen. They shall have seen. We have seen. You have seen, They have seen- We had seen. You had seen, They had seen. Imperative. See thou. See you. Infinitive Present. To see. Participle. Be thou seeing. Be ye seeing. To be seeing. Seeing. To have seen. Seen. PASSIVE FORMS. Indefinite. Perfect. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. ' *! 1. I am seen. We are seen, I have been seen, We have be?n seen. > 2 . Thou art seen, You are seen. Thou hast been seen, You have teen seen, 3- He is seen. They are seen. He has been seen. They have been seen. 1 „• i. I was seen, We were seen, I had been seen, We had been seen, < ■ 2 . Thou wast seen. You were seen. Thou hadst been seen, You had been seen, y 5 3- He was seen. They were seen He had been seen. They had been seen. Jc 1. I shall be seen. We shall be seen, I shall have been seen. We shall have been seen, .» •< 2 . Thou shalt be seen. You shall be seen, Thou shalt have been seen, You shall have been seen, ■< 3- He s.iall be seen. They shall be seen. He shall have been seen. They shall have been seen 1. (If) I be seen, We be seen, (If) I have been seen. We have been seen, t & 2 . (If) Thou be seen, You be seen, (If) Thou have been seen, You have been seen, 3- (If) He be seen. They be seen. (If) He have been seen. They have been seen. z ■ p 1. (If) I were seen. We were seen. (If) I had been seen, We had been seen, o’ V. 2 . (If) Thou wert seen, You were seen, (If) Thou hadst been seen, You had been seen, D (/) t 3- (If) He were seen. They were seen. (If) He had been seen. They had been seen. Imperative. Infinitive Present. Be thou seen. To be Be ye seen, seen. To have been seen. Participle. Being seen. Having been seen. Note. That by means of the various auxiliaries a great number of additional tenses, in all the moods, might be formed. Note also, that in the passive, the imperfect tenses cannot be formed except for a few verbs, and then only in the past and present, and in two ways — “ the house is building ,” or “ the house is being built” “ the books were printing” ox “were being printed For- merly the first of these forms was different. Ex. The ark was a-preparing. 28. Adjectives. — There are no changes of forms in the adjectives, to show their relations to the nouns they qualify, as to gender, number or case. Ex. A wise man, wise men j a tall man, a tall woman, a tall tree; they saw the powerful king's golden crown; he defeated three great emperors' vast armies. But the degree of intensity in which any quality is regarded as characterizing one or more persons or things, when compared with others, is expressed by the addition of cr (or r) and est (or si) to the simple (or positive) form of the adjective; — the former (called the comparative degree) being employed where only two subjects are compared, the latter (named the superlative) when a subject is compared with more than one other in respect of the same quality. Ex. This tree is taller than that, but the next is the tallest of the three, and those trees are the tallest in the wood ; this man is wiser than those GRAMMAR. and those men are the wisest in our country ; pla- tinum is the heaviest metal, or platinum is heavier than any other metal. Instead of using these inflexions, with adjectives of more than one syllable, the comparative is fre- quently formed by prefixing more , and the superla- tive by prefixing most, to the simple form. Ex. A more prudent man, the most prudent conduct ; more seasonable weather, most unseasonable importunities. 29. Some adjectives are defective, or have com- paratives and superlatives formed from other words ; and some do not form them according to the common rule. The following are the principal adjectives to which these remarks apply: — Bad worse (worser) worst Far farther farthest Fore further furthest, first Good better best Late later, latter latest, last Little less, lesser least Much, many n ore most Near, nigh nearer, nigher nearest, next Old older, elder oldest, eldest. Another class of adjectives differ from the com- mon rule in having a positive signification with the comparative form (as is the case with the compara- tives, superior , inferior , exterior , and interior, bor- rowed from the Latin), and only a superlative degree of comparison beside. Ex. Former , foremost; hinder , hindmost, and hindermost; hither, hithermost; inner , inmost, and innermost; nether, nethermost; outer, outmost, and outermost; under, undermost; upper, upmost, and uppermost; utter, utmost, and ut- termost. The following superlatives also occur: midmost for midst, nothernmost and southernmost. Different degrees of intensity are also more gener- ally expressed by the use of some adverbs. Ex. Too hot, very cold, exceedingly angry. “Less ” and “least" are employed when the comparison regards lower degrees of intensity. Ex. Less scrupulous, least scrupulous. 30. Numerals. — When the cardinal numerals are employed to signify abstract numbers, they are nouns. Ex. Four and three are seven, two and one are three. But when used to express concrete quanti- ties they are adjectives. Ex. Four horses, ten men, a hundred pounds. The ordinal numerals (which signify position in a series) are most frequently adjectives. Ex. The first man, the tenth sheep, the thirtieth day. But they are sometimes used objectively, and then are adverbs. Ex. He stands first, I am tenth on tha list. There are also the regularly formed adverbial ordinal numerals, firstly, secondly, thirdly, dry. Fractional numerals are the same as ordinals, but they are nouns, and are so because they are abbreviations. Ex. On e- third (for “ one third part ”) fourths (for “three fourth parts"), iowi- fifths, two -tenths of an inch. In this series first is omitted, half is used for second, and quarter is c‘ten substi- tuted for fourth. Beside these there are the reiterative numerals, once, twice, thrice, four times, dry./ the multiplica- tives, single, double or twofold , triple or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, d fc.; — the distributives, singly or one by one, two by two, dry./ and other classes. The words neither, either, other, both, next, again, then, and some others, which are also called pronouns, are frequently employed as numerals, to signify not one, one, second, two, secojidly, dry. Indeterminate numerals express number and quan- tity, but not definitely. They are such words as more, some , none, few, many, several, much, all, dry. 31. Pronouns. — Those which are used as nouns only, are the personal pronouns, L, thou, he, she, it, and their plurals. They are thus declined. First Person. Second Person. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Nominative Case y I we thou you, ye Objective Case , me us thee you, ye Possessive Case, my, mine our, ours thy, thine your, youfj Third Person. Smg. Plur. Masc. Fem. Neut. All genders. Nominative Case, he she it they Objective Case y him her it them Possessive Case , his her, hers its their, theiri. The possessive cases of these pronouns are some* times spoken of as a class by themselves, and called possessive (adjective) pronouns. In the first and second persons, the possessive cases, and in the third person, the objective cases, with self ox selves affixed, constitute the reflective pronouns. Ex. Know thy- self, he loves himself, they were ashamed of them- selves. And these and the possessives are rendered emphatic by the insertion of own. Ex. “ I scarcely coveted what was my own ;" “ Thou owest unto me even thine own self." GRAMMAR. 19 32 . The demonstrative pronouns are this and that, with the plurals these and those ; such, the same, yon and yonder , here, there, hence, thence, then, arc., most of which are adverbs. Ex. “ This same shall comfort us,” after this or that determinate manner,” “ it makes a greater show in these months than in those” “ such are the cold Riphean race, and such the savage Scythian,” “ darkness there might well seem twilight here” “ now shaves with level wing the deep, then soars,” “ useless and thence ridiculous,” “yon flower- ing arbors, yonder alleys green.” The , commonly called the definite article, is properly a demon- strative pronoun. Pronouns used in questions, called interrogative, and those used in subjective and adjective acces- sory sentences, called relative, are who (in the ob- jective whom, and the possessive whose, in both numbers), which (occasionally with a possessive case, whose') what, where, whither, whence, when, how ; some of them being adverbs. Ex. Who art thou ? Which is it ? What do you mean ? “ Whose dog are you ? ” “ Whom dost thou serve ? ” Whence come you ? “ Whither goest thou ? ” “ How can these things be ? ” “ The son of Duncan, from whom the tyrant holds the due of birth, lives in the English court.” “ The handsel or earnest of that wluch is to come.” “ See what natures accompany the several colors.” “ In Lydia born, where plenteous harvests the fat fields adorn.” “ Grateful t’acknowledge whence his good descends.” “ I strayed I knew not whither.” Note, that the relative pronoun what is in significa- tion equivalent to the, that , or those which. 33 . Whoever, whosoever (and whomsoever, 7 . ■hose- soever } whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, wherever , whencesoever, however, herein, therein, therefore , wherefore, whereof, whereas, arc., are compounded or contrasted pronouns and pronomi- nal phrases. Ex. “ I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest.” “ I think myself beholden, whoever snows me my mistakes.” “ Whomsoever else they visit, with the diligent only do they stay.” “ In whatsoever shape he lurk, I’ll know.” “ Thy very stones prate of my whereabout.” “You do take the means whereby I live.” “ Herein is a wonderful thing.” “ Ilowbeit , this wisdom saved them not.” In addition to these various classes of pronouns, there are some which are called indefinite, such as one, aught, naught , (sometimes spelt ought , nought), tach, every, either, neither , any, other (which has a plural when used as a noun, but not when used at. tributively), they (when used to signify “ people in general ”), He. Ex. “ One may be little the wiser for reading,” “ for aught that I can understand,” “it cometh to naught.” “ are there any with you ? ” “ the virtue and force of every of these three is shrewdly allayed,” “ they say that he has died immensely rich.” 34- Adverbs. — These words do not admit of inflex ion, and of them some are found only in the adverbial form, others are used as prepositions or conjunctions also ; some are pronouns or adjectives ; and many are derived from adjectives and even from substan tives. They are employed to express the relations c. place — as here, there, where, hither , thither, whither, hience, thence, whence, above, below, before, behind, in, out, off, 07i, near, afar, backwards, forwards, aside , He., — of time, as, then, when, now, after, before, still, soon, already, lately, daily, hitherto, He., — of manner, as how, thus, so, as, otherwise, well, fluently, kindly, blind- ly, lovingly, bravely, brightly, He., — of mood, as yes, no, not, if , perhaps, probably, possibly, likely, really, He., — of degree or intensity, as frequently, seldom, often, agaifi, very, quite, even, nearly, only, too, ah/iost, much, rather, once, twice, thrice. He., — of causality, as where- fore, therefore, however, 7ievertheless, He. Some of those of manner, degree, and mood, ad- mit of degrees of comparison, W'hich they form after the manner of adjectives. Ex. Soon, sooner, soonest , bravely, more bravely, i7iost bravely. 35 . Prepositions. — These also are uninflected wrnrds, and besides the prepositions, properly so- called, nouns, adjecti es, verbs, participles, and ad- verbs, and even combinations of words, are employed as prepositions. Almost all the real prepositions ad- mit of being used to express every variety of rela- tion between the predicate and its objects, and be- tween a subject and its attributes ; but originally they all expressed the relation of place alone. The prepositions, properly so called, and other words used for prepositions, are such as above, about, across, after, against, along, among, at, before, behind, beside, between, beyo7id, by, concerning, down, during, from , in, into, of, off , on, over, save, since, through, till, to, towards, up, upon, with, He. The following are some of the combinations of words used as prepositions : — because of, by means of , on account of, in behalf of, instead of, according to, ad jacent to, co/ilrary to, with respect to, He. 20 GRAMMAR. Verbs frequently have prepositions as affixes, to modify their signification ; and sometimes preposi- tions are used as adverbial objects in our language, which in other tongues are compounded with the verb. Ex. He undertook that business willingly ; they have overcome their enemies ; what would I not undergo for you ? “ they went over to the enemy ; ” “ the poet passes it over as hastily as he can ; ” “ to set forth great things by small ; ” “I shall set out for London to-morrow.” 36. Conjunctions, like adverbs and prepositions, are indeclinable words. Some words are used only as conjunctions, and are called conjunctions proper ; others are really pronouns, adverbs, &c. Coordinative conjunctions are simply copulative, as, and, also, besides, moreover , too, not only — but also, both — and, as well as, neither — nor, then, cr=c. ; adver- sative, as, else, either — or, not — but, on the contrary, still, nevertheless , &rc. ; or causative, as, therefore, hence , so, consequently, for, accordingly. Subordina- tive conjunctions connect adverbial and subjective accessory sentences with their principal sentences; and are such as, that, but that, but, whether, if, since , although, unless, so, when, while , whilst, where, whence, &*c. 37. Amongst these indeclinable classes of words may be found many very interesting examples of ancient forms and inflexions of the English lan- guage, some of which have been lost in all but these instances, and in these the original signification is no longer preserved. Ex. Possessive cases, else, una- wares, needs ; dative cases, seldom , whilo 7 n ; neuter objective cases, little, less, well, nigh, athwart ; com- parative degrees, after, yonder, over, ere; superlative degrees, erst, next, almost. Note, that indeclinable words, which are used only as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec- tions, are frequently called particles — and also, that the direct affirmative, yes, and the direct negative, no, are by some grammarians placed in a distinct class, as not being properly adverbs. The great cause of the varied appearances or pro- nunciations of words originally the same in the speech of several races, is loss of care in utterance. The reasons for preferring one form to another are not always exactly definable, but as a rule the linguistic laws of phonetic alteration conform to the physical laws of articulation. Loss of care in utterance is ever to be avoided. 38. For the purpose of rendering this compen- dium of English Grammar more serviceable in such a study as that recommended in the first part, the examples in illustration of the Syntax are taken from casually opened pages of the English Bible, Shake- speare, the quotations in Dr. Johnson’s English Dic- tionary, and one or two other books. In the same manner, the student should select examples by way of exercise, and to demonstrate to himself that he un- derstands the grammatical principles exhibited here. Words are combined in the formation of sentences in three ways ; as subjects and predicates, as attrib- utives to subjects, and as objects to predicates. And sentences are combined coordinately, or subordi- nate^ ; subordinate or accessory sentences occupy- ing the positions of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, in the principal sentences of which they form part. 39. Subject and Predicate. — In every sen- tence of perfectly expressed thought, these two ele- ments are absolutely requisite — some person or thing spoken of, or a subject ; and something asserted re- specting it, or a predicate. If either subject or predicate be wanting, the expression in itself is un- intelligible. For subjects, nouns (which stand for persons or things) or pronouns (used in the place of nouns, and always in the nominative case), adjectives, participles or infinitive moods (representing qualities, actions, &c.), single words or letters (in which the thing and the name are identical), or subjective accessory sen- tences, may be used. Ex. “All tongues speak of him;” “ action is eloquence; ” “my praises made the first a soldier;” “you area traitor;” “ here he comes;” “ they say, she ’s mad; ” “the dead shall rise and live again;” “ the wise shall inherit glory;” “in him spar- ing would show a worse sin than its doctrine;” “to err is human, to forgive, divine;” “who is now used in relation to persons, and which to things; ” “ A has, in the English language, three different sounds;” “ that you have wronged me, doth appear in this;” “ who steals my purse, steals trash; ” “ for a holy per- son to be humble is as hard as for a prince to submit himself to tutors.” GRAMMAR. *» The strictly impersonal verbs have no subject ex- pressed. Ex. “ Methinks already I your tears sur- vey,” “ me thought I saw the grave where Laura lay.” Actions or conditions which are not assignable to any subject, have the pronoun it, as a formal sub- ject. Ex. “It thunders, it lightens,” “it snows at the top of them, oftener than it rains,” “it was freezing,” “it is very cold,” “it is hot to-day,” “it seems.” And similarly, for the sake of emphasis or animation, it and there are used formally as subjects, the real subjects being placed after their predicates. Ex. “ It is excellent to have a giant’s strength, but it is tyrannous to use it as a giant," “ it is good to be here," “it is /,” “it was you who did this,” “it be- hoved him to suffer," “it is said that parliament is dissolved," “ it repented the Lord that he had made man," “//doth not yet appear what we shall be,” “ there be many that say," “ there ws » in a city a judge," “ once upon a time there lived a man," “ there arose a mighty famine in that land,” “ there were that thought it a part of Christian charity to instruct them." 40. The essential characteristic of the predicate being assertion, a verb is indispensable in this part of a sentence. But besides verbs of all kinds, the verb to be, with nouns or pronouns (and that not only in the nominative case, but in the possessive also, and in the objective with a preposition), adjectives, participles, the infinitive mood, adverbs (and adverbs with prepositions), single words or letters, and acces- sory sentences, may be used as predicates. In the latter cases, the form of the verb to be, which is em- ployed, is called the copula, or link, which unites the predicate to the subject. Ex. “ He ran this way, and leaped this orchard wall,” “ he hath hid him- self among those trees,’’ “I 'll believe thee,” “Juliet is the sun," “ I am a villain," “ you ’ll be the bear, ' “ her mother is the lady of the house," “ ye are Christ's, and Christ is God’s,” “oh, he A even in my mistress' case, just in her case," “ the haughty prelate, with many more confederates are in arms," “ of noble race was Shenkin,” “ they were to the number of three hundred horse,” “ they shall be mine,” “ you shall be ours" “ he is not of us,” “ the sky is red,” “ you are meek," “you are excused" “ they are running this way,” “ you are not to be taught," “ the holy treasure was to be reserved," “ the woman will be out,” “ ye are from beneath," “the preterit of creep is crept,” “the ending; of the genitive case is s,” “ this is what I mid," “ thou art whom I fearf “ men should be what they seem.” Nevertheless, in poetry and oratory, when peculiar emphasis or effect is desired, the cop ula is omitted, and the other predicative word placed before the subject. Ex. “ Vain, a! 1 in vain, the weary search “ sweet the moments, *cn in blessing. The connection between the pre^ -tate and the sub- ject in a sentence is shown by aie predicate being in the same number as the subject. Ex. He loves, they love, the tree falls, trees grow, I am afraid, we are satisfied. Two or more singular subjects con- nected by the conjunction “ and ” (which, however, is often omitted), so as to form either a compound or a single subject, have their predicate in the plural. Ex. “ Bacon and Shakespeare are the greatest gen- iuses that England has produced; ” “ now abide faith, hope, charity j ” one and one are two.” And similarly, collective nouns have their predicates in the singular when they are thought of in the aggregate, but the plural when their component parts are most regarded. Ex. “ Parliament is sitting,” “a cluster of mob were making themselves merry with their betters,” “the people are the city,” “ my people doth not consider.” But when the predicate is a singular noun, the copula is often singular. Ex. “ Bread and cheese is fit diet for a prince.” And when the conjunction or or nor is used, unless the last subject be plural, the predi- cate is singular. Ex. “ Either you or your brother has deceived me,” “ neither shall the sun light on them, nor any heat," “ either he or they have carried her off.” 41. When the speaker makes the assertion re- specting himself, the subject is a personal pro- noun of the first person, and the verb is also in the first person ; when the assertion is addressed to him respecting whom it is made, the personal pro- noun of the second person, and the form of the verb to correspond with it, are employed ; and when it relates to any other person or thing, the third person of the verb (with the pronoun to correspond, if re- quisite), is used. Ex. “ 7, that speak unto thee, am he,” “ I know in whom I have believed,’’ “we speak that we do know,” “thou art the man,” “ thou knewest that I was an austere man,” “ye believe not, because ye are not of my sheep.” “ Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. — Mother, you have my father much offended.” “He planteth an ash, and the rain doth nourish it,” “ he drinketh no water, and is faint,’ “the great duke came to the bar,” “gentlemen, the penance lies on you,” “ heavenly blessings follow such GRAMMAR. •a creatures,” “ the hearts of princes kiss obedience, so much they love it.” In commands, the subject is very commonly omitted. Ex. “ Observe , observe, he is moody,” “ believe it, this is true,” “ pray hear me.” The subject is also very frequently omitted in ani- mated discourse, before the verbs pray, please, &c., when used in accessory sentences. Ex. '"Pray hear me,” “ give it me, please .” 42. When the assertion is general, or refers to the time at which it is made generally, the present indefi- nite sense is used. Ex. “ Man wants but little here below.” “ I am the most unhappy woman living.” “ My lords, you speak your pleasures. What he de- serves of you and me, I know ; what we can do to him (though now the time gives way to us) I much fear." When it refers to the actual point of time at which the assertion is made, the present imperfect is used. Ex. “ The duke is coming ,” “ his grace is entering," “ from all parts they are coining," “ Eng- land is not wanting in a learned nobility.” And when it is made respecting an action re- garded at the time as completed, the present perfect is employed. Ex. “ 1 have heard one of the greatest geniuses this age has produced," “ the gods have placed labor before interest,” “ this observation we have made on man.” The present perfect sometimes appears with a different auxiliary. Ex. “ 1 am come, they are gone." “ Cardinal Campeius is stolen away to Rome.” The indefinite tense is frequently used in- stead of the imperfect. Ex. He bites his lip, and starts, stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground.” And the present perfect is sometimes employed to indicate past time, or in a sense equivalent to that of the past indefinite tense. Ex. u We have done that which it was our duty to do,” “ we have heard with our ears, and our fathers have declared unto us the noble works thou didst in their days.” In animated historical narrative, and in narrative poetry, the present indefinite is often employed. Ex. “ The boy starts to his feet, and his keen eye looks along the ready rifle . . . . Lo ! a deer from Dalneas, hound-driven, or sullenly a c tray, slowing, bearing his antlers up the glen, then stopping for a moment to snuff the air, then away — away ! The rifle-shot rings dully from the scarce echoing snow- cliff, and the animal leaps aloft struck by a certain but not sudden death-wound.” “ Her lover sinks — she sheds no ill-timed tears I Her chief is slain — she fills his fatal post j Her fellows flee — she checks their base career ; Her foe retires — she heads the sallying host. “ My General descends to the outer staircase, and harangues; once more in vain. . . Lafayette mounts the white charger ; and again harangues, and reharangues, . . .so lasts it, hour aite» hour, for the space of half a day.” 43. In like manner, actions, &c., are referred to the past generally, or as proceeding and incomplete, or as completed, by the use of the past indefinite, imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. “ My father loved you, he said he did," “ I thrice presented him a kingly crown,” “ you wronged yourself ; ” — “ they of Bethshemesh were reaping," “Israel were fighting with the Philistines,” “they were eating , and drink- ing, and dancing j '' — “when Boaz had eaten and drunk, he went to lie down,” “ Elihu had waited till Job had spoken." The emphatic form is commonly used interchangeably with the indefinite. Ex. “ Thus did my master bid me kneel, and thus he bade me say.” The indefinite is often employed definitely when any particular past time is indicated in the sentence. Ex. “ I saw him yesterday. ” And in the same way actions, &c., in time become discriminated by the employment of the future in- definite, imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. “ A weighty secret will work a hole through them,” “ he will not stoop till he falls,” “ I shall never forget ; ” — “thy people shall be willing in the day of thy power," “ they will be still praising thee ; ” — “ we shall have completed our task before you commence yours,” “ then cometh the end, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God.” Instead of the future, the indefinite present is often used. Ex. I leave Eng- land to-morrow, we sail next week. Other forms for expressing future time are mentioned above. Ex. “ We are going to spend some time on the conti- nent,” “ I was about to write!’ 44. When simple assertion, or denial, is in- tended, the predicate is always in the indicative mood. Ex. “ Jam glad to see your lordship abroad,” “ the mouse gnawed the threads to pieces, and set the lion at liberty,” “ he goeth in company with the workers of iniquity, and walketh with wicked men,” “ you did wish that I would wake her then,” “ she may go to bed when she list ; all is as she will,” “ thou must run to him,” “ flatter him it may, / con- fess" In principal sentences, when a wish is to be ex- pressed, or a concession to be made for the sake JL GRAMMAR. *3 argument, the subjunctive mood is used. Ex. “ Now, ail my joy trace the conjunction ! ” “ the Lord for- bid !" the Lord increase this business ! ” “ be it so, rny argument remains unshaken.” Commands are conveyed by means of the impera- tive mood. Ex. “ Kncna thyself,” “follow thou me,” “cease to do evil, learn to do well,” “ rejoice, you men of Angiers, ring your bells.” The auxiliary let is employed for the first and third persons. Ex. “Ac- knowledge then the king, and let me in,” “let none of them escape “rise, let us go,” “let the soldiers seize him," “ let Euclid rest, and Archimedes pause,” “ let him be known among the heathens.” 45. The distinction between the use of the active and the passive forms of verbs has been pointed out and illustrated above (p. 1 1 ) ; and from that it will appear that whatever has been said here respecting predicates applies as much to the latter as to the for- mer, with this exception — there being no (or but few) imperfect tenses in the passive, the indefinite tenses are in all cases (except the few referred to) used to express actions still in progress, or incomplete. Ex. “ The colors are changed by viewing them at differ- ent obliquities,’’ “I am determined to prove a villain,” “you shall be new christened in the town,” “to that •weet region was our voyage bent,” “ Hector was dragged about the walls of Troy,” “ the Irish horse- boys should be cut off “ after all that can be said against it, this remains true,” “ it may be occasioned thus,” “ it shall be reported to the king,” “ the Pres- byterian sect was established in all its forms,” “ it was said, that the elder should serve the younger.” 46. In questions the same grammatical forms are employed as in assertions ; but the order of the words is generally inverted, and when compound tenses are used (as they most frequently are), the subject follows the auxiliary, whilst the verb itself occupies its usual place. Interrogative pronouns are put at the beginning of questions. Ex. “ Where is he ? ' “ Shall I live in hope ? ” “ What, do you tremble, are you all afraid,” “ Saw you the king to-day ? ” “ When have I injured thee ? ” “ Why look you so pale ?” “ Who hath believed our report ? ’’ “ To whom will ye liken God ? ” “ Lucentio is your name ? ’’ “ What, you mean my face ? ” “ You saw this and op- posed it not ? ” The grammatical construction of negative sen- tences differs not at all from that of affirmative ones, such as have been chiefly selected for examples ; the relation of the negative words no, not, &zc., being either that of the attributive to its subject, or of the object of manner to its predicate, as may be seen below. 47. Subject and Attributive. In order to de- scribe the subjects respecting which assertions are made in sentences, more accurately than their mere names are sufficient to do ; and to define them, so that the assertions may not become ambiguous by reason of the vagueness of the subjects they relate to, words, phrases, and accessory sentences are em- ployed, which are called attributives. The commonest attributives are adjectives ; with which may be included participles (which are the adjective forms of verbs), numerals, some kinds of pronouns, nouns used as adjectives, and a few ad- verbs, which are also occasionally used attributively. The only sign of the relation between these attribu- tives and their subjects is their position, which is im- mediately before the words they refer to, except in cases where peculiar emphasis or animation is aimed at, when they immediately follow their subjects, Ex. “ The wierd sisters, ” “ my dread exploits,” “ from this moment,” “ my dearest coz,” “ my pretty cousin,” “ to offer up a weak, poor, Innocent lamb,” “ O nation miserable ! ” “ a most tniraculous work in this good king,” “ thy royal father was a more sainted king,” “ each several crime,” “many ways,” “the heal- ing benediction,” “all my pretty chickens,” “ an ac- customed action,” “ curses, not loud, but deep,” “ those linen cheeks of thine are counsellors to fear,” “ a rooted sorrow,” “ the written troubles of the brain,” “ what wood is this,” “ within this three mile,” “a moving grove,” “lead our first battle, “hateful to mine ear,” “ thou shalt have none assurance of thy life,” “ there was no day like that before,” “it is no good report that I hear,” “ in that very day his thoughts perish,” “ to poor we thine enmity’s most capital,” “ a hundred altars in her temples smoke, a thousand bleeding hearts her power invoke, ” “some men with swords may reap the field,” “ see where the victor victim bleeds,” “ his knowledge of good lost,” “ man’s first disobedience,” “ these are the martyr spirits of mankind,” “ which way went he ? ” “ what man is he ? ” “ on the hither side,” “ yon flowery arbors, yonder alleys green,” “ in russet gear and honest kersey hose,” “ a hundred upon poor fout us ! ” “ an everlasting now.” In some cases where a noun is compounded with 24 GRAMMAR. an attributive word, in the plural number, the noun assumes the plural form. Ex. Attorney general, Attorneys general; Lord lieutenant, Lords lieutenant. But where the compound word expresses an insepa- rable notion the plural ending is added to the at- tributive, if that is the second element in the word. Ex. Two spoonfuls. 48. Nouns and pronouns in the possessive case are exceedingly common as attributives. But it must be noted that there is no distinction between the possessive cases of personal pronouns, and cer- tain adjective pronouns called possessive ; examples of which are given in the preceding paragraph. Sometimes the subject to these attributives is omitted ; and frequently the preposition of is inserted before the possessive case. Ex. I am not yet of Percy's mind,” “ the roaring of the lions whelp,” “ a herald's coat without sleeves,” “ hearts no bigger than pins' heads,” “ I did pluck allegiance from metis hearts,” “ a fair queen in a summer's bower,” “ I must to the barber's , monsieur,” “ the knight came to the tailor's," “ I saw thee late at the Count Orsino's,” “which is the way to Master Jew' si " “let ours also learn to maintain good works,” “I seek not yours but you,” “ the king is now in progress towards St. Alban’s,” “a friend of mine on his journey,” “ if e’er those eyes of yours behold another day,” “ a seal ring of my grandfather s,” “ this dotage of our general’s o’erflows the measure.” 49. The objective case of nouns and pronouns, with various prepositions, but especially with the preposition of (which combination is equivalent to the possessive case), is used attributively. Ex. “ I speak in behalf of my daughter, in the minority of them both,” “ the wicked ministry of arms,” “ the in- strument of Providence," “the customs 0/ the Irish," “ thou art a soul in bliss," “ a wholesome law time out of mind'' ‘ compassion on the king commands me stoop,” “ travels by sea and land'' “ the mes- senger from our sister," “ our duty to God," “ sons to Cymbeline,'' “ four rogues in buckram.” Imperfect participles are also employed with the preposition of as attributives. Ex. “ A famine of hearing the word of the Lord,” “ he hath a bad habit of frowning," “the greatest care of fulfilling the Divine will.” Another attributive use of this preposition(with one or two others) with nouns and pronouns is called parti- tive, from its evident force and signification. Ex. “ The most diminutive of birds," “ I have peppered two of them," “seven of the eleven , I paid,” “every one of them,” “ all of us,” “ it contained the whole of religion,” “ for which of these works do ye stone me ? ” “ one amongst a thousand." 50. Subjects are further defined and described by means of the words expressing subjects, in the same number, and immediately preceding or following them, and said to be in apposition with them. Ex. “Fulvia thy wife came first into the field, against my brother Lucius,” “ the false house-wife Fortune,” “ thou, my brother, my competitor , my mate in empire, friend and companion in the part of war,” “ King Co- phetua wooed the beggar maid,” “ Hamlet, Prince of Denmark,” His royal highness, Prince Albert ; Lord John Russell, Mr. Smith. When several persons of the same name are spoken of, or addressed by letter, the honorary title is put in the plural, whilst the name is in the singular number. Ex. Messieurs Smith, Cheeryble Brothers, the Mesdames Robinson. In some cases the noun in apposition is connected by means of the preposition of. Ex. The empire of Russia, the city of St. Petersburg, the university oj Cambridge, the county of Kent, the port of London, the month of July, the province of Judea. When two nouns in apposition are attributives to another, the latter only is put into the possessive case. Ex. “ Our neighbor Shepherd's son,” “ King Henry's head,” “ Dr. Johnson's Dictionary,” u Duke Hum- phrey's deeds,” “ The Lord Protector's wife,” “ my Lord Cardinal's man,” “ Saint Alban's shrine.” Accessory sentences are employed as attribu- tives. Ex. “ Whose hand is that the forest bear doth lick? Not his that spoils her young before her faee,” “ a day will come, when York shall claim his own,” “ in that chair, where kings and queens are crowned." 51. Many of the illustrations given above show how common it is for a single subject to be described and defined by means of many attributives. The fol- lowing examples will show some of the ways in which the repetition of the same word as subject to several attributives, or as attributive to several subjects, is prevented. Ex. “ I thought the king had more af- fected the Duke of Albany than Cormvall," “ the princes, France and Burgundy," “ here I disclaim all . . propinquity and property of blood, and as a stranger to my heart and me, hold thee,” “ we still re- tain the name and all the additions to a king,' “thy dowerless daughter is queen of us, of ours, and our fair France," “ he wrote this but as an essay or tasfi GRAMMAR. tfmy virtue ; " “ menaces and maledictions against king and nobles ; ” “ the marks of sovereignty, knowledge , and reason; ” “ ray train are men of choice and rarest parts; " “ the messengers from our sister and the king;" “ he, the sacred honor of himself, his queens, his hopeful son's, his babe's betrays to slander; ” “ uncles of Glo' ster and of Winchester; " “ the Dukes of Or- leans, Calaber, Bretaigne, and Alen^on." 52. Predicate and Object. — The signification of predicates is modified or completed by means of words, phrases, and accessory sentences, which are called objects. And not only are all parts of verbs followed by these adjuncts, but adjectives also fre- quently require them. Objects which complete or supplement the mean- ing of their predicates are of three kinds : — (1.) The immediate or direct object of the predicate ; (2.) the remoter, or mediate and indirect object ; (3.) the remotest object, or that which indicates the ef- fect or result of what is asserted in the predicate. 1st obj. 2d obj. 3d obj. “ I will take you to me for a people." 2 d obj. 1st obj. 3d obj. This opinion gave them courage to all adventures. Those which modify or attemper the signification of their predicates are six in number : — (1.) Those which indicate the cause or origin of whatever is as- serted in the predicate ; (2.) those which tell its de- sign or purpose ; (3.) those which declare the means by which it is brought about ; (4.) those which show the manner of its existence or action ; (5.) and (6.) those indicating the time and place of its occurrence. It must, however, be observed, that it is not easy in all instances to determine to which class an object belongs — those expressing cause, purpose, or means frequently being distinguishable by exceedingly evanescent characteristics. But this is not, practi- cally, either inconvenient or productive of ambi- guity ; as may be seen in the examples of these and other kinds of objects. Ex. (1.) “ My soul grows sad with troubles ; " “ by that si?i fell the angels.” (2.) * She went to glean Palcemon's fields;" “one man pursues power in order to wealth, and another wealth in order to power." (3.) “Judge the event by what has passea;" “the strong through pleasure falls soonest.” (4.) “They act wisely ;" “ beware and gov- ern well thy appetite.” (5.) “We lacked your coun- sel and your help to-night; " “ it hath been sung at % 25 festivals , on ember eves, and holy ales." (6.) “The lion’s foe lies prostrate on the plain; " “ I am with thee, by and before, about and in thee, too.” 53. Nouns, pronouns, and other words used as nouns, — such as the infinitive mood of verbs, and participles, — most commonly without, but also with prepositions before them, serve as immediate ob- jects of predicates ; and also of the infinitive mood of verbs, and participles, and of adjectives, when they are not the predicates of sentences. And the personal pronouns, whether with or without preposi- tions, are in the objective case. Ex. “ Do you not hear him ? " “ you mar our labor ; ” “ keep your cabins ;" “you do assist the storm;" “ ’t is time I should inform thee further ; ” “ wipe thou thine eyes ; have comfort ; ” “ you have often begun to tell me what I am, but stopped, and left me to a bootless in- quisition “ he whom, next thyself, of all the world I loved, and to him put the manage of my state ; ” “ the government I cast upon my brother ; ” “ the ivy which had hid my princely trunk, and sucked the verdure out on’t ; ” “ triumphing over death, and chance, and time ;" “ on mine arm shall they trust • ” “ victorious over temptation." The common exclamations, “ ah me ! " and “ woe is me ! " are contractions ; the latter was originally, “ woe becomes or befits me," and the former is equiv- alent to it in meaning, and may have been derived from it. 54. The more remote object is also expressed by nouns, and most commonly preceded by the preposition to ; but this is often omitted; and there are other prepositions which serve to connect this object with its predicate. Whenever the remoter ob- ject is expressed, but the immediate object left out, the sense is imperfect. The personal pronouns, as in the last, are always in the objective case. Ex. “ Three great ones of the city oft capp’d to him; ” “ whip me such honest knaves ; ” “ throwing but shows of service on their lords, do themselves hom- age ; ” “I am beholden to you ; " “forgive us our trespasses ; ” “ he makes a supper, and a great one, to many lords and ladies ; ” “ I need not add more fuel to your fire ; " “comparing spiritual things with spir- itual ; ” “ I have charged thee not to haunt about my doors ; " “ fetch me an iron crow ; ” “ O continue thy loving-kindness unto me ;" “ the services, which I have done the signiory ; " “ the goodness of the night upon you, friends; ” “ I’ll refer me to all things 20 GRAMMAR. f sense ; ” “ good-night to every one 1 ” “ it cannot be that Desdemona should long continue her love to the Moor, nor he his to her ; ” “ I have told thee often, and I re-tell thee again and again, I hate the Moor.” 55. For the remotest object, which expresses the result or effect of the predicate, nouns (with or without prepositions, or preceded by the conjunction tfjj, pronouns, adjectives, participles, the infinitive mood of verbs, and to be with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, are employed. Ex. “ He, in good time, must his lieutenant be, and I, his M oor ship's ancient “ the king, your father, was reputed for apritice most prudent “whom I hold my most jnalicious foe , and think not at all a friend to truth ; bade me enjoy it ; ” “ man became a living soul; ” “ why should damage grow to the hurt of the king ? ” “ they looked upon themselves as the happiest people of the uni- verse;" “things were just ripe for a war ;" “those pearls of dew she wears prove to be presaging tears;" “ his servants ye are to whom ye obey, whether of sin unto death , or of obedience unto righteousness; ” “we take a falling meteor for a star; ” “ it were not for your quiet, nor your good, nor for my manhood, honesty, ana wisdom, to let you know my thoughts ; ” “ I believe him to be a very honest man ; " “ whom do you suppose it to be ? ” 56. Of the objects which modify the meaning' of the predicate, those which do so by indicating its origin or cause are expressed by nouns (and all words and combinations of words that can be used instead of them), preceded by certain prepositions, and by some adverbs. Oaths are included under this head, as indicating the ground of the assertion, though not of what is asserted. Ex. “ I would not follow him then; ” “ therefore to our best mercy give yourselves ; ” “ whom from the flow of gall I name not, but from sincere motions ; " “ you lost your office on the complaint of the tenants ; " “ men are pleased with variety; " “ astonished at the voice, he stood ; ” “ they were jealous of her beauty; " “ guilty of high treason ;" “I can tell you whx;" “ thou hast forced me out of thy honest truth to play the woman ; ” “ they boast themselves of idols ; " “ Sempronius gives no thanks on this account ;" “you are good, but from a nobler cause, from your own knowledge, not from nature's laws; " “ by the faith of a man, I know my prince ; ” “ by heaven, I rather would have been his hangman ; ” “ on my honor , it is so." 57. Those objects which point out the design and purpose of the predicate are expressed by the infini- tive mood of verbs, most commonly, and also by nouns, &c., with prepositions. Ex. “ I follow him to serve my turn upon him; ” “ wears out his time for nought but provender; ” “ in following him, I follow but myself, not I for love and duty, but seem- ing so, for my peculiar end; ” “ I come to bury Cce- sar, not to praise him ; " “ he traveled the world, on purpose to converse with the most learned men; ” “ with this design I have visited all the most cele- brated schools in Europe ; ” “ he writes not for money nor for praise; ” “ there is a time to weep, and a time to laugh; ” “ be swift to hear , slow to speak; ” “ one man pursues power in order to wealth, and another wealth in order to power; " “ thou art not able to go against this Philistine to fight with him." 58. Objects by which the means employed in pro- ducing any result are declared are generally ex- pressed by nouns, &c., with prepositions. Ex. “ I must be be-lee’d and calm’d by debtor and creditor , this countercaster;" “preferment goes by letter and. affection, not by the old gradation ; ” “ plague him with flies;" “we may outrun by violent swiftness that which we run at, and lose by overrunning; ” “ my soul grows sad with troubles ;" “the strong through pleasure soonest falls, the weak through smart ; ” “ you must think we hope to gain by you; ” “ thus, by the music we may know when noble wits a-hunting go ; ” “ you absolved him with an axe ; ” “ some he killed with his gun, others by poison." 59. Manner is expressed by adjectives, partici- ples, adverbs, and nouns, &c., with prepositions or the conjunction as. Ex. “ He, as loving his erwn pride and purposes, evades them, with a bombast cir- cumstance ; ” “ wears out his time, much like his mas- ter’s ass;" “ wide was spread their fame in ages past ; ” “ in madness, being full of supper and distem- pering draughts, dost thou come to start my quiet ; " "he, with his father, is going home;” “a Puritan amongst them sings psalms to hornpipes; " “ we are not to stay all together, but to come by him, where he stands, by ones, by twos, and by threes; ” “ seize her by force, and bear her hence unheard;” “ st frown’d the mighty combatants ; ” “ thus he spake ; ” “ quit yourselves like men; ” “ ye shall be as gods ; " “come quickly ;" “he answered well;" “they that sow in tears shall reap in joy ; ” “he that goeth GRAMMAR. 27 forth weeping, bearing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with him ; ” “ they act wisely .” 60. All the various ways in which objects indicate the time of an action, &c., are expressed by nouns, &c., with or without prepositions, adjectives, parti- ciples, and adverbs. Ex. “ He in good time must his lieutenant be ; ” “ we rose both at an instant, and fought a long hour by Shrewsbury clock ; ” “ then have sat the livelong day ; ” “ he came by night; ” “ doomed for a certain time to walk the night, and for the day confined to fast in fires ; ” “ he did them meditate all his life long; ” “ till then, who knew the force of those dire arms ? ” “I have not wept this forty years;" “ morning by morning shall it pass over ; ” “ yet in her sanguine gown by night and day; ” “ depart immediately ; ” “ I was never pleased ; ” “ thy servants’ trade hath been about cattle from our youth even until now ; ” “ sometimes walking ; ” “ now is the time.” 61. Place where, and direction whence and whither, are expressed by nouns, &c., with or with- out prepositions, and by adverbs. Ex. “ I will wear my heart upon my sleeve; ” “ his eyes had seen the proof at Rhodes, at Cyprus, and on other grounds; ” “ proclaim him in the streets; ” “ I, upon my frontiers here, keep residence ; ” “I saw hereabout nothing remarkable ; ” “ let them hence away; ” “ a puissant and mighty power is marching hitherward in proud array ; ” “ if they come to sojourn at my house, I'll not be there ; ” “ darkness there might well seem twilight here ; ” “ ah ! where was Eloise ? ” “ the good man is gone a long journey ; ” “ come a little nearer this way; ” “ the eyes of the Lord are in every place ;" “we must measure twenty miles to-day ; ” “ he looked this way and that way ; ” “ come hither, child, to me." 62. Accessory sentences are sentences com- plete in themselves as to syntax, but occupying sub- ordinate places in other sentences, which stand to them in the relation of principals. They are of three kinds, named (after the offices they discharge in their prineipal sentences) subjective, attributive, and objective sentences. Their relation to their princi- pals is shown by their position, and by the use of relative pronouns and certain conjunctions, and in many cases by the employment of the subjunctive mood. 63. Subjective accessory sentences are found in every relation in which a noun could stand; and may be either subjects, predicates (both of which have been illustrated above), or completing objects to predicates (with or without prepositions); but being equivalent to nouns, they are named after that part of the sentence which is especially taken by the noun. Ex. “ See that thou do it; ” “ I take it much unkindly, that thou, Iago, shouldst know of this;" “thou toldst me, thou didst hold him in thy hate ; " “ be judge yourself, whether I in any just term am affined to love the Moor ; ” “ right glad I am, he was not in this fray; ” “ I have forgot why I did call thee back;" “ what you would work me to I have some aim ; ” “ mark me with what violence she loved the Moor ; ” “ I could well wish courtesy would invent some other custom of entertainment ; ” “ you must not think, then, that I am drunk; ” “ what you ca?i make her do, I am content to look on ; what to speak, 1 am content to hear ; ” “ mark what it is his mind aims at in the question, and not what words he expresses; " “ she said, Say on ; " “ as when we say, Plato was no fool." 64. Attributive accessory sentences occur wherever adjectives might be used as attributives. The relation between these sentences and their sub- jects is shown by their position, by their predicates assuming the same personal forms as those of their subjects, and by the employment of the relative pronouns who, which, and that, in them. Where no confusion is possible, these pronouns may be omit- ted. Ex. “Thou, Iago, who hast had my purse; ” “ a fellow that never set a squadron in the field, nor the division of a battle knows, ?nore than a spinster; ” “ I hold him to be unworthy of his place that does those things ;" “ I fear the trust Othello puts him in will shake this island ; ” “ honest Iago, that lookst dead with grieving ;" “ every one hears that, which can dis- tinguish sound ; ” “ that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world; ” “ the son of Dun- can, from whom this tyrant holds the due of birth; ” “ fruits that blossom first, will first be ripe ; ” “he that is of God, heareth God's words ;" “unto me, who am less than the least of all saints; " “ thinkest thou this, O man, that judges t them which do such things, and doest the same, that thou shalt escape the judgment of God ? ” “ I, that speak unto thee, am he.” Note, that whether the relative be subject attrib- utive, or object, in its own sentence, it is always aS GRAMMAR. placed at the very commencement of it, because it has so few inflexions, that otherwise its connection with the subject (or antecedent) it refers to might be obscure. These sentences frequently stand as attributives to other sentences, which are related to them as subjects. Ex. “ They shall obey, unless they seek for hatred at my hands, which if they do , they shall feel the vengeance of my wrath ; ” “ he was unsat- isfied in getting, which was a sin; ” “ as he spoke, a braying ass did sing most loud and clear, whereat his horse did start .” 65. Objective accessory sentences are those which serve instead of objects of cause, purpose, means, manner (including degree or intensity), time, and place ; and those expressing a condition or con- cession, which are distinguished by the employment of the probable or improbable forms of the subjunc- tive mood, according to the amount of contingency affecting the condition or concession, and generally after certain conjunctions. The indicative mood is, however, now very commonly used instead ; always, indeed, where no contingency or uncertainty is to be expressed. Ex. “ Because we come to do you service , you tli ink we are ruffians ; ” “ since neither love, nor sense of pain, nor force of reason can persuade, then let example be obeyed ; ” “ be ye steadfast, immov- able, . . . forasmuch as ye know that your labor is not in vain in the Lord ; " “ he makes it his care both to write and to speak plainly, so that he may be under- stood “treat it kindly, that it may wish, at least, with us to stay ; ” “ judge not, that ye be not judged; ” “ as will appear by what follows; ” “ from what has been said, you may perceive the hopelessness of your undertaking ; ” “ be taught by what I am suffer- ing; ” “ who, he knew, would be willing ; ” “ thou hast used my purse, as if the strings were thine ; ” “ it is as sure as you are Roderigo; ” “ throw such changes of vexation on’t, as it may lose some color; ” “ the longer I am acquainted with him, the more I like him ; ” “ so great was the cold, that the deepest rivers were frozen ;’ ‘ he is as merry as the day is long; ” “ I’ll see, before I doubt; ” “ kings may take their advantage, when and hcnv they list ; ” “ use physic, or ever thou be sick; ” “ while I was protector, pity was all the fault that was in me ; ” “ he is the most im- proved mind, since you saw him, that ever was.; ” “ where your treasure is, there will your heart be also ; ” “I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest ; ” “ I have shown whence the understanding may get all the ideas it has; ” “ the noise pursues me, whereso- e'er I go;” “ despise me, if I do not;” “ were I the Moor, I would not be Iago ; ” “ you will not serve God, if the devil bid you ! ” “ think we, or think we not, time hurries on ; ” “ thou dost conspire against thy friend, if thou but thinkst him wronged, and makest his ear a stranger to thy thoughts; ” “ though thou de- tain me, I will not eat ; ” “ wert thou an oracle to tell me so, I'd not believe it ; ” “ had fate so pleased , I had been eldest born ; ” “ I had been happy, so I had nothing known ; ” “ unless I look on Sylvia in the day, there is no day for me to look upon ; ” “ though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor ; ” “ many things are believed, although they be intricate, obscure, and dark.” 66 . Contracted and compound sentences.— Two or more sentences having the same subjects, or the same predicates or objects, and two or more sub- jects having the same attributives, or viceversd, are fre- quently contracted into one compound sentence, or phrase, by the use of conjunctions. Examples of sev- eral kinds may be found in the former parts of this Compendium ; others are such as these : Ex. “ With fairest flowers, whilst summer lasts, and I live here, Fidele, I’ll sweeten thy sad grave ; ” “ his honesty got him small gains, but shameless flattery, and filthy beverage, and unseemly thrift, and borrow base, and some good lady’s gift ; ” “ it shall ever be my study to make discoveries of this nature in human life, and to settle the proper distinctions between the vir- tues and perfections of mankind, and those false colors and resemblances of them, that shine alike in the eyes of the vulgar.” In contracted sentences, where a comparison is expressed, care should be taken to avoid ambiguity. Ex. “ He would make a better soldier than scholar f expresses the greater aptitude of the person spoken of for the arts of war, than for the pursuit of learn- ing. “ He would make a better soldier than a scholar,” expresses that the person spoken of displays greate® aptitude for war than a student would. “ He like 9 them better than /,” signifies that his liking for the persons spoken of is greater than my liking for them ; whilst “he likes them better than me” signi- fies that his liking for them is greater than his liking for me. Similarly, wherever two or more subjects are dis- tinguished by the attributive adjectives only, unless GRAMMAR. *9 in cases where no ambiguity can arise, they should be distinguished by the repetition of the demonstra- tive. Ex. “ The red and blue vestments were most admired,” should be, “ the red and the blue vest- ments,” if two kinds are intended. But we may say, “ the Lords Spiritual and Temporal , because the at- tributives are incompatible in their signification. 67. Construction is the arrangement of words in sentences, and of sentences in relation to each other, so as to indicate the subordination of the several parts, and their connection and union; and the uni- versal rule is to place the subordinate words, or phrases, before the principal ones. Yet for the sake of imparting special significance to some words or sentences, the form of this rule is often violated, and particularly in poetry. Thio is called inverted con- struction, to distinguish it from the ordinary arrange- ment, which is designated direct. Ex. Direct. “ The orator had the honor of ha- ranguing Pope Clement the Sixth, and the satisfac- tion of conversing with Petrarch, a congenial mind ; but his aspiring hopes were chilled by disgrace and poverty ; and the patriot was reduced to a single garment, and the charity of an hospital ! ” “ The apartments, porticoes, and the courts of the Lateran were spread with innumerable tables for either sex, and every condition ; a stream of wine flowed from the nostrils of Constantine’s brazen horse ; no com- plaint, except the scarcity of water, could be heard ; and the licentiousness of the multitude was curbed by discipline and fear.” Inverted. “ At last, after much fatigue, through dull roads, and bad weather, we came, with no small difficulty, to our journey’s end.” “ Unto the French, the dreadful judgment-day so dreadful will not be, as was his sight.” “ So shaken as we are, so wan with care, find we a time for frighted peace to pant.” “ Great is Diana of the Ephesians ! ” “ Fallen, fallen is Babylon, that great city ! ” “ Silver and gold have I none: but such as I have, give I unto thee.” “ Go [ must, whatever may ensue.” “Up rose the sun, and up rose Emily.” 68. Accentuation. — In order to show the subor- dination of the less important phrases in sentences, to the principal ones in each of the several combina- tions treated of above, and to give prominence to the most important elements in words, a particular stress of voice (called accent) is customarily laid upon the radical part of all inflected words, and upon the principal words or phrases in each of those combinations. Ex. Golden, disgraceful, grdtitude, kingdom, trdthfulr.ess, wakeful ; they read ; the men were astonished, my suspicions were correct ; the se- crets of the grave this viperous slander enters ; the mighty dead ; all his golden words are spent ; king David ; here is one Lucianus, nephew to the king ; the kingdom of England ; the world hateth you ; I joy to meet thee ; give the book to me; I crdve your pardon. 69. Emphasis is distinguished from accent by this ; the latter serves to indicate the connection of the words, &c., and to give unity to the meanings of the several parts which enter into the different com- binations that make up sentences, &c. ; whilst em- phasis shows some special meaning which the speaker desires to give to his words, and which they would not ordinarily bear. Ex. “ Thdy read, wd write ; the men were astonished, and the woman fled ; my suspicions were correct, but my knowledge was no more than yours ; the kingdom of England, not that of Scotland ; no, sir, I do not bite my thumb at you, sir ; but I bite my thumb, sir ; be not afraid, sh6 shall not harm thee ; I' scorn you not, it seems that you scorn m£.” 70. Punctuation. — The pauses which, in speak- ing, are used to impart greater accuracy and clear- ness to our expressions, in writing are represented by characters called stops ; and the notes of interro- gation and admiration, the parenthesis and the dash, as well as the breaking up of composition into para- graphs, are employed for similar purposes. In poe- try they are more used than in prose ; and the fewest number possible should always be employed. The full point, or period, indicates the termina- tion of a passage which is complete both in meaning and in syntax. The colon marks the end of a gram- matical combination, but shows that what follows is required to complete the meaning. The semicolon shows that, both in meaning and in syntax, the ex- pression it follows is incomplete. And the comma is used to distinguish, rather than to divide, the parts of grammatical combinations, so that the connection between them, and their signification when combined, may be more clear. But where the passages are not very long, and no mistake would arise, the comma is used for the semicolon, and even for the colon ; and the semicolon is employed instead of the colon. The period is frequently employed, also, where we 30 GRAMMAR. should expect only the colon. Ex. “The Roman senators conspired against Julius Caesar to kill him : that very next morning Artemidorus, Caesar’s friend, delivered him a paper (desiring him to peruse it) wherein the whole plot was discovered : but Caesar complimented his life away, being so taken up to return the salutations of such people as met him in the way, that he pocketed the paper, among other petitions, as unconcerned therein ; and so, going to the Senate-house, he was slain.” “ The noble Brutus Hath told you, Caesar was ambitious : If it were so, it was a grievous fault ; And grievously has Caesar answered it." 71. Parentheses indicate either an explanatory re- mark, or a thought related to what has been said, which is noted but not pursued ; and instead of the common sign, two commas, or two semicolons, or two dashes, are often employed. Ex. “Traveling on the plain (which notwithstanding hath its risings and fallings), I discovered Salisbury steeple many miles off.” “I find two (husband and wife), both stealing, and but one of them guilty of felony.” “Spill not the morning (the quintessence of the day !) in recreation.” “ Raleigh had (besides his own merits) two good friends.” In general the dash is used to show that a pause should be made, because the sense is broken off abruptly ; or whilst the sense is not interrupted, something unexpected follows ; or to call for greater attention to what is about to be said. Ex. To die, — to sleep, — No more ; — and, by a sleep, to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to, — ’tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished.” “ O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be known by, let us call thee — devil I ” “ ‘ Thou art a villain.’ ' You are — a senator.’” “ Some people, handsome by nature, have willfully deformed themselves ; — such as wear Bacchus’ col- ors in their faces, arising not from having — but be- ing — bad livers." “ Romeo, the hate I bear thee can afford No better term than this — Thou art a villain.” Other artifices are employed, such as italics and small capitals, in typography to represent some of the effects of the tones and inflexions of the voice. 72. Some modes of expression, called tropical, 01 figurative, which are strictly amongst the matters re- specting which rhetoric is conversant, should be noticed here ; as they serve to account for some of the forms which have been noticed above. Personification, or prosopopoeia, is the treating of things and subjects without life, even abstrac- tions, as though they were living persons. Ex. “ Confusion heard his voice.” “ I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent , but only vaulting ambi- tion , which o’erleaps itself.” “ Doth not wisdom cry, and understanding put forth her voice ? ” “ Make temperance thy companion, so shall health sit on thy brow.” Ellipsis, or omission, is the suppression of some word, which from the nature of what is spoken of, or from the context, can be readily supplied. Ex. “All in vain [is] my frantic calling, all in vain [are] my falling tears ! ” “ [There is] no way to fly, nor strength to hold out flight ! ” “ The knight came to the tailor’s [shop].” “ Are you going to the House [of Parliament] ? ” Pleonasm, or redundancy, is the introduction of some words not actually required, but often exceed- ingly effective, as a means of giving peculiar empha- sis, or expressing a particular feeling. Ex. “ The skipping king, he ambled up and down.” “They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth." “ The dawn is overcast, the morn- ing lowers , and heavily with clouds brings on the day." Zeugma, or syllepsis, is the suppression of a verb or a noun, in positions in which it will readily be suggested by another verb or noun, which is ex- pressed ; and with which the object, or attributive belonging to the suppressed words, appears to be connected. Ex. “ And his mouth was opened im- mediately, and his tongue [loosed | ; ” “ forbidding to marry, and [commanding] to abstain from meats ; ” “ my paternal house is desolate, and he himself [my father] destitute and in exile.” These examples illustrate the working of the zeugma, or syllepsis. GRAMMAR. 3 1 , 73 . Prosody treats of the laws of metrical compo- sitions, regarding accent, quantity, rhythm, rhyme, alliteration, &c., &c. Accent is the stress laid upon one or more sylla- bles of a word. Monosyllables are capable of ac- cents only when they are uttered with other words. Ex. Father, industry, nightingale, himself, dissever, Exquisitely, whatsoever, voliiptuous ; — “ there is that in his f&ce which leads one to trust him.” Quantity is the time required to pronounce a syllable, and is either long, marked (-), or short, marked ('"). Seeing, upright, personable, tutelary, peerage, translation, n5t, note, 3t, ate, ten, tend, full, cull. Rhythm is the harmonious arrangement of words in lines of various definite lengths ; and is one of the chief elements of metre. Ex. ‘ The poetry of earth is never dead.” “ The willow le'aves that danced in the breeze.” " Full many a glorious morning have I seen Flatter the mountain-tops with sovereign eye.” “See the day begins to break.” “ Lessons sweet of spring returning.” “ At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still.” 74- Rhyme is the correspondence of the final sound in a metrical line, with those of one or more other lines preceding or following, immediately or alternately. It is distinguished into assonance and consonance ; the former being the correspondence of the vowel sounds alone, the latter of both vowels and consonants. Ex. “ The baron he stroakt his dark -brown chezke. And turned his heade asyde ; To whipe away the starting teare He proudly strave to hyde.” “ Have owre, have owre to AbercDwr, It’s fiftie fadom deip, And thair lies guid Sir Patrick Spence, Wi’ the Scots lords at his f«t.” “ My cloake it was a very good drake. It hath been alwayes true to the wcare But now it is not worth a grrat ; I have had it four-and-twenty yeere," Single and double rhymes are also to be distin- guished. Ex. “ The Abbot had preached for many years. With clear nitxcnlation. As ever was heard in the House of Peers Against 'Emancipation. His words had made battalions quake , Had roused the zeal of martyrs; Had kept the Court an hour awake. And the king himself three-quarters.” Alliteration is the commencement of two or more words, in the same or adjoining lines, with the same or closely allied sounds. Ex. “ The parted bosom dings to wonted home, If aught that’s kindred cheer the welcome dearth ; lie that is /onely, hi ther /et him roam, And gaze complacent on congenial earth, Greece is no lightsome /and of social mirth : But he whom .Sadness rootheth may abide, And scarce regret the region of his birth, When wandering slow by Delphi’s jacred dde, Or gazing o’er the /lains, where Creek and Persian died.” 75 . Specimens of the principal English me- ters. — In order to distinguish the different kinds of metre, certain names are borrowed from the prosody of Latin and Greek. Thus, an accented syllable preceded by one unaccented is regarded as equiva- lent to a long syllable following a short one, and is called an Iambic. Ex. “ Awdy, or Sway ; rejoice, or rejoice.” An accented or long syllable before an accented or short one, is called a Trochee. Ex. “Wretched, or wretched; rising, or rising.” An accented syllable followed by two unaccented is called a Dactyl. Ex. “Industry, or Industry; Ex- quisite, or exquisite.” An accented syllable follow- ing two unaccented is called an Anapest. Ex* “ Lochinvar’ or Ldchlnvar ; cavalier, or cSvalier.” The most common metres are varieties of the Iambic, the Trochaic, and the Anapestic ; the dif- ferences consisting in the number of Iambics, &c., in each line. Further differences arise out of the various kinds of lines, and the manner in which they are grouped so as to form the stanzas. Our examples principally illustrate the composition of single lines. 1 . Iambic meter. Four syllabi n. “ With rivisht ^ars, The m6narch hdars ; Assilraes the g6d, AJUcts the Dud.” GRAMMAR. 1* Six syllables. What thbugh light Phoe'bus’ beims Refrdsh the soiithern grbund, And thbugh the princely thrbnes With bdauteous ny'mphs abbund.’’ Eight syllables. “ And miy at list my wdary Age Find out the peaceful hdrmitige. The hiiry gbwn and mbssy rill.” Ten syllables. (Heroic.) Such swdet compulsion dbth in music lie. To 1 U 11 the diughter bf necessity, And kdep unstdady niture tb her liw. And the slow world in mdasured mbtion driw.” Twelve syllables. (Alexandrine.) “A cbnstant miiden still she bnly did remiin, The list her gdnuine liws which stoutly did letiin.” Fourteen syllables. ht> whdn aboUt the silver mbon, when air is frde from wind, And stirs shine cldar : to whbse sweet bdams, high prbspects, ind the brbws Of ill steep hills and pinnacles, thrust tip themsdlves for shbws.” The most frequent combinations of Iambic meters sure those exemplified in the following stanzas : i. Short. “Thou knbw’st that twice a diy I’ve brbught thee, in this cin, Fresh witer frbm the running brobk. As cleir as dver rin.” 2. Common. “ Of A’ the iirts the wind can bliw, I ddarly like the wdst ; For thdre the bbnnie lissie lives. The lissie I' lo’e best.” 3- Long. “ O thoii by whbse exprdssive irt Her pdrfect image niture seds. In union with the Grices stirt, And swedter by' refldction pleise.” a. Trochaic meter. Three syllables. “ Hdre we miy Think and priy Bdfore deith Stbps our breith.” Four syllables. “ Rich the treisure, Swdet the pleisure.” Five and six syllables. “ Fill the bUmper fiir, E'very drbp we sprinkle O'n the brbw of cire, Smobthes awiy a wrinkle.” Seven syllables. ” Love is hiirt with jir and frdt, Lbve is mide a viin regrdt. Eyes with idle tedrs are wdt. J'Ule hdbit links us ydt.” Eight syllables. “ Bind the sda to slumber stilly, Bind its bdor tb the lily, Bind the Aspen nd’er to quiver, Thdn bind Lbve to list for dver." The most common use of this meter is in qua trains (or stanzas of four lines) of seven syllables. There is an almost infinite variety of meters and of stanzas, produced by the intermixture of Iambics and Trochees, and of Iambic with Trochaic metres. 3. Dactylic meter. — The following specimen will suffice for the illustration of the varieties of this meter. “ Hid I a cive on some wild distant shbre, Whdre the winds hbwl to the wives’ dashing roir; Thdre would I wedp my woes, Thdre seek my lbst repose, Till grief my eyes should close, Ne’dr to wake mbre.” 4. Anapestic meter. — The effect of this meter can be learned from this illustration: “ I have lbst for that faith more than th ou canst bestbw. As the Gbd who permits thee to prbsper doth knbw In his hind is my heirt and my hbpe ; and in thine. The lind and the life which for him I resign.” Of the imitations of classical meters little needs to be said, except that they are not adapted to the genius of our language. Many attempts have been made to render them acceptable, some with consid- erable success ; but the great number of our mono- syllables will always prevent them from coming into general use or favor. 76. Beside the kinds of stanza given already, which are principally used in Divine service, somtf other kinds may be exemplified here. 1. Elegiac . “ Here rdsts his hdad upbn the lip of eirth, A youth to fbrtune ind to fime unknbwn , Fair science smiled not bn his hiimble birth, And mdlanchbly mirk’d him fbr her bwn.” 2. Ottava rima. “ ’Tis swedt to heir the witchdog’s hbnest birk Bay deep-mouth’d wdlcome is wedriw nearhdmej ’Tis swedt to knbw there is an dye will mirk Our cbming, ind look brighter whdn we cbme ; ’Tis swdet to bd awikened by' the lirk, Or lull’d by filling witers ; swdet the him Of bdes, the voice of girls, the sbng of birds, The lisp of children And their eirliest wbrds.” 3. Spenserian. “ The Nlobd of nitions ; thdre she stinds, Childldss and crbwnless. In her voiceless wbc 1 An dmpty Urn within her wither’d hinds, Whose hbly dUst was scitter’d lbng agb ; Her Sclpio’s tbmb contains no Ashes nbw ; Her vdry sdpulchrds lie tdnantldss Of thdir herbic dwdllers : dbst thou flbw. Old Tiber, thrbugh a mirble wllderndss ? Rise, with thy ydllow wives, and mintle hdr distress!” SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 33 Synonyme is a term applied to different words, whose meaning is so nearly the same, that the one may be substituted for the other, without altering the sense of the sentence, in order to avoid the inelegant repe- tition of the same word : BANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish, quit, forego, let go, waive. Abandoned, wicked, reprobate, dissolute, profligate, flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious. Abandonment, leaving, desertion, dereliction, renun- ciation, defection. Abasement, degradation, fall, degeneracy, humilia- tion, abjection, debasement, servility. Abash, bewilder, disconcert, discompose, confound, confuse, shame. Abbreviate, shorten, abridge, condense, contract, curtail, reduce. Abdicate, give up, resign, renounce, abandon, forsake, relinquish, quit, forego. Abet, help, encourage, instigate, incite, stimulate, aid, assist. Abettor, assistant, accessory, accomplice, promoter, instigator, parti- ceps criminis , coadjutor, associate, companion, cobperator. Abhor, dislike intensely, view with horror, hate, detest, abominate, loathe, nauseate. Ability, capability, talent, faculty, capacity, qualification, aptitude, apt- ness, expertness, skill, efficiency, accomplishment, attainment. Abject, grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, despicable, vile, servile, contemptible. Abjure, recant, forswear, disclaim, recall, revoke, retract, renounce. Able, strong, powerful, muscular, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust, brawny, skillful, adroit, competent, efficient, capable, clever, self- qualified, telling, fitted. Abode, residence, habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters, lodging. Abolish, quash, destroy, revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, annihilate, extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify. Abominable, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable. Abortive, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile. About, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, respect- ing, with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately. Abscond, run off, steal away, decamp, bolt. Absent, a., inattentive, abstracted, not attending to, listless, dreamy. Absolute, entire, complete, unconditional, unqualified, unrestricted, despotic, arbitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imperious. Absolve, set free, loose, clear, acquit, liberate, release, forgive. Absorb, engross, swallow up, engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, fuse. Absurd, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasona- ble, nonsensical, inconsistent. Abuse, v., asperse, revile, vilify, reproach, calumniate, defame, slander, scandalize, malign, traduce, disparage, depreciate, ill-use. Abuse, «., scurrility, ribaldry, contumely, obloquy, opprobrium, foul invective, vituperation. Accede, assent to, consent, acquiesce, comply with, agree, coincide, concur, approve. Accelerate, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, despatch. Accept, receive, take, admit. Acceptable, agreeable, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome. Accident, casualty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance. Acclamation, applause, plaudit, exultation, joy, shouting, cheering, triumph, jubilation. Accommodate, adapt, adjust, fit, suit, serve, supply, furnish. Accomplice, confederate, accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally, associate, particeps criminis. Accomplish, do, effect, finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, con. summate. Accomplishment, attainment, qualification, acquirement. Accord, grant, allow, admit, concede. Accost, salute, address, speak to, stop, greet. Account, v ., assign, adduce, reckon, compute, calculate, estimate. Account, h., narrative, description, narration, relation, detail, recital moneys, reckoning, bill, charge. Accountable, punishable, answerable, amenable, responsible, liable. Accredited, authorized, commissioned, empowered, intrusted. Accumulate, bring together, amass, collect, gather. Accumulation, collection, store, mass, congeries, concentration. Accurate, correct, exact, precise, nice, truthful. Achieve, do, accomplish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win. Achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, attainment, perform, ance, acquirement, gain. Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recognize, allow, con- cede. Acquaint, inform, enlighten, apprise, make aware, make known, no- tify, communicate. Acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy', cognizance, fellowship, compan- ionship, knowledge. Acquiesce, agree, accede, assent, comply, consent, give way, coincide with. Acquit, pardon, forgive, discharge, set free, clear, absolve. Act, do, operate, make, perform, play, enact. Action, deed, achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, battle, en- gagement, agency, instrumentality. Active, lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, supple, prompt, vigilant, laborious, industrious. Actual, real, positive, genuine, certain. Acute, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, piercing, keen. Adapt, accommodate, suit, fit, conform. Addicted, devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated. Addition, increase, accession, augmentation, reinforcement. Address, tact, skill, ability, dexterity, deportment, demeanor. Adhesion, adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion. Adjacent, near to, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous, bordering neighboring. Adjourn, defer, prorogue, postpone, delay. Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, appendency, dependency. Adjust, set right, fit, accommodate, adapt, arrange, settle, regulate, ov> ganize. *. -mirable, striking, surprising, wonderful, astonishu^p 34 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Admonition, warning, notice, caution. Adopt, take, assume, appropriate, choose. Adorn, beautify, decorate, embellish, ornament. Adroit, skillful, clever, dexterous, expert. Advance, bring forward, adduce, assign, allege. Advancement, preferment, promotion, progress. Advantage, benefit, good, profit, avail, utility, service. Advantageous, beneficial, profitable, salutary. Adventure, incident, occurrence, casualty, contingency, accident, event. Adventurous, bold, enterprising, daring, chivalrous, rash, precipitate, foolhardy. Adversary, opponent, antagonist, enemy, foe. Adverse, opposed to, contrary, opposite, counteractive, hostile, re- pugnant. Adversity, misfortune, affliction, calamity, disaster. Advertise, publish, announce, proclaim, promulgate. Advice, warning, counsel, instruction, information, deliberation, con- sultation, reflection, consideration. Advise, acquaint, inform, communicate, notify, tell. Advocate, counsel, defender, upholder. Affability, courteousness, courtesy, urbanity, politeness. Affect, influence, act upon, interfere with, feign, pretend, assume. Affecting, touching, pathetic, melting, moving. Affection, fondness, attachment, kindness, love, tenderness, endear- ment. Affectionate, loving, attached to, fond, kind, tender, filial. Affinity, relationship, alliance, union, kin, kindred, relation. Affirm, swear, assert, asseverate, declare, aver, protest. Affirmation, asseveration, protestation, declaration. Affix, attach, annex, subjoin, connect, adjoin. Afflict, grieve, give pain, distress, trouble, torment, agonize. Afflicting, grievous, unhappy, painful, disastrous, calamitous. Affluence, opulence, wealth, riches, abundance, luxuriance. Afford, give, impart, communicate, produce, bestow, grant, confer, spare. Affright, frighten, terrify, appall, overawe, dismay, scare, daunt, cow. Affront, injury, wrong, insult, offence, outrage. Afraid, timid, fearful, timorous, faint-hearted. Age, period, time, date, generation, era, epoch, decade, century. Agency, instrumentality, influence, operation, management. Aggrandize, exalt, promote, prefer, advance, elevate. Aggravate, tantalize, irritate, inflame, provoke, chafe, nettle, embitter, exasperate, increase, enhance, heighten, make worse. Aggregate, «., total, entire, complete, the whole. Aggregate, v., heap up, amass, accumulate, get together. Agitate, convulse, disturb, stir, move, shake, oscillate, toss, upheave. Agitation, perturbation, emotion, trepidation, throb, thrill, tremor. Agonize, distress, rack, torture, writhe, excruciate, pain. Agony, anguish, pang, throe, pain, distress, suffering, woe. Agree, consent, assent, accede, acquiesce, comply, coincide, tally. Aid, b., assistance, support, sustenance, succor, relief, help, coopera- tion. Ailing, unwell, sickly, diseased, ill. Aim, v., direct, point, level, endeavor to attain. Aim, «., end, purpose, object, drift, scope, design, intent, intention, tendency. Alarm, terror, fright, affright, dismay, consternation, disquietude. Alienate, estrange, take off, withdraw from, transfer, assign, convey. Allay, appease, assuage, mitigate, soothe, alleviate, solace, compose, calm, pacify, tranquilize, repress. Allege, affirm, declare, maintain, adduce, advance, assign. Alleviate, assuage, mitigate, soothe, solace, relieve, abate, allay, di- minish, extenuate, soften. Alliance, affinity, union, connection, relation, confederacy, combina- tion, coalition, league, confederation. Allot, assign, apportion, appropriate, appoint, distribute. Allow, admit, concede, yield, grant, give, permit, tolerate, suffer, sanc- tion, authorize. Allude, hint, refer, insinuate, imply, glance at, intimate, suggest. Allure, entice, attract, decoy, tempt, seduce, abduce. Alteration, change, variation, shifting, transition, changeableness, mo tability. Altercation, contention, dispute, dissension, variance, affray, braw\ feud, quarrel. Altitude, height, elevation, ascendant. Always, continually, ever, perpetually, constantly, incessantly, un ceasingly, forever, eternally. Amass, accumulate, collect, gather, heap up, pile up, hoard, store up. Amazing, astonishing, wondrous, surprising, marvelous, stupendous. Ameliorate, improve, amend, better. Amend, mend, better, improve, correct, rectify, ameliorate. Amends, compensation, recompense, restoration, reparation, atonement Amicable, friendly, social, sociable. Ample, complete, full, wide, spacious, capacious, extensive, liberal, “r pansive, diffusive. Amplification, enlargement, exegesis, expansion, development. Amusement, recreation, pastime, entertainment, diversion, sport. Ancient, old-fashioned, old, antique, antiquated, obsolete. Anger, v., vex, exasperate, enrage, inflame, irritate, kindle, provok imbitter, incense. Anger, b., wrath, passion, rage, fury, indignation, ire, choler, bile, ex asperation, irritation, resentment, incensement, pique, ^displeasure Angry, passionate, irascible, choleric, touchy, hasty, hot, sullen, mcody. incensed, irritated, enraged, provoked, galled, chafed, nettled, piqued, exasperated, wrathful. Anguish, woe, agony, pain, distress, suffering. Animosity, enmity, feeling against, malignity, hostility, antagonism. Annex, add, attach, affix, append, subjoin, adjoin. Annihilate, destroy, annul, extinguish, nullify. Announce, make known, publish, advertise, proclaim, report, notify, give out. Annoy, vex, tease, chafe, molest, incommode, discommode, inconveni- ence, disaccommodate. Annoyance, trouble, uneasiness, discomfort. Annul, revoke, abolish, abrogate, repeal, cancel, destroy, extinguiek, quash, nullify. Answerable, responsible, accountable, amenable, suitable. Anterior, preceding, antecedent, previous, prior, foregoing, former. Anticipate, forestall, foretaste, prejudge. Antipathy, dislike, aversion, repugnance, contrariety, opposition hatred, antagonism, hostility, feeling against. Antithesis, contrast, opposition. Anxiety, care, solicitude, attention, intentness, eagerness. Apathetic, insensible, impassive, insensitive, indifferent. Apocryphal, uncertain, unauthentic, legendary. Appall, affright, dismay, terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, cow. Apparent, easily seen, visible, palpable, clear, plain, transparent, ua mistakable, unambiguous, evident, manifest, distinct, self-evident. Appease, pacify, quiet, calm, compose, sooth, tranquilize, assuage. Appellation, name, denomination, cognomen. Applaud, praise, extol, commend, approve. Appoint, assign, allot, ordain, depute, order, prescribe, constitute, settle, determine. Apportion, distribute, allot, appropriate. Apprehend, take, arrest, seize, think, feel, conceive, Imagine, fancy, anticipate, fear, dread, understand. Apprise, make known, acquaint, notify, inform, make aware, make cognizant, disclose, communicate. Appropriate, z>., take to, adopt, assume, arrogate, usurp, allot, assign. Approval, assent, approbation, concurrence, consent. Apt, fit, meet, suitable, pertinent, prompt, ready, quick, dexterous, ap- propriate. Arbitrary, despotic, imperious, domineering, tyrannous, tyrannical. Arbitrator, arbiter, judge, umpire, referee. Ardent, eager, fervid, hot, fiery, glowing, passionate. Arrange, put in order, place, assort, classify, regulate, dispose, adjust Arrest, stop, apprehend, withhold, keep back, restrain. Arrogance, assumption, haughtiness, pride, loftiness. Art, skill, tact, aptitude, adroitness, expertness, cunning, subtilty. Artifice, trick, stratagem, machination, deception, cheat, imposture delusion. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 35 Artless, fair, honest, ingenuous, frank, candid, unsophisticated, open. Ascendency, superiority, influence, authority, sway, mastery. Ask, request, entreat, solicit, beg, claim, demand, invite, question. Aspect, light, view, appearance, complexion, feature, lineament, air, look, mien, countenance. Asperity, acrimony, acerbity, harshness, smartness, pungency, poign- ancy, tartness, roughness. Asperse, accuse falsely, malign, slander, traduce, defame, scandalize, disparage, depreciate. Assault, v. y assail, attack, invade, encounter, storm. Assemble, congregate, collect, gather, muster, bring together. Assembly, assemblage, collection, group, company, muster, congrega- tion, convention, congress, diet, council, convocation, conclave, synod, meeting, auditory, audience. Assert, affirm, declare, aver, protest, maintain, vindicate, defend. Assign adduce, allege, advance, bring forward, appoint, allot, appro- priate, apportion. Associate, colleague, ally, partner, coadjutor, comrade, companion. Association, company, society, confederacy, union, partnership, fellow- ship, companionship. Assuage, compose, calm, pacify, allay, soothe, conciliate, appease, tranquilize, mitigate, alleviate, palliate, mollify. Assume, pretend to, arrogate, usurp, appropriate, affect. Assurance, confidence, certainty, consciousness, conviction, effrontery, impudence. Athletic, stalwart, powerful, brawny, muscular, robust, able-bodied. Atrocious, heinous, enormous, flagrant, villainous, notorious, mon- strous, inhuman. Attach, affix, append, subjoin, annex, adjoin, connect, stick, distrain. Attachment, affection, devotedness, devotion, fondness? love, endear- ment. Attain, gain, get, procure, reach, arrive at, acquire, win, obtain. Attempt, effort, exertion, endeavor, essay, trial, experiment. Attend, go with, accompany, escort, wait on, listen, nearken, heed. Attest, testify, witness, prove. Attire, «., dress, apparel, garments, clothes, habiliments. Attitude, posture, gesture, gesticulation, action. Attract, draw to, allure, entice, charm, wheedle. Attribute, quality, property, grace, accomplishment, attainment. Audacious, assuming, forward, presumptuous. Augment, increase, enlarge, extend, stretch out, spread out. Auspicious, fortunate, favorable, propitious, prosperous, lucky, happy. Austere, rigid, severe, rigorous, stem, harsh. Authoritative, commanding, swaying, imperative, imperious. Auxiliary, assistant, helping, conducive, furthering, instrumental. Avail, advantage, profit, use, benefit, service, utility. Available, profitable, advantageous, useful, beneficial. Avarice, covetousness, cupidity, greediness. Averse, adverse, hostile, reluctant, unwilling, backward. Aversion, dislike, antipathy, hatred, repugnance, distaste. Avocation, employment, calling, business, occupation, office, engage- ment, function, profession, trade. Award, adjudge, adjudicate, judge, determine. Awkward, rough, clumsy, unpolished, untoward, backward. Awry, crooked, wry, bent, curved, inflected, oblique. BAD, wicked, evil, unsound, unwholesome, baneful, deleterious, per- nicious, noisome, noxious. Baffle, defeat, discomfit, bewilder. Balance, poise, weigh, neutralize, counteract, equalize. Balmy, fragrant, sweet-scented, odoriferous, odorous, perfumed. Baneful, hurtful, destructive, pernicious, noxious, deleterious. Barbarous, savage, brutal, cruel, inhuman, ruthless, merciless, re- morseless, unrelenting, uncivilized. Bargain, agreement, convention, compact, stipulation, covenant, con- tract. Base, bad, low, mean, sordid, grovelling, ignoble, ignominious, dis- honorable, vile, counterfeit. Battle, combat, engagement, action, conflict, contesi, fight. Bear, hold up, sustain, support, endure, carry, maintain, convey, trans- fart, waft, suffer, tolerate, undergo, put up with. Bearing, manner, deportment, demeanor, behavior, conduct. Beat, strike, knock, hit, belabor, thump, dash, vanquish, overpowes conquer, defeat. Beau, sweetheart, wooer, lover, suitor, fop, dandy, coxcomb. Beautiful, elegant, beauteous, handsome, fair, pretty. Beautify, adorn, decorate, embellish, deck, ornament. Becoming, befitting, comely, decent, fit, proper, suitable. Beg, ask, entreat, crave, solicit, beseech, implore, supplicate. Beguile, amuse, entertain, deceive, mislead, impose upon. Belief, faith, credence, credit, trust, confidence, reliance, conviction persuasion. Below, underneath, beneath, under, lower, inferior, subordinate. Bend, lean, incline, distort, stoop, descend, condescend. Beneficent, benevolent, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, liberal, gem erous. Benefit, advantage, good, profit, service, ability, avail, use. Benevolence, beneficence, benignity, kindness, generosity. Benign, benignant, benevolent, kind, gracious, bland, tender, good. ' Bent, «., inclination, disposition, tendency, bias, prepossession, proa pensity, predilection, proneness. Bereave, deprive, strip, dispossess, disarm, divest. Better, improve, amend, ameliorate, reform, rectify. Bewail, wail, bemoan, lament, mourn over. Bewilder, confound, perplex, embarrass, entangle, puzzle. Bewitch, entrance, enchain, fascinate, charm, enchant, enrapture, cap tivate, enamor. Bias, bent, inclination, predilection, tendency, partiality, prejudice. Bid, offer, proffer, tender, propose, call, invite, summon. Bind, tie, restrain, restrict, connect, link, engage, oblige. Binding, astringent, costive, valid, obligatory, stringent, constrain ing. Bitter, harsh, pungent, poignant, stinging. Black, dark, murky, pitchy, inky, Cimmerian. Blacken, defame, calumniate, slander, scandalize, asperse. Elamable, culpable, censurable, reprehensible, reprovable. Blame, reprove, reprehend, censure, condemn, reprobate, reproach. Blameless, inculpable, guiltless, sinless, innocent, immaculate, un sullied, unblemished, spotless. Bland, soft, gentle, mild, kind, gracious, benign, benignant. Blast, v., blight, wither, shrivel, destroy. Blatant, noisy, clamorous, braying, bellowing, vociferous. Blemish, z>., stain, blur, sully, spot, obscure, dim, ruin, spoil, mar. Blemish, flaw, speck, spot, blur, defect, imperfection, fault. Bliss, ecstacy, felicity, blessedness, blissfulness. Bloodshed, carnage, slaughter, butchery, massacre. Bloody, gory, sanguinary, ensanguined, murderous. Bloom, blossom, bud, sprout, germinate, shoot forth. Blot, stain, blur, speck, flaw, blemish, defect. Blot out, wipe out, erase, expunge, delete, obliterate, cancel, efface, annihilate. Bluff, blustering, burly, swaggering, hectoring, bullying. Blunt, pointless, obtuse, edgeless, unpolite, rough, rude. Boast, glory, triumph, vaunt, brag. Boisterous, violent, furious, impassioned, impetuous, vehement, stormy, turbulent. Bold, fearless, undaunted, dauntless, brave, daring, adventurous, in- trepid, audacious, impudent, contumacious. Bondage, slavery, thraldom, vassalage, servitude, serfdom, captivity- imprisonment, confinement. Bound, limit, circumscribe, confine, restrict, restrain, terminate. Boundless, unlimited, unbounded, infinite, interminable. Bounty, munificence, liberality, generosity, benevolence, beneficence, charity, benignity, humanity. Brand, stigmatize, denounce, mark. Brave, courageous, gallant, chivalrous, daring, adventurous, valorous, heroic, valiant, bold, dauntless, intrepid, magnanimous, fearless. Brawny, muscular, athletic, sinewy, powerful, robust, stalwart, able* bodied, strong. Break, burst, rend, rack, violate, infringe, transgress, demolish, do stroy. Breed, hatch, brood, incubate, beget, engender, generate, produce. Brevity, shortness, conciseness, succinctness. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Brief short, concise, compendious, succinct, summary. Bright clear, lucid, transparent, limpid, lustrous, translucent, shining, brilliant, luminous, radiant, gleaming. Brisk, active, agile, nimble, lively, quick, sprightly, prompt, alert, as- siduous, vigorous, vigilant. Broad, wide, large, ample, expanded, extensive. Brotherly, fraternal, affectionate, kind. Bruise, break, crush, squeeze, pulverize, levigate, triturate. Brutality, savageness, ferocity, barbarity. Brutish, cruel, inhuman, merciless, ferocious, remorseless, ruthless, barbarous, savage, irrational, sensual. Bud, sprout, germinate, blossom, bloom, shoot forth. Build erect, construct, raise, found. Bulk size, dimension, magnitude, greatness, bulkiness, bigness, large- ness, massiveness. Buoyancy, lightness, elasticity, animation, spirit, vivacity. Burst, break, crack, split, rend. Bury, inter, inhume, entomb, immure. Bystander, onlooker, spectator, beholder, observer. CAJOLE, coax, wheedle, flatter, fawn. Calamitous, disastrous, fatal, unfortunate, unlucky, hapless, luckless, ill-fated, ill-starred. Calculate, reckon, guess, suppose, compute, estimate. Call together, convene, convoke, assemble, muster, collect, gather. Called, named, termed, designated, denominated, ycleped. Calling, n. employment, business, avocation, vocation, pursuit, engagement, occupation, trade, profession, office, duty, func- tion. Callous, hard, obdurate, impenitent, unfeeling, insensible, insensitive, unsusceptible. Calm, z>., tranquillize, allay, appease, quiet, hush, pacify, assuage, soothe, compose. Calm, a., quiet, undisturbed , serene, placid, composed, collected, im- perturbable, tranquil, pacific, unruffled, still. Calumniate, vilify, revile, accuse falsely, asperse, traduce, malign, slander, defame, scandalize, disparage. Calumny, slander, false accusation, aspersion, defamation. Cancel, blot out, obliterate, expunge, efface, wipe out, rub out, erase, quash, abolish, annul, repeal, abrogate, revoke, destroy, invalidate, nullify. Candid, fair, sincere, honest, open, artless, ingenuous, frank, plain. Canvass, discuss, dispute, contest, controvert, sift, examine, solicit, apply for. Capable, able, qualified, competent, efficient, fitted, susceptible, clever, skillful. Capacious, roomy, ample, spacious. Capacity, capability, skill, ability, faculty, power, talent, efficiency. Caprice, freak, whim, humor, crotchet, fancy. Captious, touchy, testy, cross, petulant, peevish, fretful. Captivate charm, enchant, fascinate, enrapture, bewitch, entrance enchain, enamor, confine, imprison. Captivity, imprisonment, confinement, bondage, slavery, thraldom servitude, serfdom. Care , anxiety, solicitude, concern, attention, regard, circumspection, caution. Career, history, course, race, passage, life. Careful attentive, anxious, solicitous, heedful, provident, circum- spect. Careless, negligent, heedless, supine, inattentive, incautious, thought- 1 less, remiss, indolent, listless. Caress, fondle, hug, embrace. Carnage, butchery, bloodshed, slaughter, massacre. Carnal, fleshly, sensual, voluptuous, luxurious, secular, worldly. Carry, bear, sustain, convey, transport. Casualty, accident, contingency, incident, occurrence, event, adven- ture. Catch, overtake lay hold on, grasp, seize, capture, grip, clutch, snatch, arrest, apprehend. Catching, infectious, contagious, pestilential, miasmatic, insidious. Cause, «., motive, reason, incentive, inducement, incitement, impulse, effort, work, operation- Cause, v., occasion, make, induce, originate, give rise to, evoke, pro yoke, incite. Caution, care, vigilance, circumspection, admonition, warning, notice Cautious, careful, watchful, prudent, wary, vigilant, circumspect. Celebrate, commend, applaud, laud, extol, magnify, glorify. Celebrated, famous, renowned, far-famed, illustrious, glorious. Celerity, quickness, speed, rapidity, velocity, swiftness, fleetness. Celestial, heavenly, divine, godlike, seraphic, angelic. Censure, v., blame, reprove, reprehend, reprobate, condemn upbraid. Ceremony, form, observance, rite, solemnity. Certain, sure, indubitable, unquestionable, unfailing, secure, real< actual, positive. Certify, testify, vouch, declare. Cessation, intermission, rest, pause, discontinuance. Champion, leader, chieftain, head. Chance, accident, fortune, casualty, hazard, luck. Change, v., alter, vary, transform, exchange, barter. Change, «., variety, alteration, alternation, vicissitude. Changeable, variable, unsteady, undecided, wavering, hesitating, vac- illating, fluctuating, inconstant, unsteadfast, unstable, fickle, ver- satile, restless, fitful, capricious. Character, cast, turn, tone, description, nature, disposition, reputa- tion. Charge, v., accuse, impeach, arraign, inculpate. Charge, «., care, custody, ward, trust, management, cost, price, ex- pense, account, fee, bill, assault, shock, onset, attack, accusation, impeachment, imputation. Charity, kindness, benignity, beneficence, benevolence, tenderness. Charm, enchant, fascinate, bewitch, enrapture, captivate, enamor. Chat, chatter, prattle, prate, babble, gossip. Cheat, v., defraud, gull, dupe, trick, beguile, deceive, delude, hood- wink. Cheat, «., deception, imposture, fraud, delusion, artifice, deceit, trick, imposition. Check, curb, restrain, repress, control, counteract, chide, reprimand, reprove, rebuke. Cheer, exhilarate, animate, inspirit, inspire, enliven, gladden, comfort, solace. Cheerfulness, gayety, sprightlmess, merriment, mirth, liveliness, vi vacity, joviality. Cheerless, broken-hearted, comfortless, disconsolate, inconsolable, des- olate, forlorn. Cherish, nourish, nurture, nurse, foster, sustain. Choose, prefer, select, elect, call, pick. Circuitous, roundabout, tortuous, flexuous, tiresome. Circulate, spread, diffuse, disseminate, propagate. Circumspection, caution, watchfulness, vigilance, deliberation, thoughtfulness, wariness. Circumstance, situation, condition, position, fact, incident. Cite, quote, adduce, summon, call. Civil, polite, complaisant, affable, courteous, obliging, urbane, well- bred. Claim, z/., ask, demand, challenge, call for, plead. Clamor, outcry, fuss, noise, hubbub, uproar. Clandestine, hidden, secret, private. Class, »., order, rank, degree, grade, category, caste, tribe. Clause, stipulation, proviso, term, article. Clean, v., cleanse, clarify, purify. Clear, w., absolve, acquit, liberate, deliver, release, set free, unbind. Clear, a., apparent, palpable, visible, obvious, plain, eviaent, manifest, unmistakable, distinct, intelligible, lucid, transparent, limpid. Clemency, leniency, mercy, mildness, mitigation. Clever, skillful, expert, dexterous, adroit. Cling, hold, stick, adhere, attach. Close, v., conclude, shut, end, terminate, finish. Close, a. y compact, solid, firm, dense. Clothes, garments, vestments, dress, habiliments, apparel, attire, array, raiment, vesture, drapery. Cloudy, dim, obscure, dark, dusky, murky, indistinct, shadowy, mys terious. Clumsy, awkward, unpolished, uncourtly, ponderous. Clutch, craso. lav hold on. catch, seize, crip. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 37 Coalition, union, alliance, confederacy, league, combination. Coarse, rough, rude, rugged, gruff, harsh. Coeval, contemporaneous, cotemporary, contemporary. Cogent, forcible, strong, valid, irresistible, resistless. Colleague, fellow, compeer, companion. Collect, v., gather, assemble, muster, congregate, accumulate, hoard. Colossal, large, gigantic, huge, enormous, immense, vast. Color, hue, tint, tinge, complexion. Combat, »., engagement, conflict, contest, fight, action, battle Combat, z/., oppose, resist, withstand, thwart. Combination, alliance, union, league, confederacy, coalition, con. spiracy. Comfort, solace, console, encourage, revive. Comfortless, cheerless, forlorn, disconsolate, inconsolable, desolate, wretched. Comic, funny, laughable, droll, ludicrous. Command, «., order, decree, injunction, mandate, precept, behest. Commence, begin, enter upon. Commend, v., praise, applaud, extol, eulogize, recommend. Comment, observation, remark, annotation, elucidation. Commerce, dealing, trade, traffic, intercourse, interchange, reciproc- ity. Commit, perpetrate, do, intrust, confide, consign. Commodious, convenient, useful, suitable. Common, vulgar, low, mean, frequent, ordinary, usual, general. Communicate, make known, divulge, disclose, reveal, impart. Communication, intercourse, correspondence, commerce, Inter- change. Community, society, commonwealth, social state. Commute, change, alter, exchange, barter. Companion, comrade, coadjutor, partner, ally, associate, confederate, fellow, colleague. Company, association, society, assemble, assemblage, audience, audi- tory, corporation, body, troop, horde, crew. Comparison, simile, similitude, illustration. Compassion, pity, commiseration, sympathy, condolence. Compatible, consistent, consonant, accordant. Compel, force, constrain, coerce, enforce, oblige, necessitate. Compendious, brief, short, succinct, concise. Compensate, recompense, make amends, remunerate, requite. Competent, able, capable, efficient, qualified, fitted, clever, skillful, sufficient, adequate. Complete, v., accomplish, fulfil, realize, execute, effect, achieve, con- clude, consummate, finish, end, fill up, terminate. Complexion, aspect, appearance, feature, lineament, look. Complicated, complex, compound, involved, intricate. Compliment, praise, flatter, adulate, applaud. Comply, yield, accede, assent, consent, acquiesce. Compose, form, compound, put together, constitute, soothe, calm, quiet, lull, hush, frame, indite. Composed, serene, placid, calm, collected. Comprehend, comprise, take' in, embrace, contain, embody, include, conceive, imagine, apprehend, understand. Comprehension, capacity, capability, knowledge, intelligence, under- standing. Compress, condense, press, squeeze. Comprise, contain, include, comprehend, embody. Compromise, concede, implicate, involve, entangle, embarrass. Compulsion, constraint, force, coercion. Compute, calculate, count, sum, number, account, reckon, estimate, rate, measure. Comrade, associate, companion, ally. Conceal, hide, secrete, disguise, dissemble. Concede, give up, deliver, yield, compromise, allow, grant, admit. Conceited, proud, vain, egotistical. Conceive, think of, imagine, suppose, comprehend, understand. Concern, affair, business, matter, care, regard, interest. Concerted, joint, cooperative, designed, wrought out, studied, elabo- rate. Concise, brief, short, succinct. Conclude, end, close, finish, terminate. Conclusion, end, upshot, event, inference, deduction. Concord, concert, chorus, harmony, unity. Concourse, crowd, confluence, conflux. Concur, acquiesce, agree, coincide. Condemn, blame, reprobate, reprove, reproach, upbraid, censure, rep rehend, doom, sentence. Condense, compress, press, squeeze, concentrate, epitomize. Condition, state, plight, case, predicament, category, stipulation, cov© nant, article, term. Condolence, sympathy, commiseration, compassion. Conduce, contribute, subserve, lead, tend, incline. Conduct, «., behavior, demeanor, carriage, walk, deportment. Conduct, v.. guide, lead, direct, manage. Confer, bestow, give, discourse, converse. Conference, meeting, conversation, talk, colloquy, dialogue, parley. Confess, acknowledge, avow, own, recognize. Confide, trust, repose, depend, rely. Confidence, assurance, trust, faith, reliance, hope. Confident, dogmatical, positive, absolute, bold, presumptuous, san. guine. Confine, limit, bound, circumscribe, restrict, restrain, shut up. Confirm, ratify, establish, substantiate, corroborate, settle. Conflicting, jarring, discordant, irreconcilable. Confused, muddled, mixed, promiscuous, indistinct, deranged, disor- dered, disorganized, bewildered. Confusion, disorder, derangement, disorganization, chaos, anarchy, misrule. Confute, refute, disprove, belie. Conjure, »., adjure, beseech, entreat, implore. Connect, join, link, bind. Connection, union, alliance, coalition, junction, intercourse, com- merce, affinity, relationship. Conquer, vanquish, subdue, overcome, subjugate, surmount. Consecrate, sanctify, hallow, devote, dedicate. Consent, assent, acquiescence, concurrence, approval Consequence, effect, result, event, issue, sequence. Consider, reflect, regard, weigh, ponder, deliberate. Consistent, consonant, compatible accordant. Console, solace, comfort, soothe. Conspicuous, distinguished, noted, marked, prominent, eminent, pro- eminent, illustrious, famed. Constancy, firmness, stability, steadiness. Constantly, ever, always, continually, perpetually, incessantly, ever- lastingly. Constitute, make, form, compose, mould. Constitutional, legal, regulated, organized, radical, rooted, funda- mental. Consult, advise with, take counsel, deliberate, debate. Consume, burn, absorb, spend, swallow, imbibe, engulf, devour. Consumption, decay, decline, waste. Contagious, infectious, pestilential, miasmatic. Contain, comprise, comprehend, include, embrace, hold, incorporate, embody. Contemplate, meditate, muse, think. Contemporary, contemporaneous, coeval, simultaneous. Contemptible, mean, vile, despicable, pitiful, paltry. Contend, contest, debate, argue, dispute, cope, strive, vie. Contingency, casualty, accident, incident, occurrence, adventure, event. Continual, unceasing, incessant, continuous, perpetual, uninterrupted. unremitting, endless, everlasting. Contort, distort, twist, writhe, wrest, wrench. Contract, »., abbreviate, curtail, shorten, condense, abridge, retrench reduce. Contract, «., agreement, compact, bargain, stipulation, covenant. Contradict, oppose, deny, gainsay, controvert. Contrary, adverse, opposite, antagonistic, repugnant, hostile. Contribute, give to, coCperate, conspire. Contrition, repentance, penitence, remorse. Control, check, curb, repress, restrain, govern. Convene, call together, bring together, convoke, assemble, congregate muster. Convention, assembly, meeting, convocation, company. 38 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Conventional, usual, ordinary, fashionable. Conversant, acquainted with, familiar, relating to, concerning. Converse, v., speak, talk, discourse, commune. Convert, change, turn, transform. Convey, carry, transport, bear, take, waft. Convivial, joyous, festal, social, sociable. Convulse, upheave, upturn, shake. Cool, cold, frigid, dispassionate, unimpassioned, calm, undisturbed, composed. Co-operate, work with, conspire, conduce, contribute. Copious, ample, abundant, rich, affluent, exuberant, plentiful, plente- ous, full. Corpulent, portly, stout, lusty, plethoric. Correct, v., put right, mend, amend, rectify, better, reform, improve. Correct, a., accurate, exact, precise, proper, faultless, punctual, strict. Corrupt, v., contaminate, defile, taint, pollute, infect, adulterate, demor- alize, deprave. Corrupt, a., depraved, debased, vitiated, demoralized, profligate. Corruption, defilement, contamination, pollution, infection, adultera- tion, vice, depravity, corruptness. Cost, price, charge, expense. Costly, expensive, valuable, precious, sumptuous. Council, assembly, company, congress, meeting, diet, convocation. Counsel, advice, instruction, intelligence, consultation, deliberation. Count, calculate, compute, reckon, number, sum, estimate, rate. Counterfeit, spurious, forged, imitated, suppositious, false. Counterpart, converse, reverse, correlative, correspondent, answer- able. Countless, innumerable, numberless, incalculable, unnumbered. Courage, resolution, fortitude, fearlessness, prowess, bravery, chivalry, intrepidity, boldness, firmness. Courteous, affable, urbane, conciliating, kind. Covenant, agreement, contract, bargain, stipulation. Cover, shelter, screen, hide, overspread, overshadow. Covert, secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, latent, cabalistic, mys- terious. Crafty, cunning, artful, sly, subtle, wily. Crazy, crack-brained, imbecile, foolish, brainless. Create, make, form, cause, produce, generate, engender. Credence, belief, faith, confidence. Credit, belief, trustworthiness, reputation, security, honor, praise. Credulity, gullibility, simplicity. Crime, offence, misdeed, misdemeanor, felony. Cripple, weaken, impair, curtail, cramp. Criterion, test, touchstone, proof. Critical, nice, exact, fastidious, precarious, ticklish, crucial, important, hazardous. Criticise, examine, scan, analyze, discuss, anatomize. Cross, ill-tempered, fretful, ill-humored, crusty, peevish, fractious. Crude, raw, undigested, unconsidered, half-studied, harsh, unshaped, unfinished, unrefined, ill prepared. Curb, restrain, hold, check, moderate. Curiosity, inquisitiveness, interest, rarity, celebrity, oddity, lion. Curious, inquiring, inquisitive, searching, interrogative, prying, peep- ing, peering, rare, odd. Curse, malediction, anathema, bane, blight. Cursory, summary, rapid, superficial. Custody, keeping, guardianship, conservation, care. Custom, manner, habit, use, prescription. Cut, sever, slice, sunder, avoid, elude. Cynical, sarcastic, snarling, sneering, cross-grained, DAINTY, choice, rare, refined, tasty, exquisite, luxurious, epicurean, fastidious. Danger, peril, hazard, risk, jeopardy. Dare, venture, face, brave, hazard, risk, defy. Dark, black, dusky, sable, swarthy, opaque, obscure, abstruse, unin- telligible, blind, ignorant, shadowy, dim, sombre, joyless, mourn- ful, sorrowful. Dash, huri, cast, throw, drive, rush, send, fly, speed, course. Dead, defunct, deceased, departed, gone, inanimate, lifeless, insensible, heavy, unconscious, dull, spiritless. Death, departure, demise, decease, dissolution, mortality, expiration. Debase, degrade, lower, depress, deprave, deteriorate, corrupt, alloy. Debate, contend, dispute, argue, discuss, deliberate, question, vea tilate. Debility, weakness, feebleness, lassitude, languor. Decay, decline, wane, dwindle, waste, ebb, decrease. Decayed, rotten, corrupt, unsound, decomposed, faded, unprosperou^ impoverished. Deceit, cheat, imposition, trick, delusion, guile, beguilement, treach- ery, sham. Decide, determine, settle, adjudicate, terminate, resolve. Decipher, read, spell, interpret, solve. Decision, determination, conclusion, resolution, firmness. Declamation, oratory, elocution, harangue, effusion, debate. Dec aration, avowal, manifestation, statement, profession. Decrease, diminish, lessen, wane, decline, retrench, curtail, reduce. Dedicate, devote, consecrate, offer, set, apportion, assign, applv, sepa rate. Deed, act, action, commission, achievement, instrument, document muniment. Deem, judge, estimate, consider, think, suppose, conceive. Deep, profound, subterranean, submerged, designing, abstruse, learned. Deface, mar, spoil, injure, disfigure. Default, lapse, forfeit, omission, absence, want, failure. Defect, imperfection, flaw, fault, blemish. Defence, excuse, plea, vindication, bulwark, rampart. Defend, guard, protect, justify. Defer, delay, postpone, put off, prorogue, adjourn. Deficient, short, wanting, inadequate, scanty, incomplete. Defile, v., pollute, corrupt, sully. Define, fix, settle, determine, limit. Defray, meet, liquidate, pay, discharge, quit Degree, grade, extent, measure, mark, range, quantity, amount, limit. Deliberate, v., consider, meditate, consult, ponder, debate. Deliberate, a . , purposed, intentional, designed, determined. Delicacy, nicety, dainty, refinement, tact, softness, modesty. Delight, enjoyment, pleasure, happiness, transport, ecstacy, gladness rapture, bliss. Deliver, liberate, free, rescue, pronounce, hand to, give. Demonstrate, prove, show, exhibit, illustrate. Depart, leave, quit, go, decamp, start, sally, retire, withdraw, removes vanish. Deprive, strip, bereave, despoil, rob, divest. Depute, appoint, commission, charge, intrust, delegate, authorize, ac- credit. Derision, scorn, contempt, contumely, disrespect. Derivation, origin, source, beginning, cause, etymology, root, spring analysis. Describe, draw, delineate, portray, explain, illustrate, define, picture. Desecrate, profane, secularize, misuse, abuse, pollute. Deserve, merit, earn, justify, win. Design, delineation, sketch, drawing, cunning, artfulness, contriv- ance. Desirable, expedient, advisable, valuable, acceptable, proper, judicious, beneficial, profitable, good. Desire, n . , longing, affection, craving. Desist, cease, stop, discontinue, drop, abstain, forbear. Desolate, bereaved, forlorn, forsaken, deserted, wild, waste, bare, bleak, lonely. Desperate, wild, daring, audacious, determined, reckless. Destination, purpose, intention, design, consignment, object, end, fate doom, use, scope, goal, aim. Destiny, fate, decree, doom, end. Destructive, detrimental, hurtful, noxious, injurious, deleterious, bale- ful, baneful, subversive. Desultory, rambling, discursive, loose, unmethodical, superficial, un- settled, erratic, fitful. Detail, particularize, enumerate, specify. Deter, warn, stop, dissuade, dispirit, discourage, dishearten, terrify, scare. Detriment, loss, harm, injury, deterioration. Develop, enunciate, amplify, expand, enlarge. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 39 Device, »., artifice, expedient, contrivance. Devoid, void, wanting, destitute, unendowed, unprovided. Devolve, impose, place, charge, commission, befall, fall on. Devoted, attached, fond, absorbed, dedicated, given, abandoned. Dictate, prompt, suggest, enjoin, order, command. Dictatorial, imperative, imperious, domineering, arbitrary, tyrannical, overbearing. Die, expire, depart, perish, decline, languish, wane, sink, fade, decay. Diet, food, victuals, nourishment, nutriment, sustenance, fare, cheer, regimen. Difference, separation, disagreement, discord, dissent, estrangement, variety. Difficult, hard, intricate, involved, perplexing, obscure, unmanage- able. Diffuse, discursive, prolix, diluted, copious. Dignify, agrandize, elevate, invest, exalt, advance, promote, honor. Dilate, stretch, widen, expand, swell, distend, enlarge, descant, ex- patiate. Dilatory, tardy, procrastinating, behindhand, lagging, dawdling. Diligence, care, assiduity, attention, heed, industry. Diminish, lessen, reduce, contract, curtail, retrench. Diplomatic, judicious, knowing, wise, prudent, sagacious. Disability, unfitness, incapacity. Discern, descry, observe, recognize, see, discriminate, separate, per- ceive. Discernible, visible, conspicuous, manifest, palpable. Discernment, discrimination, far-sightedness, clear-sightedness, pene- tration, observation, sagacity. Discipline, order, strictness, training, coercion, punishment, organiza- tion. Disclose, discover, reveal, confess, detect. Disconcert, abash, confuse, confound, upset, baffle, derange, discom- pose, frustrate, discomfit. Discover, make known, find, invent, contrive, expose, reveal. Discreditable, shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, disreputable. Discreet, cautious, prudent, wary, judicious. Discrepancy, disagreement, difference, variance. Discrimination, acuteness, discernment, judgment, caution. Disdain, contempt, scorn, haughtiness, disregard. Disease, complaint, malady, disorder, ailment, sickness. Disgrace, e., disrepute, reproach, dishonor, shame, odium. Disgrace, v., debase, degrade, defame, discredit. Disgust, dislike, distaste, loathing, abomination, abhorrence. Dishonest, unjust, fraudulent, unfair, deceitful, cheating, deceptive, wrongful. Dishonor, v., disgrace, shame, degrade, ravish, pollute. Dismay, z/., terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, appall, dishearten. Dismay, «., terror, dread, fear, fright. Dismiss, send off, discharge, discard, banish. Disorderly, irregular, confused, lawless, unruly. Dispel, scatter, drive away, disperse, dissipate. Display, show, spread out, exhibit, expose. Displease, offend, vex, anger, provoke, irritate. Dispose, arrange, place, order, give, bestow. Dispute, v., argue, contest, contend, question, impugn. Dispute, n . , argument, debate, controversy, quarrel, disagreement. Disregard, v ., slight, neglect, despise, disparage. Dissent, disagree, differ, vary. Distinct, clear, plain, obvious, different, separate. Distinguish, perceive, discern, mark out, divide, discriminate. Distinguished, famous, glorious, far-famed, noted, illustrious, eminent, celebrated. Distract, perplex, bewilder, madden. Distribute, allot, share, dispense, apportion, deal. Disturb, derange, discompose, agitate, rouse, interrupt, confuse, an- noy, trouble, vex, worry. Divide, part, separate, distribute, deal out, sever, sunder. Divine, godlike, holy, heavenly, sacred, a parson, clergyman, minister. Do, effect, make, perform, accomplish, finish, transact. Docile, tractable, teachable, compliant, tame. Doctrine, tenet, articles of belief, creed, dogma, teaching. Doleful, dolorous, woe-begone, rueful, dismal, piteous. Doom, «., sentence, verdict, judgment, fate, lot, destiny. Doubt, k., uncertainty, suspense, hesitation, scruple, ambiguity. Draw, pull, haul, drag, attract, inhale, sketch, describe. Dread, k., fear, horror, terror, alarm, dismay, awe. Dreadful, fearful, frightful, shocking, awful, horrible, horrid, terrific. Dress, k., clothing, attire, apparel, garments, costume, garb, livery. Drift, purpose, meaning, scope, aim, tendency, direction. Droll, funny, laughable, comic, whimsical, queer, amusing. Drown, inundate, swamp, submerge, overwhelm, engulf. Dry, a., arid, parched, lifeless, dull, tedious, uninteresting, meagre. Due, owing to, attributable to, just, fair, proper, debt, right. Dull, stupid, gloomy, sad, dismal, commonplace. Durable, lasting, permanent, abiding, continuing. Dwell, stay, stop, abide, sojourn, linger, tarry. Dwindle, pine, waste, diminish, decrease, fall off. EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, forward, impatient. Earn, acquire, obtain, win, gain, achieve. Earnest, ardent, serious, grave, solemn, warm, pledge. Ease, v., calm, alleviate, allay, mitigate, appease, assuage, pacify, dis- burden, rid. Eccentric, irregular, anomalous, singular, odd, abnormal, wayward, particular, strange. Economical, sparing, saving, provident, thrifty, frugal, careful, nig- gardly. Edge, border, brink, rim, brim, margin, verge. Efface, blot out, expunge, obliterate, wipe out, cancel, erase. Effect, »., consequence, result, issue, event, execution, operation. Effect, v ., accomplish, fulfill, realize, achieve, execute, operate, com- plete. Effective, efficient, operative, serviceable. Efficacy, efficiency, energy, agency, instrumentality. Efficient, effectual, effective, competent, capable, able, fitted. Eliminate, drive out, expel, thrust out, eject, cast out, oust, dislodge, banish, proscribe. Eloquence, oratory, rhetoric, declamation. Elucidate, make plain, explain, clear up, illustrate. Elude, evade, escape, avoid, shun. Embarrass, perplex, entangle, distress, trouble. Embellish, adorn, decorate, bedeck, beautify, deck, illustrate. Embolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, cheer, urge, impel, stimulate. Eminent, distinguished, signal, conspicuous, noted, prominent, ele- vated, renowned, famous, glorious, illustrious. Emit, give out, throw out, exhale, discharge, vent. Emotion, perturbation, agitation, trepidation, tremor, mental conflict. Employ, occupy, busy, take up with, engross. Employment, business, avocation, engagement, office, function, trade, profession, occupation, calling, vocation. Encircle, enclose, embrace, encompass, surround, gird, begird, engird, environ, beset. Enclose, v., fence m, confine, circumscribe. Encompass, »., encircle, surround, gird, begird, environ, beset, in- vest. Encounter, attack, conflict, combat, assault, onset, engagement, battle, action. Encourage, countenance, sanction, support, foster, cherish, inspirit, embolden, animate, cheer, incite, urge, impel, stimulate. End, n., aim, object, purpose, result, conclusion, upshot, close, expira- tion, termination, extremity, sequel. Endeavor, attempt, try, essay, strive, aim. Endorse, superscribe, ratify, confirm. Endurance, continuation, duration, fortitude, patience, resignation. Endure, v., last, continue, support, bear, sustain, suffer, brook, submit to, undergo. Enemy, foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent. Energetic, effectual, efficacious, powerful, energetic, binding, strin- gent, forcible, nervous. Engage, employ, busy, occupy, attract, invite, allure, entertain, en- gross, take up, enlist. Engross, absorb, take up, busy, occupy, engage, monopo/ize. Engulf, swallow up, absorb, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, entomjx overwhelm. 40 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Enlarge, increase, extend, augment, broaden, swell. Enlighten, illumine, illuminate, instruct, inform. Enliven, cheer, vivify, stir up, animate, inspire, exhilarate. Enormous, gigantic, colossal, huge, vast, immense, prodigious. Enraged, infuriated, raging, wrathful. Enrapture, enchant, fascinate, charm, captivate, bewitch. Entangle, perplex, embarrass, inveigle, implicate, involve, compro- mise, ensnare, entrap. Entertainment, amusement, divertisement, diversion, recreation, pas- time, sport, feast, fete, banquet, treat. Enthusiasm, zeal, ardor, fervor, warmth, fervency. Entice, allure, attract, decoy, lure, tempt. Entire, whole, complete, perfect, total. Entrance, »., entry, inlet, ingress, porch, portal. Entrance, z\, charm, enchant, fascinate, bewitch, enrapture, captivate. Entreat, beg, crave, solicit, beseech, implore, supplicate. Enumerate, tell over, relate, narrate, recount. Epitome, abridgment, compendium, abstract, summary. Equitable, just, fair, even-handed, honest, impartial, upright, reason- able. Erase, scratch out, blot out, expunge, efface, cancel. Erect, set up, raise, elevate, construct, establish, institute, found. Erring, misguided, misled. Error, mistake, fallacy, blunder, hallucination, fault. Essay, «., attempt, trial, endeavor, effort, tract, treatise. Essential, necessary, indispensable, requisite, vital. Establish, z\, institute, found, organize, confirm, fix, settle. Esteem, prize, value, appreciate, respect, regard, reverence, venerate, revefe. Estimate, value, measure, compute, calculate, appraise. Eternal, everlasting, endless, infinite, perpetual, deathless, immortal, undying, never-dying, ever-living, imperishable. Event, incident, occurrence, accident, adventure, issue, result, conse- quence. Ever, always, eternally, everlastingly, evermore, aye, forever, perpet- ually, continually, incessantly. Evidence, «., testimony, deposition, proof, declaration. Evidence, v ., manifest, prove, evince, demonstrate, exemplify. Evident, clear, plain, manifest, apparent, obvious, visible, palpable. Evince, show, argue, prove, evidence, demonstrate, manifest. Evoke, call out, invite, summon, challenge. Exact, a ., accurate, correct, definite, precise, literal, nice. Exaggerated, overstated, heightened, amplified, enlarged. Exalt, raise, elevate, erect, lift up, dignify, ennoble. Examination, search, inquiry, research, scrutiny, investigation. Example, pattern, sample, model, specimen, copy, instance. Exasperate, irritate, inflame, incense, enkindle, envenom, nettle, pro- voke, chafe. Except, unless, save, saving, but. Excessive, exorbitant, extortionate, unreasonable, immoderate, inordi- nate, extravagant. Exchange, z-., change, barter, truck, commute, interchange, recipro- cate. Exchange, «., barter, dealing, trade, traffic. Excite, incite, arouse, awaken, stir up, disquiet, disturb, agitate, pro- voke, irritate. Exclude, shut out, debar, preclude, seclude. Excuse, v. y palliate, mitigate, acquit, justify, absolve, dispense, ex- empt. Excuse, «., plea, justification, pretence, pretext, pretension. Execrable, abominable, detestable, hateful, accursed, cursed, con- founded. Execute, accomplish, effectuate, fulfil, effect, realize, achieve, com- plete, finish. Exemption, freedom, immunity, privilege. Exhale, emit, give out, smoke, steam. Exhaust, spend, drain, empty, debilitate. Exile, banishment, deportation, expatriation, expulsion, proscription. Exonerate, clear, acquit, discharge, absolve, relieve, justify. Exorbitant, excessive, extortionate, unreasonable, immoderate. Expand, spread, diffuse, dilate, extend, enlarge, amplify, unfold, de- velop. Expedient, fit, necessary, essential, requisite. Expedite, accelerate, quicken, hasten, facilitate, forward, advance. Expel, drive out, eject, dispossess, dislodge, oust. Expensive, costly, dear, valuable, sumptuous. Expert, a., clever, dexterous, adroit, skilful. Expiration, end, completion, close, termination. Explicit, express, plain, definitive, positive, determinate. Exploit, achievement, feat, deed, accomplishment. Expound, explain, interpret, unfold, elucidate, clear up. Express, a., explicit, plain, positive, definite, determinate, categorical Express, z/., declare, enunciate, pronounce, articulate, denote, utter, signify, testify, intimate. Expressive, significant, energetic, emphatic. Extend, enlarge, amplify, expand, increase, stretch oui, spread out, make larger, augment. Exterior, outward, outer, external. Exterminate, eradicate, root out, annihilate, extinguish. Extort, exact, wrest, wring, draw from. Extraordinary, remarkable, signal, eminent, uncommon. Extravagant, prodigal, lavish, profuse, excessive. Extricate, free, disengage, disentangle, disembarrass, liberate. Exuberant, plenteous, plentiful, luxuriant, abundant, profuse, rich. FABRIC, edifice, structure, pile. Fabricate, invent, frame, feign, forge, coin. Facetious, jocose, jocular, pleasant. Facile, easy, pliable, flexible. F acuity, ability, gift, talent, endowment. Failing, imperfection, weakness, frailty, foible, miscarriage, mishap. Faint, languid, weak, low. Faith, belief, assurance, confidence, trust, credence, credit, fidelity. Faithless, unfaithful, false-hearted, treacherous. Fallacious, deceptive, illusive, fraudulent, deceitful, delusive. Falsehood, untruth, story, lie, fabrication, fib, falsity. Falter, halt, stammer, stutter, hesitate. Fame, reputation, glory, renown, celebrity, honor, credit. Famed, famous, far-famed, renowned, celebrated, illustrious, surpass- ing, eminent, distinguished. Familiar, free, frank, affable, conversant, intimate. Familiarity, acquaintance, intimacy, courtesy, affability, fellowship. Fanciful, imaginative, ideal, fantastical, whimsical, capricious. Fancy, imagination, notion, conceit, vagary, frolic, inclination, liking, humor. Farthest, most distant, extreme, remotest, utmost, uttermost. Fascinate, charm, enchant, bewitch, enrapture, captivate, entrance. Fast, firm, solid, constant, steadfast, staunch, stable, steady, unyield ing, inflexible, unswerving, gay, wild, dissipated. Fasten, v., fix, tie, link, stick, hold, affix, attach, annex. Fatal, deadly, mortal, lethal, inevitable. Fatigue, weariness, lassitude, languor, enervation, exhaustion. Fault, blemish, defect, imperfection, vice, failure, omission. Favor, benefit, kindness, civility, grace. Fear, fright, terror, dismay, alarm, dread, trepidation, consternation, apprehension. Fearless, brave, bold, intrepid, courageous, undaunted, dauntless, dar. ing, gallant, valorous, valiant. Fearful, afraid, timid, nervous, timorous, terrific, dreadful, awful frightful, horrible, distressing, shocking. Feast, fete, banquet, treat, entertainment, festival. Feeble, weak, infirm, nerveless, forceless, failing, frail, enfeebled, d» bilitated, enervated, impotent, paralyzed, palsied. Feeling, emotion, sentiment, impression, sensation, consciousness, sen- sibility. Feign, pretend, simulate, dissemble, invent, forge, devise. Felicity, happiness, bliss, blessedness, beatitude, blissfulness. Ferocious, fierce, savage, ravenous, voracious, cruel, inhuman, fell, barbarous. Fertile, fruitful, prolific, teeming, pregnant, productive, rich, luxu riant. Fervid, growing, ardent, impassioned, fervent, warm. Festivity, hilarity, joviality, jovialness, gayety. Fickle, unstable, inconstant, restless, fitful, variable. changeable^ SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 4i Fiction, romance, invention, falsehood, fabrication. Fidelity, faithfulness, honesty, integrity. Fiendish, diabolic, demoniacal, devilish. Fierce, furious, violent, ferocious, savage. Fiery, hot, glowing, ardent, fervid, impassioned, passionate, impassion- ate, fervent, vehement. Fight, battle, action, engagement, combat, conflict, contest, encounter, contention, struggle. Fill, satisfy, content, store, replenish, glut, gorge, stuff. Filthy, dirty, dingy, unclean, gross. Final, ending, ultimate, last, latest, conclusive, decisive. Fine, refined, delicate, pure, nice, handsome, pretty, beautiful, ele- gant, showy. Firm, strong, robust, sturdy, fast, steadfast, stable, solid. Fit, v., suit, adapt, adjust, equip, prepare, qualify. Fit, «., apt, suitable, meet, befitting, becoming, decent, decorous, ex- pedient. Fix, v ., fasten, tie, link, enlink, attach, stick, settle, establish, deter- mine, define. Flat, level, horizontal, even, downright, absolute, Insipid, mawkish, dull, spiritless, tasteless, lifeless. Flattery, adulation, servility, cajolery. Flaw, blemish, spot, blur, speck, defect, crack. Fleeting, temporary, transient, transitory, short-lived. Fling, cast, throw, hurl, toss. Flippancy, pertness, sauciness, lightness. Flock, throng, crowd, multitude, swarm, shoal. Flourish, thrive, prosper, wave, brandish. Fluctuate, waver, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, scruple, change. Fluent, flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, ready. Folks, persons, people, individuals, fellows. Follow, succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, pursue. Follower, partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, pursuer, successor. Folly, silliness, foolishness, imbecility, weakness. Fond, enamored, attached, affectionate. Fondness, affection, attachment, kindness, love. Foolhardy, venturesome, incautious, hasty, adventurous, rash. Foolish, simple, silly, irrational, brainless, imbecile, crazy, absurd. preposterous, ridiculous, nonsensical. Fop, dandy, beau, coxcomb, puppy, jackanapes. Forbear, abstain, refrain, withhold. Force, «., strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, power, violence, army, host. Forecast, forethought, foresight, premeditation, prognostication. Forego, quit, relinquish, let go, waive. Foregoing, antecedent, anterior, preceding, previous, prior former. Forerunner, herald, harbinger, percursor, omen. Foresight, forethought, forecast, premeditation. Forge, coin, invent, frame, feign, fabricate, counterfeit. Forgive, pardon, remit, absolve, acquit, excuse, exce r t. Forlorn, forsaken, abandoned, deserted, desolate, Ion , lonesome. Form, «., ceremony, solemnity, observance, rite, figure, shape, confor- mation, fashion, appearance, representation, semblance. Form, v., make, create, produce, constitute, arrange, fashion, mould, shape. Formal, ceremonious, precise, exact, stiff, methodical, affected. Former, antecedent, anterior, previous, prior, preceding, foregoing. Forsaken, abandon, forlorn, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. Forthwith, immediately, directly, instantly, instantaneously. Fortitude, endurance, resolution, fearlessness, dauntlessness. Fortunate, lucky, happy, auspicious, prosperous, successful. Fortune, chance, fate, luck, doom, destiny, property, possession, riches. Foster, cherish, nurse, tend, harbor, nurture. Foul, impure, nasty, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled. Fractious, cross, captious, petulant, touchy, testy, peevish, fretful, splenetic. Fragile, brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. Fragments, pieces, scraps, chips, leavings, remains, remnants. Frailty, weakness, failing, foible, imperfection, fault, blemish. Frame, v. y construct, invent, coin, fabricate, forge, mould, feign, make, compose. ^ Franchise, right, exemption, immunity, privilege, freedom, suffrage. Frank, artless, candid, sincere, free, easy, familiar, open, ingenuous, plain. Frantic, distracted, mad, furious, raving, frenzied. Fraternize, cooperate, consort, associate with. Fraud, deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, imposition. Free, a., liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, frank, art- less, candid, familiar, open, unconfined, unreserved, unrestricted, exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless. Free, v., release, set free, deliver, rescue, liberate, enfranchise, affran- chise, emancipate, exempt. Freedom, liberty, independence, unrestraint, familiarity, license, franchise, exemption, privilege. Frequent, often, common, usual, general. Fret, gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex. Friendly, amicable, social, sociable. Frightful, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, terrific, awful, horrible, horrid. Frivolous, trifling, trivial, petty. Frugal, provident, economical, saving. Fruitful, fertile, prolific, productive, abundant, plentiful, plenteous. Fruitless, vain, useless, idle, abortive, bootless, unavailing, without avail. Frustrate, defeat, foil, balk, disappoint. Fulfil, accomplish, effect, complete. Fully, completely, abundantly, perfectly. Fulsome, coarse, gross, sickening, offensive, rank, obscene. Furious, violent, boisterous, vehement, dashing, sweeping, rolling, impetuous, frantic, distracted, stormy, angry, raging, fierce. Futile, trifling, trivial, frivolous, useless. GAIN, profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, winnings, earnings. Gain, v., get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, earn, win, achieve, reap, realize, reach. Gallant, brave, bold, courageous, gay, fine, showy, intrepid, fearless, heroic. Galling, chafing, irritating, vexing. Game, play, pastime, diversion, sport, amusement. Gang, band, horde, company, troop, crew. Gap, breach, chasm, hollow, cavity, cleft, crevice, rift, chink. Garnish, embellish, adorn, beautify, deck, decorate. Gather, pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, collect. Gaudy, showy, tawdry, gay, glittering, bespangled. Gaunt, emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, attenuated, spam, lean, thin. Gay, cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, sprightly, blithe. Generate, form, make, beget, produce. Generation , formation, race, breed, stock, kind, age, era. Generous, benefit' nt, noble, honorable, bountiful, liberal, free. Genial, cordial, lu irty, festive, joyous. Genius, intellect, invention, talent, taste, nature, character, adept. Genteel, refined, polished, fashionable, polite, well-bred. Gentle, placid, mild, bland, meek, tame, docile. Genuine, real, true, unaffected, sincere. Gesture, attitude, action, posture. Get, obtain, earn, gain, attain, procure, achieve. Ghastly, pallid, wan, hideous, grim, shocking. Ghost, spectre, spright, sprite, apparition, shade, phantom. Gibe, scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, mock, taunt, deride. Giddy, unsteady, flighty, thoughtless. Gift, donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gratuity, boon, present, fas> ulty, talent. Gigantic, colossal, huge, enormous, vast, prodigious, immense. Give, grant, bestow, confer, yield, impart. Glad, pleased, cheerful, joyful, gladsome, gratified, cheering. Gleam, glimmer, glance, glitter, shine, flash. Glee, gaycty, merriment, mirth, jovialty, jovialness, catch. Glide, slip slide, run, roll on. Glimmer, v ., gleam, flicker, glitter. Glimpse, glance, look, glint. Glitter, gleam, shine, glisten, glister, radiate. Gloom, cloud, darkness, dimness, blackness, dulness, irlntf 12 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. C jrious, famous, renowned, celebrated, illustrious, distinguished, conspicuous, noble, exalted, grand. C ary, honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur. f lowing, hot, intense, fervid, ardent, fervent, fiery. ^lut, gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up, fill to repletion, inun- date. Gaod, a., virtuous, righteous, upright, just, true. Gargeous, superb, grand, magnificent, splendid. Govern, rule, direct, manage, command. Government, rule, administration, cabinet, constitution, state, control, sway. Graceful, becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful. Gracious, merciful, kindly, beneficent, courteous, civil. Gradual, slow, progressive. Grand, majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, exalted, splendid, gorgeous, superb, magnificent, sublime, pompous. Grant, v., bestow, impart, give, yield, cede, allow, confer, invest. Grant, pay, wages, salary, stipend, gift, boon, donation. Graphic, forcible, telling, picturesque, vivid, pictorial. Gratification, enjoyment, pleasure, delight, reward. Grave, a., serious, sedate, thoughtful, solemn, sober, important, weighty, pressing, heavy. Gravity, weight, heaviness, importance, moment, seriousness. Grief, affliction, sorrow, trial, woe, tribulation. Grieve, mourn, lament, sorrow, pain, hurt, wound, bewail. Gross, coarse, outrageous, unseemly, shameful, indelicate. Ground, w., found, rest, base, establish. Groundless, unfounded, baseless, ungrounded, gratuitous. Group, assembly, assemblage, cluster, collection, clump, order, class. Grow, increase, vegetate, expand, advance. Grudge, malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred, aversion. Gruff, rough, rugged, blunt, rude, harsh, surly, bearish. Guard, z\, protect, defend, shield, keep, watch. Guard, «., shield, fence, security, defence, sentinel, sentry, watchman, conductor. Guardian, protector, conservator, preserver, custodian, warder. Guess, conjecture, divine, surmise, reckon, fancy, suppose. Guide, z>., lead, conduct, direct, regulate, manage, superintend. Guile, deceit, fraud, artifice, trickery. Guilt, crime, sin, offence. Gull, dupe, cheat, trick, cozen, deceive, beguile, delude. Gush, stream, flow, rush, spout. HABILIMENTS, clothes, dress, garb, apparel, vestments. Habit, manner, custom, usage, way. Habitation, dwelling, residence, abode, domicile. Habitual, usual, customary, accustomed, wonted, regular, ordinary. Hale, hearty, robust, sound, healthy, strong. Hallow, consecrate, sanctify, venerate, dedicate, enshrine. Handsome, pretty, elegant, graceful, ample, beautiful, fine. Hapless, luckless, unlucky, unhappy, unfortunate. Happiness, felicity, bliss, prosperity, contentment, well-being, wel- fare. Harass, distress, perplex, weary, tire out, worry, vex, fatigue. Hard, firm, solid, flinty, unfeeling, harsh, cruel, difficult, arduous. Hardihood, audacity, imprudence, effrontery. Hardy, manly, manful, masculine, vigorous, courageous, brave, he- roic, intrepid, stout, strong, firm. Harm, evil, ill, misfortune, mischief, mishap, injury, hurt. Harmonious, symphonious, consonous, accordant. Harsh, rough, severe, rigorous, gruff, rugged, blunt, grating, jarring, sour. Hasty, quick, precipitate, rash, excitable, hot, fiery, passionate, angry, cursory, slight. Hate, detest, abominate, abhor, loathe, dislike. Hateful, odious, detestable, execrable, abominable, loathsome, repul- sive. Haughtiness, arrogance, vanity, pride. Hazard, v., peril, imperil, jeopardize, risk, dare, adventure, conjecture. Headstrong, obstinate, dogged, stubborn, forward, venturesome. Heal, cure, remedy, reconcile. Healthy, hearty, hale, sound, strong, wholesome. Heap, pile, amass, accumulate. Hearty, hale, healthy, sound, strong, heart-felt, warm, cordial, sincere Heavenly, celestial, divine, seraphic, angelic. Heavy, weighty, massive, dull, drowsy, insipid. Height, top, crisis, acme, apex, climax, zenith. Heighten, amplify, exaggerate, raise, enhance, increase. Help, v., aid, assist, cooperate, succor, relieve, serve. Hesitate, falter, pause, demur, scruple. Hide, 7>., conceal, disguise, secrete, cover, screen. Hide, n., skin, rind, peel, bark. Hideous, ghastly, grim, grisly, frightful, horrible, ugly. High, tall, lofty, elevated, proud, conceited. Highly, greatly, exceedingly, immeasurably, preeminently. Hilarity, mirth, glee, jollity, merriment, joviality. Hinder, thwart, retard, stop, prevent, impede, obstruct. Hint, v., suggest, allude to, refer to, glance at, intimate, Insinuate. Hit, strike, dash, beat, thump. Hold, have, possess, keep, detain, retain. Holy, sacred, pious, devout, religious, divine. Homage, respect, deference, honor, veneration. Home, dwelling, house, domicile, residence, abode. Honest, upright, honorable, conscientious, virtuous. Honesty, integrity, purity, probity, sincerity, veracity, virtue, justic* Honor, v. y reverence, revere, venerate, respect, dignify, exalt. Horrible, fearful, dreadful, dire, direful, frightful, terrible, terrific, horrid. Hot, ardent, fervent, fiery, burning, glowing, intense, passionate. Huge, vast, enormous, large, great, prodigious, immense, gigantic, colossal. Humanity, kindness, benevolence, philanthropy, tenderness, sensi- bility. Humble, v., lower, debase, degrade, disgrace, humiliate. Humble, a., lowly, modest, submissive, unpretending, unassuming. Humiliation, fall, abasement, degradation, degeneracy. Hurry, v ., hasten, speed, expedite, precipitate. Hurt, «., harm, injury, damage, mischief. Hurt, v., annoy, grieve, vex, wound. Hurtful, pernicious, baneful, deleterious, noxious, detrimental, preju. dicial. IDEA, imagination, conception, notion, thought, sentiment, Impression. Ideal, fanciful, imaginary, imaginative. Identical, same, self-same, particular. Idle, lazy, indolent, inactive, unemployed. Ignorant, unlearned, illiterate, unlettered, uninformed, uneducated. Ill, «., evil, wickedness, misfortune, mischief, harm. Ill, a., sick, indisposed, unwell, diseased. Illimitable, boundless, limitless, measureless, immeasurable, unlimited, infinite. Illiterate, unlettered, unlearned, untaught, uninstructed. Illness, sickness, indisposition, disease, disorder, malady, ailment. Illusion, fallacy, deception, phantasm. Illustrate, explain, elucidate, clear. Illustrious, celebrated, glorious, noble, eminent, distinguished, famous renowned. Imbibe, absorb, swallow up, take in, engulf, consume. Imbolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, incite. Imitate, copy, ape, mimic, mock, counterfeit. Immediately, instantly, forthwith, directly, instanter, presently, straightway. Immense, vast, enormous, huge, prodigious, monstrous, immeasurable Immunity, privilege, perogative, exemption. Immure, confine, shut up, imprison. Impair, injure, diminish, decrease. Impart, communicate, reveal, divulge, disclose, discover, give, bestow afford. Impeach, accuse, charge, arraign, censure. Impede, hinder, retard, obstruct, prevent. Impel, animate, actuate, induce, move, incite. Inspirit, Instigate, etv courage, imbolden. Imperative, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, despotic. pe» emptory. SNNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 43 Imperil, peril, endanger, hazard, jeopardize. Imperious, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, Imperative, lordly, overbearing, domineering. Impertinent, intrusive, meddling, officious, rude, saucy, impudent, in- solent. Impervious, unpassable, impassable, inaccessible, impenetrable. Impetuous, violent, boisterous, furious, vehement, rapid. Impious, profane, irreligious, godless. Implicate, involve, entangle, embarrass, compromise. Imply, involve, comprise, infold, import, denote, signify. Importance, signification, significance, avail, consequence, weight, gravity, moment. Impose, put, plane, set, fix, lay. Imposing, impressive, striking, majestic, august, noble, grand. Impotence, weakness, incapacity, infirmity, frailty, feebleness. Impotent, weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, nerveless, infirm. Impress, v ., engrave, stamp, print, fix, instil, inculcate. Impression, feeling, sentiment, sensation, susceptibility, stamp, edi- tion. Impressive, stirring, forcible, exciting, affecting, moving. Imprison, incarcerate, shut up, immure, confine. Imprisonment, incarceration, captivity, durance, confinement. Improve, amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, ameliorate, apply, use, employ. Improvident, careless, incautious, imprudent, prodigal, wasteful, reck- less, rash. Impudence, assurance, impertinence, confidence, insolence, rudeness. Impudent, saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, insolent, immodest, shameless. Impugn, gainsay, oppose, attack, assail. Impulse, incentive, incitement, motive, instigation. Impulsive, rash, hasty, forcible, violent. Imputation, blame, censure, reproach, charge, accusation. Inability, weakness, impotence, incapacity, incapability. Inadvertency, error, oversight, blunder, inattention, carelessness, negligence. Incapable, unable, inadequate, incompetent, insufficient, unfit. Incapacity, disability, incapability, inability, incompetency. Incentive, motive, inducement, impulse. Incite, instigate, excite, provoke, stimulate, encourage, urge, impel. Inclination, leaning, slope, disposition, tendency, bent, bias, affection, attachment, wish, liking, desire. Incline, v., slope, lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, bias, dispose. Inclose, surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap. Include, comprehend, comprise, contain, embrace, take in, hold. Incommode, annoy, plague, molest, disturb, inconvenience, trouble. Incompetent, incapable, unable, inadequate, insufficient. Increase, v., extend, enlarge, augment, dilate, expand, amplify, raise, enhance, aggravate, magnify, grow, increase, a., augmentation, accession, addition, enlargement, exten- sion. Incumbent, obligatory, morally necessitated. Indefinite, vague, uncertain, unsettled, loose, lax. Indicate, point out, show, mark. Indifference, apathy, carelessness, listlessness, Insensibility, indigence, want, neediness, penury, poverty, destitution, privation. Indignation, anger, wrath, ire, resentment. Indignity, insult, affront, outrage, obloquy, opprobrium, reproach, ignominy. Indiscriminate, promiscuous, chance, indistinct, confused, indispensable, essential, necessary, requisite, expedient. Indisputable, undemaole, undoubted, incontestable, indubitable, un- questionable, sure, infallible. Indulge, foster, cherish, fondle. Ineffectual, vain, useless, unavailing, fruitless, abortive, ineffective, inoperative. Inequality, disparity, disproportion, dissimilarity, unevenness, protu- berance, prominence. Inevitable, unavoidable, not to be avoided, certain. fnCa. .ious, scandalous, shameful, ignominious, opprobrious, dis- graceful. Inference, deduction, corollary, conclusion, consequence. Infernal, diabolical, fiendish, devilish, hellish. Infest, annoy, plague, harass, disturb. Infirm, weak, feeble, enfeebled. Inflame, anger, irritate, enrage, chafe, incense, nettle, aggravate, Im , bitter, etc asperate. n Influence, z>., bias, sway, prejudice, prepossess. Influence, »., credit, favor, reputation, character, weight, authority ' sway, ascendency. Infraction, infringement, encroachment, invasion, intrusion, contra vention, breach. Infringe, invade, intrude, contravene, break, transgress, violate. Ingenuous, artless, candid, generous, open, frank, plain, sincere. Inhuman, cruel, brutal, savage, barbarous, ruthless, merciless, fero j cious. Iniquity, injustice, wrong, grievance. Injure, damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, aggrieve harm, spoil, mat ^ sully. Injurious, hurtful, baneful, pernicious, deleterious, noxious, prejudi- cial, wrongful, damaging. Injustice, wrong, iniquity, grievance. Inlet, entrance, entry, ingress. Innocent, guiltless, sinless, harmless, inoffensive. Innoxious. Inordinate, intemperate, irregular, disorderly, excessive, Immoderate. Inquiry, investigation, examination, research, scrutiny, disquisition question, query, interrogation. Inquisitive, prying, peeping, curious, peering. Insane, mad, deranged, delirious, demented. Insanity, madness, mental aberration, lunacy, delirium. Insinuate, hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, introduce, ingratiate. Insipid, dull, flat, mawkish, tasteless, vapid, inanimate, lifeless. Insnare, entrap, decoy, allure, net, enmesh, entoil, entangle, inveigle Insolent, rude, saucy, pert, impertinent, abusive, scurrilous, opprobri ous, insulting, offensive, outrageous. Inspire, animate, exhilarate, enliven, cheer, breathe, inhale. Instability, mutability, fickleness, mutableness, wavering. Instigate, stir up, persuade, animate, incite, urge, stimulate, en courage. Instil, implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. Institute, establish, found, erect, begin, form, organize, prescribe. Instruct, inform, teach, educate, enlighten, initiate. Instrumental, conducive, assistant, helping, ministerial. Insufficiency, inadequacy, incompetency, incapability, deficiency lack. Insult, affront, outrage, indignity, blasphemy. Insulting, insolent, rude, saucy, impertinent, impudent, abusive. Integrity, uprightness, honesty, probity, entirety, entireness, com- pleteness, rectitude, purity. Intellect, understanding, sense, brains, mind, intelligence, ability, talent, genius. Intellectual, mental, ideal, metaphysical. Intelligible, clear, obvious, plain, distinct. Intemperate, immoderate, excessive, drunken, nimious, inordinate. Intense, ardent, earnest, glowing, fervid, burning, vehement, strained, forced, excessive, extreme. Intent, design, purpose, intention, drift, view, aim, purport, meaning Intercourse, commerce, connection, intimacy, acquaintance. Interdict, forbid, prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, debar restrain from. 1 Interfere, meddle, intermeddle, interpose. Interminable, endless, interminate, infinite, unlimited, illimitable, boundless, limitless. Interpose, intercede, arbitrate, mediate, interfere, meddle. Interpret, explain, expound, elucidate, unfold, decipher. Intimate, hint, suggest, insinuate, express, signify, impart, tell. Intimidate, dishearten, alarm, frighten, affright, scare, appall, daunt I cow, quail, browbeat. Intolerable, insufferable, unbearable, insupportable, unendurable. Intrepid, bold, brave, daring, fearless, dauntless, undaunted, courage ous, valorous, valiant, heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty. Intrigue, plot, conspiracy, combination, artifice, ruse, amour. Intrinsic, real, true, genuine, sterling, native, natural. Inure, habituate, use, train, accustom, familiarize. Invalidate, quash, cancel, overthrow, vacate, nullify, annul. * 4 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. avect've. abuse, reproach, railing, censure, sarcasm, satire. Inveterate, confirmed, chronic, malignant. Invidious, envious, hateful, odious, malignant. Invincible, unconquerable, impregnable, insuperable, insurmountable. Invisible, uaseen, imperceptible, impalpable, unperceivable. Involve, implicate, entangle, compromise, envelop. Ire, rage, anger, wrath, indignation, passion. Irksome, wearisome, burdensome, tiresome, tedious, troublesome, vex- atious, annoying. Irony, sarcasm, satire, ridicule, raillery. Irrational, foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, unreasonable, absurd, pre- posterous, ridiculous. Irreligious, profane, godless. Impious, sacrilegious, desecrating. Irreproachable, blameless, spotless, irreprovable, unblemished. Irresistible, resistless, opposeless, irrepressible. Irresolute, wavering, undetermined, undecided, vacillating. Irritable, excitable, irascible, susceptible, sensitive. Irritate, aggravate, worry, provoke, imbitter, madden, exasperate, dis- please. Issue, end, conclusion, upshot, effect, consequence, result, offspring, progeny, children. JARRING, conflicting, discordant, inconsonant, irreconcilable, incon- sistent, incompatible. Jeer, sneer, scoff, mock. Jeopardize, imperil, hazard, endanger. Jocose, jocular, jolly, facetious, witty, pleasant. Join, accompany, go with, add, unite, append, adjoin, combine, confed- erate, league, band. Journey, travel, tour, trip, excursion, voyage. Joy, delight, gladness, charm, pleasure, ecstacy, rapture, transport. Judgment, discernment, discrimination, sagacity, intelligence, sen- tence, decision, order, award. Juicy, succulent, bibulous, spongy. Junction, union, alliance, connection, confederacy, combination. Juncture, contact, touch, conjuncture, crisis. Just, right, proper, fare, equitable, impartial. Justify, excuse, clear, exonerate, defend, absolve. Juvenile, young, youthful, boyish, infantile, childish. KEEN, sharp, acute, penetrating, cutting, biting, stinging, sarcastic, satirical. Keep, retain, hold, detain, preserve, maintain, sustain, hinder. Kill, murder, assassinate, slay, massacre, butcher. Kind, a., thoughtful, affable, gentle, meek, tender, good, gracious, compassionate, indulgent, forbearing. Kindle, ignite, enkindle, awaken, arouse, stir up, excite. Kingly, royal, imperial, regal, sovereign. Knowledge, learning, scholarship, acquirements, attainments. LABOR, work, task, toil, exertion. Labored, elaborate, hard-wrought, studied. Laborious, hard-working, industrious, diligent, assiduous, active, toil- some, wearisome. Lack, want, need, require. Laconic, short, brief, concise, curt. Lament, grieve, mourn, regret, bewail, deplore, bemoan. Language, speech, tongue, dialect, phraseology. Languid, weak, faint, drooping, pining. Lank, lean, thin, skinny, meagre, scraggy. Lassitude, weariness, fatigue, languor. Lasting, durable, abiding, permanent, perpetual. Latent, hidden, secret, occult, inscrutable. Laud, praise, command, applaud, extol, magnify, eulogize Lavish, profuse, extravagant, prodigal. Lax, loose, vague, dissolute, licentious. Lazy, idle, indolent, slothful, sluggish, inactive. Lead, conduct, guide, direct, induce, persuade, influence. Leader, chief, director, head, guide. Lean, thin, scraggy, lank, skinny. Lean, v ., incline, tend, bend, slope. Leave, v., quit, relinquish, renounce, give up, retire. Legend, fable, myth, memoir, anna!, chronicle. Legitimate, legal, lawful, genuine, fair. Lengthen, extend, elongate, protract, prolong. Lessen, abate, diminish, decrease, lower, subside. Level, even, plain, smooth, flat. Levity, giddiness, lightness, flightiness. Liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, plentiful. Liberty, leave, license, permission, freedom. Licentious, loose, lax, dissolute, rakish, unbridled. Lie, untruth, falsehood, falsity, fabrication, fiction, invention, story. Life, animation, vivacity, buoyancy, spirits, history, career, existence Likelihood, probability, appearance. Likeness, picture, image, effigy, carte de visile, resemblance, similar ity, representation, similitude. Limit, extent, boundary, bound, border. Limp'.o, Clear, transparent. Linger, tarry, loiter, wait, lag, saunter. Link, tie, bind, join, chain. Liquidate, clear off, extinguish, pay off, lessen, discharge. List, roll, roster, catalogue, register, inventory. Listless, indifferent, indolent, careless. Literal, actual, real, positive, true. Little, small, diminutive, dwarf. Lively, active, brisk, quick, sprightly, prompt, buoyant, racy, viv* cious. Loathe, dislike, nauseate, abhor, detest, abominate. Lofty, high, tall, elevated, exalted. Loiter, wait, linger, tarry, saunter. Look, »., manner, appearance, aspect, feature, giance, peep. Look, v., see, witness, view, eye, inspect. Loquacity, talkativeness, volubility, glibness, babbling. Lot, destiny, fate, future, doom. Loud, noisy, clamorous, vociferous, blustering, riotous, turbulent tumultuous. Love, endearment, affection, attachment, fondness. Lovely, charming, amiable, delightful. Lover, suitor, wooer, sweetheart. Loyalty, allegiance, fealty. Luck, chance, fortune, accident. Luckless, hapless, unlucky, unprosperous, unfortunate. Lucre, gain, profit, emolument, money. Ludicrous, laughable, ridiculous, comic, droll, odd, silly. Lurid, gloomy, murky, lowering. Luscious, honeyed, sweet, mellifluous. Lustre, splendor, brightness, brilliancy, effulgence, refulgence. Lusty, stout, strong, able-bodied, stalwart, robust, muscular, brawny Luxuriant, overflowing, exuberant, superfluous, redundant, abundant. MACHINATION, stratagem, cheat, imposture, fraud, trick. Mad, wild, frantic, distracted, furious, rabid. Madden, irritate, enrage, exasperate. Madness, mental aberration, insanity, lunacy, mania, frenzy, rage fury. Magnanimous, august, dignified, noble, exalted, lofty. Magnificence, splendor, grandeur, gorgeousness, pomp. Magnify, enlarge, extol, applaud, laud. Magnitude, greatness, bigness, size, bulk. Main, chief, principal, leading, first. Maintain, assert, vindicate, hold, support, sustain. Majestic, dignified, noble, stately, pompous, splendid, grand Make, create, form, produce, mould, shape. Malediction, curse, imprecation, denunciation, anathema. Malefactor, criminal, culprit, felon, convict. Malice, spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, pique, animosity, ill wllL Malicious, virulent, malignant, wicked. Manage, contrive, concert, direct. Management, direction, superintendence, care, economy. Mangle, tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, maim. Manifest, v ., reveal, prove, evince, exhibit, display, show. Manifest, a., clear, plain, evident, open, apparent, visible, obvious. Manly, masculine, hardy, vigorous, courageous, brave, heroic, Italics* Manners, morals, habits, behavior, carriage. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 4S Many, numerous, several, sundry, divers, various, manifold Mar, spoil, ruin, disfigure. March, tramp, tread, walk, step, space. Margin, edge, rim, border, brink, verge. Mark, «., sign, note, symptom, token, indication, trace, vestige, track, badge, brand. Mark, v . , impress, print, Stan.,., engrave, note, notice, remark, show, point out, indicate. Marriage, wedding, nuptials, matrimony, wedlock. Martial, military, warlike, soldier-like. Marvel, wonder, miracle, prodigy. Marvellous, wondrous, wonderful, amazing, miraculous. Masculine, manly, virile, hardy, vigorous, brave, courageous. Massive, massy, bulky, heavy, weighty, ponderous. Masterly, skilful, clever, expert, dexterous, adroit. Masterly, dominion, rule, sway, ascendency, supremacy. Matchless, unrivalled, unequalled, unparalleled, peerless, incompara- ble, inimitable, surpassing, unique. Material, a., corporeal, bodily, physical, temporal, momentous. Matrimony, marriage, wedlock, wedding, nuptials, espousals. Mature, ripe, ready, mellow, perfect, fit. Maxim, adage, apophthegm, proverb, saying, by-word, saw. Meagre, poor, lank, emaciated, barren, dry, uninteresting. Mean, a., stingy, niggardly, low, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, con- temptible, vulgar, despicable. Mean, re, design, purpose, intent, contemplate, signify, denote, indi- cate. Meaning, signification, import, acceptation, sense, purport. Medium, mediocrity, organ, channel, instrument, means. Medley, mixture, variety, diversity, miscellany. Meek, unassuming, mild, gentle. Melancholy, low-spirited, dispirited, dreamy, sad. Mellow, ripe, mature, soft. Melodious, tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, sweet. Melt, liquefy, fuse, dissolve, moisten. Memoir, narrative, chronicle, legend, life, history. Memorable, signal, distinguished, marked. Memorial, monument, memento, commemoration. Memory, remembrance, recollection. Menace, «., threat, threatening, commination. Mend, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, improve, rectify. Mention, tell, name, communicate, impart, divulge, reveal, disclose, inform, acquaint. Merchandise, goods, wares, commerce, traffic. Merciful, compassionate, lenient, clement, tender, gracious, kind. Merciless, hard-hearted, cruel, unmerciful, pitiless, remorseless, unre- lenting. Mercy, lenity, mildness, clemency, compassion, pity. Merited, deserved, condign, suitable, adequate, proper. Merriment, mirth, joviality, jollity, hilarity. Merry, cheerful, mirthful, joyous, gay, lively, sprightly, hilarious, blithe, blithesome, jovial, sportive, jolly. Metaphorical, figurative, allegorical, symbolical. Method, way, manner, mode, process, order, rule, regularity, system. Mien, air, look, manner, aspect, appearance. Migratory, roving, strolling, wandering, vagrant. Mimic, imitate, ape, mock. Mindful, observant, attentive, heedful, thoughtful. Mingle, mix, blend, compound, amalgamate. Minute, circumstantial, particular. Mirth, joy, merriment, gladness, festivity, joviality, hilarity, cheerful- ness, vivacity, gayety, fun, jollity. Misapprehension, misconception, misunderstanding, mistake, error. Miscellaneous, promiscuous, indiscriminate, mixed. Miscellany, medley, diversity, variety, mixture, hotchpotch. Mischief, injury, harm, damage, hurt, evil, ill. Misconception, misapprehension, misunderstanding, mistake. Miscreant, caitiff, villain, ruffian. Miserable, unhappy, wretched, distressed, afflicted. Miserly, stingy, niggardly, avaricious, griping. Misery, wretchedness, woe, destitution, penury, privation, beggary. Misfortune, calamity, disaster, mishap, catastrophe. Misguide, mislead, dazzle, beguile, deceive. Miss, omit, lose, fail, miscarry. . Mistake, «., error, blunder, delusion, misapprehension, mlsnaderstattV] >ng. | Misuse, «., abuse, perversion, maltreatment. Mitigate, alleviate, relieve, abate, diminish. Moderate, temperate, abstemious, sober, abstinent. Moderation, temperance, sobriety, abstemiousness. Modest, chaste, virtuous, bashful, reserved. Moist, wet, damp, dank, humid. Molest, annoy, incommode, discommode, incommodate, vex, tease, turb. Momentous, important, significant, weighty. Monotonous, unvaried, dull, tiresome, undiversified. Monstrous, shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge, immense. Monument, memorial, record, remembrancer, cenotaph. Mood, humor, disposition, vein, temper. Morass, bog, quagmire, slough, marsh, fen, swamp. Morbid, sick, ailing, sickly, diseased, corrupted. Morose, gloomy, sullen, surly, fretful, crabbed, crusty Mortify, vex, chagrin, grieve, hurt, afflict, annoy. Motion, proposition, proposal, movement, change, action. Motionless, still, stationary, torpid, stagnant. Motive, cause, reason, principle, inducement, incentive, impulse, spur, stimulus. Mount, arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, climb, scale, embellish. Mournful, sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, grievous, doleful, heavy. Move, actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate, persuade, stir, agitate, propel, push. Moving, affecting, touching, pathetic, melting. Multifarious, divers, many, manifold. Multitude, crowd, throng, host, mob, swarm. Munificent, bounteous, bountiful, generous, liberal. Murder, w., kill, assassinate, slay, massacre, despatch. Murky, dark, dusky, dim, cloudy, misty, shadowy. Muse, meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, cogitate, ponder. Music, harmony, melody, symphony. Musical, tuneful, melodious, harmonious, dulcet, sweet. Musty, stale, sour, fetid. Mutable, inconstant, unsteadfast, unstable, fickle, alterable, restless^ fitful, variable, changeable, unsteady, undecided. Mute, dumb, silent, speechless. Mutilate, maim, cripple, disable, disfigure. Mutinous, insurgent, seditious, tumultuous, turbulent, riotous. Mysterious, dark, obscure, hidden, secret, dim, mystic, enigmatical, unaccountable. Mystify, confuse, perplex, puzzle. NAKED, nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough, rude, simple. Name, w., denominate, entitle, intitule, style, designate, term, call, christen, specify. Name, »., appellation, designation, denomination, title, cognomen, reputation, character, fame, credit, repute. Narrate, tell, relate, detail, recount, describe, enumerate, rehearse, recite. Nasty, filthy, foul, dirty, unclean, impure, indecent, gross, vile. Nation, people, community, realm, state. Native, real, genuine, indigenous, vernacular, mother. Natural, original, regular, normal, bastard. Near, nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contiguous, intimate. Necessary, needful, expedient, essential, requisite, indispensable. Necessitate, v., compel, force, oblige. Necessity, need, occasion, exigency, emergency, urgency, requisite. Need, »., necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, want, penury. Need, »., require, want, lack. Neglect, v., disregard, slight, omit, overlook. Neglect, «., omission, failure, default, negligence, remissness, care, lessness, slight. Neighborhood, environs, vicinity, nearness, adjacency, proximity. Nerveless, feeble, impuissant, weak, forceless, enfeebled, debilitated enervated, impotent, paralyzed, palsied. Nervous, timid, timorous, shaky. 46 SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Neutralize, counterbalance, counteract. News, tidings, intelligence, information. Nice, exact, accurate, good, particular, precise, fine, delicate. Niggardly, miserly, griping, stingy, penurious, saving, greedy. Nimble, active, brisk, lively, alert, quick, agile, prompt, sprightly. Noble, exalted, elevated, dignified, illustrious, great, grand, stately, lofty. Nocturnal, nightly, gloomy, dark. Noise, cry, outcry, clamor, row, din, uproar, tumult. 1 Nonsensical irrational, absurd, preposterous, silly, foolish. Notable, plain, evident, remarkable, signal, memorable, striking, rare. Note, token, symbol, mark, sign, indication, remark, observation, comment, memorandum. Noted, distinguished, remarkable, eminent, celebrated, renowned, well known, famous. Notice, »., advice, notification, intelligence, information, warning. Notice, »., mark, note, observe, attend to, regard, heed. Noticeable, striking, observable, remarkable. Notification, notice, declaration, publication, intelligence, informa- tion. Notify, publish, acquaint, communicate, apprise, inform, declare. Notion, conception, idea, belief, opinion, sentiment, impression, con- viction. Notorious, noted, well known, renowned, famous. Novel, modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, strange, uncommon, rare. Noxious, hurtful, deadly, poisonous, deleterious, baneful. Nullify, annul, vacate, invalidate, quash, cancel, repeal. Number, v. y calculate, compute, estimate, reckon, count, enumerate. Number, «., multitude, many, throng, crowd, swarm, host, figure, numeral. Numerous, many, sundry, various, several. Nurture, nurse, cherish, nourish, foster, supply. Nutrition, food, diet, nutriment, nourishment. OBDURATE, hard, callous, hardened, unbending, graceless, unfeel- ing, insensible, insusceptible. Obedient, compliant, submissive, dutiful, respectful. Obese, corpulent, fat, adipose, fleshy. Object, »., aim, end, purpose, design, mark, butt. Object, v., oppose, except to, contravene, impeach, deprecate. Oblige, compel, bind, engage, coerce, constrain, force, impel, accom- modate. Obliterate, erase, blot out, expunge, efface. Obloquy, odium, reproach, censure, abuse, scurrility, opprobrium, shame. Obnoxious, hateful, offensive, liable, exposed, unpopular. Obscure, a., dim, misty, cloudy, shadowy, dusky, dark, gloomy, in- distinct, unknown, humble, unintelligible. Observance, form, etiquette, ceremony, solemnity, rite, celebration. Observant, watchful, mindful, attentive, heedful. Observe, keep, fulfil, heed, obey, perform, notice, remark, watch. Obsolete, disused, antiquated, old-fashioned, ancient, old, neglected. Obstacle, difficulty, impediment, stumbling-block, barrier, hindrance, obstruction. Obstruct, hinder, prevent, impede, bar, clog, barricade, choke, inter- rupt. Obtain, acquire, attain, secure, achieve, gain, get, procure, win, earn. Obtuse, stolid, heavy-headed, dull, stupid, unintelligent. ' Obviate, prevent, preclude, hinder, provide against. Obvious, clear, plain, evident, manifest, open, apparent, visible, patent. Occult, secret, hidden, unknown, invisible, dark, mysterious. Occupation, occupancy, profession, holding, tenure, business, trade, avocation, calling, engagement, office, pursuit. Odd, singular, eccentric, strange, extraordinary, whimsical, comical, droll, uneven. Odious, hateful, loathsome, execrable, detestable, abominable, disgust- ing, repulsive. Odor, smell, scent, perfume, fragrance. Offence, affront, insult, outrage, indignity, misdeed, trespass, trans- gression, wrong, misdemeanor, injustice. Offend, displease, vex, nettle, irritate, shock, transgress, err Offensive, insulting, rude, saucy, impertinent, distasteful, obnoxiotH opprobrious. Offer, present, bid, tender, proffer, extend, propose, volunteer. Officious, obtrusive, busy, interfering, meddling. Offspring, issue, progeny, descendants, children. Old, aged, elderly, senile, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete. Omission, oversight, failure, neglect, default. Omit, leave out, miss, overlook. Onerous, responsibly burdensome, heavy, laborious, oppressive, toft some. Only, singly, alone, solely, merely, barely, simply, exclusively. Opaque, untransparent, dull, dark, cloudy. Open, a., candid, frank, unreserved, free, ingenuous, sincere, unaffected genuine, undisguised, unfolded. Open, v., unclose, anlock, unseal, exhibit, dissolve, spread, expand begin. Operate, act, do, make, work, labor. Operation, action, agency, instrumentality, force, effort, enterprise. Operative, stringent, effective, serviceable, binding. Opportunity, occasion, chance, fit opening. Oppose, combat, bar, hinder, resist, withstand, contradict. Opposite, adverse, diverse, contrary, hostile, antagonistic, repugnant incompatible, inconsistent, paradoxical, facing. Opprobrious, abusive, scurrilous, insulting, offensive, outrageous, shameful. Opprobrium, disgrace, odium, infamy, ignominy, obloquy. Option, choice, preference, election. Opulent, wealthy, rich, affluent, moneyed. Oral, verbal, spoken, parole. Oration, address, speech, harangue, discourse. Orderly, regular, systematic, methodic, methodical, quiet, peaceable. Ordinance, decree, law, statute, edict, regulation. Ordinary, common, vulgar, plain, customary, settled, wonted, convex tional, habitual, usual. Organization, structure, form, instrumentality, construction. Origin, commencement, original, beginning, rise, source, spring cause. Original, first, primary, pristine, primeval, peculiar, odd. Originate, create, form, spring, ooze, issue, proceed, begin. Ornament, »., embellishment, adornment, decoration. Over, above, upon, across, more than. Overawe, daunt, intimidate, affright, cow. Overbearing, bullying, blustering, imperious, lordly, domineering. Overcharge, oppress, overload, surcharge, surfeit. Overlook, inspect, survey, excuse, forgive, pardon, neglect, miss. Overplus, excess, surplus, surplusage. Overreach, cheat, outwit, circumvent, cozen, gull, dupe, defraud. Oversight, inadvertence, inattention, neglect, mistake, error, omission inspection, superintendence. Overt, open, public, notorious, manifest, patent. Overture, proposal, offer, invitation, resolution. Own, v ., acknowledge, admit, confess, recognize, have, possess. Owner, proprietor, possessor, master, holder. PACIFIC, peaceful, peaceable, mild, gentle, calm, quiet, conciliatory!, Pacify, appease, calm, quiet, still. Pain, anguish, agony, distress, suffering, pang, grief. Pain, v., agonize, rack, torment, torture. Painful, afflicting, grievous, torturing. Pair, two, couple, brace. Palatable, tasteful, savory, appetizing. Palate, taste, relish. Pale, a., pallid, wan, whitish, sallow, faint. Palliate, extenuate, varnish, cover, allay, soothe, soften. Palpable, clear, distinct, plain, obvious, evident. Paltry, contemptible, pitiful, mean, sorry, despicable, shabby, beg> garly. Panegyric, eulogy, encomium, eulogium, praise. Pang, throe, twinge, agony, anguish, pain, distress. Paramount, supreme, principal, chief. Pardon, forgive, absolve, overlook, excuse, remit, acquit, diacharro set free, clear, liberate. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 47 Parsimonious, stingy, niggardly, miserly. Partial, biassed, prejudiced, limited, incomplete. Participate, share, partake, join in. Particle, jot, tittle, grain, atom. Partition, v., parcel, divide, apportion, distribute. Partner, colleague, coadjutor, associate, sharer, confederate, spouse. Partnership, union, connection, firm, house, association, company, companionship, society. Party, faction, confederacy, combination, detachment, clique, league. Passion, anger, rage, fury, vehemence, impetuosity, love, affection. Passionate, hot, hasty, irritable, angry, excitable, fiery, vehement, im- petuous, glowing, burning, ardent. Passive, unresisting, unopposing, submissive, enduring, patient. Pathetic, moving, touching, affecting, melting, tender. Patience, resignation, endurance, fortitude. Peculator, defaulter, delinquent, offender, thief. Peculiar, appropriate, particular, exclusive, remarkable, signal, special, singular, uncommon. Peevish, ill-natured, touchy, testy, captious, fractious, cross, fretful, petulant, cynical, irascible. Pellucid, translucent, lucid, limpid, transparent, clear. Penetrate, pierce, perforate, bore, fathom, reach. Penetration, insight, sharpness, acuteness, sagacity, discernment, dis- crimination. Penitence, contrition, repentance, remorse. People, commonalty, populace, mob, mobility, nation, tribe, race. Perception, seeing, sense, taste, perceptibility, sensibility, susceptibil- ity, sensation, apprehension, conviction. Percolate, filtrate, strain, filter, ooze. Peremptory, absolute, positive, arbitrary, despotic, decisive, impera- tive. Perennial, imperishable, undying, immortal, deathless, enduring, per- petual. Perfect, complete, whole, entire, finished, unbroken, thorough, mature, ripe. Perfume, odor, scent, fragrance, aioma, smell, incense. Perhaps, perchance, possibly, peradventure. Perish, decay, die, expire, dissolve. Permanent, durable, abiding, enduring, lasting, fixed, stable, stead- fast, constant. Permission, permit, leave, liberty, license. Permit, v., admit, allow, let, consent, suffer, tolerate, license, warrant. Pernicious, destructive, ruinous, baneful, deleterious, hurtful. Perpetual, constant, continual, continuous, endless, eternal, lasting, incessant, ceaseless, unceasing, uninterrupted. Perplex, embarrass, harass, confuse, bewilder, entangle, involve, puzzle. Pestilential, contagious, infectious, epidemical, mischievous, perni- cious, nocent, noxious, baneful, destructive, pestiferous, fatal, deadly. Petition, prayer, supplication, entreaty, request, suit, appeal. Petty, trifling, trivial, frivolous, insignificant, small, little. Petulant, captious, fractious, cross, peevish, fretful, splenetic, excita- ble, ill-humored. Philanthropic, charitable, kind, benevolent, gracious, benignant. Phlegmatic, frigid, cold, heavy, unfeeling, apathetic. Phrase, term, style, sentence, proposition, period, phraseology, dic- tion. Piercing, thrilling, ringing, clangous. Piety, religion, sanctity, holiness, devotion, grace, godliness. Pile, v ., heap, accumulate, hoard, amass, collect. Pine, z>., flag, droop, languish, sink, fade, wither, decay, decline. Pious, holy, godly, saintly, devout, religious. Piquant, pungent, acrid, smart, keen, biting, harsh, stinging, cutting, racy. Pique, spite, grade, umbrage, resentment. Pithy, terse, concise, forcible, strong. Pitiful, mean, paltry, sordid, contemptible, despicable. Pity, «., compassion, sympathy, condolence, mercy. Plea, apology, defence, vindication, entreaty. Plead, defend, vindicate, exonerate, justify, exculpate, excuse. Pleasant, pleasing, agreeable, gratifying, satisfactory, delicious, ex- quisite, delightful, pleasurable, jocular, jocose, witty, smiling laughing. Please, gratify, satisfy, content, delight, fascinate, indulge. Pleasure, comfort, enjoyment, gratification, joy, delight, rapture, charm, wish. Plight, z/„ pledge, hypothecate, vow. Plot, v., concoct, hatch, frame, contrive, conspire. Pluck, courage, mettle, spirit, nerve. Plump, fleshy, round, fat, full, chubby. Polite, refined, genteel, civil, accomplished, well-bred. Politeness, gentility, civility, urbanity, courteousness, courtesy, affar bility. Politic, political, civil, judicious, prudential. i Pomp, parade, display, gorgeousness, splendor, grandeur, pageantry, ' show, state. Pompous, majestic, stately, grand, august, dignified, lofty, inflated, bombastic. Portray, draw, sketch, paint, depict, delineate, represent, describe. Praise, «., approval, eulogy, commendation, applause, exaltation, honor. Praise, v., commend, extol, eulogize, panegyrize, laud, applaud, glorify. Praiseworthy, laudable, honorable, commendable, meritorious, worthy. Prank, frolic, gambol, freak, trick, escapade. Precious, valuable, costly, dear, estimable. Precipice, cliff, crag. Precipitate, z\, hurry, hasten, cast down, expedite. Precipitate, a ., hasty, hurried, rash, premature. Predicament, situation, condition, state, plight, dilemma. Predict, z\, foretell, prognosticate, prophesy, foreshadow. Predilection, preference, partiality, bias, prejudice. Predominant, prevailing, prevalent, ascendant, overruling. Pregnant, prolific, teeming, replete, enceinte. Prejudice, prepossession, bias, partiality, detriment, harm, hurt, damage. Preliminary, prefatory, introductory, anterior, previous, antecedent. Preponderate, z>., predominate, prevail, overbalance, outweigh, out- balance. Prepossessing, charming, engaging, taking, attractive, winning. Preposterous, irrational, foolish, absurd, ridiculous. Prerogative, privilege, immunity, right, exemption. Presage, foresee, predict, portend, augur, forebode, prognosticate, be- token, threaten. Prescribe, appoint, ordain, dictate, decree, enjoin, impose, order. Presumptuous, presuming, over-confident, forward, arrogant, bold rash, foolhardy. Pretence, cloak, mask, garb, pretext, excuse, plea. ' Pretend, feign, affect, simulate, profess. Pride, arrogance, haughtiness, vanity, self-esteem, lordliness, conceit, loftiness, vainglory. Principally, chiefly, essentially, mainly. Principle, ground, reason, motive, impulse, maxim, rale, rectitude, in- tegrity. Print, v., mark, impress, stamp, imprint. Privilege, immunity, advantage, favor, prerogative, exemption, right, claim. Probity, rectitude, uprightness, honesty, Integrity, sincerity, sound- ness. Problematical, uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, disputable, suspicious. Prodigious, huge, enormous, vast, amazing, astonishing, astounding, surprising, remarkable, wonderful, portentous. Profession, business, trade, occupation, vocation, office, employment, engagement, avowal. Proffer, volunteer, offer, propose, tender. Profligate, abandoned, dissolute, depraved, vicious, degenerate, co». rapt, demoralized. Profound, deep, fathomless, penetrating, solemn, abstruse, recondite. Profuse, extravagant, prodigal, lavish, improvident, excessive, copi ous, plentiful. Project, shoot, discharge, throw, hurl, jut, protrude, bulge. Prolific, productive, generative, fertile, fruitful teeming. SYNO 7S OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Prolix, diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, tiresome, wordy, verbose, prosaic. Prominent, eminent, conspicuous, marked, jutting, important, leading. Promiscuous, mixed, unarranged, mingled, indiscriminate. Prop, v., maintain, sustain, support, stay. Propagate, spread, circulate, diffuse, disseminate, extend, breed, In- crease. Propensity, inclination, disposition, bias, proneness, tendency, bent, predilection, proclivity. Proper, legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, honest, suitable, fit, adapted, meet, becoming, befitting, decent, pertinent, appropriate. Prosper, flourish, succeed, grow rich, thrive, advance. Prosperity, well-being, weal, welfare, happiness, good luck. Prostrate, oppressed, trampled on, abject, paralyzed. Proverb, adage, maxim, aphorism, saying, byword, saw. Proximate, next, immediate, nearest, closest. Proximity, nearness, vicinity, neighborhood. Proxy, agent, representative, substitute, delegate, deputy. Prudence, carefulness, judgment, discretion, wisdom. Prurient, itching, craving, hankering, longing. Puerile, youthful, juvenile, boyish, childish, infantile, trifling, weak silly. Punctilious, trifling, nice, particular, formal, precise. Punctual, exact, precise, nice, particular, prompt, timely. Pungent, acrid, acrimonious, piquant, smart, keen, stinging. Putrefy, rot, decompose, corrupt, decay. Puzzle, v. t perplex, confound, embarrass, bewilder, confuse, pose, mystify. QUACK, impostor, pretender, charlatan, empiric, mountebank. Quaint, artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd, singular. Querulous, complaining, fretting, repining. Query, question, inquiry, interrogatory. Quibble, cavil, evade, equivocate, shuffle, prevaricate. Quick, lively, ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, active, brisk, expe- ditious, adroit, fleet, rapid, swift, impetuous, sweeping, dashing, clever, sharp. Quote, note, repeat, cite, adduce. RABID, mad, furious, raging, frantic. Race, course, match, pursuit, career, family, clan, house, ancestry, lineage, pedigree. Rack, agonize, wring, torture, excruciate, distress, harass. Racy, spicy, pungent, smart, spirited, lively, vivacious. Radiance, splendor, brightness, brilliance, brilliancy, lustre, glare. Radical, organic, innate, fundamental, original, constitutional, inher- ent, complete, entire. Rancid, fetid, rank, stinking, sour, tainted, reasty. Rancor, malignity, hatred, hostility, antipathy, animosity, enmity, ill- will, spite. Range, v., arrange, class, place, rank, wander, stroll, roam, ramble, rove, expatiate. Rapacious, ravenous, voracious, greedy, grasping. Rapidity, quickness, swiftness, speed, velocity, celerity, fleetness, ac- tivity, expedition, despatch. Rapture, ecstacy, transport, delight, bliss. Rational, reasonable, sagacious, judicious, wise, intellectual, sensible, sane, sound. Raze, demolish, destroy, overthrow, ruin, dismantle. Realize, accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, acquire. Reciprocal, mutual, alternate, interchangeable. Recompense, k., indemnity, compensation, remuneration, requital, satisfaction, reward. Record, chronicle, register, note, trace, vestige, minute, memorandum. Rectitude, justice, uprightness, integrity, virtue, equity. Redundant, superfluous, unnecessary, excessive, luxuriant. Refer, appeal, allude, advert, relate, belong. Reformation, improvement, reform, amendment. Refractory, unruly, perverse, ungovernable, obstinate, stubborn. Regret, «., grief, sorrow, lamentation, repentance, remorse. Regular, orderly, methodic, systematical, uniform, unvaried, custom- ary, ordinary, stated, periodical. Reimburse, refund, repay, satisfy, indemnify. Reiterate, repeat, reproduce, renew. Relevant, fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, pertinent, apt. Reliance, trust, hope, dependence, confidence. Relief, succor, aid, help, redress, alleviation. Relinquish, give up, forsake, resign, surrender, quit, leave, forego. Remedial, healing, curative, mitigating, sanitary. Remedy, help, relief, redress, cure, specific, reparation. Remorseless, pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruthless, merciless, barbarous Remote, distant, far, secluded, indirect. Renown, distinction, reputation, fame, glory, celebrity. Reproduce, propagate, imitate, represent, copy. Reprove, chide, rebuke, reprimand, scold. Repudiate, disown, discord, disavow, renounce, disclaim. Repugnant, antagonistic, averse, adverse, hostile, unwilling. Repulsive, forbidding, odious, ugly, disagreeable, revolting. Reputable, creditable, estimable, honorable, respectable. Respite, reprieve, interval, stop, pause. Revel, feast, carouse, luxuriate, banquet, wallow. Revenge, vengeance, retaliation, requital, retribution. Revenue, produce, income, fruits, proceeds, wealth. Reverence, »., honor, respect, awe, veneration, deference, worship homage. Revise, review, reconsider. Revive, refresh, renew, renovate, animate, resuscitate, vivify, cheer, comfort. Rich, wealthy, affluent, opulent, copious, ample, abundant, exuberant plentiful, fertile, fruitful, superb, gorgeous. Rival, «., antagonist, opponent, competitor. Road, way, highway, route, course, path, pathway, anchorage. Roam, ramble, rove, wander, stray, stroll. Robust, strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stout, sturdy, stalwart, abl» bodied. Rout, z/., discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow, scatter. Route, road, course, march, way, journey, path, direction. Rude, rugged, rough, uncouth, unpolished, harsh, gruff, impertinent, saucy, flippant, impudent, insolent, churlish. Ruinous, destructive, hurtful, deleterious, banefu), wasteful. Rule, sway, method, system, law, maxim, precept, guide, formula, reg- ulation, government, standard, test. Rumor, hearsay, talk, fame, report, bruit. Ruthless, cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, merciless, remorseless* relentless, unrelenting. SACRED, holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedicated, devoted. Sanction, confirm, countenance, encourage, support, ratify, authorize. Sapient, sagacious, discerning, knowing, sage, wise. Saturate, steep, soak, imbue. Saucy, impertinent, rude, impudent, insolent, flippant, forward. Savory, tasty, piquant, tasteful, palatable. Scandalize, shock, disgust, offend, calumniate, vilify, revile, malign, traduce, defame, slander. Scanty, bare, pinched, insufficient, slender, meagre. Scatter, strew, spread, fling around, disseminate, disperse, dissipate, dispel. Secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, sly, underhand, latent, private. Secular, worldly, temporal, civil, lay, profane. Seditious, factious, tumultuous, turbulent, insurgent, mutinous, rebel- lious, incendiary. Seduce, allure, attract, decoy, entice, abduct, inveigle, deprave. Sensation, perception, apprehension, sentiment, feeling, impression. Sense, discernment, appreciation, view, opinion, feeling, perception, sensibility, susceptibility, thought, judgment, signification, import, significance, meaning, purport, wisdom. Sensibility, feeling, perception, sensitiveness, susceptibility. Sensible, a., wise, intelligent, reasonable, sober, sound, conscious aware. Sensual, carnal, fleshly, voluptuous, animal. Set, put, place, lay, arrange. Settle, arrange, adjust, regulate, organize, conclude, determine, Ox ratify, confirm. Sever, break, disconnect, dissever, separate detach. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 40 Share, portion, lot, division, quantity, quota, contingent. Shock, v., offend, disgust, appall, dismay, scare, stun, terrify. Shudder, shake, tremble, quake, quiver. Signalize, distinguish, exalt, dignify, immortalize. Significant, expressive, indicative, important, momentous, weighty. Signify, express, declare, intimate, imply, denote, mean. Simple, silly, imbecile, foolish, elementary, unmixed, mere, plain, frank, open, shallow. Sin, wrong, wickedness, iniquity, crime, ungodliness, evil. Sincere, unvarnished, genuine, honest, unaffected, upright, true, plain, frank, candid, cordial. Sinister, unfair, disingenuous, dishonest, bad, evil, left, unlucky. Skulk, sneak, hide, cover, slink, shroud, shelter, veil. Slight, »., neglect, contempt, scorn, disdain. Slippery, smooth, glossy, unsafe, deceptive, evasive. Sly, cunning, astute, crafty, artful, subtle, wily, underhand. Small, little, diminutive, minute, slight, trivial, slender. Smart, quick, keen, brisk, sharp, caustic, severe, clever, witty, showy, spruce. Smartness, acuteness, keenness, liveliness, dexterity, cleverness. Sneer, «., scoff, taunt, gibe, mock. Snub, rebuke, reprimand, humiliate, nip, clip, dock. Snug* close, compact, concealed, comfortable. Solemn, grave, impressive, serious, formal, sacred, religious, devo- tional. Solicitude, carefulness, concern, trouble, anxiety, care. Soothe, soften, allay, appease, relieve, assuage, compose, calm, quiet, still, hush, lull, pacify, mitigate. Sordid, earthly, selfish, mean, covetous, niggardly, greedy, close, dirty, foul, gross, vile, base. Sorrow, affliction, distress, grief, trouble, sadness, mourning. Speak, converse, say, tell, talk, discourse, utter, express. Special, exceptionable, peculiar, specific, particular, distinctive. Specify, particularize, state, designate, mention. Spite, rancor, spleen, malice, malevolence, ill-will, grudge, pique, vin- dictiveness. Splendid, magnificent, grand, brilliant, showy, superb, sumptuous, pompous, glorious, illustrious, signal. Spread, extend, disperse, expand, diffuse, distribute, circulate, propa- gate, disseminate, unfurl. Stable, a., firm, established, solid, substantial, constant, staunch, stead- fast, steady, fast, standing, permanent, perpetual. Staff, mark, impress, impression, print, genus, kind, description, make, mould, type. Station, standing, position, post, office, situation, state, rank, location. Sterling, genuine, pure, unalloyed, unadulterated, sound, substantial. Stimulate, spur, goad, animate, incite, encourage, impel, prompt, arouse, rouse. Stingy, close, mean, niggardly, sparing. Stipend, remuneration, allowance, pay, wages, salary, hire. Stipulate, bargain, contract, agree on, engage, covenant. Strengthen, fortify, reenforce, invigorate, consolidate, establish, substantiate. Strenuous, vigorous, zealous, vehement, bold, ardent, strong, resolute. Strong, forcible, cogent, powerful, fortified, potent, sturdy, stalwart, hale, robust, brawny, sinewy, athletic, hardy, firm. Studious, diligent, thoughtful, careful, attentive, mindful. Sturdy, robust, strong, stalwart, brawny, muscular. Suavity, mildness, gentleness, urbanity, sweetness, pleasantness. Subterfuge, evasion, shift, quirk, subtlety, artifice, dodge. Subtile, fine, thin, rare, delicate, nice, acute, refined. Subtle, cunning, crafty, astute, sly, wily, artful, shrewd. Succumb, yield, submit, comply, resign, surrender, give In. Suffrage, vote, voice. Suggest, bint, allude, refer, intimate, insinuate, propose. Sully, stain, tarnish, soil, spoil, blemish, mar, bedim, disgrace, dis- honor. Superficial, shallow, flimsy, slight, imperfect, external, outer. Supine, indolent, sluggish, lazy, listless, dull, apathetic, torpid, inac- tive, careless. Supple, lithe, flexible, pliant, bending, yielding, compliant. Support, v. y sustain, prop, uphold, upbear, maintain, help, befriend, as- sist, countenance, patronize, favor, second, further, forward, pro« mote, nurture, nourish, foster, cherish, endure, suffer. Sure, infallible, certain, indisputable, unmistakable, doubtless, firm, safe, secure, confident, positive, assured. Surmise, v., presume, conjecture, guess, suppose, suspect. Surmount, overcome, subdue, vanquish, conquer, surpass, exceed Surreptitious, underhand, furtive, stealthy, clandestine. Susceptible, sensible, sensitive, excitable, tender. Swear, declare, affirm, depose, testify, curse, blaspheme. Symbol, representation, sign, token, emblem, figure, type. Sympathy, commiseration, condolence, pity, compassion, agreemerv fellow-feeling, union, concert. Synonymous, like, equivalent, interchangeable, identical, tantamount. Synopsis, epitome, syllabus. System, method, arrangement, regularity, order, rule, plan, scheme. TALE, anecdote, story, fable, legend, memoir, novel, narrative, ind* dent, romance. Talent, ability, faculty, genius, cleverness, capability, gift, endow ment. Talk, conversation, chat, gossip, dialogue, discourse, report, rumor. Tantamount, equivalent, synonymous, equal to. Tardy, slow, dilatory, tedious, sluggish. Tarnish, »., stain, blemish, sully, soil, dim, darken, obscure, taint. Tarry, await, stay, remain, continue, linger, lag, loiter, abide, lodgft dwell. Tart, sour, acid, sharp, keen, acrid, bitter, caustic, acrimonious. Taste, judgment, discernment, perception, sensibility, relish, gusto, zest, nicety, elegance, refinement. Tautology, verbosity, repetition, reiteration. Tear, rend, break, lacerate, sever, sunder. Tease, z/., vex, plague, torment, irritate, disturb, provoke. Tedious, slow, dilatory, tardy, wearisome, irksome, dreary, tiresome, prosy, sluggish. Tell, number, enumerate, count, state, mention, communicate, apprise impart, reveal, inform, ascertain, signify, acquaint, notify, intimate report. Temporary. — See Temporal. Temporize, fence, manoeuvre, procrastinate. Tempt, allure, try, test, prove, draw, attract, decoy, entice, seduce. Tenacity, retentiveness, fixity, stubbornness. Tendency, inclination, leaning, propensity, proclivity, proneness, pre- disposition, scope, direction, bent, drift, aim, bias. Tenderness, delicacy, softness, beneficence, benignity, humanity, sen- sibility, benevolence, kindness, pity, clemency. Testify, depose, declare, swear, attest, witness, prove, certify, confirm. Testimony, witness, confirmation, attestation, proof, evidence, corrob- oration. Theme, subject, topic, text, essay. Theory, speculation, scheme, plea, hypothesis, conjecture. Thought, idea, conception, imagination, fancy, conceit, notion, suppo. sition, care, provision, consideration, opinion, view, sentiment, re- flection, deliberation. Thraldom, slavery, enslavement, servitude, bondage, vassalage, serf ism, captivity. Throb, palpitate, heave, beat. Throng, concourse, host, multitude, crowd, swarm, horde, shoai myriad. Tie, w., bind, restrain, restrict, oblige, secure, unite, join. Tie, k., band, ligament, ligature. Time, duration, season, period, era, age, date, span, spell. Tipsy, drunk, intoxicated, inebriated, fuddled. Tolerate, allow, admit, receive, suffer, permit, let, endure, abide. Tongue, speech, language, idiom, dialect, talk, discourse. Top, summit, apex, head, crown, surface. Torpid, benumbed, numb, dull, stupid, sluggish, inert. Torrid, burning, hot, parching, scorching, sultry. Tortuous, twisted, winding, crooked, indirect. Torture, torment, anguish, agony. Touching, tender, affecting, moving, pathetic. Tractable, docile, manageable, amenable. Trade, traffic, commerce, dealing, occupation, employment, office. 5° SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. Traditional, oral, uncertain, transmitted. Traffic, trade, exchange, commerce, intercourse. Trammel, fetter, shackle, clog, bond, chain, impediment, hinder- ance. Tranquil, still, unruffled, peaceful, quiet, hushed. Transaction, negotiation, occurrence, proceeding, affair. Transgress, pass, exceed, violate, infringe, contravene, offend, tres- pass. Trash, nonsense, twaddle, trifles, dross. # Travel, trip, ramble, peregrination, excursion, journey, tour, voyage. Traverse, cross, pass, thwart, obstruct. Treacherous, traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, faithless, false-hearted, perfidious, sly, false. Trenchant, cutting, sharp, severe, sarcastic. Trite, stale, old, ordinary, commonplace, hackneyed. Triumph, achievement, ovation, victory, conquest, jubilation. Trivial, trifling, petty, small, frivolous, unimportant, insignificant. Truculent, fierce, savage, barbarous, cruel, ruthless. True, genuine, actual, sincere, unaffected, true-hearted, honest, up- right, veritable, real, veracious, authentic, exact, accurate, correct. Tumult, ferment, outbreak, brawl, fray, turbulence, uproar, commo- tion, hubbub, disturbance, riot. Tumultuous, turbulent, riotous, disorderly, disturbed, confused, un- ruly. Tune, tone, air, melody, strain. Turbid, foul, thick, muddy, impure, unsettled. Turpitude, depravity, vileness, baseness, wickedness, sin. Tutor, teacher, preceptor, instructor, guardian, governor. Twit, taint, mock, jeer, gibe, sneer, scoff. Type, emblem, symbol, figure, sign, kind, sort, letter. Tyro, novice, beginner, learner. ^ UGLY, unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hideous. Ultimate, farthest, last, latest, final, eventual. Umbrage, offence, dissatisfaction, displeasure, resentment. Umpire, referee, arbitrator, judge, arbiter. Unanimity, accord, agreement, unity, concord. Unadvised, thoughtless, indiscreet, imprudent. Unanimous, agreeing, like-minded. Unblemished, pure, spotless, unspotted, unsullied. Unbridled, wanton, licentious, dissolute, loose, lax. Uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, fitful, equivocal, ambigu- ous, indistinct, variable, fluctuating. Uncivil, rude, discourteous, disrespectful, disobliging. Unclean, dirty, foul, filthy, sullied. Uncommon, rare, strange, scarce, singular, choice, unique, unusual. Unconcerned, careless, indifferent, apathetic. Uncouth, strange, odd, clumsy, ungainly. Uncover, reveal, strip, expose, lay bare, divest. Under, below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, lower, inferior. Undergo, bear, suffer, endure, sustain, experience. Understanding, knowledge, intellect, intelligence, faculty, comprehen- sion, mind, reason, brains. Undertake, engage in, embark in, agree, promise. Undo, annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, destroy. Uneasy, restless, disturbed, unquiet, stiff, awkward. Unfair, wrongful, dishonest, unjust. Unfit, a., improper, unsuitable, inconsistent, untimely, incompetent. Unfortunate, calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, wretched, unhappy, mis- erable. Unfounded, false, groundless, baseless. Uniform, regular, symmetrical, equal, even, alike, unvaried. Uninterrupted, continuous, perpetual, unceasing, incessant, endless. Union, junction, combination, alliance, confederacy, league, coalition, agreement, concert. Unique, unequalled, uncommon, rare, choice, matchless. Unison, harmony, concord, agreement, union. Unity, oneness, accord, uniformity, agreement. Universal, general, all, entire, total, eatholic. Unlimited, absolute, undefined, boundless, infinite. Unreasonable, foolish, silly, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous. Unrivalled, unequalled, unique, unexampled, incomparable, matchless. Unroll, unfold, open, discover. Unruly, ungovernable, unmanageable, refractory. Unusual, rare, unwonted, singular, uncommon, remarkable, strange extraordinary. Upbraid, blame, reproach, taunt, reprove, rebuke, chide, censure. Uphold, maintain, defend, sustain, support, vindicate. Upright, vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, equitable, fair, pure, hon orable. Uprightness, honesty, integrity, fairness, goodness, probity, virtue honor. Uproot, eradicate, exterminate, weed out. Urge, incite, impel, push, drive, instigate, stimulate, press, induce, so licit. Urgent, pressing, important, imperative, immediate, serious, wanted. Usage, custom, fashion, practice, prescription. Use, «., usage, practice, habit, custom, avail, advantage, utility, bene- fit, application. Use, »., employ, exercise, occupy, practise, accustom, inure. Useful, advantageous, serviceable, available, helpful, beneficial, good. Useless, unserviceable, fruitless, idle, profitless. Usual, ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, wonted, customary general. Usurp, arrogate, seize, appropriate, assume. Utility, benefit, advantage, profit, service, avail, usefulness. Utmost, farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest. Utter, a., extreme, excessive, sheer, mere, pure. Utter, v., speak, articulate, pronounce, express, issue. Utterly, totally, completely, wholly, quite, altogether, entirely. VACANT, empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thoughtless, unthinking. Vagrant, wanderer, beggar, tramp, vagabond, rogue. Vague, unsettled, undetermined, uncertain, pointless, indefinite. Vain, useless, fruitless, empty, worthless, inflated, proud, unreal, uo availing. Valiant, brave, bold, valorous, courageous, gallant. Valid, weighty, strong, powerful, sound, binding, efficient. Valor, courage, gallantry, boldness, bravery, heroism. Value, v., appraise, assess, reckon, appreciate, estimate, prize, esteem, treasure. Vanish, disappear, fade, melt, dissolve. Vanity, emptiness, conceit, self-conceit, affectedness. Vapid, dull, flat, insipid, stale, tame. Vapor, fume, smoke, mist, fog, steam. Variable, changeable, unsteady, inconstant, shifting, wavering, fickle; restless, fitful. Variety, difference, diversity, change, diversification, mixture, medley, miscellany, Vast, spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, immense, colossal gigantic, huge, prodigious. Vaunt, boast, brag, puff, hawk, advertise, flourish, parade. Vend, sell, retail, dispose of, hawk. Venerable, grave, sage, wise, old, reverend. Venial, pardonable, excusable, justifiable. Venom, poison, virus, spite, malice, malignity. Vent, opening, touch-hole, outlet, utterance. Venture, speculation, chance, peril, stake. Venture, v., dare, adventure, risk, hazard, jeopardize. Veracity, truth, truthfulness, credibility, accuracy. Verbal, oral, spoken, literal, parole, unwritten. Verdict, judgment, finding, decision, answer. Versatile, unsteady, changeable, unfixed, wavering, vacillating, oscll lating, fluctuating, inconstant, fickle, restless, manifold. Versed, skilled, practised, conversant, clever, proficient. Vice, vileness, corruption, depravity, pollution, immorality, wick edness, guilt, iniquity, crime, fault, defect, blemish. Vigilant, circumspect, watchful, wakeful, observant, cautious, careful. Vigorous, healthy, strong, powerful, energetic, stalwart, robust, hardy, firm, spirited, determined. Vile, ignoble, base, low, worthless, abject, sordid, mean, dishonorable sinful, wicked, vicious. Vilify, debase, degrade, slander, decry, defame, scandalize, upbraid brand, stigmatize, denounce. SYNONYMES OF WORDS IN GENERAL USE. 5* Vindictive, spiteful, resentful, revengeful, unforgiving. Virtuous, just, upright, moral, chaste, pure. Visible, apparent, obvious, clear, plain, evident, manifest, distinct, pal- pable, patent. Vivid, lively, clear, lucid, bright, sunny, glowing, graphic. Vocation, profession, calling, trade, business, employment, office, mis- sion. Vogue, usage, way, custom, fashion, use, practice. Void, null, invalid, unfilled, empty, hollow, useless, nugatory. WAFT, transport, bear, convey. Wage, make, carry on, engage in, undertake. Wages, salary, hire, allowance, stipend, pay, remuneration, earnings. Waggish, frolicsome, funny, jocular, sportive, merry, wanton. Wait, await, abide, bide, stay, remain, tarry. Waive, forego, relinquish, let go. Wanton, licentious, libertine, unrestrained, unbridled, uncurbed, dis- solute, loose, lax. Ward, v ., avert, parry, fend, repel, turn aside, guard, defend. Warlike, bellicose, martial, military, soldier like. Warm, affectionate, attached, devoted, ardent, fervent, fervid, glow- ing. Warmth, ardor, fervency, fervor, cordiality, vehemence, heat, fervid- ness, glow. Wary, careful, cautious, circumspect, guarded, watchful, heedful, pru- dent, vigilant. Wash, clean, rinse, wet, moisten, stain, tint. Waste, z>., squander, dissipate, lavish, destroy, decay, dwindle, wither. Way, method, plan, system, means, manner, mode, form, fashion, course, process, road, route, track, path, habit, practice. Wayward, forward, obstinate, stubborn, unruly, perverse, disobedient. Weak, feeble, infirm, enfeebled, debilitated, powerless, helpless, ema- ciated, prostrate, thin, watery, diluted, flimsy, slight, poor, silly, defenceless. Weal, prosperity, welfare, advantage, well-being, happiness. Wealth, riches, opulence, affluence, plenty, mammon. Welfare, good fortune, well-being, prosperity, happiness, success. Wheedle, coax, cajole, flatter, entice, decoy, humor, court. White, snowy, pure, spotless, unspotted, unblemished, stainless, clean. Whole, sound, healthy, well, total, all, entire, perfect, complete, in- tegral, aggregate, undivided. Wholesome, nutritious, healthy, salubrious, healing, salutary. Wholly, entirely, totally, altogether, quite, perfectly, completely, ut- terly. Wicked, bad, ill, unjust, irreligious, ungodly, godless, profane, impi- ous, unhallowed, black, dark, foul, atrocious, villanous, enormous, monstrous, outrageous, profligate, abandoned. Wide, broad, ample, large, expanded, diffuse, extensive. Wild, savage, uncivilized, loose, irregular, disorderly, untamed, un- domesticated, unruly. Wilful, perverse, stubborn, self-willed, headstrong, obstinate. Wilfully, designedly, purposely, intentionally. Willingly, voluntarily, spontaneously, gratuitously. Win, get, obtain, gain, procure, effect, realize, accomplish, achieve. Wind, v., coil, twine, wreathe, turn, bend, curve, twist, wriggle. Wing, v ., fly, mount, ascend, soar, tower. Wisdom, sense, knowledge, learning, prudence, judgment, InteDI* gence, sagacity. Wise, intelligent, learned, skilled, judicious, rational, discreet, pflt» dent. | Wish, desire, long for, yearn, hanker, covet. Wit, mind, intellect, understanding, genius, imagination, humor, 93*1 tire, irony, mirth. Woe, distress, sorrow, affliction, disaster, trouble. Wonder, amazement, surprise, astonishment, admiration, miracle, marvel, prodigy, curiosity, rarity. , Wonderful, marvellous, wondrous, amazing, astonishing, striking. sur- prising, admirable. Wondrous, wonderful, amazing, marvellous, stupendous, miraculous. Word, term, expression, accent, promise, engagement, account, tidings, message, order, command, signal. > Worldly, terrestrial, mundane, temporal, secular, carnal, earthly. Worry, plague, tease, torment, vex, annoy, irritate, fret. Worth, price, value, rate, desert, merit, virtue, excellence. Worthless, useless, valueless, frivolous, corrupt, libertine, dissolute, licentious, profligate. Worthy, excellent, deserving, eligible, preferable, meritorious, esti- mable, commendable, laudable, praiseworthy. Wrap, muffle, envelop, fold, encase. Wreathe, »., turn, twist, intervveat ', enfold. Wreck, debris, ruins, havoc, rubbiSi.. Wretched, deplorable, miserable, unhappy, distressed, afflicted, un- fortunate, afflicting, disastrous, calamitous, drear, dismal. Wring, v. y twist, wrench, wrest, distort, squeeze. Wrong, v., abuse, injure, maltreat, oppress, aggrieve. Wrong, a., bad, evil, incorrect, erroneous, unsuitable. Improper, 'in just. Wry, twisted, distorted, awry, crooked. YEARN, hanker after, long for, desire, crave. Yield, bear, give, afford, impart, communicate, confer, bestow, give up abdicate, resign, cede, surrender, relinquish, relax, quit, forego, lei go, waive, comply, conform, accede, assent, acquiesce, succumo sink, submit. Yoke, v ., couple, link, connect. Youth, boy, lad, minority, adolescence, juvenility. Youthful, young, juvenile, boyish, girlish, puerile. ZEAL, energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthusiasm, eagerness. Zest, relish gusto, flavor. 53 FAVORITE POEMS. OLERIDGE claims that Poetry is the blossom and fragrance of all human knowledge, human thoughts, human passions, emotion, language. “ Poetry,” says Leigh Hunt, “ is the breath of beauty flowing around the spiritual world as the winds that wake up the flowers do about the material.” “ The world is full of poetry ; the air is living with its spirit ; and the waves dance to the music of its melodies. It is the light that never was on land or sea — the music of the soul.” Swinburne de- clares that there are few delights in any life so high and rare as the subtle and strong delight of sovereign Art and Poetry. “All men,” says Emerson, “are poets at heart.” No small portion of the exquisite pleasure we derive from the works of the poets arises from recognizing there in clear expression what we had obscurely felt in the most secret shrines of our being, and had thought peculiar to ourselves. What all dumbly feel, the poet feels so powerfully as to compel an utterance in the “golden cadence of poesy.” “ Most wretched men are cradled into poetry by wrong ; they learn in suffering what they teach in song.” Poets are persons of more affluent and susceptible natures than other men, and symbolizing their ex- perience in the choicest words, they reveal man to himself. Their mission is to give relief and pleasure to the soul by a fit expression of what stirs, burns, and crowds within ; to reveal to duller eyes and colder hearts the beauty of nature — the wonder and bloom of the world. Tire poet is eminently an emancipator of men. One of his functions is to thrill imprisoned souls with the joyous notes of liberty, to open their cages of care, and to set them free. By his power of reproducing all things in contemplative and emotional imagination, he takes us out of mere self, and makes us live the whole life of humanity. Poetry, in addition, is intrusted with a general apostleship of virtue and philanthropy, charged to portray the commanding charms of justice, faith, love, and magnanimity. The poet by his very tem- perament and gifts, is a believer, a lover, an enjoyer. He is too highly endowed with the blessed preroga- tives of insight and fruition to be a victim of the petty distrusts, envies, hatreds, moroseness which afflict the souls of so many, imbittering their cup of experience from its foam to its dregs. Con- sequently his singing tends to cheer and sweeten all existence, flinging light and music abroad, beauti- fully reflecting everywhere in the mirror of his thoughts and sentiments whatever things are really fair, good, blissful, everlasting. “ Poetry,” says FAVORITE POEMS. 53 Shelley, “ turns all things to loveliness ; it exalts the beauty of that which is most beautiful, and it adds beauty to chat which is most deformed ; it marries exultation and horror, grief and pleasure, eternity and change ; it subdues to union, under its light yoke, all irreconcilable things.” Another, and a central feature in the mission of Poetry is consolation. Sad and tender verses may often make us weep ; but the tears we then shed are not smitten forth by cruel shocks, nor wrung out in scalding bitterness. The last and crowning use of Poetry is to impart inspiration to an often burdened existence, and to serve as the bright and blissful com- plement to a sometimes dark and defective world. Entering the enchanted realm and the divine fellow- ship of the poets we leave behind us repulsive diffi- culties, aching disappointment, and despair. MY MIND TO ME A KINGDOM IS. My mind to me a kingdom is, Such perfect joy therein I find As far exceeds all earthly bliss That God or nature hath assigned ; Though much I want that most would have, Yet still my mind forbids to crave. Content I live, this is my stay : I seek no more than may suffice : I press to bear no haughty sway : Look ! what I lack, my mind supplies. Lo ! thus I triumph like a king, Content with what my mind doth bring. I see how plenty surfeits oft, And hasty climbers soonest fall ; I see that such as sit aloft Mishap doth threaten most of all : These get with toil and keep with fear ; Such cares my mind could never bear. Some have too much, yet still they crave ; I little have, yet seek no more ; They are but poor, though much they have, And I am rich with little store. They poor, I rich ; they beg, I give ; They lack, I lend ; they pine, I live. I laugh not at another’s loss, I grudge not at another’s gain : No worldly wave my mind can toss, I brook that is another’s bane : I fear no foe, nor fawn on friend ; I loathe not life, nor dread mine end. I wish but what I have at will, I wander not to seek for more, I like the plain, I climb no hill, In greatest storms I sit on shore. And laugh at them that toil in vain. To get what must be lost again. My wealth is health and perfect ease, My conscience clear my chief defense ; I never seek by bribes to please, Nor by desert to give offense ; Thus do I live, thus will I die, i Would all did so as well as I. William Byrd. 1* THE SEVEN AGES. All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players : They have their exits and their entrances ; And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. At first the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms; And then the whining schoolboy, with his satchel, And shining morning face, creeping like snail Unwillingly to school. And then the lover, Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad Made to his mistress’ eyebrow. Then a soldier, Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard, Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel, Seeking the bubble reputation Even in the cannon’s mouth. And then the justice In fair round belly, with good capon lined, With eyes severe, and beard of formal cut, Full of wise saws and modern instances; And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts Into the lean and slippered pantaloon, With spectacles on nose, and pouch on side, His youthful hose well saved, a world too wide For his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice, Turning again toward childish treble, pipes And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all That ends this strange eventful history, Is second childishness, and mere oblivion ; Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything. Shakspeare : As You Like It. BEGONE DULL CARE I Begone dull care ! I prithee begone from me ; Begone dull care ! Thou and I can never agree. Long while thou hast been tarrying here, And fain than wouldst me kill ; But i’faith, dull care, Thou never shalt have thy wilL 54 BEGONE DULL CARE — THE DEATH OF THE FLOWERS. Too much care Will make a young man gray ; Too much care Will turn an old man to clay. My wife shall dance and I will sing, So merrily pass the day ; For I hold it is the wisest thing, To drive dull care away. Hence, dull care, I’ll none of thy company ; Hence, dull care, Thou art no pair for me. We’ll hunt the wild boar through the wold, So merrily pass the day ; And then at night, o’er a cheerful bowl, We’ll drive dull care away. Anonymous. (Before 1649.) BLOW, BLOW, THOU WINTER WIND. I. Blow, blow, thou winter wind, Thou art not so unkind As man’s ingratitude ; Thy tooth is not so keen, Because thou art not seen, Although thy breath be rude. Heigh-ho ! sing, heigh-ho ! unto the green holly : Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly : Then, heigh-ho ! the holly ! This life is most jolly ! II. Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky, That dost not bite so nigh As benefits forgot : Though thou the waters warp, Thy sting is not so sharp As friend remembered not. Heigh-ho ! sing, heigh-ho ! unto the green holly : Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly : Then, heigh-ho ! the holly ! This life is most jolly ! Shakspeare. THE DEATH OF THE FLOWERS. The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year. Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sear. Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the autumn leaves lie dead ; They rustle to the eddying gust, and to the rabbit’s tread. The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrubs the jay, And from the wood-top calls the crow through all the gloomy day. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang and stood In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood ? Alas ! they all are in their graves ; the gentle race of flowers Are lying in their lowly beds with the fair and good of ours. The rain is falling where they lie ; but the cold Novem- ber rain Calls not from out the gloomy earth the lovely ones again. The wind-flower and the violet, they perished long ago, And the brier-rose and the orchis died amid the summer glow ; But on the hill the golden-rod, and the aster in the wood, And the yellow sunflower by the brook in autumn beauty stood, Till fell the frost from the clear cold heaven, as falls the plague on men, And the brightness of their smile was gone from upland, glade, and glen. And now, when comes the calm mild day, as still such days will come, To call the squirrel and the bee from out their winter home ; When the sound of dropping nuts is heard, though all the trees are still, And twinkle in the smoky light the waters of the rill ; The south-wind searches for the flowers whose fragrance late he bore, And sighs to find them in the wood and by the stream no more. And then I think'of one who in her youthful beauty died, The fair meek blossom that grew up and faded by my side ; In the cold moist earth we laid her, when the forests cast the leaf, And we wept that one so lovely should have a life so brief ; Yet not unmeet it was that one, like that young triend of ours, So gentle and so beautiful, should perish with the flow- ers. William Cullen Bryan*'. FAVORITE POEMS. 56 GIVE ME THE OLD. I. Old wine to drink ! Ay, give me the slippery juice That drippeth from the grape thrown loose Within the tun ; Plucked from beneath the cliff Of sunny-sided Teneriffe, And ripened ’neath the blink Of India’s sun ! Peat whiskey hot, Tempered with well-boiled water ! These make the long night shorter, Forgetting not Good stout old English porter. II. Old wood to burn !— Ay, bring the hillside beech From where the owlets meet and screech, And ravens croak ; The crackling pine, and cedar sweet ; Bring too a clump fragrant of peat, Dug ’neath the fern ; The knotted oak, A fagot too, perhap, Whose bright flame, dancing, winking, Shall light us at our drinking ; While the oozing sap Shall make sweet music to our thinking. ill. Old books to read ! Ay, bring those nodes of wit, The brazen-clasped, the vellum-writ, Time-honored tomes ! The same my sire scanned before, The same my grandsire thumbed o’er, The same his sire from college bore, The well-earned meed Of Oxford’s domes : Old Homer blind, Old Horace, rake Anacreon, by Old Tulley, Plautus, Terence lie ; Mort Arthur's olden minstrelsie, Quaint Burton, quainter Spenser, ay ! And Gervase Markham' s venerie — Nor leave behind The Holy Book by which we live and die. IV. Old friends to talk ! Ay, bring those chosen few, The wise, the courtly, and the true, So rarely found ; Him for my wine, him for my stud, Him for my easel, distich, bud In mountain walk ! Bring Walter good : With soulful Fred j and learned Will, And thee, my alter ego, (dearest still For every mood). R. H. Messinges. A PSALM OF LIFE. WHAT THE HEART OF THE YOUNG MAN SAID TO THE PSALMIST. Tell me not in mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream ! For the soul is dead that slumbers. And things are not what they seem. Life is real ! Life is earnest ! And the grave is not its goal; Dust thou art, to dust retumest, Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow. Is our destined end or way ; But to act, that each to-morrow Find us farther than to-day. Art is long, and Time is fleeting, And our hearts, though stout and bfave, Still, like muffled drums, are beating Funeral marches to the grave. In the world’s broad field of battle In the bivouac of Life, Be not like dumb, driven cattle ! Be a hero in the strife ! Trust no Future, howe’er pleasant! Let the dead Past bury its dead ! Act, — act in the living Present ! Heart within, and God o'erhead ! Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time ; — Footprints, that perhaps another, Sailing o’er life’s solemn main, A forlorn and shipwrecked brother. Seeing, shall take heart again. Let us then, be up and doing, With a heart for any fate, Still achieving, still pursuing, Learn to labor and to wait. Henry Wadsworth Lonofsuovi 56 MAIDENHOOD. — NEVER AGAIN. MAIDENHOOD. Maiden ! with the meek, brown eyes, In whose orbs a shadow lies Like the dusk in evening skies ! Thou whose locks outshine the sun, Golden tresses, wreathed in one, As the braided streamlets run ! Standing, with reluctant feet, Where the brook and river meet, Womanhood and childhood fleet ! Gazing, with a timid glance, On the brooklet’s swift advance, On the river’s broad expanse ! Deep and still, that gliding stream Beautiful to thee must seem, As the river of a dream. Then why pause with indecision, When bright angels in thy vision Beckon thee to fields Elysian ? Seest thou shadows sailing by, As the dove, with startled eye, Sees the falcon’s shadow fly ? Hearest thou voices on the shore, That our ears perceive no more, Deafened by the cataract’s roar ? O, thou child of many prayers ! Life hath quicksands — Life hath snares ! Care and age come unawares ! Like the swell of some sweet tune, Morning rises into noon, May glides onward into June. Childhood is the bough, where slumbered Birds and blossoms many-numbered ; — Age, that bough with snows encumbered. Gather, then, each flower that grows, When the young heart overflows, To embalm that tent of snows. Bear a lily in thy hand ; Gates of brass cannot withstand One touch of that magic wand. , Bear through sorrow, wrong, and ruth, In thy heart the dew of youth, On thy lips the smile ef truth. O, that dew, like balm, shall steal Into wounds that cannot heal, Even as sleep our eyes doth seal ; And that smile, like sunshine, dart Into many a sunless heart, For a smile of God thou art. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. AGAIN. O, SWEET and fair ! O, rich and rare ! That day so long ago ; The autumn sunshine everywhere, The heather all aglow, The ferns were clad in cloth of gold, The waves sang on the shore. Such suns will shine, such waves will sing Forever evermore. O, fit and few ! O, tried and true ! The friends who met that day, Each one the other’s spirit knew, And so in earnest play The hours flew past, until at last The twilight kissed the shore. We said, “ Such days shall come again Forever evermore.” One day again, no cloud of pain A shadow o’er us cast ; And yet we strove in vain, in vain, To conjure up the past ; Like, but unlike, — the sun that shone, The waves that beat the shore, The words we said, the songs we sung. Like, — unlike, — evermore. For ghosts unseen crept in between, And, when our songs flowed free,' Sang discords in an undertone, And marred our harmony. “ The past is ours, not yours,” they said : “ The waves that beat the shore, Though like the same, are not the same, O, never, never more ! ” Anonymous. NEVER AGAIN. There are gains for all our losses — There are balms for ajl our pain ; But when youth, the dream, departs, It takes something from our hearts, And it never comes again. FAVORITE POEMS. 5? We are stronger and are better, Under manhood’s sterner reign ; Still we feel that something sweet Followed youth, with flying feet, And will never come again. Something beautiful has vanished. And we sigh for it in vain ; We behold it everywhere, On the earth, and in the air, But it never comes again. Richard Henry Stoddard. THE OLD CLOCK ON THE STAIRS. Somewhat back from the village street Stands the old fashion’d country-seat. Across its antique portico Tall poplar trees their shadows throw : And from its station in the hall An ancient timepiece says to all — " Forever — never ! Never — forever ! ” Halfway up the stairs it stands, And points and beckons with its hands From its case of massive oak, Like a monk, who, under his cloak, Crosses himself, and sighs, alas ! With sorrowful voice to all who pass — “ Forever — never ! Never — forever ! ” By day its voice is low and light ; But in the silent dead of night, Distinct as a passing footstep’s fall, It echoes along the vacant hall, Along the ceiling, along the floor, And seems to say, at each chamber-door — “ Forever — never ! Never — forever ! ” Through days of sorrow and of mirth, Through days of death and days of birth, Through every swift vicissitude Of changeful time, unchanged it has stood, And as if, like God, it all things saw, It calmly repeats those words of awe — “ Forever — never ! Never — forever ! ” In that mansion used to be Free-hearted Hospitality ; His great fires up the chimney roar’d ; The stranger feasted at his board ; But, like the skeleton at the feast, That warning timepiece never ceased — “ Forever — never ! Never — forever ! ” There groups of merry children play’d There youths and maidens dreaming stray’d; O precious hours ! O golden prime, And affluence of love and time ! Even as a miser counts his gold. Those hours the ancient timepiece told — “ F orever — never ! Never — forever ! ” From that chamber, clothed in white, The bride came forth on her wedding night ; There, in that silent room below, The dead lay in his shroud of snow ; And in the hush that follow’d the prayer. Was heard the old clock on the stair — “ Forever — never ! Never — forever ! ” All are scatter’d now and fled, Some are married, some are dead ; And when I ask with throbs of pain, “ Ah ! when shall they all meet again, As in the days long since gone by ? ” The ancient timepiece makes reply — “ Forever — never Never — forever ! ” Never here, forever there, Where all parting, pain, and care And death, and time shall disappear — Forever there, but never here ! The horologe of Eternity Sayeth this incessantly — " Forever — never ! Never— forever ! ” Henry Wadsworth Longfellow I REMEMBER, I REMEMBER. I remember, I remember, The house where I was born, The little window where the sun Came peeping in at morn : He never came a wink too soon, Nor brought too long a day ; But now, I often wish the night Had borne my breath away. I I REMEMBER, I REMEMBER. — FOR A THAT AND A’ THAT. I remember, I remember. The roses, red and white ; The violets and the lily-cups, Those flowers made of light ! The lilacs where the robin built. And where my brother set The laburnum on his birthday — The tree is living yet ! I remember, I remember, Where I was used to swing ; And thought the air must rush as fresh To swallows on the wing : My spirit flew in feathers then, That is so heavy now, And summer pools could hardly cool The fever on my brow ! I remember, I remember, The fir-trees dark and high ; I used to think their slender tops Were close against the sky : It was a childish ignorance, But now ’tis little joy To know I’m farther off from heaven Than when I was a boy. Thomas Hood. ONE BY ONE. One by one the sands are flowing, One by one the moments fall ; Some are coming, some are going ; Do not strive to grasp them all. One by one thy duties wait thee, Let thy whole strength go to each ; Let no future dreams elate thee, Learn thou first what these can teach. One by one (bright gifts from Heaven) Joys are sent thee here below ; Take them readily when given, Ready too to let them go. One by one thy griefs shall meet thee, Do not fear an armSd band ; One will fade as others greet thee ; Shadows passing through the land. Do not look at life’s long sorrow ; See how small each moment’s pain ; God will help thee for to-morrow, So each day begin again. Every hour that fleets so slowly Has its task to do or bear ; Luminous the crown, and holy, When each gem is set with care. Do not linger with regretting, Or for passing hours despond; Nor, the daily toil forgetting, Look too eagerly beyond. Hours are golden links, God’s token Reaching heaven; but one by one Take them, lest the chain be broken Ere the pilgrimage be done. Adelaide Anne Procter. FOR A’ THAT AND A’ THAT. Is there, for honest poverty That hangs his head, and a’ that ? The coward slave, we pass him by ; We dare be poor for a’ that ! For a’ that, and a’ that, Our toils obscure, and a’ that : The rank is but the guinea’s stamp. The man’s the gowd for a’ that ! What though on hamely fare we dine. Wear hoddin gray,* and a’ that? Gie fools their silks, and knaves their wine, A man’s a man for a’ that ! For a’ that, and a’ that, Their tinsel show, and a’ that : The honest man, though e’er sae poor, Is king o’ men for a’ that ! Ye see yon birkie.f ca’d a lord, Wha struts, and stares, and a’ that : Though hundreds worship at his word. He’s but a coofj for a’ that. For a’ that, and a’ that, His ribbon, star, and a’ that : The man of independent mind, He looks and laughs at a’ that ! A prince can mak a belted knight, A marquis, duke, and a’ that ; But an honest man’s aboon his might : Guid faith, he mauna fa’g that ! For a’ that, and a’ that, Their dignities, and a’ that, The pith o’ sense, and pride o’ worth. Are higher rank|| than a’ that. i Then let us pray that come it may — As come it will for a’ that — That sense and worth, o’er a’ the earth, May bear the gree.jf and a’ that: * Coarse woolen cloth. + A conceited fellow. X A fool. £ Attempt. 1 So in MS., but usually priuted ranks. 1 Supremacy. FAVORITE TOEMS. S9 For a’ that, and a’ that, It’s cornin’ yet for a’ that, That man to man, the warld o’er, Shall brothers be for a’ that ! Robert Burns. THE VOICELESS. We count the broken lyres that rest Where the sweet wailing singers slumber, But o’er their silent sister’s breast The wild flowers who will stoop to number ? A few can touch the magic string, And noisy fame is proud to win them ; Alas for those that never sing, But die with all their music in them ! Nay, grieve not for the dead alone, Whose song has told their hearts’ sad story : Weep for the voiceless, who have known The cross without the crown of glory ! Not where Leucadian breezes sweep O’er Sappho’s memory-haunted billow. But where the glistening night-dews weep On nameless sorrow’s church-yard pillow. O hearts that break, and give no sign, Save whitening lip and fading tresses, Till Death pours out his cordial wine, Slow-dropped from misery’s crushing presses ! If singing breath or echoing chord To every hidden pang were given, What endless melodies were poured, As sad as earth, as sweet as heaven ! Oliver Wendell Holmes. UNSUNG. As sweet as the breath that goes From the lips of the white rose, As weird as the elfin lights That glimmer of frosty nights, As wild as the winds that tear The curled red leaf in the air, Is the song I have never sung. In slumber, a hundred times I’ve said the enchanted rhymes, But ere I open my eyes This ghost of a poem flies ; Of the interfluent strains Not even a note remains : I know by my pulses’ beat It was something wild and sweet, And my heart is strangely stirred By an unremembered word ! I strive, but I strive in vain. To recall the lost refrain. On some miraculous day Perhaps it will come and stay ; In some unimagined Spring I may find my voice and sing The song I have never sung. Thomas Bailey Aldrich. AFTER. A little time for laughter, A little time to sing, A little time to kiss and cling. And no more kissing after. A little while for scheming Love’s unperfected schemes; A little time for golden dreams. Then no more any dreaming. A little while ’twas given To me to have thy love ; Now, like a ghost, alone I move About a ruined heaven. A little time for speaking. Things sweet to say and hear ; A time to seek, and find thee near. Then no more any seeking. A little time for saying Words the heart breaks to say, A short, sharp time wherein to pray. Then no more need for praying ; But long, long years to weep in, And comprehend the whole Great grief that desolates the soul, And eternity to sleep in. Philip Bourke Marston. GOOD-BY. Good-by, proud world ! I’m going home ; Thou art not my friend, and I’m not thine. Long through thy weary crowds I roam ; A river-ark on the ocean brine, Long I’ve been tossed like the driven foam; But now, proud world ! I’m going home. Good-by to flattery’s fawning face ; To grandeur with his wise grimace ; To upstart wealth’s averted eye ; To supple office, low and high ; eo GOOD-BY. — STANZAS. To crowded halls, to court and street ; To frozen hearts and hasting feet ; To those who go and those who come- Good-by, proud world ! I’m going home. I am going to my own hearth-stone. Bosomed in yon green hills alone — A secret nook in a pleasant land, Whose groves the frolic fairies planned ; Where arches green, the livelong day. Echo the blackbird’s roundelay, And vulgar feet have never trod— A spot that is sacred to thought and God. Oh, when I am safe in my sylvan home, I tread on the pride of Greece and Rome ; And when I am stretched beneath the pines. Where the evening star so holy shines, I laugh at the lore and pride of man, At the Sophist schools, and the learned clan ; For what are they all, in their high conceit, When man in the bush with God may meet ? Ralph Waldo Emerson. BREAK, BREAK, BREAK. Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O Sea ! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. O well for the fisherman’s boy, That he shouts with his sister at play ! O well for the sailor lad, That he sings in his boat on the bay ! And the stately ships go on To their haven under the hill ; But O for the touch of a vanished hand, And the sound of a voice that is still ! Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O Sea ! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. Alfred Tennyson. APPLE BLOSSOMS. I SIT beneath the apple-tree, I see nor sky nor sun ; I only know the apple-buds Are opening one by one. You asked me once a little thing — A lecture or a song To hear with you ; and yet I thought To find my whole life long Too short to bear the happiness That bounded through the day, That made the look of apple blooms. And you and me and May ! For long between us there had hung The mist of love’s young doubt ; Sweet, shy, uncertain, all the world Of trust and May burst out. I wore the flowers in my hair. Their color on my dress ; Dear love ! whenever apples bloom In heaven do they bless Your heart with memories so small, So strong, so cruel glad ? If ever apples bloom in heaven, I wonder are you sad ? Heart ! yield up thy fruitless quest. Beneath the apple-tree ; Youth comes but once, love only once, And May but once to thee ! Elizabeth Stuart Phelps. STANZAS. My life is like the summer rose That opens to the morning sky, But, ere the shades of evening close. Is scattered on the ground — to die ! Yet on the rose’s humbled bed The sweetest dews of night are shed. As if she wept the waste to see, — But none shall weep a tear for me ! My life is like the autumn leaf That trembles in the moon’s pale ray ; Its hold is frail— its date is brief, Restless — and soon to pass away ! Yet, ere that leaf shall fall and fade, The parent tree will mourn its shade. The winds bewail the leafless tree — But none shall breathe a sigh for me ! My life is like the prints which feet Have left on Tempa’s desert strand ; Soon as the rising tide shall beat, All trace will vanish from the sand ; Yet, as if grieving to efface All vestige of the human race On that lone shore loud moans the sea — But none, alas ! shall mourn for me ! Richard Henry Wilde. FAVORITE POEMS. 61 BUGLE-SONG. The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits old in story ; The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying; Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. O, hark ! O, hear ! how thin and clear. And thinner, clearer, farther going ! O, sweet and far from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland faintly blowing ! Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying ; Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. O love, they die in yon rich sky, They faint on hill, or field, or river ; Our echoes roll from soul to soul, And grow forever and forever. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, And answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying. Alfred Tennyson : The Princess. A WET SHEET AND A FLOWING SEA. A WET sheet and a flowing sea, A wind that follows fast, And fills the white and rustling sail, And bends the gallant mast ; And bends the gallant mast, my boys, While, like ^yuagle free, Away the goc J "jTiip flies, and leaves Old England on the lee. Oh for a soft and gentle wind ! I heard a fair one cry ; But give to me the snoring breeze, And white waves heaving high ; And white waves heaving high, my boys, The good ship tight and free — The world of waters is our home. And merry men are we. There’s tempest in your horned moon. And lightning in yon cloud ; And hark, the music, mariners, The wind is piping loud ; The wind is piping loud, my boys. The lightning flashing free — While the hollow oak our palace is, Onr heritage the sea. Allan Cunningham. THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET. How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view ! — The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wildwood. And every loved spot which my infancy knew ! The wide-spreading pond, and the mill that stood by it ; The bridge, and the rock where the cataract fell ; The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it ; And e’en the rude bucket that hung in the well — The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket which hung in the well. That moss-covered vessel I hailed as a treasure ; For often at noon, when returned from the field, I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure — The purest and sweetest that nature can yield. How ardent I seized it, with hands that were glowing, And quick to the white-pebbled bottom it fell ! Then soon, with the emblem of truth overflowing, And dripping with coolness, it rose from the well — The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket arose from the well. How sweet from the green, mossy brim to receive it. As, poised on the curb, it inclined to my lips ! Not a full, blushing goblet could tempt me to leave it, The brightest that beauty or revelry sips, And now, far removed from the loved habitation. The tear of regret will intrusively swell, As fancy reverts to my father’s plantation, And sighs for the bucket that hangs in the well — The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket that hangs in the well ! Samuel Woodworth. BABY BELL. Have you not heard the poets tell How came the dainty Baby Bell Into this world of ours ? The gates of heaven were left ajar : With folded hands and dreamy eyes. Wandering out of Paradise, She saw this planet like a star, Hung in the glistening depths of even, — Its bridges, running to and fro, O’er which the white-wing’d angels go, Bearing the holy dead to heaven. She touch’d a bridge of flowers, — those feet. So light they did not bend the bells Of the celestial asphodels, They fell like dew upon the flowers : Then all the air grew strangely sweet 1 And thus came dainty Baby Bell Into this world of ours. 62 BABY BELL. — BABY. She came, and brought delicious May. The swallows built beneath the eaves ; Like sunlight, in and out the leaves * The robins went the livelong day ; The lily swung its noiseless bell ; And o’er the porch the trembling vine Seem’d bursting with its veins of wine. How sweetly, softly, twilight fell ! Oh, earth was full of singing-birds And opening spring-tide flowers, When the dainty Baby Bell Came to this world of ours ! Oh, Baby, dainty Baby Bell, How fair she grew from day to day ! What woman-nature fill’d her eyes, What poetry within them lay ! Those deep and tender twilight eyes, So full of meaning, pure and bright As if she yet stood in the light Of those oped gates of Paradise. And so we loved her more and more : Ah, never in our hearts before Was love so lovely born : We felt we had a link between This real world and that unseen — The land beyond the morn ; And for the love of those dear eyes, For love of her whom God led forth, (The mother’s being ceased on earth When Baby came from Paradise), — For love of Him who smote our lives, And woke the chords of joy and pain, We said, Dear Christ ! — our hearts bent down, Like violets after rain. And now the orchards, which were white And red with blossoms when she came. Were rich in autumn’s mellow prime ; The cluster’d apples burnt like flame, The soft-cheek’d peaches blush’d and fell. The ivory chestnut burst its shell. The grapes hung purpling in the grange ; And time wrought just as rich a change In little Baby Bell. Her lissome form more perfect grew, And in her features we could trace, In soften’d curves, her mother’s face. Her angel-nature ripen’d too : We thought her lovely when she came. But she was holy, saintly now : — Around her pale angelic brow We saw a slender ring of flame ! God’s hand had taken away the seal That held the portals of her speech ; And oft she said a few strange words Whose meaning lay beyond our reach. She never was a child to us, We never held her being’s key ; I'Ve could not teach her holy things : She was Christ’s self in purity. It came upon us by degrees, We saw its shadow ere it fell, — The knowledge that our God had sent His messenger for Baby Bell. We shudder’d with unlanguaged pain, And all our hopes were changed to fears. And all our thoughts ran into tears Like sunshine into rain. We cried aloud in our belief, “Oh, smite us gently, gently, God ! Teach us to bend and kiss the rod. And perfect grow through grief.’’ Ah, how we loved her, God can tell ; Her heart was folded deep in ours. Our hearts are broken. Baby Bell ! At last he came, the messenger, The messenger from unseen lands: And what did dainty Baby Bell ? She only cross’d her little hands, She only look’d more meek and fair ! We parted back her silken hair. We wove the roses round her brow, — White buds, the summer’s drifted snow, — Wrapt her from head to foot in flowers ! And thus went dainty Baby Bell Out of this world of ours ! Thomas Bailey Aldrich. BABY. Where did you come from, baby dear ? Out of the everywhere into here. Where did you get those eyes so blue ? Out of the sky as I came through. What makes the light in them sparkle and spin ? Some of the starry spikes left in. Where did you get that little tear ? I found it wailing when I got here. What makes your forehead so smooth and high ? A soft hand stroked it as I went by. What makes your cheek like a warm white rose? I saw something better than anyone knows.; FAVORITE POEMS. 63 Whence that three-cornered smile of bliss ? Three angels gave me at once a kiss. Where did you get this pearly ear ? God spoke, and it came out to hear. Where did you get those arms and hands ? Love made itself into bonds and bands. Feet, whence did you come, you darling things ? From the same box as the cherub’s wings. How did they all just come to be you ? God thought about me, and so I grew. But how did you come to us, you dear ? God thought about you, and so I am here. George Macdmuad. THE ANGEL’S WHISPER. In Ireland they have a superstition that when a child smiles in its sleep, it is talking with angels. A baby was sleeping, Its mother was weeping, For her husband was far on the wild raging sea ; And the tempest was swelling Round the fisherman’s dwelling ; And she cried, “ Dermot, darling, oh come back to me ! ’’ Her beads while she numbered, The baby still slumbered, And smiled in her face as she bended her knee: “Oh, blessed be that warning, My child, thy sleep adorning, For I know that the angels are whispering with thee. " And while they are keeping Bright watch o’er thy sleeping, Oh, pray to them softly, my baby, with me ! And say thou wouldst rather They’d watch o’er thy father ! For I know that the angels are whispering to thee.” The dawn of the morning Saw Dermot returning, And the wife wept with joy her babe’s father to see; And closely caressing Her child with a blessing, Said, " I knew that the angels were whispering with thee.” Samuel Lover. WILLIE WINKIE. Wee Willie Winkie tins through the town, Up-stairs and doon-stairs, in his nicht-gown, Tirlin’ at the window, cryin’ at the lock, “ Are the weans in their bed ? — for it’s now ten o’clock.” Hey, Willie Winkie ! are ye cornin’ ben ? The cat’s singin’ gay thrums to the sleepin’ hen, The doug’s speldered on the floor, and disna gie a cheep; But here’s a waukrife laddie, that winna fa’ asleep. Ony thing but sleep, ye rogue ! glow’rin’ like the moon. Rattlin’ in an airn jug wi’ an airn spoon, Rumblin’ tumblin’ roun’ about, crowin’ like a cock. Skirlin’ like a kenna-what — wauknin sleepin’ folk. Hey, Willie Winkie ! the wean ’s in a creel 1 Waumblin’ aff a body’s knee like a vera eel, Ruggin’ at the cat’s lug, and ravellin’ a’ her thrums — Hey, Willie Winkie 1 — See, there he comes 1 Wearie is the mither that has a storie wean, / A wee stumpie stoussie, that canna rin his lane, That has a battle aye wi’ sleep, before he ’ll close an ee ; But a kiss frae aff his rosy lips gies strength anew to me. William Miller. TIRED MOTHERS. A little elbow leans upon your knee, Your tired knee that has so much to bear; A child’s dear eyes are looking lovingly From underneath a thatch of tangled hair. Perhaps you do not heed the velvet touch Of warm, moist fingers, folding yours so tight ; You do not prize this blessing overmuch, — You almost are too tired to pray to-night. But it is blessedness ! A year ago I did not see it as I do to-day — We are so dull and thankless ; and too slow To catch the sunshine till it slips away. And now it seems surpassing strange to me That, while I wore the badge of motherhood, I did not kiss more oft and tenderly The little child that brought me only good. And if some night when you sit down to rest, You miss this elbow from your tired knee, — This restless curling head from off your breast, — This lisping tongue that chatters constantly ; If from your own the dimpled hands had slipped, And ne’er would nestle in your palm again ; If the white feet into their grave had tripped, I could not blame you for your heartache then. I wonder so that mothers ever fret At little children clinging to their gown ; Or that the footprints, when the days are wet, Are ever black enough to make them frown. If I could find a little muddy boot, Or cap, or jacket, on my chamber-floor, — If I could kiss a rosy, restless foot, And hear it patter in my house once more,-« 64 TIRED MOTHERS. — RESIGNATION. II I could mend a broken cart to-day, To-morrow make a kite to reach the sky, There is no woman in God’s world could say She was more blissfully content than I. But ah ! the dainty pillow next my own Is never rumpled by a shining head ; My singing birdling from its nest has flown, The little boy I used to kiss is dead. May Riley Smith. IF. If, sitting with this little, worn-out shoe And scarlet stocking lying on my knee, I knew the little feet had pattered through The pearl-set gates that lie ’twixt Heaven and me, I could be reconciled and happy, too, And look with glad eyes toward the jasper sea. If in the morning, when the song of birds Reminds me of a music far more sweet, I listen for his pretty, broken words, And for the music of his dimpled feet, I could be almost happy, though I heard No answer, and but saw his vacant seat. I could be glad if, when the day is done, And all its cares and heartaches laid away, I could look westward to the hidden sun. And, with a heart full of sweet yearnings, say — “To-night I’m nearer to my little one By just the travel of a single day." If I could know those little feet were shod In sandals wrought of light in better lands, And that the footprints of a tender God Ran side by side with him, in golden sands, I could bow cheerfully and kiss the rod, Since Benny was in wiser, safer hands. If he were dead, I would not sit to-day And stain with tears the wee sock on my knee ; I would not kiss the tiny shoe and say— “ Bring back again my little boy to me ! ” I would be patient, knowing ’twas God’s way, And wait to meet him o’er death’s silent sea. But oh ! to know the feet, once pure and white, The haunts of vice had boldly ventured in 1 The hands that should have battled for the right Had been wrung crimson in the clasp of sin ! And should he knock at Heaven’s gate to-night, To fear my boy could hardly enter in ! May Riley Smith. BABY’S SHOES. Oh those little, those little blue shoes ! Those shoes that no little feet use. Oh the price were high That those shoes would buy. Those little blue unused shoes ! For Ihey hold the small shape of feet That no more their mother’s eyes meet. That, by God’s good will. Years since, grew still, And ceased from their totter so sweet. And oh, since that baby slept, So hushed, how the mother has kept. With a tearful pleasure, That little dear treasure, And o’er them thought and wept ! For they mind her for evermore Of a patter along the floor ; And blue eyes she sees Look up from her knees With the look that in life they wore. As they lie before her there, There babbles from chair to chair A little sweet face That’s a gleam in the place. With its little gold curls of hair. Then oh, wonder not that her heart From all else would rather part Than those tiny blue shoes That no little feet use, And whose sight makes such fond tears start ! William C. Bennett. « > « RESIGNATION. There is no flock, however watched and tended. But one dead lamb is there ! There is no fireside, howsoe’er defended, But has one vacant chair ! The air is full of farewells to the dying, And mournings for the dead ; The heart of Rachael, for her children crying. Will not be comforted ! Let us be patient ! These severe afflictions Not from the ground arise, But oftentimes celestial benedictions Assume this dark disguise. FAVORTTF POEMS. 65 We see but dimly through the mists and vapors ; Amid these earthly damps What seem to us but sad, funereal tapers May be heaven’s distant lamps. There is no Death ! What seems so is transition ; This life of mortal breath Is but a suburb of the life elysian, Whose portal we call Death. She is not dead, — the child of our affection, But gone unto that school Where she no longer needs our poor protection, And Christ himself doth rule. In that great cloister’s stillness and seclusion. By guardian angels led, Safe from temptation, safe from sin’s pollution, She lives, whom we call dead. Day after day we think what she is doing In those bright realms of air ; Year after year, her tender steps pursuing. Behold her grown more fair. Thus do we walk with her, and keep unbroken The bond which nature gives, Thinking that our remembrance, though unspoken, May reach her where she lives. Not as a child shall we again behold her: For when with raptures wild In our embraces we again enfold her, She will not be a child ; But a fair maiden, in her Father’s mansion, Clothed with celestial grace ; And beautiful with all the soul’s expansion Shall we behold her face. And though at times impetuous with emotion And anguish long suppressed, The swelling heart heaves moaning like the ocean, That cannot be at rest, — We will be patient, and assuage the feeling We may not wholly stay : By silence sanctifying, not concealing, The grief that must have way. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. » ♦* PHILIP, MY KING. ‘ Who bears upon his baby brow the round And top of sovereignty.” Look at me with thy large brown eyes, Philip, my king ! Round whom the enshadowing purple lies Of babyhood’s royal dignities : Lay on my neck thy tiny hand, With love's invisible scepter laden ; I am thine Esther to command Till thou shalt find a queen-handmaiden, Philip, my king ! Oh, the day when thou goest a-wooing, Philip, my king ! When those beautiful lips ’gin suing, And, some gentle heart’s bars undoing, Thou dost enter, love-crown’d, and there Sittest, love-glorified ! — Rule kindly, Tenderly, over thy kingdom fair ; For we that love, ah ! we love so blindly, Philip, my king ! Up from thy sweet mouth up to thy brow, Philip, my king ! The spirit that there lies sleeping now May rise like a giant, and make men bow As to one heaven-chosen amongst his peers. My Saul, than thy brethren taller and fairer Let me behold thee in future years ! Yet thy head needeth a circlet rarer, Philip, my king— A wreath, not of gold, but palm. One day, Philip, my king ! Thou, too, must tread, as we trod, a way Thorny, and cruel, and cold, and gray ; Rebels within thee and foes without Will snatch at thy crown. But march on, glorious, Martyr, yet monarch ! till angels shout, As thou sitt’st at the feet of God victorious, “ Philip, the king ! ” Dinah Mulock Craik. THE CHILD MUSICIAN. He had played for his lordship’s lev£e, He had played for her ladyship’s whim. Till the poor little head was heavy, And the poor little brain would swim. And the face grew peaked and eerie, And the large eyes strange and bright. And they said — too late — “ He is weary ! He shall rest for at least to-night !” But at dawn when the birds were waking, As they watched in the silent room, With a sound of a strained cord breaking, A something snapped in the gloom. ’Twas a string of his violoncello, And they heard him stir in bed — “ Make room for a tired little fellow, Kind God ! ” was the last that he said. Austin Dobscm. 66 IF WE KNEW. — HE THAT LOVES A ROSY CHfccK. IF WE KNEW. If we knew the woe and heart-ache Waiting for us down the road, If our lips could taste the wormwood. If our backs could feel the load ; Would we waste to-day in wishing For a time that ne’er can be ; Would we wait in such impatience For our ships to come from sea ? If we knew the baby fingers Pressed against the window-pane, Would be cold and stiff to-morrow — Never trouble us again ; Would the bright eyes of our darling Catch the frown upon our brow? Would the prints of rosy fingers Vex us as they do now ? Ah, those little ice-cold fingers, How they point our memories back To the hasty words and actions Strewn along our backward track 1 How those little hands remind us, As in snowy grace they lie. Not to scatter thorns — but roses — For our reaping by and by ! Strange we never prize the music Till the sweet-voiced bird has flown ; Strange that we should slight the violets Till the lovely flowers are gone. Strange that summer skies and sunshine Never seem one-half so fair As when winter’s snowy pinions Shake their white down in the air 1 Lips from which the seal of silence None but God can roll away, Never blossomed in such beauty As adorns the mouth to-day : And sweet words that freight our memory With their beautiful perfume, Come to us in sweeter accents Through the portals of the tomb. Let us gather up the sunbeams Lying all along our path : Let us keep the wheat and roses, Casting out the thorns and chaff; Let us find our sweetest comfort In the blessings of to-day j With a patient hand removing All the briers from our way. OUR OWN. If I had known in the morning How wearily all the day The words unkind Would trouble my mind I said when you went away, I had been more careful, darling, Nor given you needless pain ; But wevex " our own ” With look and tone, We might never take back again. For though in the quiet evening You may give me the kiss of peace, Yet it might be That never for me The pain of the heart should cease. How many go forth in the morning That never come home at night 1 And hearts have broken For harsh words spoken That sorrow can ne’er set right. We have careful thoughts for the stranger. And smiles for the sometime guest ; But oft for “ our own ” The bitter tone, Though we love “ our own ” the best. Ah ! lips with the curve impatient ; Ah ! brow with that look of scorn ; ’Twere a cruel fate, Were the night too late To undo the work of morn. Margaret E. Sangster. HE THAT LOVES A ROSY CHEEK. He that loves a rosy cheek, Or a coral lip admires, Or from starlike eyes doth seek Fuel to maintain his fires ; As old Time makes these decay, So his flames must waste away. But a smooth and steadfast mind, Gentle thoughts, and calm desires, Hearts with equal love combined. Kindle never-dying fires ; — Where these are not, I despise Lovely cheeks or lips or eyes. May Riley Smith. Thuui Camk FAVORITE POEMS. 6? SHE WAS A PHANTOM OF DELIGHT. She was a phantom of delight When first she gleamed upon my sight ; A lovely apparition, sent To be a moment’s ornament ; Her eyes as stars of twilight fair ; Like Twilight’s, too, her dusky hair ; But all things else about her drawn From May-time and the cheerful dawn ; A dancing shape, an image gay, To haunt, to startle, and waylay. I saw her upon nearer view, A spirit, yet a woman too ! Her household motions light and free, And steps of virgin liberty ; A countenance in which did meet Sweet records, promises as sweet ; A creature not too bright or good For human nature’s daily food ; For transient sorrows, simple wiles, Praise, blame, love, kisses, tears, and smiles. And now I see with eye serene The very pulse of the machine ; A being breathing thoughtful breath, A traveler between life and death ; The reason firm, the temperate will, Endurance, foresight, strength, and skill ; A perfect woman, nobly planned, To warn, to comfort, and command ; And yet a spirit still, and bright With something of angelic light. William Wordsworth. SHE IS NOT FAIR. She is not fair to outward view. As many maidens be : Her loveliness I never knew Until she smiled on me ; O then, I saw her eye was bright — A well of love, a spring of light ! But now her looks are coy and cold : To mine they ne’er reply ; And yet I cease not to behold The love-light in her eye. Her very frowns are better far Than smiles of other maidens are. Hartley Coleridcje. THE LANDLADY’S DAUGHTER. Three student-comrades crossed over the Rhine ; Together they stopped at a landlady’s sign. “ Landlady, have you good ale and wine ? And where is that pretty young daughter of thine ?“ “ My ale and wine are fresh and clear ; My daughter lies on her funeral bier.” And when they passed to the chamber back. There she lay, in her coffin black ! The first from her face the shroud-veil took, And gazed upon her — a mournful look. “ Ah ! wert thou but living, thou lovely maid, I would love thee from this time,” he said. The second covered the altered face, And turned him, weeping, from the place: “ That thou should’st lie on the funeral bier. Whom I loved this many a year ! ” But the last still snatched away the veil. And kissed her on the mouth so pale : “ I loved thee ever — still I love thee, Thee will I love through eternitv ! ” Johann Ludwig Uhland. (German* t Ti&nslation of C. G. Leland and J. W. Palmer. BEWARE 1 I know a maiden fair to see : Take care ! She can both false and friendly be : Beware ! Beware ! Trust her not ; She is fooling thee ! She has two eyes, so soft and brown : Take care ! She gives a side-glance and looks do\*it: Beware ! Beware ! Trust her not ; She is fooling thee ! And she has hair of a golden hue : Take care ! And what she says it is not true: Beware ! Beware ! Trust her not ; She is fooling thee 1 68 BEWARE ! — CHANGES. She has a bosom as white as snow : Take care ! She knows how much it is best to show : Beware ! Beware ! Trust her not ; She is fooling thee ! She gives thee a garland woven fair : Take care ! It is a fool’s-cap for thee to wear : Beware ! Beware ! Trust her not ; She is fooling thee ! Anonymous. (German.) Translation of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. THE MAIDEN’S CHOICE. Genteel in personage, Conduct and equipage ; Noble by heritage, Generous and free ; Brave, not romantic ; Learned, not pedantic : Frolic, not frantic : This must he be. Honor maintaining. Meanness disdaining, Still entertaining, Engaging and new; Neat, but not finical ; Sage, but not cynical : Never tyrannical, But ever true. Henry Fielding. SONG. The world goes up, and the world goes down, And the sunshine follows the rain ; And yesterday’s sneer and yesterday’s frown Can never come over again, Sweet wife, No, never come over again. For woman is warm though man be cold, And the night will hallow the day : Till the heart which at even was weary and old Can rise in the morning gay, Sweet wife, To its work in the morning gay. Charles Kingsley. JOHN ANDERSON MY JO. John Anderson my jo, John, When we were first acquent. Your locks were like the raven, Your bonnie brow was brent ; But now your brow is beld, John, Your locks are like the snaw; But blessings on your frosty pow, John Anderson my jo. John Anderson my jo, John, We clamb the hill thegither; And mony a canty day, John, We’ve had wi’ ane anither : Now we maun totter down, John, But hand-in-hand we’ll go, And sleep thegither at the foot, John Anderson my jo. Robert Burns. CHANGES. Whom first we love, you know, we seldom wed. Time rules us all. And life, indeed, is not The thing we planned it out ere hope was dead. And then, we women cannot choose our lot. Much must be borne which it is hard to bear ; Much given away which it were sweet to keep. God help us all ! who need, indeed, His care. And yet, I know the Shepherd loves His sheep. My little boy begins to babble now Upon my knee his earliest infant prayer. He has his father’s eager eyes, I know; And, they say, too, his mother’s sunny hair. But when he sleeps and smiles upon my knee, And I can feel his light breath come and go, I think of one (Heaven help and pity me !) Who loved me, and whom I loved, long ago ; Who might have been . . . ah, what I dare not think ! We all are changed. God judges for us best. God help us do our duty, and not shrink, And trust in Heaven humbly for the rest. But blame us women not, if some appear Too cold at times ; and some too gay and light. Some griefs gnaw deep. Some woes are hard to bear. Who knows the past ? and who can judge us right ? Ah, were we judged by what we might have been, And not by what we are — too apt to fall ! My little child— he sleeps and smiles between These thoughts and me. In heaven we shall know all? Robert Bulwer Lytton. FAVORITE POEMS. 69 SHE WALKS IN BEAUTY. BEDOUIN SONG. She walks in beauty like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies ; And all that’s best of dark and bright Meets in her aspect and her eyes ; Thus mellowed to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. One shade the more, one ray the less Had half impaired the nameless grace Which waves in every raven tress, Or softly lightens o’er her face — Where thoughts serenely sweet express How pure, how dear their dwelling place. And on that cheek, and o’er that brow, So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, The smiles that win, the tints that glow, But tell of days in goodness spent, A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent. Lord Byron. THE LADY’S YES. "Yes ! ” I answered you last night : “ No ! ” this morning, sir, I say. Colors seen by candle-light Will not look the same by day. When the tabors played their best, Lamps above, and laughs below, Love me sounded like a jest, Fit for Yes, or fit for No ! Call me false ; or call me free ; Vow, whatever light may shine. No man on thy face shall see Any grief for change on mine. Yet the sin is on us both : Time to dance is not to woo ; Wooer light makes fickle troth, Scorn of me recoils on you. Learn to win a lady’s faith Nobly as the thing is high. Bravely as for life and death, With a loyal gravity. Lead her from the festive boards ; Point her to the starry skies ; Guard her by your faithful words, Pure from courtship’s flatteries. By your truth she shall be true, Ever true, as wives of yore ; And her Yes, once said to you, Shall be Yes for evermore. Buumtk Baxmtt Bsowxwe, From the desert I come to thee. On a stallion shod with fire; And the winds are left behind In the speed of my desire. Under thy window I stand, And the midnight hears my cry : I love thee, I love but thee, With a love that shall not die Till the sun grows cold, And the stars are old, And the leaves of the Judgment Book unfold ! Look from thy window, and see My passion and my pain ; I lie on the sands below, And I faint in thy disdain. Let the night winds touch thy brow With the heat of my burning sigh. And melt thee to hear the vow Of a love that shall not die Till the sun grows cold, And the stars are old, And the leaves of the Judgment Book unfold ! My steps are nightly driven. By the fever in my breast, To hear from thy lattice breathed The word that shall give me rest. Open the door of thy heart, And open thy chamber door, And my kisses shall teach thy lips The love that shall fade no more Till the sun grows cold, And the stars are old, And the leaves of the Judgment Book unfold ! Bayard Taylor. JENNY KISSED ME. Jenny kissed me when we met, Jumping from the chair she sat in. Time, you thief ! who love to get Sweets into your list, put that in. Say I’m weary, say I’m sad ; Say that health and wealth have missed me ; Say I’m growing old, but add — Jenny kissed me ! LBlttM Hvtrr. 70 LOVE’S PHILOSOPHY. — THE BROOK-SIDE. LOVE’S PHILOSOPHY. The fountains mingle with the river. And the rivers with the ocean ; The winds of heaven mix forever With a sweet emotion ; Nothing in the world is single; All things by a law divine In one another’s being mingle : Why not I with thine ? See the mountains kiss high heaven, And the waves clasp one another ; No sister flower would be forgiven If it disdained its brother. And the sunlight clasps the earth, And the moonbeams kiss the sea : What are all these kissings worth. If thou kiss not me ? Percy Bysshe Shelley. TOO LATE. Could ye come back to me, Douglas, Douglas, In the old likeness that I knew, I would be so faithful, so loving, Douglas : Douglas, Douglas, tender and true ! Never a scornful word should grieve ye : I’d smile on ye sweet as the angels do — Sweet as your smile on me shone ever, Douglas, Douglas, tender and true ! 0 ! to call back the days that are not ! My eyes were blinded, your words were few. Do you know the truth now, up in Heaven, Douglas, Douglas, tender and true ? 1 never was worthy of you, Douglas, Not half worthy the like of you ! Now all men beside seem to me like shadows; I love you, Douglas, tender and true. Stretch out your hand to me, Douglas, Douglas; Drop forgiveness from Heaven like dew, As I lay my heart on your dead heart, Douglas : Douglas, Douglas, tender and true. Dinah Maria Muloch. WE HAVE BEEN FRIENDS TOGETHER. We have been friends together, In sunshine and in shade, Since first beneath the chestnut trees In infancy we played ; But coldness dwells within thy heart, A cloud is on thy brow. We have been friends together : Shall a light word part us now ? We have been gay together: We have laughed at little jests; For the fount of hope was gushing. Warm and joyous, in our breasts ; But laughter now hath fled thy lip, And sullen glooms thy brow. We have been gay together : Shall a light word part us now ? We have been sad together ; We have wept, with bitter tears, O’er the grass-grown graves where slumbered The hopes of early years ; The voices which are silent there Would bid thee clear thy brow. We have been sad together : O ! what shall part us now ? Caroline Elizabeth Norton. THE BROOK-SIDE. I wandered by the brook-side, I wandered by the mill ; I could not hear the brook flow, The noisy wheel was still ; There was no burr of grasshopper. No chirp of any bird ; But the beating of my own heart Was all the sound I heard. I sat beneath the elm-tree ; I watched the long, long shade. And, as it grew still longer, I did not feel afraid ; For I listened for a footfall, I listened for a word ; But the beating of my own heart Was all the sound I heard. He came not — no, he came not; The night came on alone : The little stars sat, one by one, Each on his golden throne ; The evening wind passed by my cheek. The leaves above were stirred ; But the beating of my own heart Was all the sound I heard. Fast silent tears were flowing, When something stood behind ; A hand was on my shoulder, I knew its touch was kind : It drew me nearer — nearer. We did not speak one word ; For the beating of our own hearts Was all the sound we heard. Richard Monckton Milnos. FAVORITE POEMS. 71 AE FOND KISS. Ae fond kiss, and then we sever ! Ae fareweel, and then forever ! Deep in heart-wrung tears I’ll pledge thee, Warring sighs and groans I’ll wage thee. Who shall say that Fortune grieves him, While the star of hope she leaves him ? Me — nae cheerful twinkle lights me ; Dark despair around benights me. I’ll ne’er blame my partial fancy, Naething could resist my Nancy ; But to see her was to love her, Love but her and love forever. Had we never loved sae kindly, Had we never loved sae blindly, Never met — or never parted, We had ne’er been broken-hearted. Fare thee weel, thou first and fairest ! Fare thee weel, thou best and dearest ! Thine be ilka joy and treasure, Peace, Enjoyment, Love, and Pleasure! Ae fond kiss, and then we sever ! Ae fareweel, alas ! forever ! Deep in heart-wrung tears I’ll pledge thee, Warring sighs and groans I’ll wage thee. Robmt Bub*is. “FORGET THEE?” " Forget thee ? ” If to dream by night. And muse on thee by day, Ifall the worship deep and wild A poet’s heart can pay, If prayers in absence breathed for thee To Heaven’s protecting power. If winged thoughts that flit to thee, — A thousand in an hour, If busy Fancy blending thee With all my future lot, — If this thou call’st " forgetting,’’ Thou, indeed, shalt be forgot ! “ Forget thee ? ” Bid the forest-birds Forget their sweetest tune ; “Forget thee ? ” Bid the sea forget To swell beneath the moon ; Bid the thirsty flowers forget to drink The eve’s refreshing dew ; Thyself forget thine own “ dear land,” And its “ mountains wild and blue.” Forget each old familiar face, Each long remembered spot, — When these things are forgot by thee, Then thou shalt be forgot ! Keep, if thou wilt, thy maiden peace, Still calm and fancy free, For God forbid thy gladsome heart Should grow less glad for me ; Yet while that heart is still unwon, Oh ! bid not mine to rove, But let it nurse its humble faith, And uncomplaining love ; — If these preserved for patient years, At last avail me not, Forget me then ; — but ne’er believe That thou canst be forgot ! John Moultrie. GOOD-NIGHT. Good-night to thee, lady ! — though many Have joined in the dance to-night, Thy form was the fairest of any, Where all was seducing and bright ; Thy smile was the softest and dearest, Thy form the most sylph-like of all, And thy voice the most gladsome and clearest That e’er held a partner in thrall. Good-night to thee, lady ! — ’tis over — The waltz — the quadrille, and the song — The whispered farewell of the lover, The heartless adieu of the throng; The heart that was throbbing with pleasure. The eyelid that longed for repose — The beaux that were dreaming of treasure, The girls that were dreaming of beaux. ’Tis over — the lights are all dying, The coaches all driving away ; And many a fair one is sighing, And many a false one is gay ; And beauty counts over her numbers Of conquests, as homeward she drives — And some are gone home to their slumbers. And some are gone home to their wives. And I, while my cab in the shower Is waiting, the last at the door, And looking all round for the flower That fell from your wreath on the floor. I’ll keep it — if but to remind me, Though withered and faded its hue — Wherever next season may find me — Of England — of Almack’s — and you ! There are tones that will haunt us, though lonely Our path be o’er mountain or sea ; There are looks that will part from us only When memory ceases to be ; 72 GOOD NIGHT. — EVELYN HOPE. There are hopes which our burden can lighten, Though toilsome and steep be the way ; And dreams that, like moonlight, can brighten. With a light that is clearer than day. There are names that we cherish, though nameless For aye on the lip they may be ; There are hearts that, though fettered, are tameless, And thoughts unexpressed, but still free ! And some are too grave for a rover, And some for a husband too light. — The ball and my dream are all over — Good-night to thee, lady ! good-night ! Winthrop Mackworth Praed. MY VALENTINE. Her eyes, that dance with roguish glee, Can sparkle like the stars at night ; When she bestows a smile on me It thrills me with a strange delight ; She knows I worship at her shrine, This little lady-love of mine 1 Her face is creamy white and fair, While roses blush on either cheek ; There’s music in the world whene’er This little beauty deigns to speak ; For oh ! I deem her half divine, This little lady-love of mine ! She has a slender little waist, And lips like cherries, rosy red ; The time I kissed her — just to taste, Their flavor almost turned my head : She’s just as sweet as new made wine, This little lady-love of mine 1 Though other beauties I have met Full worthy of a poet’s song, I never chanced to meet one yet To whom so many charms belong ; She cultivates the Muses nine, This little lady-love of mine ! Her merry laugh and winning way, The tender strains of song she sings, The love-light in her eyes all day, Have made me dream of wedding-rings ; And she shall be my valentine, This little lady-love of mine ! I prize her more than life or gold, And love her more than I can tell ; While wooing her I have enrolled Myself as watchful sentinel ; And she shall be my valentine, This little lady-love of mine ! Albert Ellery Berg. EVELYN HOPE. Beautiful Evelyn Hope is dead — Sit and watch by her side an hour. That is her book-shelf, this her bed ; She plucked that piece of geranium flower, Beginning to die, too, in the glass. Little has yet been changed, I think — The shutters are shut, no light may pass, Save two long rays through the hinge’s chink. Sixteen years old when she died ! Perhaps she had scarcely heard my name — It was not her time to love ; beside, Her life had many a hope and aim. Duties enough and little cares, And now was quiet, now astir — Till God’s hand beckoned unawares, And the sweet white brow is all of her. Is it too late, then, Evelyn Hope ? What, your soul was pure and true, The good stars met in your horoscope, Made you of spirit, fire and dew — And just because I was thrice as old. And our paths in the world diverged so wide. Each was naught to each, must I be told ? We were fellow- mortals, naught beside ? No, indeed, for God above Is great to grant, as mighty to make. And creates the love to reward the love, — I claim you still, for my own love’s sake ! Delayed it may be for more lives yet, Through worlds I shall traverse not a few — Much is to learn and much to forget Ere the time be come for taking you. But the time will come — at last it will, When, Evelyn Hope, what meant, I shall say. In the lower earth, in the years long still, That body and soul so pure and gay : — Why your hair was amber, I shall divine, And your mouth of your own geranium’s red- And what you would do with me, in fine, In the new life come in the old one’s stead. I have lived, I shall say, so much since then. Given up myself so many times, Gained me the gains of various men, Ransacked the ages, spoiled the climes ; — Yet one thing, one, in my soul’s full scope. Either I missed or itself missed me — And I want to find you, Evelyn Hope ! What is the issue ? let us see 1 FAVORITE POEMS. 73 I loved you, Evelyn, all the while ; My heart seemed full as it could hold — There was place and to spare for the frank young smile, And the red young mouth, and the hair's young gold. So, hush, — I will give you this leaf to keep, — See, I shut it inside the sweet, cold hand. There, that is our secret ! go to sleep ; You will wake, and remember, and understand. Robert Browning. SOMEBODY’S DARLING. INTO a ward of the whitewashed walls, Where the dead and dying lay, Wounded by bayonets, shells, and balls, Somebody’s Darling was borne one day — Somebody’s Darling, so young and so brave, Wearing yet on his pale, sweet face, Soon to be hid by the dust of the grave. The lingering light of his boyhood’s grace. Matted and damp are the curls of gold, Kissing the snow of that fair young brow ; Pale are the lips of delicate mould — Somebody’s darling is dying now. Back from his beautiful blue-veined brow Brush all the wandering waves of gold, Cross his hands on his bosom now, Somebody’s Darling is still and cold. Kiss him once for somebody’s sake, Murmur a prayer soft and low ; One bright curl from its fair mates take, They were somebody’s pride, you know : Somebody’s hand had rested there, — Was it a mother’s soft and white ? And have the lips of a sister fair Been baptized in those waves of light ? God knows best ; he has somebody’s love ; Somebody’s heart enshrined him there ; Somebody wafted his name above Night and morn on the wings of prayer. Somebody wept when he marched away, Looking so handsome, brave, and grand ; Somebody’s kiss on his forehead lay, Somebody clung to his parting hand. Somebody’s waiting and watching for him — Yearning to hold him again to the heart ; And there he lies with his blue eyes dim, And the smiling childlike lips apart. Tenderly bury the fair young dead, Pausing to drop on his grave a tear; Carve on the wooden slab at his head, — “Somebody’s Darling slumbers here." Marie R. Lacostb. IN SCHOOL-DAYS. Still sits the school-house by the road, A ragged beggar sunning ; Around it still the sumachs grow. And blackberry-vines are running. Within, the master’s desk is seen. Deep scarred by raps official ; The warping floor, the battered seats. The jack-knife’s carved initial ; The charcoal frescoes on its wall ; Its door’s worn sill, betraying The feet that, creeping slow to school. Went storming out to playing ! Long years ago a winter sun Shone over it at setting ; Lit up its western window-panes, And low eves’ icy fretting. It touched the tangled golden curls, And brown eyes full of grieving, / Of one who still her steps delayed When all the school were leaving. For near her stood the little boy Her childish favor singled; His cap pulled low upon a face Where pride and shame were mingled. Pushing with restless feet the snow To right and left, he lingered ; — As restlessly her tiny hands The blue-checked apron fingered. ] He saw her lift her eyes ; he felt The soft hand’s light caressing. And heard the tremble of her voice. As if a fault confessing. “ I’m sorry that I spelt the word : I hate to go above you. Because,” — the brown eyes lower fell,— “ Because, you see, I love you ! ” Still memory to a gray-haired man That sweet child-face is showing. Dear girl ! the grasses on her grave Have forty years been growing ! He lives to learn, in life’s hard school, How few who pass above him Lament their triumph and his loss, Like her, — because they love him. John G. Whittier. 74 FARE THEE WELL — LADY CLARA VERE DE VERE. FARE THEE WELL. Fare thee well ! and if forever, Still forever, fare thee well ! Even though unforgiving, never 'Gainst thee shall my heart rebel. Would that breast were bared before thee Where thy head so oft has lain, While that placid sleep came o’er thee Which thou ne’er canst know again : Would that breast, by thee glanced over, Every inmost thought could show I Then thou wouldst at last discover ’Twas not well to spurn it so. Though the world for this commend thee, — Though it smile upon the blow. Even its praises must offend thee, Founded on another’s woe. Though my many faults defaced me, Could no other arm be found Than the one which once embraced me. To inflict a cureless wound? Yet, oh yet, thyself deceive not ; Love may sink by slow decay, But by sudden wrench, believe not Hearts can thus be torn away : Still thine own its life retaineth ; Still must mine, though bleeding, beat ; And the undying thought which paineth, Is — that we no more may meet. These are words of deeper sorrow Than the wail above the dead ; Both shall live, but every morrow Wake us from a widowed bed. And when thou wouldst solace gather. When our child’s first accents flow, Wilt thou teach her to say “ Father!” Though his care she must forego ? When her little hands shall press thee. When her lip to thine is pressed, Think of him whose prayer shall bless thee, Think of him thy love had blessed ! Should her lineaments resemble Those thou never more mayst see. Then thy heart will softly tremble With a pulse yet true to me. All my faults perchance thou knowest, All my madness none can know; All my hopes, where’er thou goest, Whither, — yet with the e they go. Every feeling hath been shaken ; Pride, which not a world could bow. Bows to thee, — by thee forsaken, Even my soul forsakes me now ; But ’tis done, — all words are idle, — Words from me are vainer still ; But the thoughts we cannot bridle Force their way without the will. Fare thee well ! thus disunited, Tom from every nearer tie, Seared in heart, and love, and blighted, — More than this I scarce can die. Lord Byron. LADY CLARA VERE DE VERE. Lady Clara Vere de Vere, Of me you shall not win renown : You thought to break a country heart For pastime, ere you went to town. At me you smiled, but unbeguiled I saw the snare, and I retired : The daughter of a hundred Earls, You are not one to be desired. Lady Clara Vere de Vere, I know you proud to bear your name. Your pride is yet no mate for mine. Too proud to care from whence I came. Nor would I break for your sweet sake A heart that dotes on truer charms. A simple maiden in her flower \ Is worth a hundred coats-of-arms. Lady Clara Vere de Vere, Some meeker pupil you must find, For were you queen of all that is, I could not stoop to such a mind. You sought to prove how I could love. And my disdain is my reply. The lion on your old stone gates Is not more cold to you than I. Lady Clara Vere de Vere, You put strange memories in my head. Not thrice your branching limes have blown Since I beheld young Laurence dead. Oh your sweet eyes, your low replies : A great enchantress you may be ; But there was that across his throat Which you had hardly cared to see. Lady Clara Vere de Vere, When thus he met his mother’s view. She had the passions of her kind, She spake some certain truths of you. Indeed I heard one bitter word That scarce is fit for you to hear ; Her manners had not that repose Which stamps the caste of Vere de Vwe. FAVORITE POEMS. 75 Lady Clara Vere de Vere, There stands a specter in your hall : The guilt of blood is at your door : You changed a wholesome heart to gall. You held your course without remorse, To make him trust his modest worth. And, last, you fixed a vacant stare, And slew him with your noble birth. Trust me, Clara Vere de Vere, From yon blue heavens above us bent, The gardener Adam and his wife Smile at the claims of long descent. Howe’er it be, it seems to me, ’Tis only noble to be good. Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood. I know you, Clara Vere de Vere ; You pine among your halls and towers: The languid light of your proud eyes Is wearied of the rolling hours. In glowing health, with boundless wealth, But sickening of a vague disease, You know so ill to deal with time, You needs must play such pranks as these. Clara, Clara Vere de Vere, If Time be heavy on your hands, Are there no beggars at your gate, Nor any poor about your lands ? Oh ! teach the orphan -boy to read, Or teach the orphan-girl to sew, Pray heaven for a human heart, And let the foolish yeoman go. Alfred Tennyson. AUF WIEDERSEHEN. Summer. The little gate was reach’d at last, Half hid in lilacs down the lane ; She push’d it wide, and, as she past, A wistful look she backward cast And said, Auf Wiedersehen /” With hand on latch, a vision white Lingered reluctant, and again, Half doubting if she did aright, Soft as the dews that fell that night, She said, “ Auf Wiedersehen /” The lamp's clear gleam flits up the stair ; I linger in delicious pain ; Ah, in that chamber, whose rich air To breathe in thought I scarcely dare, Thinks she, "Auf Wiedersehen /” ’Tis thirteen years : once more I press The turf that silences the lane ; I hear the rustle of her dress, I smell the lilacs, and — ah yes, I hear, “ Auf Wiedersehen ! ” Sweet piece of bashful maiden art ! The English words had seem’d too fain ! But these — they drew us heart to heart, Yet held us tenderly apart; She said, "Auf Wiedersehen /” James Russell Lowell, THE LOVE-KNOT. Tying her bonnet under her chin. She tied her raven ringlets in ; But not alone in its silken snare Did she catch her lovely floating hair, For, tying her bonnet under her chin. She tied a young man’s heart within. They were strolling together up the hill, Where the wind comes blowing merry and chillj And it blew the curls a frolicsome race All over the happy peach-color’d face, Till, scolding and laughing, she tied them in. Under her beautiful dimpled chin. And it blew a color, bright as the bloom Of the pinkest fuchsia’s tossing plume. All over the cheeks of the prettiest girl That ever imprison’d a romping curl, Or, in tying her bonnet under her chin. Tied a young man’s heart within. Steeper and steeper grew the hill — Madder, merrier, chillier still The western wind blew down and play’d The wildest tricks with the little maid, As, tying her bonnet under her chin. She tied a young man’s heart within. O western wind, do you think it was fair To play such tricks with her floating hair ? To gladly, gleefully do your best To blow her against the young man’s breast ? Where he as gladly folded her in ; He kiss’d her mouth and dimpled chin. Oh, Ellery Vane, you little thought. An hour ago, when you besought This country lass to walk with you. After the sun had dried the dew. What perilous danger you’d be in, As she tied her bonnet under her chin. Nora Perr-j 76 FAVORITE FOBMS. A MATCH. If love were what the rose is, And I were like the leaf, Our lives would grow together, In sad or singing weather, Blown fields or flowerful closes, Green pleasure of gray grief ; If love were what the rose is, And I were like the leaf. If I was what the words are, And love were like the tune, With double sound and single, Delight our lips would mingle, With kisses glad as birds are That get sweet rain at noon ; If I were what the words are, And love were like the tune. If you were life, my darling, And I, your love, were death, We’d shine and snow together, Ere March made sweet the weather With daffodil and starling And hours of fruitful breath ; If you were life, my darling, And I, your love, were death. If you were thrall to sorrow, And I were page to joy, We’d play for lives and seasons, With loving looks and treasons, And tears of night and morrow, And laughs of maid and boy ; If you were thrall to sorrow, And I were page to joy. If you were April’s lady, And I were lord in May, We’d throw with leaves for hours, And draw for days with flowers, Till day like night were shady, And night were bright like day; If you were April’s lady, And I were lord in May. If you were queen of pleasure, And I were king of pain, We’d hunt down love together, Pluck out his flying-feather, And teach his feet a measure, And find his mouth a rein ; If you were queen of pleasure, And I were king of pain. ALGERNON CHARLES SwiMBVRME. PLIGHTED. Mine to the core of the heart, my beauty ! Mine, all mine, and for love, not duty : Love given willingly, full and free, Love for love’s sake — as mine to thee. Duty’s a slave that keeps the keys, But love, the master, goes in and out Of his goodly chambers with song and shout, Just as he please — just as he please. Mine, from the dear head’s crown, brown-golden, To the silken foot that ’s scarce beholden ; Give a few friends hand or smile. Like a generous lady, now and awhile, But the sanctuary heart, that none dare win. Keep holiest of holiest evermore ; The crowd in the aisles may watch the door, The high-priest only enters in. Mine, my own, without doubts or terrors. With all thy goodnesses, all thy errors. Unto me and to me alone revealed, “ A spring shut up, a fountain sealed.” Many may praise thee — praise mine as thine. Many may love thee — I ’ll love them too : But thy heart of hearts, pure, faithful, and true, Must be mine, mine wholly, and only mine. Mine ! — God, I thank thee that thou hast given Something all mine on this side of heaven ; Something as much myself to be As this my soul which I lift to thee : Flesh of my flesh, bone of my bone, Life of my life, whom thou dost make Two to the world for the world’s work’s sake — But each unto each, as in thy sight, one. Dinah Mulock Craik. A HEALTH. I fill this cup to one made up Of loveliness alone, A woman, of her gentle sex The seeming paragon ; To whom the better elements And kindly stars have given A form so fair, that, like the air, ’Tis less of earth than heaven. Her very tone is music’s own, Like those of morning birds, And something more than melody Dwells ever in her words ; The coinage of her heart are they. And from her lips each flows As one may see the burdened bee Forth issue from the rose. A HEALTH. — BATTLE-HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC. 77 Affections are as thoughts to her. The measures of her hours ; Her feelings have the fragrancy, The freshness of young flowers ; And lovely passions, changing oft. So fill her, she appears The image of themselves by turns, — The idol of past years ! Of her bright face one glance will trace A picture on the brain, And of her voice in echoing hearts A sound must long remain ; But memory, such as mine of her, So very much endears, When death is nigh, my latest sigh Will not be life’s, but hers. I fill this cup to one made up Of loveliness alone, A woman, of her gentle sex The seeming paragon, — Her health ! and would on earth there stood Some more of such a frame, That life might be all poetry, And weariness a name. Edward Coates Pinckney EXILE OF ERIN. There came to the beach a poor Exile of Erin, The dew on his thin robe was heavy and chill ; For his country he sighed when at twilight repairing To wander alone by the wind-beaten hill. But the day-star attracted his eye’s sad devotion, For it rose o’er his own native isle of the ocean, Where once, in the fire of his youthful emotion, He sang the bold anthen of Erin go bragh ! “Sad is my fate !” said the heart-broken stranger ; “ The wild deer and wolf to a covert can flee ; But I have no refuge from famine and danger, A home and a country remain not to me. Never again in the green sunny bowers Where my forefathers lived shall I spend the sweet hours, Or cover my heart with the wild woven flowers, And strike to the numbers of Erin go bragh ! " Erin my country ! though sad and forsaken. In dreams I revisit thy sea-beaten shore ; But alas ! in a fair foreign land I awaken, And sigh for the friends who can meet me no more. O cruel Fate ! wilt thou never replace me In a mansion of peace, where no perils can chase me ? Never again shall my brothers embrace me ? They died to defend me, or live to deplore 1 “ Where is my cabin-door, fast by the wild-wood ? Sisters and sire, did ye weep for its fall ? Where is the mother that looked on my childhood ? And where is the bosom friend, dearer than all ? Oh, my sad heart ! long abandoned by pleasure, Why did it dote on a fast-fading treasure ? Tears like the rain-drop may fall without measure. But rapture and beauty they cannot recall. “ Yet, all its sad recollection suppressing. One dying wish my lone bosom can draw : Erin ! an exile bequeaths thee his blessing ! Land of my forefathers— Erin go bragh ! Buried and cold, when my heart stills her motion, Green be thy fields, sweetest isle of the ocean ! And thy harp-striking bards sing aloud with devotion, Erin mavoumeen — Erin go bragh ! ” Thomas Campbell. BATTLE-HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord : He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored ! He hath loosed the fateful lightnings of his terrible swift sword : His truth is marching on. I have seen him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps ; They have builded him an altar in the evening dews and damps ; I can read his righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps : His day is marching on. I have read a fiery gospel, writ in burnished rows of steel, “ As ye deal with my contemners, so with you my grace shall deal ; Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with his heel, Since God is marching on.” He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat ; He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judgment- seat ; O, be swift, my soul, to answer him ! be jubilant, my feet ! Our God is marching on. In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea, With a glory in his bosom that transfigures you and me ; As he died to make men holy, let us die to make men free, While God is marching on. Julia Ward Hows. 78 FAVORITE POEMS. ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY I CHURCH-YARD. j The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o’er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. And all the air a solemn stillness holds, Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, | And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds : Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower, The moping owl does to the moon complain Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, Molest her ancient solitary reign. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree’s shade, Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, Each in his narrow cell forever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, The cock’s shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, Or busy housewife ply her evening care ; No children run to lisp their sire’s return, Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield, Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke ; How jocund did they drive their team afield ! How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke ! Let not ambition mock their useful toil, Their homely joys, and destiny obscure : Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile The short and simple annals of the poor. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e’er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour : The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, If memory o’er their tomb no trophies raise, Where through the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault The pealing anthem swells the note of praise. Can storied urn, or animated bust, Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? Can honor’s voice provoke the silent dust, Or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death ? Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ; Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre ; But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page Rich with the spoils of time did ne’er unroll ; Chill penury repressed their noble rage, And froze the genial current of the soul. Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear ; Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. Some village Hampden, that, with dauntless breast, The little tyrant of his fields withstood. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest. Some Cromwell guiltless of his country’s blood. The applause of listening senates to command. The threats of pain and ruin to despise, To scatter plenty o’er a smiling land, And read their history in a nation’s eyes. Their lot forbade ; nor circumscribed alone Their growing virtues, but their crimes confined; Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne, And shut the gates of mercy on mankind. The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide. To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame, Or heap the shrine of luxury and pride With incense kindled at the Muse’s flame. Far from the madding crowd’s ignoble strife, Their sober wishes never learned to stray ; Along the cool sequestered vale of life They kept the noiseless tenor of their way. Yet even these bones from insult to protect. Some frail memorial still erected nigh, With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture decked, Implores the passing tribute of a sigh. Their name, their years, spelt by the unlettered Musa The place of fame and elegy supply : And many a holy text around she strews, That teach the rustic moralist to die. For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing anxious being e’er resigned, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ? On some fond breast the parting soul relies, Some pious drops the closing eye requires; E’en from the tomb the voice of nature cries. E’en in our ashes live their wonted fires. ELEGY WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCH-YARD. — THANATOPSIS. 79 For thee, who, mindful of the unhonored dead, Dost in these lines their artless tale relate ; If chance, by lonely contemplation led, Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate, — Haply some hoary-headed swain may say : “ Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn Brushing with hasty steps the dews away, To meet the sun upon the upland lawn. “ There at the foot of yonder nodding beech, That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high, His listless length at noontide would he stretch, And pour upon the brook that babbles by. “ Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn, Muttering his wayward fancies he would rove ; Now drooping, woful-wan, like one forlorn, Or crazed with care, or crossed in hopeless love. “One morn I missed him on the customed hill, Along the heath, and near his favorite tree ; Another came ; nor yet beside the rill, Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he. “The next, with dirges due in sad array. Slow through the church-way path we saw him borne ; — Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn.” THE EPITAPH. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown ; Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, And Melancholy marked him for her own. Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere, Heaven did a recompense as largely send ; He gave to misery (all he had) a tear, He gained from Heaven (’twas all he wished) a friend. No farther seek his merits to disclose, Or draw his frailties from their dread abode ; (There they alike in trembling hope repose), The bosom of his Father and his God. Thomas Gray. THANATOPSIS. To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language : for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile And eloquence of beauty ; and she glides Into his darker musing with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away y Their sharpness ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last bitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, And breathless darkness, and the narrow house. Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart — Go forth under the open sky, and list To Nature’s teachings, while from all around — Earth and her waters, and the depths of air — Comes a still voice, — Yet a few days, and thee The all-beholding sun shall see no more In all his course ; nor yet in the cold ground. Where thy pale form was laid, with many tears. Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist Thy image. Earth, that nourished thee, shall claim Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again ; And, lost each human trace, surrendering up Thine individual being, shalt thou go To mix forever with the elements — To be a brother to the insensible rock, And to the sluggish clod, which the rude swain Turns with his share, and treads upon. The oak Shall send his roots abroad ; and pierce thy mold. Yet not to thine eternal resting-place Shalt thou retire alone ; nor couldst thou wish Couch more magnificent. Thou shalt lie down With patriarchs of the infant world — with kings. The powerful of the earth, the wise, the good. Fair forms, and hoary seers of ages past, All in one mighty sepulchre. The hills, Rock-ribbed, and ancient as the sun ; the vales Stretching in pensive quietness between ; The venerable woods; rivers that move In majesty, and the complaining brooks, That make the meadows green ; and, poured round all. Old ocean’s gray and melancholy waste — Are but the solemn decorations all Of the great tomb of man ! The golden sun. The planets, all the infinite host of heaven, \ Are shining on the sad abodes of death, Through the still lapse of ages. All that tread The globe are but a handful to the tribes That slumber in its bosom. Take the wings Of morning, traverse Barca’s desert sands, Or lose thyself in the continuous woods Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound Save his own dashings — yet the dead are there! And millions in those solitudes, since first The flight of years began, have laid them down In their last sleep — the dead reign there alone ! So shalt thou rest ; and what if thou withdraw In silence from the living, and no friend Take note of thy departure ? All that breathe Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh Whin thou art gone, the solemn brood of care 80 FAVORITE POEMS. Plod on, and each one as before will chase His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall leave Their mirth and their employments, and shall come And make their bed with thee. As the long train Of ages glides away, the sons of men — The youth in life’s green spring, and he who goes In the full strength of years, matron and maid, And the sweet babe and the gray-headed man — Shall, one by one, be gathered to thy side By those who in their turn shall follow them. So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan that moves To that mysterious realm where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night, Scourged to his dungeon ; but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch Ahout him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. William Cullen Bryant. ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. I AM dying, Egypt, dying, Ebbs the crimson life-tide fast, And the dark Plutonian shadows Gather on the evening blast ; Let thine arms, O Queen, infold me ; Hush thy sobs and bow thine ear ; Listen to the great heart-secrets, Thou, and thou alone, must hear. Though my scarred and veteran legions Bear their eagles high no more, And my wrecked and scattered galleys Strew dark Actium’s fatal shore ; Though no glittering guards surround me, Prompt to do their master’s will, I must perish like a Roman, Die the great Triumvir still. Let not Caesar’s servile minions Mock the lion thus laid low ; ’Twas no foeman’s arm that felled him — ’Twas his own that struck the blow, — His who, pillowed on thy bosom, Turned aside from glory’s ray — His who, drunk with thy caresses, Madly threw a world away. Should the base plebeian rabble Dare assail my name at Rome, Where my noble spouse, Octavia, Weeps within her widowed home, Seek her ; say the gods bear witness — Altars, augurs, circling wings — That her blood, with mine commingled. Yet shall mount the throne of kings. As for thee, star-eyed Egyptian ! Glorious sorceress of the Nile, Light the path to Stygian horrors With the splendors of thy smile. Give the Caesar crowns and arches. Let his brow the laurel twine ; I can scorn the Senate’s triumphs, Triumphing in love like thine. I am dying, Egypt, dying; Hark ! the insulting foeman’s cry. They are coming ! quick, my falchion ! Let me front them ere I die. Ah 1 no more amid the battle Shall my heart exulting swell — tsis and Osiris guard thee ! Cleopatra, Rome, farewell ! William Haines Lytle. LOCKSLEY HALL. Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet ’t is early morn — Leave me here, and when you want me, sound upon the bugle horn. ’Tis the place, and all around it, as of old, the curlews call, Dreary gleams about the moorland, flying over Locksley Hall; Locksley Hall, that in the distance overlooks the sandy tracks, And the hollow ocean-ridges roaring into cataracts. Many a night from yonder ivied casement, ere I went to rest, Did I look on great Orion sloping slowly to the west. Many a night I saw the Pleiads, rising through the mel- low shade, Glitter like a swarm of fire-flies tangled in a silver braid. Here about the beach I wandered, nourishing a youth sublime With the fairy tales of science, and the long result of time ; When the centuries behind me like a fruitful land re- posed ; When I clung to all the present for the promise that it closed ; LOCKSLEY HALL. 81 When I dip into the future far as human eye could see — Saw the vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be. In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin’s .breast ; In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest ; In the spring a livelier iris changes on the burnished dove ; In the spring a young man’s fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love. Then her cheek was pale and thinner than should be for one so young, And her eyes on all my motions with a mute observance hung. And I said, “My cousin Amy, speak, and speak the truth to me ; Trust me, cousin, all the current of my being sets to thee.” On her pallid cheek and forehead came a color and a light, As I have seen the rosy red flushing in the northern night. And she turned — her bosom shaken with a sudden storm of sighs — All the spirit deeply dawning in the dark of hazel eyes — Saying, “ I have hid my feelings, fearing they should do me wrong ; ” Saying, " Dost thou love me, cousin ? ’’ weeping, “ I have loved thee long.” Love took up the glass of time, and turned it in his glow- ing hands ; Every moment, lightly shaken, ran itself in golden sands. Love took up the harp of life, and smote on all the chords with might ; Smote the chord of self, that, trembling, passed in music out of sight. Many a morning on the moorland did we hear the copses ring, And her whisper thronged my pulses with the fullness of the spring. Many an evening by the waters did we watch the stately ships. And our spirts rushed together at the touching of the lips. Oh my cousin, shallow-hearted ! Oh my Amy, mine no more ! Oh the dreary, dreary moorland ! Oh the barren, barren shore ! Falser than all fancy fathoms, falser than all songs have sung — Puppet to a father’s threat, and servile to a shrewish tongue ! Is it well to wish thee happy ? — having known me ; to decline On a range of lower feelings and a narrower heart than mine ! Yet it shall be : thou shalt lower to his level day by day, What is fine within thee growing coarse to sympathize with clay. As the husband is, the wife is ; thou art mated with a clown, And the grossness of his nature will have weight to drag thee down. He will hold thee, when his passion shall have spent its novel force, Something better than his dog, a little dearer than his horse. What is this ? his eyes are heavy — think not they are glazed with wine. Go to him ; it is thy duty — kiss him ; take his hand in thine. It may be my lord is weary, that his brain is over- wrought — Sooth him with ihy finer fancies, touch him with thy lighter thought. He will answer to the purpose, easy things to under- stand — Better thou wert dead before me, though I slew thee with my hands. Better thou and I were lying, hidden from the heart’s disgrace, Rolled in one another’s arms, and silent in a last em- brace. Cursed be the social wants that sin against the strength of youth ! Cursed be the social lies that warp us from the living truth ! Cursed be the sickly forms that err from honest nature’s rule ! Cursed be the gold that gilds the straitened forehead of the fool 1 82 FAVORITE POEMS. Well — ’tis well that I should bluster !— Hadst thou less unworthy proved, Would to God — for I had loved thee more than ever wife was loved. Am I mad, that I should cherish that which bears but bitter fruit ? I will pluck it from my bosom, though my heart be at the root. Never ! though my mortal summers to such length of years should come As the many-wintered crow that leads the clanging rookery home. Where is comfort ? in division of the records of the mind ? Can I part her from herself, and love her, as I knew her, kind? I remember one that perished ; sweetly did she speak and move ; Such a one do I remember, whom to look at was to love. Can I think of her as dead, and love her for the love she bore ? No — she never loved me truly; love is love for ever- more. Comfort ? comfort scorned of devils ! this is truth the poet sings, That a sorrow’s crown of sorrow is remembering happier things. Drug tny memories, lest thou learn it, lest thy heart be put to proof, In the dead, unhappy night, and when the rain is on the roof. Like a dog, he hunts in dreams ; and thou art staring at the wall, Where the dying night-lamp flickers, and the shadows rise and fall. Then a hand shall pass before thee, pointing to his drunken sleep, To thy widowed marriage-pillows, to the tears that thou wilt weep. Thou shalt hear the “ Never, never,” whispered by the phantom years, And a song from out the distance in the ringing of thine ears ; And an eye shall vex thee, looking ancient kindness on thy pain. Turn thee, turn thee on thy pillow ; get thee to thy rest again. Nay, but nature brings thee solace ; for a tender voice will cry ; ’Tis a purer life than thine; a lip to drain thy trouble dry. Baby lips will laugh me down ; my latest rival brings thee rest — Baby fingers, waxen touches, press me from the mother’s breast. Oh, the child, too, clothes the father with a dearness not his due ; Half is thine, and half is his — it will be worthy of the two. Oh, I see thee, old and formal, fitted to thy petty part, With a little hoard of maxims preaching down a daugh- ter’s heart : " They were dangerous guides the feelings — she herself was not exempt — Truly, she herself had suffered.” — Perish in thy self-con- tempt ! Overlive it — lower yet — be happy ! wherefore should I care ? I myself must mix with action, lest I wither by des- pair. What is that which I should turn to, lighting upon days like these ? Every door is barred with gold, and opens but to golden keys. Every gate is thronged with suitors ; all the markets overflow. I have but an angry fancy : what is that which I should do ? I had been content to perish, falling on the foeman’s ground, When the ranks are rolled in vapor, and the winds are laid with sound. But the jingling of the guinea helps the hurt that honor feels, And the nations do but murmur, snarling at each other’s heels. Can I but relieve in sadness ? I will turn that earlier page. Hide me from my deep emotion, O thou wondrous mother-age ! Make me feel the wild pulsation that I felt before the strife, When 1 heard my days before me, and the tumult of my life ; LOCKSLEY HALL. 83 Yearning for the large excitement that the coming years would yield — Eager-hearted as a boy when first he leaves his father’s field, And at night along the dusky highway near and nearer dawn, Sees in heaven the light of London flaring like a dreary dawn ; And his spirit leaps within him to be gone before him then, Underneath the light he looks at, in among the throngs of men — Men, my brothers, men the workers, ever reaping some- thing new : That which they have done but earnest of the things that they shall do ; For I dipt into the future far as human eye could see — Saw the vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be — Saw the heavens filled with commerce, argosies of magic sails, Pilots of the purple twilight, dropping down with costly bales — Heard the heavens filled with shouting, and there rained a ghastly dew From the nation’s airy navies grappling in the central blue; Far along the world-wide whisper of the south-wind rushing warm, With the standards of the people plunging through the thunder-storm ; Till the war-drum throbbed no longer, and the battle- flags were furled In the parliament of man, the federation of the world. There the common sense of most shall hold a fretful realm in awe, And the kindly earth shall slumber, lapt in universal law. So I triumphed, ere my passion sweeping through me, left me dry, Left me with the palsied heart, and left me with the jaundiced eye — Eye, to which all other festers, all things here are out of joint. Science moves, but slowly, slowly, creeping on from point to point ; Slowly comes a hungry people, as a lion, creeping nigher. Glares at one that nods and winks behind a slowly-dying fire. Yet I doubt not through the ages one increasing pur- pose runs, And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns. What is that to him that reaps not harvest of his youthful joys, Though the deep heart of existence beat foreyer like a boy’s ? Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers ; and I linger on the shore, And the individual withers, and the world is more and more. Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers, and he bears a laden breast, F ull of sad experience moving toward the stillness of his rest. Hark ! my merry comrades call me, sounding on the bugle horn — They to whom my foolish passion were a target for their scorn ; Shall it not be scorn to me to harp on such a mouldered string ? I am shamed through all my nature to have loved so slight a thing. Weakness to be wrought with weakness! woman’s pleasure, woman’s pain — Nature made them blinder motions bounded in a shal- lower brain ; Woman is the lesser man, and all thy passions, matched with mine, Are as moonlight unto sunlight, and as water unto wine — Here at least, where nature sickens, nothing. Ah, for some retreat Deep in yonder shining orient, where my life began to beat ! Where in wild Mahratta-battle fell my father, evil- starred ; I was left a trampled orphan, and a selfish uncle’s ward. Or to burst all links of habit — there to wander far away, On from island unto island at the gateways of the day — 84 FAVORITE POEMS. Larger constellations burning, mellow moons and happy skies, Breadths of tropic shade and palms in cluster, knots of Paradise. Never comes the trader, never floats an European flag— Slides the bird o’er lustrous woodland, droops the trailer from the crag — Droops the heavy-blossomed bower, hangs the heavy- fruited tree — Summer isles of Eden lying in dark-purple spheres of sea. There, methinks, would be enjoyment more than in this march of mind — In the steamship, in the railway, in the thoughts that shake mankind. There the passions, cramped no longer, shall have scope and breathing-space ; I will take some savage woman, she shall rear my dusky race. Iron-jointed, supple-sinewed, they shall dive and they shall run. Catch the wild goat by the hair, and hurl their lances in the sun. Whistle back the parrot’s call, and leap the rainbows of the brooks, Not with blinded eyesight poring over miserable books — Fool, again the dream, the fancy ! but I know my words are wild. But I count the gray barbarian lower than the Christian child. I, to herd with narrow foreheads, vacant of our glorious gains, Like a beast with lower pleasures, like a beast with lower pains ! Mated with a squalid savage — what to me were sun or clime ? I, the heir of all the ages, in the foremost files of time — I, that rather held it better men should perish one by one, Than that earth should stand at gaze like Joshua’s moon in Ajalon ! Not in vain the distance beacons. Forward, forward let us range ; Let the great world spin forever down the ringing grooves of change. Through the shadow of the globe we sweep into the younger day : Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay. Mother-age (for mine I knew not), help me as when life begun — Rift the hills, and roll the waters, flash the lightnings, weigh the sun— Oh, I see the crescent promise of my spirit hath not set ; Ancient founts of inspiration well through all my fancy yet. Howsoever these things be, a long farewell to Locksley Hall ! Now for me the woods may wither, now for me the roof- tree fall. Comes a vapor from the margin, blackening over heath and holt, Cramming all the blast before it, in its breast a thunder- bolt. Let it fall on Locksley Hall, with rain or hail, or fire or snow ; For the mighty wind arises, roaring seaward, and I go- Alfred Tennyscm. THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM. It was a summer evening, Old Kaspar’s work was done, And he before his cottage door Was sitting in the sun, And by him sported on the green His little grandchild Wilhelmine. She saw her brother Peterkin Roll something large and round. Which he beside the rivulet, In playing there, had found ; He came to ask what he had found, That was so large, and smooth, and round. Old Kaspar took it from the boy, Who stood expectant by ; And then the old man shook his head, And with a natural sigh, “ ’Tis some poor fellow’s skull,” said he, “ Who fell in the great victory. “ I find them in the garden, For there’s many here about ; And often, when I go to plough, The ploughshare turns them out ! For many thousand men,” said he, “ Were slain in that great victory.” THE BATTLE OF BLENHEIM. — LOCHINVAR. 85 “Now tell us what 'twas all about,” Young Peterkin he cries ; While little Wilhelmine looks up With wonder- waiting eyes ; “ Now tell us all about the war, And what they fought each other for.” “ It was the English,” Kaspar cried, “ Who put the French to rout ; But what they fought each other for, I could not well make out. But everybody said,” quoth he, “ That ’twas a famous victory. “ My father lived at Blenheim then. Yon little stream hard by ; They burnt his dwelling to the ground, And he was forced to fly ; So with his wife and child he fled, Nor had he where to rest his head. “ With fire and sword the country round Was wasted far and wide ; And many a childing mother, then, And new-born baby died ; But things like that, you know, must be At every famous victory. “ They say it was a shocking sight After the field was won ; For many thousand bodies here Lay rotting in the sun ; But things like that, you know, must be After a famous victory. “Great praise the Duke of Marlbro’ won, And our good prince Eugene.” “ Why, ’twas a very wicked thing ! ” Said little Wilhelmine. “Nay — nay — my little girl,” quoth he, “ It was a famous victory. “ And everybody praised the Duke Who this great fight did win.” " And what good came of it at last ?” Quoth little Peterkin. “Why, that I cannot tell,” said he; “But ’twas a famous victory.” Robert Southey. LOCHINVAR. Lady Heron’s Song, from “Marmion.” Oh, young Lochinvar is come out of the west ; Through all the wide Border his steed was the best ; And save his good broadsword he weapon had none ; He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, There never was knight like the young Lochinvar. He stayed not for brake and he stopped not for stone : He.swam the Esk River where ford there was none: But ere he alighted at Netherby gate, The bride had consented, the gallant came late ; For a laggard in love and a dastard in war Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. So boldly he entered the Netherby hall, Among bridesmen and kinsmen, and brothers and all: Then spoke the bride’s father, his hand on his sword, (For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word), “ O, come ye in peace here or come ye in war, Or to dance at our bridal, young Lord Lochinvar ? ” " I long wooed your daughter, my suit you denied : Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide ; And now am I come, with this lost love of mine To lead but one measure, drink one cup of wine. There are maidens in Scotland, more lovely by far. That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar ! ” The bride kissed the goblet, the knight took it up ; He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup. She looked down to blush, and she looked up to sigh. With a smile on her lips and a tear in her eye. He took her soft hand ere her mother could bar ; “ Now tread we a measure !” said young Lochinvar. So stately his form, and so lovely her face, That never a hall such a galliard did grace ; While her mother did fret and her father did fume, And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume, And the bride-maidens whispered, “’Twere better by far, To have matched our fair cousin with young Lochinvar 1 ” One touch to her hand and one word in her ear. When they reached the hall door and the charger stood near ; So light to the croup the fair lady he swung, So light to the saddle before her he sprung. “ She is won ! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur ; They’ll have fleet steeds that follow ! ” quoth young Lochinvar. There was mounting ’mong Graemes of the Netherby clan ; Fosters, Fenwicks, and Musgraves, they rode and they ran ; There was racing and chasing on Canonbie Lee, — But the lost bride of Netherby ne’er did they see ! So daring in love and so dauntless in war, Have ye e’er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar? Sir Walter Scott. FAVORITE POEMS. 86 BINGEN ON THE RHINE. A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers : There was lack of woman’s nursing, there was dearth of woman’s tears ; But a comrade stood beside him, while his life-blood ebbed away, And bent with pitying glances, to hear what he might say. The dying soldier faltered, as he took that comrade’s hand, And he said : “ I never more shall see my own, my 1 native land. Take a message and a token to some distant friends of mine ; For I was bom at Bingen — at Bingen on the Rhine. “Tell my brothers and companions, when they meet and crowd around, To hear my mournful story, in the pleasant vineyard ground, That we fought the battle bravely ; and when the day was done, Full many a corse lay ghastly pale beneath the setting sun. And ’midst the dead and dying were some grown old in wars, The death-wounds on their gallant breasts the last of many scars ; But some were young, and suddenly beheld life’s morn decline ; And one had come from Bingen — fair Bingen on the Rhine ! “ Tell my mother that her other sons shall comfort her old age, For I was still a truant bird that thought his home a cage; For my father was a soldier, and even as a child My heart leaped forth to hear him tell of struggles fierce and wild ; And when he died, and left us to divide his scanty hoard, I let them take whate’er they would— but kept my father’s sword ; And with boyish love I hung it, where the bright light used to shine, On the cottage wall at Bingen — calm Bingen on the Rhine. “Tell my sister not to weep for me, and sob with droop- ing head, When the troops come marching home again, with glad and gallant tread ; But to look upon them proudly, with a calm and stead- fast eye, For her brother was a soldier too, and not afraid to die; And if a comrade seek her love, I ask her in my name To listen to him kindly, without regret or shame ; And to hang the old sword in its place — my father’s sword and mine — For the honor of old Bingen — dear Bingen on the Rhine. “ There’s another, not a sister : in the happy days gone by You’d have known her by the merriment that sparkled in her eye ; Too innocent for coquetry, too fond for idle scorning : O, friend ! I fear the lightest heart makes sometimes heaviest mourning. Tell her the last night of my life (for ere this moon be risen My body will be out of pain, my soul be out of prison), I dreamed I stood with her, and saw the yellow sun- light shine On the vine-clad hills of Bingen — fair Bingen on the Rhine. “ I saw the blue Rhine sweep along ; I heard, or seemed to hear, The German songs we used to sing, in chorus sweet and clear ; And down the pleasant river, and up the slanting hill, The echoing chorus sounded, through the evening calm and still ; And her glad blue eyes were on me, as we passed, with friendly talk, Down many a path beloved of yore, and well-remem- bered walk ; And her little hand lay lightly, confidingly in mine : But we’ll meet no more at Bingen — loved Bingen on the Rhine ! ” His voice grew faint and hoarse — his grasp was childish weak ; His eyes put on a dying look — he sighed, and ceased to speak ; His comrade bent to lift him, but the spark of life had fled : The soldier of the Legion in a foreign land was dead ! And the soft moon rose up slowly, and calmly she looked down On the red sand of the battle-field, with bloody corpses strewn. Yes, calmly on that dreadful scene her pale light seemed to shine As it shone on distant Bingen — fair Bingen on the Rhine. Carounb Elizabbth Norton. THE GLOVE AND THE LIONS. — THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH. 8T THE GLOVE AND THE LIONS. King Francis was a hearty king, and loved a royal sport, And one day, as his lions fought, sat looking on the court. The nobles fill’d the benches, with the ladies in their pride, And ’mongst them sat the Count de Lorge, with one for whom he sigh’d : And truly ’twas a gallant thing to see that crowning show, Valor and love, and a king above, and the royal beasts below. Ramp’d and roar’d the lions, with horrid laughing jaws ; They bit, they glared, gave blows like beams, a wind went with their paws ; With wallowing might and stifled roar they roll’d on one another, Till all the pit with sand and mane was in a thunderous smother ; The bloody foam above the bars came whisking through the air ; Said Francis then, “ Faith, gentlemen, we’re better here than there." De Lorge’s love o’erheard the king — a beauteous, lively dame, With smiling lips and sharp bright eyes, which always seem’d the same ; She thought, The Count my lover is brave as brave can be ; He surely would do wondrous things to show his love of me ; King, ladies, lovers, all look on ; the occasion is divine ; I’ll drop my glove, to prove his love ; great glory will be mine. She dropp’d her glove, to prove his love, then look’d at him and smiled ; He bow’d, and in a moment leap’d among the lions wild ; The leap was quick, return was quick, he has regain’d his place, Then threw the glove, but not with love, right in the lady's face. “By heaven,” said Francis, “rightly done!” and he rose from where he sat ; “ No love,” quoth he, “ but vanity, sets love a task like that.” Lbigh Hunt. THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH. Under a spreading chestnut tree The village smithy stands : The smith — a mighty man is he. With large and sinewy hands; And the muscles of his brawny arms Are strong as iron bands. His hair is crisp, and black, and long; His face is like the tan ; His brow is wet with honest sweat — He earns whate’er he can ; And looks the whole world in the face, For he owes not any man. Week in, week out, from morn till night. You can hear his bellows blow ; You can hear him swing his heavy sledge, With measured beat and slow — Like a sexton ringing the village bell, When the evening sun is low. And children, coming home from school, Look in at the open door ; They love to see the flaming forge. And hear the bellows roar, And catch the burning sparks, that fly Like chaff from a threshing floor. He goes on Sunday to the church. And sits among his boys ; He hears the parson pray and preach — He hears his daughter’s voice, Singing in the village choir, And it makes his heart rejoice. It sounds to him like her mother’s voice. Singing in Paradise 1 He needs must think of her once more, How in the grave she lies; And with his hard, rough hand he wipes A tear out of his eyes. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing — Onward through life he goes ; Each morning sees some task begin, Each evening sees it close — Something attempted, something done. Has earned a night’s repose. Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend. For the lesson thou has taught 1 Thus at the flaming forge of life Our fortunes must be wrought — Thus on its sounding anvil shaped Each burning deed and thought ! Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 88 FAVORITE POEMS. THE CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE AT BALAKLAVA. Half a league, half a league. Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death, Rode the Six Hundred. Into the valley of Death Rode the Six Hundred ; For up came an order which Some one had blundered. " Forward, the Light Brigade ! Take the guns ! ” Nolan said ; Into the valley of Death, Rode the Six Hundred. “ Forward, the Light Brigade ! ” No man was there dismayed, Not though the soldiers knew Some one had blundered. Theirs not to make reply, Theirs not to reason why, Theirs but to do and die ; Into the valley of Death, Rode the Six Hundred. Cannon to right of them. Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them, Volleyed and thundered. Stormed at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well ; Into the jaws of Death. Into the mouth of Hell, Rode the Six Hundred. Flashed all their sabres bare, Flashed all at once in air, Sabring the gunners there, Charging an army, while All the world wondered. Plunged in the battery smoke, With many a desperate stroke The Russian line they broke, Then they rode back — but not. Not the Six Hundred. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them. Cannon behind them, Volleyed and thundered. Stormed at with shot and shell, While horse and hero fell, Those that had fought so well Came from the jaws of Death, Back from the mouth of Hell, All that was left of them, Left of Six Hundred. When can their glory fade ? O ! the wild charge they made 1 All the world wondered. Honor the charge they made ! Honor the Light Brigade, Noble Six Hundred. Alfred Tennyson. HOHENLINDEN. On Linden, when the sun was low, All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. And dark as winter was the flow Of Iser, rolling rapidly. But Linden saw another sight When the drum beat, at dead of night, Commanding fires of death to light The darkness of her scenery. By torch and trumpet fast arrayed, Each horseman drew his battle-blade. And furious every charger neighed To join the dreadful revelry. Then shook the hills with thunder riven ; Then rushed the steeds to battle driven; And, louder than the bolts of heaven. Far flashed the red artillery. But redder yet those fires shall glow On Linden’s hills of crimsoned snow. And bloodier yet shall be the flow Of Iser, rolling rapidly. ’Tis morn ; but scarce yon level sun Can pierce the war-clouds’ rolling dun. Where furious Frank and fiery Hun Shout in their sulphurous canopy. The combat deepens. On, ye brave, Who rush to glory or the grave ! Wave, Munich ! all thy banners wave, And charge with all thy chivalry ! Few, few shall part where many meet ! The snow shall be their winding-sheet; And every turf beneath their feet Shall be a soldier’s sepulchre. Thoma* r . umti. THE VAGABONDS. 89 THE VAGABONDS. We are two travelers, Roger and I. Roger’s my dog : — come here, you scamp ! Jump for the gentlemen, — mind your eye ! Over the table, — look out for the lamp ! — The rogue is growing a little old ; Five years we’ve tramped through wind and weather, And slept out-doors when nights were cold. And ate and drank— and starved together. We’ve learned what comfort is, I tell you ! A bed on the floor, a bit of rosin, A fire to thaw out thumbs (poor fellow ! The paw he holds up there’s been frozen), Plenty of catgut for my fiddle, (This out-door business is bad for strings), Then a few nice buckwheats hot from the griddle. And Roger and I set up for kings ! No thank ye, sir, — I never drink ; Roger and I are exceedingly moral, — Aren’t we, Roger ? — see him wink ! — Well, something hot, then,— we won’t quarrel. He’s thirsty, too, — see him nod his head ? What a pity, sir, that dogs can’t talk ! He understands every word that’s said, — And he knows good milk from water-and-chalk. The truth is, sir, now I reflect. I’ve been so sadly given to grog, I wonder I’ve not lost the respect (Here’s to you, sir !) even of my dog, But he sticks by, through thick and thin ; And this old coat, with its empty pockets, And rags that smell of tobacco and gin, He’ll follow while he has eyes in his sockets. There isn’t another creature living Would do it, and prove, through every disaster. So fond, so faithful, and so forgiving, To such a miserable, thankless master ! No, sir ! — see him wag his tail and grin ! By George I it makes my old eyes wa’er ! That is, there’s something in this gin That chokes a fellow. But no matt.* ! We’ll have some music, if you’re willing, And Roger (hem ! what a plague a cough is, sir !) Shall march a little. — Start, you villain ! Stand straight ! ’Bout face ! Salute your officer ! Put up that paw ! Dress ! Take your rifle ! (Some dogs have arms, you see !) now hold your Cap while the gentlemen give a trifle, To aid a poor old patriot soldier 1 4 March ! Halt ! Now show how the rebel shakes, When he stands up to hear his sentence. Now tell us how many drams it takes To honor a jolly new acquaintance. Five yelps, — that’s five ; he’s mighty knowing ! The night’s before us, fill the glasses ! — Quick, sir ! I’m ill, — my brain is going ! Some brandy, — thank you, — there ! — it passes ! Why not reform ? That’s easily said ; But I’ve gone through such wretched treatment, Sometimes forgetting the taste of bread, And scarce remembering what meat meant. That my poor stomach’s past reform ; And there are times when, mad with thinking, I’d sell out heaven for something warm To prop a horrible inward sinking. Is there a way to forget to think ? At your age, sir, home, fortune, friends, A dear girl’s love — But I took to drink — The same old story ; you know how it ends. If you could have seen these classic features — You needn’t laugh, sir ; they were not then Such a burning libel on God’s creatures ; I was one of your handsomest men 1 If you had seen her, so fair and young, Whose head was so happy on this breast. If you could have heard the songs I sung When the wine went round, you wouldn't have guessed That even I, sir, should be straying From door to door with fiddle and dog, Ragged and penniless, and playing To you to-night for a glass of grog. She’s married since — a 'parson’s wife ; ’Twas better for her that we should part Better the soberest, prosiest life Than a blasted home and a broken heart. I have seen her ! Once, I was weak and spent ; On the dusty road a carriage stopped. But little she dreamed, as on she went, Who kissed the coin that her fingers dropped 1 You’ve set me to talking, sir; I’m sorry; It makes me wild to think of the change ! What do you care for a beggar’s story ? Is it amusing ? You find it strange ? I had a mother so proud of me 1 Twas well she died before — Do you know If the happy spirits in heaven can see The rain and wretchedness here beJow f 90 FAVORITE POEMS. Another glass, and strong, to deaden This pain ; then Roger and I will start. I wonder has he such a lumpish, leaden, Aching thing in place of a heart ? He is sad sometimes, and would weep, if he could, No doubt remembering things that were, — A virtuous kennel, with plenty of food, And himself a sober, respectable cur. I’m better now ; that glass was warming — You rascal ! limber your lazy feet ! We must be fiddling and performing For supper and bed, or starve in the street. Not a very gay life to lead, you think ? But soon we shall go where lodgings are free, And the sleepers need neither victuals nor drink ; — The sooner the better for Roger and me ! John Townsend Trowbridge. EXCELSIOR. The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device — Excelsior ! His brow was sad ; his eye beneath Flashed like a falchion from its sheath ; And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue — Excelsior ! In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright ; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan — Excelsior ! “Try not the pass ! ” the old man said ; “ Dark lowers the tempest overhead ; The roaring torrent is deep and wide ! ” And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior ! “O stay ! ” the maiden said, “and rest Thy weary head upon this breast ! ” A tear stood in his bright blue eye, But still he answered, with a sigh, Excelsior ! “Beware the pine-tree’s withered branch ! Beware the awful avalanche ! ’’ This was the peasant’s last good-night ; A voice replied, far up the height, Excelsior ! At break of day as heavenward The pious monks of St. Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried, through the startled air, Excelsior ! A traveller, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device — Excelsior ! There, in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay ; And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star — Excelsior ! Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. MAUD MULLER. Maud Muller, on a summer’s day. Raked the meadows sweet with hay. Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth Of simple beauty and rustic health. Singing, she wrought, and her merry glee The mock-bird echoed from his tree. But when she glanced to the far-off town, White from its hill-siope looking down, The sweet song died, and a vague unrest And a nameless longing filled her breast — ■ A wish, that she hardly dared to own, For something better than she had known. The judge rode slowly down the lane, Smoothing his horse’s chestnut mane. He drew his bridle in the shade Of the apple-tree, to greet the maid, And ask a draught from the spring that flowed Through the meadow, across the road. She stooped wnere the cool spring bubbled up, And fil'ed for him her small tin cup, And blushed as she gave it, looking down On her feet so bare, and her tattered gown. “Thanks ! ” said the judge, “a sweeter draft From a fairer hand was never quaffed.” He spoke of the grass and flowers and trees, Of the singing birds and the humming bees ; MAUD MULLER. SI Then talked of the haying, and wondered whether The clouds in the west would bring foul weather. And Maud forgot her brier-torn gown. And her graceful ankles, bare and brown, And listened, while a pleased surprise Looked from her long-lashed hazel-eyes. At last, like one who for delay Seeks a vain excuse, he rode away. Maud Muller looked and sighed : “Ah me ! That I the judge’s bride might be ! “ He would dress me up in silks so fine, And praise and toast me at his wine. “ My father should wear a broadcloth coat, My brother should sail a painted boat. " I’d dress my mother so grand and gay, And the baby should have a new toy each day. “ And I’d feed the hungry and clothe the poor, And all should bless me who left our door.” The judge looked back as he climbed the hill And saw Maud Muller standing still : “ A form more fair, a face more sweet, Ne’er hath it been my lot to meet. “ And her modest answer and graceful air Show her wise and good as she is fair. “Would she were mine, and I to-day, Like her, a harvester of hay. “ No doubtful balance of rights and wrongs. Nor weary lawyers with endless tongues, “ But low of cattle, and song of birds, And health, and quiet, and loving words.” But he thought of his sister, proud and cold, And his mother, vain of her rank and gold. So, closing his heart, the judge rode on, And Maud was left in the field alone. But the lawyers smiled that afternoon, When he hummed in court an old love tune ; And the young girl mused beside the well, Till the rain on the unraked clover fell. He wedded a wife of richest dower, Who lived for fashion, as he for power. Yet oft, in his marble hearth’s bright glow, He watched a picture come and go ; And sweet Maud Muller’s hazel eyes Looked out in their innocent surprise. Oft, when the wine in his glass was red. He longed for the wayside well instead, And closed his eyes on his garnished rooms. To dream of meadows and clover blooms ; And the proud man sighed with a secret pain, “ Ah, that I were free again ! “Free as when I rode that day Where the barefoot maiden raked the hay.” She wedded a man unlearned and poor, And many children played round her door. But care and sorrow, and child-birth pain. Left their traces on heart and brain. And oft, when the summer sun shone hot On the new-mown hay in the meadow lot. And she heard the little spring brook fall Over the roadside, through the wall In the shade of the apple-tree again She saw a rider draw his rein, And, gazing down with a timid grace. She felt his pleased eyes read her face. Sometimes her narrow kitchen walls Stretched away into stately halls ; The weary wheel to a spinnet turned. The tallow candle an astral burned ; And for him who sat by the chimney lug. Dozing and grumbling o’er pipe and mug, A manly form at her side she saw, And joy was duty and love was law. Then she took up her burden of life again, Saying only, “ It might have been." Alas for maiden, alas for Judge, For rich repiner and household drudge ! God pity them both ! and pity us all, Who vainly the dream of youth recall; For of all words of tongue or pen, The saddest are these : " It might have been 1 ” Ah, well ! for us all some sweet hope lies Deeply buried from human eyes ; And, in the hereafter, angels may Roll the stone from its grave away ! Johk Grsbnlxab Whittibr. 92 FAVORITE POEMS. THE BURIAL OF SIR JOHN MOORE. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corse to the rampart we hurried ; Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O’er the grave where our hero we buried. We buried him darkly at dead of night, The sods with our bayonets turning ; By the struggling moonbeam’s misty light, And the lantern dimly burning. No useless coffin enclosed his breast, Nor in sheet nor in shroud we wound him ; But he lay like a warrior taking his rest, With his martial cloak around him. Few and short were the prayers we said, And we spoke not a word of sorrow ; But we steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead, And we bitterly thought of the morrow. We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed, And smoothed down his lonely pillow, That the foe and the stranger would tread o’er his head ; And we far away on the billow. Lightly they’ll talk of the spirit that’s gone, And o’er his cold ashes upbraid him ; But little he’ll reck if they let him sleep on In the grave where a Briton has laid him. But half of our heavy task was done, When the clock struck the hour for retiring ; And we heard the distant and random gun That the foe was sullenly firing. Slowly and sadly we laid him down, F rom the field of his fame fresh and gory ; We carved not a line, we raised not a stone, But we left him alone with his glory. Charles Wolfe. REVELRY IN INDIA. We meet ’neath the sounding rafter, And the walls around are bare ; As they echo the peals of laughter, It seems that the dead are there ; But stand to your glasses steady, We drink to our comrades’ eyes ; Quaff a cup to the dead already — And hurrah for the next that dies ! Not here are the goblets flowing, Not here is the vintage sweet ; ’Tis cold, as our hearts are growing, And dark as the doom we meet. But stand to your glasses steady, And soon shall our pulses rise ; A cup to the dead already- . Hurrah for the next that, dies 1 Not a sigh for the lot that darkles, Not a tear for the friends that sink; We’ll fall ’midst the wine-cup’s sparkles. As mute as the wine we drink. So stand to your glasses steady, ’Tis in this that our respite lies ; One cup to the dead already — Hurrah for the next that dies ! Time was when we frowned at others, We thought we were wiser then ; Ha ! ha ! let those think of their mothers, Who hope to see them again. No ! stand to your glasses steady, The thoughtless are here the wise ; A cup to the dead already — Hurrah for the next that dies ! There’s many a hand that’s shaking ; There’s many a cheek that’s sunk; But soon, though our hearts are breaking, They’ll burn with the wine we’ve drunk. So stand to your glasses steady, ’Tis here the revival lies ; A cup to the dead already — Hurrah for the next that dies ! There’s a mist’s on the grass congealing, ’Tis the hurricane’s fiery breath ; And t . s does the warmth of feeling Turn ice in the grasp of death. Ho ! stand to your glasses steady ; For a moment the vapor flies; A cup to the dead already — Hurrah for the next that dies ! Who dreads to the dust returning ? Who shrinks from the sable shore, Where the high and haughty yearning Of the soul shall sing no more ? Ho ! stand to your glasses steady ; This world is a world of lies : A cup to the dead already — Hurrah for the next that dies ! Cut off from the land that bore us, Betrayed by the land we find, Where the brightest have gone before us, And the dullest remain behind — Stand, stand to your glasses steady ! ’Tis all we have left to prize ; A cup to the dead already — And hurrah for the next that dies ! SUkthoiamcw Dowudho, THE BLUE AND THE GRAY. — THE PICKET GUARD. 9:! THE BLUE AND THE GRAY. By the flow of the inland river, Whence the fleets of iron have fled, Where the blades of the grave-grass quiver, Asleep are the ranks of the dead ; Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day ; Under the one, the Blue ; Under the other, the Gray. These in the robings of glory. Those in the gloom of defeat ; All with the battle-blood gory, In the dusk of eternity meet ; Under the sod and the dew Waiting the judgment day ; Under the laurel, the Blue ; Under the willow, the Gray. From the silence of sorrowful hours. The desolate mourners go, Lovingly laden with flowers, Alike for the friend and the foe ; Under the sod and the dew. Waiting the judgment day ; Under the roses, the Blue ; Under the lilies, the Gray. So, with an equal splendor, The morning sun-rays fall, With a touch impartially tender, On the blossoms blooming for all; Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day ; Broidered with gold, the Blue ; Mellowed with gold, the Gray. So, when the summer calleth, On forest and field of grain, With an equal murmur falleth The cooling drip of the rain ; Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day ; Wet with the rain, the Blue ; Wet with the rain, the Gray. Sadly, but not with upbraiding, The generous deed was done ; In the storm of the years that are fading, No braver battle was won ; Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day ; Under the blossoms, the Blue; Under the garlands, the Gray. No more shall the war-cry sever, Or the winding rivers be red ; They banish our anger forever, When they laurel the graves of our dead. Under the sod and the dew, Waiting the judgment day ; Love and tears for the Blue, Tears and love for the Gray. Francis Miles Finch. THE PICKET GUARD. “ All quiet along the Potomac,” they say, “ Except now and then a stray picket Is shot, as he walks on his beat, to and fro, By a rifleman hid in the thicket. ’Tis nothing— a private or two, now and then. Will not count in the news of the battle ; Not an officer lost — only one of the men, Moaning out, all alone, the death-rattle.” All quiet along the Potomac to-night, Where the soldiers lie peacefully dreaming ; Their tents in the rays of the clear autumn moon. Or the light of the watch-fires, are gleaming. A tremulous sigh, as the gentle night-wind Through the forest-leaves softly is creeping ; While stars up above, with their glittering eyes, Keep guard — for the army is sleeping. There’s only the sound of the lone sentry’s tread. As he tramps from the rock to the fountain, And thinks of the two in the low trundle-bed Far away in the cot on the mountain. Plis musket falls slack — his face, dark and grim, Grows gentle with memories tender, As he mutters a prayer for the children asleep — For their mother — may Heaven defend her ! The moon seems to shine just as brightly as then, That night, when the love yet unspoken Leaped up to his lips — when low-murmured vows Were pledged to be ever unbroken. Then drawing his sleeve roughly over his eyes, Pie dashes off tears that were welling, And gathers his gun closer up to its place As if to keep down the heart-swelling. He passes the fountain, the blasted pine tree — The footstep is lagging and weary ; Yet onward he goes, through the broad belt of light. Toward the shades of the forest so dreary. Hark ! was it the night-winds that rustled the leaves ? Was it moonlight so wondrously flashing? It looked like a rifle — “ Ah ! Mary, good-bye ! ” And the. life-blood is ebbing and plashing. All quiet along the Potomac to-night, No sound save the rush of the river ; While soft falls the dew on the face of the dead — The picket’s off duty forever. Ethel Lynn Beers. H FAVORITE POEMS, PLAIN LANGUAGE FROM TRUTHFUL JAMES. Which I wish to remark — And my language is plain — That for ways that are dark And for tricks that are vain, The heathen Chinee is peculiar : Which the same I would rise to explain. Ah Sin was his name ; And I shall not deny In regard to the same What that name might imply ; But his smile was pensive and childlike, As I frequent remarked to Bill Nye. It was August the third, And quite soft was the skies. Which it might be inferred That Ah Sin was likewise : Yet he played it that day upon William And me in a way I despise. Which we had a small game, And Ah Sin took a hand : It was euchre. The same He did not understand ; But he smiled, as he sat by the table, With the smile that was childlike and bland. Yet the cards they were stocked In a way that I grieve. And my feelings were shocked At the state of Nye’s sleeve, Which was stuffed full of aces and bowers, And the same with intent to deceive. But the hands that were played By that heathen Chinee, And the points that he made, Were quite frightful to see — Till at last he put down a right bower, Which the same Nye had dealt unto me. Then I looked up at Nye, And he gazed upon me ; And he rose with a sigh, And said, “ Can this be ! We are ruined by Chinese cheap labor,” — And he went for that heathen Chinee. In the scene that ensued I did not take a hand ; But the floor it was strewed Like the leaves on the strand With the cards that Ah Sin had been hiding, In the game “ he did not understand.” In his sleeves which were long. He had twenty-four packs — Which was coming it strong, Yet I state but the facts ; And we found on his nails, which were taper, What is frequent in tapers— that’s wax. Which is why I remark, And my language is plain, That for ways that are dark, And for tricks that are vain, The heathen Chinee is peculiar — Which the same I am free to maintain. Bret Harts LITTLE BREECHES. I DON’T go much on religion, I never ain’t had no show ; But I’ve got a middlin’ tight grip, sir. On the handful o’ things I know. I don’t pan out on the prophets, And free-will, and that sort of thing ; But I b'lieve in God and the angels. Ever sence one night last spring. I come into town with some turnips, And my little Gabe came along — No four-year old in the county Could beat him for pretty and strong. Peart and chipper and sassy, Always ready to swear and fight ; And I’d larnt him to chaw terbacker, Jest to keep his milk-teeth white. The snow come down like a blanket As I passed by Taggart’s store ; I went in for a jug of molasses, And left the team at the door. They skerred at something and started — I heard one little squall, And hell-to-split over the prairie Went team, Little Breeches, and all. Hell-to-split over the prairie ! I was almost froze with skeer ; But we rousted up some torches, And sarched for ’em far and near. At last we struck hosses and wagon, Snowed under a soft white mound, Upsot, dead beat — but of little Gabe No hide nor hair was found. LITTLE BREECHES. — ONLY WAITING. 95 And here all hope soured on me, Of my fellow-critters’ aid — I jist flopped down on my marrow-bones, Crotch deep in the snow, and prayed. ****** By this the torches was played out, And me and Isrul Parr Went off for some wood to a sheep-fold That he said was somewhar thar. We found it at last, and a little shed Whar they shut up the lambs at night ; We looked in, and seen them huddled thar. So warm and sleepy and white. And thar sot Little Breeches, and chirped As peart as ever you see, ' I want a chaw of terbacker, And that’s what’s the matter with me.” How did he git thar ? Angels — He could never have walked in that storm — They jist scooped down and toted him To whar it was safe and warm. And I think that saving a little child And bringing him to his own, Is a derned sight better business Than loafing around the Throne. THE JESTER’S SERMON. The Jester shook his head and bells, and leaped upon a chair, The pages laughed, the women screamed, and tossed their scented hair ; The falcon whistled, staghounds bayed, the lapdog barked without, The scullion dropped the pitcher brown, the cook railed at the lout ! The steward, counting out his gold, let pouch and money fall, And why ? because the Jester rose to say grace in the hall! The page played with the heron’s plume, the steward with his chain, The butler drummed upon the board, and laughed with might and main ; The grooms beat on their metal cans, and roared till they were red, But still the Jester shut his eyes and rolled his witty head ; And when they grew a little still, read half a yard of text, And, waving hand, struck on the desk, then frowned like , one preplemd. “Dear sinners all,” the fool began, “man’s life is but a jest, A dream, a shadow, bubble, air, a vapor at the best; In a thousand pounds of law I find not a single ounce of love ; A blind man killed the parson’s cow in shooting at the dove ; The fool that eats till he is sick must fast till he is well ; The wooer who can flatter most will bear away the belle. “ Let no man halloo he is safe till he is through the wood ; He who will not when he may, must tarry when he should ; Lie who laughs at crooked men should need walk very straight ; Oh, he who once has won a name may lie abed till eight ! Make haste to purchase house and land, be very slow to wed ; True coral needs no painter’s brush nor need be daubed with red. “The friar, preaching, cursed the thief (the pudding in his sleeve), To fish for sprats with golden hooks is foolish, by your leave, — To travel well, — an ass’s ears, ape’s face, hog’s mouth, and ostrich legs. He does not care a pin for thieves who limps about and begs. Be always first man at a feast and last man at a fray ; The short way round, in spite of all, is still the longest way. “When the hungry curate licks the knife, there’s not much for the clerk ; When the pilot, turning pale and sick, looks up — the storm grows dark.” Then loud they laughed; the fat cook’s tears ran down into the pan : The steward shook, that he was forced to drop the brim- ming can ; And then again the women screamed, and every stag- hound bayed, — And why ? because the motley fool so wise a sermon made. ONLY WAITING. A very old man in an alms-house was asked what he was doing now. He replied, “ Only waiting.” Only waiting till the shadows Are a little longer grown ; Only waiting till the glimmer Of the day’s last beam is flowa ; 96 FAVORITE PCJHMfS. Till the night of earth is faded From the heart once full of day ; Till the dawn of heaven is breaking Through the twilight soft and gray. Only waiting till the reapers Have the last sheaf gathered home ; For the summer time is faded, And the autumn winds have come. Quickly, reapers, gather quickly The last ripe hours of my heart, For the bloom of life is withered. And I hasten to depart. Only waiting till the angels Open wide the mystic gate, At whose feet I long have lingered, Weary, poor, and desolate. Even now I hear the footsteps, And their voices far away ; If they call me, I am waiting, Only waiting to obey. Only waiting till the shadows Are a little longer grown ; Only waiting till the glimmer Of the day’s last beam is flown ; Then from out the gathered darkness, Holy, deathless stars shall rise, By whose light my soul shall gladly Tread its pathway to the skies. Francks Laughton Mack. NEARER HOME. One sweetly solemn thought Comes to me o’er and o’er : I’m nearer home to-day Than I ever have been before ; Nearer my Father’s house, Where the many mansions be ; Nearer the great white throne, Nearer the crystal sea ; Nearer the bound of life, Where we lay our burdens down ; Nearer leaving the cross, Nearer gaining the crown ! But lying darkly between, Winding down through the night, Is the silent, unknown stream, That leads at last to the light. Closer and closer my steps Come to the dread abysm : Closer Death to my lips Presses the awful chrism. Oh, if my mortal feet Have almost gained the brink— If it be I am nearer home Even to-day than I think, — Father, perfect my trust ! Let my spirit feel, in death, That her feet are firmly set On the Rock of a living faith ! Pskbbk Gaby. POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONSc 97 OCAL MUSIC is probably the oldest branch of the art, but from the number w/wf • of ancient dance-songs still M I extant, it is reasonable to conceive that vocal music was at first a mere accessory of the dance. Choral singing at religious and other festivals was also a practice of very remote antiquity. Recitations by bards commemorative of the ex- ploits of heroes were a further and distinct development of vocal music. But the song proper had no existence anterior to the Troubadours ; their graceful lyrics and appropriate rhyth- mical tunes were its earliest form. Popular songs include the rude spontaneous out- come of native inspiration, the wild indigenous fruit of their own soil, and those other more regular and finished compositions which are written with con- scious art by men who have made Music their study. This latter class of songs is designated by the Ger- man phrase Kunstlied, or artistic song ; while the former class, whose origin and authorship are gener- obocure, may be called folk-songs, or songs of the people. Such are the Volkslieder of Germany, the Canti Populari of Italy, and the Ballads of Eng- land. The song is that branch of Music in which na- tional peculiarities linger longest, and international affinities grow most slowly. This is primarily due to the fact that language which is local, is an integral element of song. Secondly it is caused by the pop- ular origin of songs. Being of the people and for the people, they flourish most in a sphere where the influ- ences of foreign example and teaching can hardly reach them. Hence it happens that where the artis- tic song has lost every trace of its native soil, na- tional melodies preserve a distinctively local color. In some countries of Europe the development of the song can be followed from the primitive form of folk-song to the highest type of artistic composition ; but in others the art of Music has scarcely yet ad- vanced beyond the stage of national melodies. It is almost needless to call attention to the neces- sary dependence of the song upon Poetry. Until the poet supplies lyrics of adequate power and beauty of form, the skill of the composer alone can- not develop the full capacities of the song. When, however, poets and composers of the first rank have worked together in mutual sympathy, the song has quickly mounted to the loftiest heights of art. Again, poets and composers are alike the children of their times, and vividly reflect the dominant emo- tions of the hour and the scene in which they live. 98 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. History colors every branch of art, and none more so than the song, for it is the first and simplest mode of giving expression to strong feeling. Men naturally sing of that of which their heads and hearts are full ; and thus there is a close correspondence between great historic events and the multitude of songs to which they invariably give birth. From wars have issued songs of victory, and other martial odes ; from keen political struggles, songs of satire ; from religious reformations, majestic hymns and chorals ; and from revolutions, impassioned songs of liberty. There are songs for all emotions and occasions. There are songs for all times and seasons — songs of childhood and songs of old age — songs of exile and songs of home — songs of nature and songs of the sea — songs of sorrow and songs of mirth — songs of sen- timent — songs of love. It would be interesting, if our space permitted, to give an account of what songs had been popular, how they had risen and waned in public favor, what local events, what queer by-words, what jokes per- tinent to the day, but now forgotten, had been sung by the merry people of the time. Some songs that had no doubt been suddenly popular, as quickly passed to obscurity, while others, like “Auld Lang Syne,” “ The Last Rose of Summer,” “ Sally in Our Alley,” and “ Home, Sweet Flome,” have secured a permanent hold on the hearts of the people. . There has probably been an improvement in sen- timent, at least, in our best songs, upon those which were sung in the olden time. The most famous of those were drinking songs, of which the best known is, perhaps, that written by a chaplain named Walter De Mapes, of undue jollity, in the service of Henry II., which commences “ Mihi est propositum in tab- erna mori,” etc. It may be noticed that the most popular sentimental and humorous songs in the En- glish language are the Irish, Scotch, and those attrib- uted to the American negroes. The quaint and careless variations from the English words in the Scottish songs and negro plantation melodies seem to enhance the sentiment and make the humor more pointed. The songs of Moore and Burns represent the Irish and Scotch, while Foster best represents negro minstrelsy as it has taken its prominent posi- tion in this country. Many of the plaintive songs of Foster that are supposed to belong peculiarly to burnt-cork minstrelsy, possess a charm that com- pensates for much of their nonsense. If proof of this statement were needed we could scarcely do better than quote a passage written by Thackeray : “ I heard a humorist balladist not long since — a minstrel with wool on his head, and an ultra-Ethio- pian complexion, who performed a negro ballad that I confess moistened these spectacles in a most unex- pected manner. I have gazed at thousands of trag- edy queens dying on the stage, and expiring in ap- propriate blank verse, and I never wanted to wipe them. They have looked up, be it said, at many scores of clergymen in the pulpit without being dimmed, and behold a vagabond, with a corked face and a banjo, sings a little song, strikes a wild note, which sets the heart thrilling with happy pity. ” “ I knew a very wise man,” says Fletcher of Sal- toun, “that believed if a man were permitted to make the ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a nation.” He would not be a very wise man nowadays who should make this remark, for if there is any one thing more impossible than another, it is the manufacturing to order of a popular song. The ready-made National hymn is generally as perfunctory as a birthday ode. It is more than likely to be merely literary, and to lack, either wholly or in part, the direct simplicity and manly pathos of a song which comes spontaneous and unexpected from the heart of the people. More than one American poet tried to find fit words for “John Brown’s Body,” an air which stirs the blood like the blare of a trumpet, but the rude stanzas of the original song have held their own against all more polished and perfect competitors. Oddly enough, it is not exactly certain who was the composer of “John Brown’s Body.” We all know, however, that John Howard Payne, the author of “ Home, Sweet Home,” was an American by birth, although he wrote his song to be used in a play pre- pared for an English theater. And the “ Old Folks at Home,” the wailing refrain of which whoever may have heard it sung by Mme. Christine Nilsson will not soon forget, is American, both in authorship and in subject. On the other hand, we Americans have borrowed the airs of some of our most famous songs. We were not willing to let the British have all the best tunes. The “ Star Spangled Banner ” is Dr. Arnold’s “Anacreon in Heaven.” “Yankee Doodle ” is substantially identical with the “Lucy Locket Lost Her Pocket,” which came into notice just after the great success of the “ Beggars’ Opera.” VTVA L” AMERICA, HOME OF THE FREE. n VIVA L’ AMERICA, HOME OF THE FREE;* Words and Music by H. Milliard. 100 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER. Words by Francis S. Key. Music by Samuel Arnold. Con spirito. gkjy ■ y . — , 1 1 ^ r — * . . r P • 0 ~ J i J 1 I r * • j * 1 ! tf ~ r " ~ “Z? * * j L # J - in ^ 1. Oh ! say can you set 2 . On the shore dim - ly see ” 1 * >T by the dawn’s ear - ly light, What so proud - n through the mists of the deep, Where the foe’s ha y we hail’d at the aght-y host in diead N i i — 1 ! ( i — . ’ - • & 1 aT % ? m ' 1 p □_ "3 9 • Jl 0 \ vnz 4 i 1 « 1 - f • ^ 9 Z2 9 * • 9 r <*z« 1 ^ * V * / 4P - / • it 0 / 1-j*- -o- . -*■ , 1 1 i r T g n i j i* r • tf l f l l f P 1 r 1 1" f L > -1 - - H— ; S * ^ - M — J- ! L r ■ z? — -J— ^ — 1 — Marcato. 1T3 k - * .» r p r- J — f - * * * — r r p 1 s ; r n - ^ n y f — ri I J . VU 1 L 0 . ' a 1 “l 9 — rU tj -~r i — 9 0 twi - ligl si - len r 1 " v . * -*■ t’s last gleam -ing! Whose broad Stripes ar ce re - pos - es— What is that wh d bright St ch the br * 1 B fj- ars thro’ the per - il - ous fight, O’er the ;eze, o’er the tow - er - ing steep, As it . i — -s i - 1 r i r _] * i ' i i 1 j «: I. S 9 ft " j #~T ^ <>! < 4 ^ ■+ r * + • 61 v * - 9 • ^ 9 . , J 1 cv -U r * h J2 J _ . J r m ^ • a i j t 1 L * ‘ ' #- ■ & H ZH? — — z - — 1 N r~2 -r f—\ --f-* . t? ^ Lri> Z-Z I t Eli L 0 • J 4 r I ^ | VlU Z I— j . L__ — 1 y — v 1 ram - ps fit - f rts we watch’d were so gal - lant - ly stream - ing ? And the rock - et’s red glare, the shells ul - ly blows, half con - ceals, half dis - clos - es? Now it catch - es the gleam of the N , . . , . J M. / . y iz zr zn~ _ . ^ K i rf a ~f 5 * * • # g ? •_ s i ~0~~ • J & ; r r r \ SIC W~_* <9 & : « • 0 ft " ! i 1 L *•' . zsr -+ -v ‘ 47 V / . ^ 1 K , 1 X J J * j J P i a — i 1/ z J ■ - * w p * \ r J 1 N* . ^ • € a • # i ^ “i y 0 i r CHORUS ad lib. u MY COUNTRY, ’TIS OF THffi& Wl 3. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore, That the havoc of war and the battle’s confusion, A home and a country shall leave us no more ? Their blood has wash’d out their foul foot-step’s pollution! No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave ; And the Star-spangled Banner, in triumph doth wave, O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave! 4. O thus be it ever, when freeman shall stand, Between their lov’d home, and the war’s desolation ; Blest with vict’ry and peace, may the heav’n-rescued land, Praise the pow’r that hath made, and preserves us a Nation ! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto : — In God, is our trust ; And the Star-spangled Banner, in triumph shall wave, O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave. MY COUNTRY, TIS OF THEE. Samuel (Francis Smith, D. D, j _£E=; English Air. _i s s 1. My coun-tryl ’tis of thee, Sweet land of 2. My na - tive coun - try, thee — Land of the t t P lib - er - ty, Of thee no - ble free — Thy name- -2- -9- m -02 * sing; love; Land where my I love thy m J — h- ■H — ! 1 J 1 N 1 , 1 -r*i .. — 1 ^ — t — / it r 5 — <=- * • ■ » < L O ■ —J 1 -J — —jr. — • * -r 4 j - J 1 .1 s 1 pm <0 - i 0 • 2 ti , ° 0 J l • J 9 & * • 9 0 — r r » 3 — 1 fa roc u w w w "" \ fi 9 • 9 O • :h - ers died ! Land of the Pil - grims’ pride! From ev’ - ry mount - ain side Let free - dom ring! ks and rills, Thy woods and tem - pled- hills: My heart with rapt - ure thrills Like that a - bove. t • - - M. M. *. M. M. It JL jl, ^ „ . 1 q-j — * • r . 1 \ r — r — 9 -- — 1 — — r r * 1 — ' _ r ' 0 1 1 1.1 — P 1 r 1 1 * 1 — r c T 3. Let music swell the breeze. And ring from all the trees Sweet freedom’s song : Let mortal tongues awake ; Let all that breathe partake ; Let rocks their silence break, — The sound prolong. 4. Our father’s God ! to Thee, Author of liberty, To Thee we sing r Long may our land be bright With freedom’s holy light ; Protect us by Thy might, Great God, our King! 102 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. YANKEE DOODLE. Author Unknown. Pyrenees Air. k ir -u — 5 — i -v- — i y Good - in’. And Da - vid ; And win - ter ; They 1 Fa - ther and I went down to camp, A - long with Cap’n 2 And there we see a thou - sand men, As rich as Squire 3 The ’lass - es they eat ev’ - ry day, Would keep a house a — n* m — 3 9 9 f ->—7- 1 - Q | f , - — r — k — h M t w P P i 1 r r f 9 J H J J ? * ^ r r , l # 2. * * V p | | i H there we saw the what they wast - ed have so much that, men and boys As ev’ - ry day, I I’ll be bound. They thick as has - ty wish it could be eat it when they’ve pud - - din’, sav - - ed. mind ter. 1 ■ 1 t 7 .. .. | . j ... “1 hs 7 7 I J J d J ! 9 _ i -5- v- * P C\* 1 9 ■ 9 £ it a P f 5r r * •f . \ S d ^ i i r D / 7 p 9 \ j — U 1 — 1== — t - — i 1 — YANKEE DOODLE, 103 CHORUS. 4. And there I saw a swamping gun, Large as a log of maple, Upon a deuced little cart, A load for father’s cattle. Yankee Doodle, etc. 5. And every time they shoot it off, It takes a horn of powder, And makes a noise like father’s gun, Only a nation louder. Yankee Doodle, etc. 6. I went as nigh to one myself As ’Siah’s underpinning; And father went as nigh agin, I thought the deuce was in him. Yankee Doodle, etc. 7. Cousin Simon grew so bold, I thought he would have cocked it ; It scared me so I shrinked it off And hung by father’s pocket. Yankee Doodle, etc, 8. And Cap’n Davis had a gun, He kind of clapt his hand on’t, And stuck a crooked stabbing iron Upon the little end on’t. Yankee Doodle, etc. 9. And there I see a pumpkin shell As big as mother’s basin ; And every time they touched it off They scampered like the nation. Yankee Doodle, etc. •J 104 PQFULA* SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. HAIL, COLUMBIA! Words by Joseph Hopkinson. Music by Phyla. 5 iS fc h- it— tz r~i — ft "fn J- ^ \ . a ^ ft . • . w > • 0 I r. # g, m h 1 A ' *> r 9 9 f n j u* i 2 ” *0 I 7^ n ^ — t? oft. 1 2 Im ft Hail, Co - lum - bia, - mor - tal Pa - triots T hap - py land ! H rise once more ! De - fe ail, ye he - roes, heav’n-bom band! Who nd your rights, de - fend your shore; Let | 9 • JW-» * V J - 1 J *» i ir-i » • s it i i T\-I1 A. ' * • * | * ^ m « l < f 3 j P t a , L J ; J IT •4- ' ° * 4 . 4 . I o _c r r r f I_4 M |: - -- r *1 a 1 ! 1 ' 7 1 f 4 f _ y 1 1 > r i J i 1 1 3 4 , h s P = ^hJ = >'l N N 1* 2? 0 J r r ' i 0 J « * — r » — j P g -P s fcz tr y y y =^=t=^ — - " * i J ■ — »-— J " ^ when the storm of war was gone, En - joyed the peace your val - or won; Let - vade the shrine where sa - cred lies. Of toil and blood, the well - earned prize; While or OCSAJSL 105 CHORUS. broth - ers join’d, Peace and safe JL- & - ty we shall find. 0 Words by Lake. *^-r= 1 One sum-mer eve, 2 I stoop’d up - on SHELLS OF OCEAN. with pen-sive tho’t, I wandered on the peb-bly strand, To cull the toys Music by J. W. Cherry. the sea- beat shore. Where oft in that round me lay, But as I 3E B it Tf i ' # ' £ , -1 — • « 1 1 id heed - less in - fant sport, I gathered shells in days be- fore, I gathered shells in days be-fore. The plashing took them in my hand, I threw them one by one a- way, I threw them one by one a* way. Oh 1 thus, I £ -N- & ; J. t waves like mu - sic fell. Re- spon-sive to my fan - cy wild ; A dream came o’er me like a spell, I thought I said, in ev’ - ry stage, By toys our fan - cy is be- guiled, We gath - er shells from youth to age, And then we ,n£jt a _ a Pk A A A' A A A 1 »-• — , n i ^ n J- r ..-t=±r-=f-zr . . • Jumf^ £-f— f— *-=£=? T-* i * «' ■ J was a - gain a child, A dream came o’er me like a spell. I tho’t I was a - gain, a - gain a child. 1m»I i t xm Uu a u h ild, We gath - M shells from youth to u^e, And then we leave them, leave them like a child. 106 POPULAR SOIfGS OF ALL NATTCJWS. RULE BRITANNIA. Maestoso. Composed by Dr. Ame. 740. 3EEEE RULE BRITANNIA. 107 £ V ± Bri - tan «. as&J Bri - "i i ' Chorus to be sung after each verse. 3. Still more majestic shalt thou rise, More dreadful from each foreign stroke ; As the loud blast, that tears the skies. Serves but to root thy native oak. Rule Britannia! &c. 4. Thee, haughty tyrants ne’er shall tame ; All their attempts to bend thee down, Will but arouse thy gen’rous flame. To work their woe, and thy renown. Rule Britannia ! &c. 5. To thee belongs the rural reign. Thy cities shall with commerce shtQC} All thine, shall be the subject main. And ev’ry shore it circles, thine. Rule Britannia! &c. 6. The muses, still with freedom found, Shall to thy happy coast repair; Blest Isle ! with matchless beauty crown’d. And manly hearts to guard the fair. Rule Britannia! fix. 108 POPULAR SOSfOfl OP ALL KATOOm life! THE MARSEILLAISE HYMN. Composed by Rouget De Lisle. m t~ ^ — v *j o -?-V M C7\ l. Ye sons of France, a - wake to glo - ry, Hark ! hark! what myriads bid you rise! Your child-ren, 1. Al-lons, en-fans de la Pa - tri - e! Le jour de gloire est ar - ri • ve, Con-tre 2. Now, now the dangerous storm is roll - ing, Which treacherous kings’ confederates raise; The dogs of 2. Que veut cette horde d’es - cla - ves, De trai-tres, de rois con - ju - res, Pour qui ces , I Bee 4= =± —H 3 r — * /• m 4* '—j - wives and grand-sires hoa - ry, Behold their tears, and hear their cries, nous de la tyran ni - e, L' e - ten- dard sanglant est le - vl ! war, let loose, are howl- ing — And lo ! our walls and cit - ies blaze I ig - no- ties en - tra - ves, Ces fers dls longtemps prlpa - rls ! &r±=t=^=S3 F } =U=B *■ « — - — *■’ * I * * g_. Behold their tears, and hear their L'e -ten -dard san-glant est le- And lo I our walls and cit - ies Ces fers des long-temps prl-pa- rs tea ¥ “ft E cries ! Shall hate-ful ty- rants mis - vl ! En-ten - dez vous dans blaze ! And shall we base - ly view - rls, Francois ! pour nous, ah ! quel r; - chief breed- ing, With hire - ling hosts a ruf - fian band, les cam- pa - gnes. Mu - gir ces fl - ro - ces sol-dats ? the ru - in, While law - less force, with guilt- y stride, out - ra - ge ! Quels transports il doit ex - ci - ter! - fright and des - o - late the land, z den - nent, jus- que dans nos bras, des - o - la-tion far and wide, nous qu’on o - se me - na - cer. While peace Egor - ger With crimes De rendre and lib - er - ty lie bleed - ing? nos fils, nos com - pa - gnes! and blood his hands em - bru - ing ? a I'an-tique cs - cla - va - ge! THE MARSEILLAISE HYMN. 109 CHORUS. v=>- To arms, ar to arms, ye braves ! tries, Ci - toy - ens ! IAL ; J. Th’a - veng For - mez ing sword un-sheath ; nos ba - tail- Ions : March Mar - J Jr J- J J. - V-" J £ Vi ?. FJ > * # * : L£f LPt j : 3 -#_(e_ p. _ @ Q- -9 Ip- S & — *> — * 2£— - - - — a> PI is -a — * is f l»nj arasunotJBfcin — J-* M i 3 - With luxury and pride surrounded, The vile, insatiate despots dare, Their thirst of gold and power unbounded, To mete and vend the light and air. Like beasts of burden would they load us — Like gods would bid their slaves adore — But man is man — and who is more ? Then shall they longer lash and goad us ? To arms ! &c. 4 - O liberty 1 can man resign thee, Once, having felt thy generous flame ? Can dungeons, bolts, and bars confine thee ? Or whips thy noble spirit tame ? Too long the world has wept bewailing That falsehood’s dagger tyrants wield — But freedom is our sword and shield. And all their arts are unvailing. To arms I &c. 3 - Quoi ! des cohortes Hr an fibres Feraient la loi dans nos foyers ? Quoi ! ces phalanges mercenaires, Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers f Grand Dieu ! par des mains enchainles A r os fronts sous le joug se ploieraient l De vils despotes deviendraient Les maitres des nos destinies / Aux arrnes, <5 rY. 4 - Amour sacrt de la patrie, Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs: Liberte, Libertl cherie. Combats avec les dlfenseurs : Sous nos drapeaux que la victoire Accoure a tes males accens ; Que les ennemis expirans Voient ton triomphe et noire gloirt. Aux armes, Src. 110 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS, THE WATCH O’ER THE RHINE. (DIE WACHT AM RHEIN.) Words by Max Schneckenberger. (1840.) Music by C. Wilhelm, jdolce. m b — ■m . fe£ 3 ±- -« — a- ~ • — 9 Jfe=F-fefe=t a % — * • — i • -s- ~dolce. J , J_. — J=rzJ_- " jL J j g ^feZj . ^iz: : | =£4=*= Fa - ther- land may ’st tran - quil be, Thy faith - ful sons will watch o’er thee ; Stead - fast and Va - ter -land magst ru - hig sein, licb Va - ter -land magst ru - hig sein ; fest stcht und 5 m I BRUCE'S ADDRESS TO HIS ARMY. m ff a pll true each son, each son of thine treu die Wacht, die Wacht am Rhein l ■ try o’er und treu our Rhine, our no - die Wacht , die Wacht ble Rhine I am Rhein t CM N Thy tide reflects the heav’ns above, And heroes gaze on thee with love. And proudly breathe a vow to thee, Thou, Rhine, shalt ever German be. Thou Fatherland, &c. So long as blood flows in each vein, Or hands to draw the sword remain, And while an arm is in the land, No foe shall walk upon thy strand. Thou Fatherland, &c. The waves re-echo back the cry, The standard in the breeze doth fly, The Rhine, the German Rhine, so free, Yes, we will all thy guardians be. Thou Fatherland, &c. F.r blickt hir.auf in Himmehau'n , Da Helden Vdter niederschau’n, Und schwort mit stolzer Kampfeslust, “Du Rhein bleibst deutsch wie meine Bruit.” Lieb Vaterland, &c. So lang ein Tropfen Blut noch gluht , Noch eine Faust den Degen zieht , Und noch ein Arm die Buchse spannt, Betritt kein Feind hier deinen Strand t Lieb Vaterland, Sfc. Der Schwur erschallt, die Woge rinnt, Die Fahnen Jiattern hoch im Wind, Am Rhein, am Rhein, am deutschen Rhein? Wir alle wollen Iliiter sein 1 Lieb Vaterland, Sr’c. BRUCE’S ADDRESS TO HIS ARMY. Written by Robert Burns. t: S ft=t*= 1. Scots wha hae wi’ Wal - lace bled, 2. Wha would be a trai - tor knave, 3. By op - pres - sions woes and pains, Composer Unknown. - ± ft_: -JV- s-t — r Scots wham Bruce Wha would fill By your Sons has S-\t 1 i r J □ r Etf k ua. t ZS ^ sS • » .. ... rj L 1 ^ J He is our guid - ing star, Great in peace an d war, Our IT, 7 1 — . — “1 — T — — • j — 1 1 0 | th * j ^znz __ L a/ p crtsc. -<9 f l*Z F 9 ru 1 1 i 1 T~ i ___ , === ~- r 0 0 & * 9 ? 0 i c h. - fi* c ^ " » J i 9 0 - - # 'S j* /-5 1 * A i 5 Q. i -I — r T ? pg j f f f - * 1 ft r fcjT : &- dim. POT0LA3R. SONGS OP ALL NATIONS. 113 AUSTRIAN NATIONAL HYMN. Words by Laurenz Leop. Haschka, (1797.) Moderato. Music by Haydn. in POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. PARTANT POUR LA SYRIE. Words and Music by Queen Hortense. Marcia _P-£~= (SUL #. — M — H : »• J: S:{S:f :*-3 =t $k=:Y--- -> -i I ~~ - — 1 ...— M*-l— 1= — ir— “J '8 0 - =t= ^ L ■~4- f.u- j n * -- — - — J—j first he pray’d to Ma r y To bless him in... the fight. “ Im - i - «ai? pri - er Ala ri e Be be - nir ses... ex - ploits. “ Fai - jj to the war he fol low’d The count, his sov’ - reign lord. There J Z/tf sui - vre d la guer re Lc com - te sort.. .... Sei-gneur. Au PARTANT POUR LA SYRIE. ns 116 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. DUTCH NATIONAL SONG. 117 DUTCH NATIONAL SONG. Andante. Composer Unknown. 118 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. GLORY: GLORY: HALLELUJAH: Words by Charles S. Hall. Composer Unknown. / -G-rb ; 7*^1 " — ' ' " - ~ — — ; : H 1 — | I fv„q 'f 1 0 v i (9 O U J 1 fPS 1 ' Li J P - J ° rm 0 t tj® r r v* 9 0 1 "i ii 1 • J n fl ] XT f <0 # f 'fP . , ' * . i l s . n- ... *- - -s - • ' • . L 1 1 £ # t ' 1 1111 J J •- J 1 P I I * ? 1 ~ 1 _ 4 — J M • • • P 1. John Brown’s bo - dy lies a mould’-ring in the grave, 2. The stars of Heaven are look - ing kind - ly down, 3. He’s gone to be a sol - dier in the ar - my of the Lord ! 4. John Brown’s knap - sack is strapp’d up - on his back, John Brown’s bo - dy lies a The stars of Heav-en are He’s gone to be a sol - dier in the John Brown’s knap - sack is 1 .tL JKL Jt ft. PH 3a $ pi i * $ LOVE NOT. 119 n ! _ N N ! K. ! I 1 -1 * N •'-■ft — — J — y -J — J — L w r ft it 8 -r=7 — V — f — t=* — : 1 1 j - - ? 1 ii Glo ry ! Glo - ry Hal - le lu jahl His soul — j march - ing on. ■jll iiS EE ll f T TTT LOVE NOT. 0 ±= S ; s ~ 1 | v. I 1 f. 0 | # s -L - c ^ 1 * _ ± r * jUL J — C - 1=1—— J— ; v ' ' 1 1. Love not! Love not! Ye hap- less sons of clay, Hope’s gay - est wreaths are made of earth - ly 2. Love not! Love not! the thing you love may die, May per-ish from the gay and glad-some ■*=4=\ =F= - 0 - =s= -* * —J- * EE Sff — 7 F-gd flow’rs ; Things that are made to fade and fade a - way, Ere they have blossom’d for a earth. The si - lent stars, the blue and smil - ing sky, Beam on its grave, as once up - — 1 — j: T 2 -=k— a—1 1 I _ 1 n,.i^E±ZD 4: 11 ff L J_. J ] r~r k. ~N~ J - 1 e s — y— r ~^~r- > --N * J— J 14 J 1 2 P=- a * et.^ - * l-J — V J-g — # — few short hours, Ere they have blossom’d for a few short hours. Love not ! Love not ! on its birth, Beam on its grave, as once up - on its birth. Love not 1 Love not 1 3. Love not ! love not 1 the thing you love may change, The rosy lip may cease to smile on you, The kindly beaming eye grow cold and strange. The heart still warmly beat, yet not be true. Love not! love not! 4. Love not ! love not ! oh, warning vainly said. In present hours, as in years gone byr Love flings a halo round the dear one’s head, Faultless, immortal till they change or die. Love not 1 love not 8 120 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. HOME, SWEET HOME. Words by John Howard Payne. Sicilian Air adapted by Sir Henry R. Bishop. KATY DARLING. 121 How sweet ’tis to sit ’neath a fond father’s smile, And the cares of a mother to soothe and beguile, Let others delight ’mid new pleasures to roam, But give me, oh ! give me the pleasures of home. Home! home! sweet, sweet home ! But give me, oh ! give me the pleasures of home. 4. To thee I’ll return, over-burdened with care, The heart’s dearest solace will smile on me there ; No more from that cottage again will I roam. Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home. Home ! home ! sweet, sweet home ! There’s no place like home ; there’s no place like home. KATY DARLING. Sfc +±3=z §1 — K~ — # ■ i # I Oh, they tell me thou art dead, Ka - ty Dar - ling, That thy smile I may nev- er more be- -HHt- =£: 4 - ft- -y- - hold ! Did they tell thee I was false, Ka- ty Dar -ft * ling, Or my love for thee had "e'er grown ft ft — i - x - x— f — f • 0 —G ... - B= § cold ? Oh, they know not the lov - ing Of the hearts of E - rin’s sons, s , — ~ When a —ft love like to thine, Ka - ty Dar - ling, Is the goal to the race that he runs. Oh ! hear me, sweet ft . h ft- ■ i h. n h — * ft-i -X- J d — s —±~ J fr... -J— f- W V — ^ Ka- ty. For the Li * -• c= wild flow’rs greet me, Ka - ty — ^ K — ■#— — 4 Dar - ling, And the • • 0 5= love- birds are sing- ing on each i 2 £ ^ ^ W 4) 4 - Li y tree ; Wilt thou nev - er more hear me, Ka - ty Dar - ling, Be - hold, love, I’m wait- ing for thee ! m 2 . I’m kneeling by thy grave, Katy Darling, This world is all a bleak world to me ; Oh, could’st thou hear my wailing, Katy Darling ! Or think, love, I am sighing for thee ; Oh, methinks the stars are weeping. By their soft and lambent light, And thy heart would be melting, Katy Darling, Could’st thou see thy lone Dermot this night, Oh, listen, sweet Katy ! For the wild flow’rs are sleeping, Katy Darling, And the love-birds are nest’ling in each tree— Wilt thou never more hear me, Katy Darling, Or know, love. I’m by thee ? 3. ’Tis useless all my weeping, Katy Darling, But I’ll pray that thy spirit be my guide, And that when my life be spent, Katy Darling, They will lay me down to rest by thy side. Oh, a huge great grief I’m bearing, Though I scarce can heave a sigh. And I’ll ever be dreaming, Katy Darling, Of thy love every day till I die. Farewell then, sweet Katy ! For the wild flow’rs will blossom, Katy Darling, And the love-birds will warble in each tree ; But in heaven I will meet thee, Katy Darling, For them, love, thou’rt waking for s&t. 122 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. THE LAST ROSE OF SUMMER. Words by Thomas Moore. Air. — “The Groves of Blarney." r r ? -f r f^r— — t q 1* <*“ no. | i /t\ — v Hr flow’r of her * i kin - dred, No rose - bud is nigh, .... -i 1 4 _N* To re - \ cre8c. s* [_ J --..Jjl 1 - T ^ colla voce. — 3 — 5 — # — HSU — * — # — * pp — s f j — s — j • - ' =j— » — — ^ ==8= M^ ■j ■■ 9 * - - 1 THE LAST ROSE OF SUMMER. 123 — * t ? — rl — — d t r — — — f-v '■'3- — 4 — * b=j— kind - ly I scat - ter Thy leaves true hearts lie with - er'd, And fond #_• — j 3 Where tny Oh! ^=1 » *■ u II mates of the garden who would in - ha- bit Lie scent- less and This bleak world a diI " HD 124 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. KATHLEEN MAVOURNEEN. Words by Mrs. Crawford. Music by F. N. Crouch. Andante e Penseroso. -* • Hun - ter is heard on the hill, V The lark m -fr from her light m wing the ■ ■ tv III V* LL/ i_J_J i=l KATHLEEN MaVOURNEEN. 125 ere*. 126 KATHLEEN MAVOURNEEN. KATHLEEN MAVOURNEEN. 12 ? con amore affetto years and it may be for ev- er, Then why art thou si - lent, thou voice of my heart ? It may be for years and it maybe for ev- er, Then why . . art thou si - lent, Kathleen " Ma - vourneen ? rallent. diminuendo e piano. 1 t** 3 * ? i ^ ^ : II 11 — -5 4x1 : .N - i It T 4 4 4 128 POPULAR SONGS OP ALL NATIONS. LORELEY. (LORELEY.) Words by Heine. Music by Silcher. (1837.) out of the past an old le - gend, Is haunt - ing me with its lay The Mar - chen aus al - ten Zei - ten, dass kommt mir nicht aus dem Sinn Die out of the past an old le - gend, Is haunt - ing me with its lay The SI Hr - chen aus al - ten Zei - ten, dass kommt mir nicht aus dem Sinn Die LORELEW. 129 130 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. AULD LANG SYNE. Words by Robert Burns. Old Lowland Melody. Affetuoao. p Fff m 9- f E f E ^ 0 — ~f * = f = fTr = l ■U- * n tJ-U -U—sJ — • # jjyy — L-. ... S S\ — r r — h # — -fr — K' — r~ * g -P J # • P J p c 5* v j * J — “b — 3 — * — 1 s w r — — 1 P~~ --t .* * f J i • mm *—• m b — 1 b J 1 1 » -J- 1 Shoulc 2 We 3 We / Q . ■— auld ac-quaintance twa hae run a - twa hae paid - l’t be for - got, And bout the braes, And in the burn Frae nev - er brought to pu d the gow - ans morn - ing sun till min’ ? Should fine ; But we’v dine ; But ^ jj auld ac- quintance e wan - der’d mony a seas be-tween us f jLr [>- ■ M _ 4__ L_ _ • 1 r I It!! . J J J L viz d _ d * * — * B ~~ l*' 5 * 5 * -» -*■ -i — h -# r' T ' ^ ? ^ a a* is a- 4 *?- r * n* l r * y j 7 * * 7 & 1 - , 7 * r 6 ~r S *. N— (5— N D Pi 1 ffPiX „ s h a ^ ^ — r “ VM7 - . w 9 • ^ # • . g O | be for- got, And wea - ry foot, Sin’ braid hae roar d Sin’ ... - days o’ lang auld lang auld lang syne ? ^ syne. > For syne. J auld lang syne, my dear, For h v ; m 1 1 i j • 1 | i " 1 en ^ J 7 P 7 J J J - \ viz - J i ... _ 1 n * m 1 d J _] M + V * - * J ^ ^ * ^ P\ w -J , i r\* p P J _Jo L *! IT? ' “3 * r — r . -M T ^ . AS \ — — !? — 5 m =f j 7 N T ^ j 7 7 m m / y d 4 . And there’s a hand, my trusty frien,’ And gie’s a hand o’ thine; And we'll tak’ a right gude willy-waught For auld lang syne. For auld lang syne, etc. 5 - And surely ye’ll be your pint stoup As surely I'll be mine! And we’ll tak’ a cup o’ kindness yet, For auld lang syne. For auld lang syne, etc. POPULAR 50NGS OF ALL NATIONS. m ANNIE LAURIE. Words by Douglas. Music by Lady John Scott Andante. e’e ; > And for bon - nie An - nie Lau - rie tne;) 132 SALLY m OUR ALLEY. SALLY IN OUR ALLEY. Words by Henry Carey. Andante. Old English Air. ■v- 1. Of all the girls that are so smart,... There’s 2. Of all the days with - in the week I 3. My mas - ter, and the neigh-bours all, Make S I . N none like pret - ty Sal - ly ; She dear - ly love but one day ; And game of me and Sal - ly ; And 3==±=i PP §>±£ T 3 f ==— f — ri — — r-x j A A a "im. # i rV h. # . *f. ! \ bj t tv J » P r f r ^ 4 • J b N fv r 7 # VIZ - . W J J v w # J 1 _ n is the dar - ling of my that’s the day that comes be - but for her I’d rath - er 1 heart, A twixt T ae nd lives in our al - 1 he Sat - ur -.day and Mon-d A. slave, and row a gal - le :y : There is no la - dy ay : Oh, then I’m dress’d all y. But when my seven long / 0 P P ! v N 1 J JL L 4-1.. . 1. — « r — «r J V* \ ^ Iz • # 1 9 J J / ^ ^ * y " " ^ 1 a*— P— 0 # r r •» /• *r J S* S* \ S W 7 f 7 ' P 7 b t 7 7 # & \ V u - -- ■■ — L # THE BLUE BELLS OF SCOTLAND. 133 THE BLUE BELLS OF SCOTLAND. Words by Mrs. James Grant. Composer Unknown. Andante moderato. -6-rb K s h r S— i 9 f ^ 1 f ! p . n u! C L B . f ^ r v J A • : ~ _ a j ^ _ w w 9 ^ — 1 i tr 1. c 2. c 3- C h ! where, tell m >h ! where, tell m )h ! what, tell m i e where i e where d e what i s your High-land lad - die gone ? Oh ! where, tell mewl d your High-land lad - die dwell ? Oh ! where, tell me wh f your High-land lad be slain ? Oh ! what, tell me w J v 1—1 iere is your ere did your aat if your J J # J J 7 J _# J. J J 1 1 Jf. U 1 ! ~ W L 9 < i 4 1 J ^ * 4 4 [ PTy/ 7 1 ^ » P 7 1 J 9 • # * j J s g 4 « r 'Li . . J“] L 1 1 # A A ' r t > _L • • L r t r | * l.| I? /V « —p-- fi • * |# 1 i L « # f 7 \ 1 ” fr _L : v L 1 - f _ _ 1 " * p * l f 1 1 j g! h * -h & -y— High- land lad - die gone? High- land lad - die dwell ? High- land lad be slain? He’s gone He dwelt Oh, no ! gi with stream ing ban - ners where no - ble deeds are done, And it’s in bon - nie Scot - land, where blooms the sweet blue bell, And it’s true love will be his guard and bring him safe a - gain, For it’s is * r-^ ,— i £ * *> ^ m i d j n T=T 4 i J i c i j r g^ K ; ft S'! ! p oh, in my heart I wish him safe at home, He’s gone with streaming banners where no - ble deeds are done, And it's oh! in my heart I lo’e my lad-die well. Iledwelt in bon-nie Scotland, where blooms the sweet blue bell, And it's oh ! my heart would break if my Highland lad were slain, Oh, no ! true love will be his guard and bring him safe again, For it’s 0 H? — ^=Vt- r > n -p S — r « JM H BE&FL12 -j d ^ 1 7- ^ / 1 ^ ~ 9 » 9 -±~i oh, i oh ! i oh! my n m n m hean y he y he wot art I wish him safe at home, art I lo’e my lad -die well. Id break if my Highland lad were slain. 1 i J 1 I r^«. 1 JLt r> U J - 4 r rnr 1 — r r - a i J PTk.J2 — » — i 9 i * M * j 7- ■ 1 \ V\1 ■ J a. 2 d J . h 1 L 1 m • # * f atm. 1 p dolce. m ^ / c**_l r p r r ^ « i » r*f « c — p-p- p • 1 | 1 5 -^r 4 > rt-f — i~r i — *TT r #*r a . \ — h — 9 tM -9 P H -LLLpf 1 L f p — ^ 1 1 i ' r i r 1 - j p— Er 134 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. OFT IN THE STILLY NIGHT. Words and Music by Thomas Moore. -8~. b — - - — k — is is r— i 1 -finer? ^ r • p n n - 9 J . J ■ 9 J IP , vM. ■ v _ / 1. Oft in the still - y night, Ere slum - ber’s ch 2. When I re - mem - her all The friends, so lin murmurando. S' ain has t’d to - 4 i i 1 i 1 — * 3 4 3 4 1 # 1 t 5 * 5 — i * i * l 3 J \ - - j \ 9 — i ? ' TT ^ K S -N— XTE - # # _ l # 7 • # p j 7rrsv , P trp. -5» 1 9 B 9 9 • L J L t - £ ound me, Fond mem’ - ry brings the light Of oth - er days a - eth - er, I’ve seen a - round me fall, Like leaves in win - try 'rTT7 . 1 1 1 j 1 — rrd-r= v]7 ' . 1 -f ■ i ’ - \r 4 3 ’ L — 5 : i . f- — 4 — 4 4 -9- ~a 4 — t * 3 T V 4- §f s ur d " — 1 F I* 1 77 - ^ ' •zr- P Is , > • ~ A • M _ w » & ^ru 1 r* / 9 — d~~ • d Yd h £7 ’ 9 - round me. The smiles, t wea - - ther; I feel li le tears, of be ce one who tre V L >y - hood’s ye. ids a - lo V irs, The ne Some V 72 ■ 1 — 1 — W 1 1 — ? — ? # j d *17 J 1 9 » 5 5 •* j * * N « . . . „ > *J ^ tr ~ T r- — ^ 1 0 OFT IN THE STILLY NIGHT, 156 3 = 1 words of love then spo ban - quet - hall de - sert ken, The eyes that shone, now dimm’d and gone, The ed. Whose lights are fled, whose gar - lands dead, And i 4 t ■4 B-,-b . - - ■ fa t 5 * ■ g--.r f. j ¥ u cheer - 1 £1 b 3 ~rb 5 y y — ul hearts now ut he de bro - - ken ! I • part - - ed ! / T1 1US, v. y — in the still - y night, Er e • — • . " 3 m s — — T -H-- ■*— 9— — l 5 — f—f — f f f ■ g- : J - r : — J * r * i 3 A PP r-B— con pedale. r*< ^ i “f 1 1 1 r w. 9 nr — ~ — 1 J j- — 0 0 4 • L — z± ZJ — 136 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. THE WEARING OF THE GREEN. Words by Dion Boucicault Composer Unknown. — 9 y 1 ■ r * ' 1 1 r 1 — / J J 7 1 vi/ 4 .... 5 r # •1 < 0 ^ -f- . - T ► - CV* OL n s i r J 1 •? 1 r. ~ r # i L 1. 7 I \ ^ ^ JZ w i _ 1# ■ i ^ 0 — f - ~.r -h Ps K K 1 1 " — *, — 9 j — — -j # # 9 “\7 L/ ' , J — # a 'a J, — — a Shamrock is for - bid, by law, to grow on I - rish ground ; S u aint Pat - rick’s day no Ire- land's sons will ne’er for - get the blood that they have shed; You may take the Sham- rock sons with shame and , -G # sor - row from the dear old soil will part ; I’ve heard whis - per o a / ifcty • - — t 0 9 — i — r 1 =\- "! -1 1 Pn g - 0 ! 1 — * # # • l " K » |# r m a at « f 4 m . i \ tr L_ i -» ► -j- -0 # f , * 1» 1 1 p * U B — a . \ V i 9 0 more we’ll keep, His col - or can’t be seen. For there’s a blood - y law a - gin’ the from your hut, and cast it on the sod, But ’twill take root and flour - ish still, tho’ coun - try that lies far be - yant the say, Where rich, and poor, stand e - qual, in the i TUB WEARING OF THE GREEK. 137 138 THE BRITISH GRENADIERS. THE BRITISH GRENADIERS. Allegro eon apvrito. =3 16th Century. rs =#— T 1. Some talk of A1 - ex - an - der, And some of Her - cu 2. When -e’er we are com - mand - ed To storm the pal - i 3 . Then let us fill a bump - er, And drink a health to les, Of Hec - tor and Ly- sades, Our lead - ers march with those Who car - ry caps and -4—t * 0 — 7 - such great names as these; we with hand - gre - nades; wear the loup - ed clothes: & But of all the world’s brave he - roes There’s We throw them from the gla - cis A - May they and their com - man - ders Live -# — s F -N — Pggi COWING THRO* THE RYE. 139 COMING THRO’ THE RYE. Author Unknown. Old Scotch Melody. Allegretto Moderato. r Q-rb r — ; : r s 1 - -i 9 £ * r j * , r ft I* . S • • 7 tSz a 1 9 4 S' \j _ _ _ V. U 0 9 a # • 9 : n 1. Gin a bo - dy meet a 1 2. Gin a bo - dy meet a 1 3. A - mang the train there is a 1 . 1 -1 -1 - 1 7 ’ 1 j 7 az a a — a 0 9 ^ 4 4 + ♦ 1 v i : 1 *7. ? p «. ^ m 3 i m • ‘ ? ? •• ~ • • '•* j Gin a bo - dy kiss a bo - dy r Need a bo - dy cry ? Gin a bo - dy meet a bo - dy Need a bo - dy frown ? what his name, or whaur his hame, I din - na care to tell. a’ the lads they smile at me, When com - in’ thro’ the Rye. 140 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. KILLARNEY. Author Unknown. Music by W. M. Balfe. •H r 1 ps=~ — i 1 ■ffln — 2 -1 i * • • z J i 1 — ! J 4 * s J " < • f 7 “ 17 1 ' t B 1 By Kil-lar - ney’s 2 In - nis-fal - len’s -0--S , - lakes and fells, ru - in’d shrine Em’ - raid isles and May sug-gest a wind - ing bays, pass - ing sigh, f . •* v •! ^ N,_*f v f f* 7 -N / K~7 h~7 ~~T~ 1 P 7 n~ p / vz / n / r / / . J 1 “J 1 1 H . J J , _J pp ^ It 1 \ y 5* s IN C\L & r # m m > 4 # P < » 4 # ~ ~ *1 r f •? i •» ^ * r %» r •* *r *• •f l •9 .. •f. iZ . tj 2 •J Za / 11 I 7 7 h 7 l 7. _ L 7 7 r — 7~1 7 T 17 7 1 / 1 7 fj* 7 p 7 7 > P P P P 1 P 1 5P P t # CLLAKJnST. Ill 3 * 3. No place else can charm the eye With such bright and varied tints, Every rock that you pass by, Verdure broiders or besprints. Virgin there the green grass grows, Every mom Spring’s natal day, Bright-hued berries daff the snows, Smiling winter’s frown away. Angels often pausing there, Doubt if Eden were more fair. Beauty’s home, Killarney, Ever fair Killarney. Music there for Echo dwells, Makes each sound a harmony. Many-voiced the chorus swells. Till it faints in ecstacy. With the charmful tints below Seems the heaven above to vie. All rich colors that we know. Tinge the cloud wreaths in that sky. Wings of angels so might shine, Glancing back soft light divine. Beauty’s home, Killarney, Ever fair K ilia may. 142 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. GERMAN CRADLE SONG. Words by Franz Karl Hiemer. (1810.) Music by C. M. Von Weber. p Moderato. - J 0 ^ k — * s— t 0 ' rs n r -1 # M l T\ Q_ - r 1 — r! i . 0 a 7 r ij 0 s y Let the fi Not thus tho Watch o’er t Mo - ther d dr u’lt hy oth /zr~ 3 — F 1 1 — i | |™“ 1 1 1 VT\ 0 J 1 Ii- j \m 7 cr — 2 2 9 * * # 2 2 2 d : B -j w -j , - - — - * » » ) p ) ... ! ! i c V Q # « A 000 * —0 a — w 0 0 nr r 1.^3 F F " iJL L \ 0 m » m * 'm .<* n — — * — f — * — 1 \ 0 j j ... j J 0 'm |— = «-! 1 ST" — & fc — — # V V i ■ ■ ■ ■? : — — =R i ' — w — i 1 -)/ — |y y £7 y lid o’er those blue eyes now close ; All is as peace - ful, and slum - ber in life’s la ter prime, Sor - row and care then will era - die and smile on thee now, An - gels will tend thee in watch by thy bed with de light, Tho’ it be ear - iy or A — 0- 2 rift t-l' * 1 i * * I i I - «T - * * - 3E ^ EE3E = E J J -3 1 still as the tomb, Nor shall the gnats wake thee with their low hum. wstch by thy bed, Ne’er more sweet peace will thus pil - low thy head. life’s la - ter years, Then they will come to dry man - hood’s sad tears. late it may be, Mo - ther’s love slum - bers not watch - ing o’er thee. f FOTOLAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. 143 THE GIRL I LEFT BEHIND ME. Author Unknown. Old Irish qr y — — | 9 #— T- - • — w » ~| - I The dames 1 J of France are fond and m • free, And Flem - ish lips are will mg, And 2 For she’s as fair as Shan - non’s side, And pur er than its wa ter, But 3 She says, “ My own dear love, come home, My friends are rich and ma n Y' Or 4 For nev - er shall my true love brave A life of war and toil mg, And 3=f- =45= M 1 Je r i 8 & i t t=T¥. S a -s'- 144 POPULAR SONGS OP ALL NATIONS. ROBIN ADAIR. Words by Caroline Keppel. A ffetuuso. Old Scotch Air. 1. What’s this dull town to me ? 2. What made th’ as - sem - bly shine ? 3. But now thou’rt cold to me, gp i MJ # — *- - 0 - - 4 - -# P- OLD FOLKS AT HOME. 145 OLD FOLKS AT HOME.* Written and Composed by S. C. Foster. FP * p- 4 ' ' * , -i == r I t/T\ * i f ~ * ~ it szu. o . < J * hr J : - i _ i Dere’s whar my heart is turn - ing eb - ber, Dere’s whar de old folks stay, / t»LL . , .... _ . 1 / 1 N. ^ J _ - B 1 &T\ T £ A - * - * j _J J dLZ * W_ « m * — m ~ « 9 9 t , t 4 l * i s i i 4 EiiJ i J • v. —A 1 - ' J' •- NS"' \ ^ ' TL ^ ^ O" ^ i i - - — ~~ 72 III i sr • -=>■ h- » (taVfrtaht a*ad by r >e r uiiwuxj, l \ of Maura. Ouyu Dznon — itrfe — S 1 ! J J — # • 0 • P S v 1 I I (ft V V # • 9 m \ \ 1 VlU b b b * * . j 1 Dere was 2 His fin - g 3 When Old 1 a an old Nig - ga ers were long lik Ned die Ma j v r , dey call’d him un - cle Ned — He’s e de cane in de brake, He s - sa take it migh - ty hard, De / V i T J _L .. ^ »> * "j *- ^ . ) 7 4 # 4 0 1 7 J i \MZ 9 # # » v "a i i I Pr r ^ 1 N* A 1 \ S b ^ ? * ^ i ' M ' \ V j — j =! « UNCLE NED. 149 CHORUS. 150 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. OHI SUSANNA. OH! SUSANNA, 151 CHORUS. 152 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. KEEP IN DE MIDDLE OB DE ROAD * Words and Music by Will S. Hays. m m i see fix my eyes on de gold - en stair, An’ I’ll keep on a gwine till your back on dis world ob you lay down on de road to sin, die. Knock An’ at de door an’ dey’ll you watch dem an - gels ^3 git too late, Fo’ I git dar, Kase my let you in, Kase in de sky, You — 4- 1 — 4 f m BE 3 = = 3 = 3F 3 • Published by Qwo. D. Ncwhah A Oo., In sheet form, and used for this work by special permission. KEEP IN DE MIDDLE OB DE ROAD. 153 r t 6 154 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. Words by Francis Lynch. DEAREST MAE. Music by L. V. H. Crosby. DEAREST MAE. 155 CHORUS. 156 EVENING SONG TO THE VIRGIN. EVENING SONG TO THE VIRGIN. Words by Mrs. Hemans. Old Italian Air. ~6~n ? — 9 • | . £ rd — b — - -N -f* 1 ' 1 “ fml' 17 J • 2 2 "N 7 A 7 • 2 * m 7 nv; 9 # If 1 #•129 # # 2 no - bis, ’Tis night - fall c -0- 0 • 1— 0 >n the sea. Watch us while shad - ows lie, . - a . a a a c a b l*. (7 # . « * » 'P * 1 i r 1 T *05 b U i i v 5 . 1 r 7 — X ? r i i 7 kM 2 _ _LzH 9 J t f f ? j r i iiu 3~rb 1 i 7 i — — 1 K i w. i 1 N U h l 1 1 > 0 J •» 1 1 h k 1 J F* •I v* •? / r ■RP17 P • 2 2 *27 -j H T- # • f j 7 7 nz * • a 5 # # P 2 * a « — s \ Far o’er t / #_• # » ~ " w v v f . # * T- J tie wa - ter spread. Hear the heart’s lone - ly sigh, Thine too h 0 _ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * ~ ^ ath bled. 0 0 1 c V k i ; r- ~ ~ 1*. t? t L 6 p 1» « » » B %> v L L ,5 r r 0 1 *f , F i i 7 f — * ^ , 7 7 zi ■ \j i- b j r i v ' ” ^ ^ u 1 r r b 1 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. 157 UNIVERSITY SONG. (GAUDEAMUS.) Old Melody. (r6th Century .> Vivant membra quselibet. Semper sint in flore. Msecenatum caritas, Quae nos hie protegit. 5. Vivant omnes virgines Faciles, formos* ! Vivant et mulieres, Tenerae, amabiles, Lomu laboriosae. 7. Pereat tristitia, Pereant osores, Pereat diabolus, Quivis antiburschius, Atque irrisores. 1,58 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. WITHIN A MILE OF EDINBURGH TOWN. r • — *: N : v v4 R p K - 4? . — ^ ^ 1 i K m m • P * 42 22 _p \ _v y K im j • ^ r r, r 1 ^ . »} *?*?* , J 4 ^ -f v » 5 *5 * V * i * / r\ • I y*j 1 £ " £ ’■ A \ 9 id — 9 a — — POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. 153 CHARLIE IS MY DARLING. Words by the Baroness Nairne. Composer Unknown. Alleyro. -6—, — f*- - - v # ; ? *• # a • I ATliTY ^7 n \ * m J r • N . s n _ s __ f _ j T b— ^ 1 veTs ’ * 0 N s - « 0 9 h 0 » h « ^ < _ XT 9 7/ k— fe y * 9 • v * 1 Oh! Char-lie is my dar ling, My n _ , N n S' * dar- ling, my dar ling, Oh! Ch ar-lie is my dar -ling, The young Che -va- lier. . ___ S 1 7 4_ _ _w _ Lp a w ^ S . £ ' £1 * J iL.li / v * y % y y t y _ . N ^ r ~y _ y w y 7 ^ 7 ' * 9 3 5 __ 2 f p 7 J / 9 / # 7 t' ,-£> *> • 1 1 0 0 « J ff e * * * J -*• -4- * « « Jtjr ■** » V V P-0 -0 a *» a y d y d- y 9 -f 9 -f 9 f 9 * * 7 * . • 7 • ; # 7 4 1 r r 7 ^ ! ~ V V - 0 _ _ t "fl j~» a n ^ ,, o fTf, f-. - - ^ - -g~ WTT^i - ' mtj » 0 r 0 J i pi .JTh ft- 9 r'w ^ r.y- < 0 H? f - b 2 ^ # , a 9 * • a <> • ' J-3 V u • u _ J 1 ■ J 1 ^ y 'j ^ # v x7— I. ’Twas on a Monday morning, Right ear - ly in the year, When Char- lie came to our town, The young Che - va-lier. Oh! s n s _n L- 1 _ j I s ____ s k ^ a , n J J LI J d “ ■ dr—— ~ K _n 11KHW 9 « M *r # •* ' oT If# •>» - •" S 9 ' o; . _ p o/ i f7n r. t TT^ 7 #7 9 1 # 7 * S { . i _ * - I # i — 5 ^ ■ ■ v T ^ < 1 — # 1 ^ ,N < j d * v Lt k 1 ** 3 1 9 • w V' V ' ^ " l I J ir Ch • p ar- lie is my dar - ling, my r> y # _____ ! 1 2 . As he cam’ marchin’ up the street, The pipes play'd loud and clear ; And a’ the folk cam’ rinnin’ out To meet the Chevalier. Oh ! Charlie, etc. 3 - Wi’ Hieland bonnets on their heads, And claymores bright and clear, They cam’ to fight for Scotland’s right, And the young Chevalier. Oh I Charlie, etc. 4 - They’ve left .heir bonnie Hieland hills, Their wives and bairnies dear, T« draw the sword for Scotland’s Lord, The young Chevalier. Oh ! Charlie, etc. 5 - Oh ! there were mony beating hearts, And mony a hope and fear ; And mony were the pray’rs put up For the young Chevalier. Oh ! Charlie, etc. 160 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. TIS BUT A LITTLE FADED FLOWER. Words by Mrs. E. C. Howarth, Music by J. R. Thomas. Andante scmplice. I f^i — rvi ~H . T — P- • • a — h — * =£=3= r c -4 * — i— 1 ’Tis but a lit - tie fa - ded flow’r, But oh ! how fond- ly dear, ’Twill 2 Where is the heart that doth not keep, With - in its in - most core, Some bring me back one gold- en hour, fond remembrance, hid-den deep, Through ma-ny, through many a wea - ry year; I Of days, of days that are no more ? Who By permission of the Composer, and published in sheet form by Wit. A. Pond A Qo, 'TIS BUT A I.ITTLE FADED FLOWER. 160 a 101 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. THE HARP THAT ONCE THROUGH TARA’S HALLS. Words by Thomas Moore. Air. — “ Grammachree." n . s ___ cs k J v ^ 7 Ip . i p Ar-Jf 7 S I r • # r r _ r m ' - * • ° s j p sr, 9 & ’ n i 7 Thou dost ma germ of in u + rk th l- mo — y — e spar- row’s r - tal - i - fal ty And T H 1 1 ca! m ar — ■= — y — 1 d peaceful is my sleep, rT*°?s— i W 2 — rTl — j — 1 — — ^ — i — — I — — h ini * r. ft? L«-g=3 — -# j — « p ■ . # *- <9 < • r- # o - J f * « a cv l r. ..=3 - j U i rx 1 r= 1 r= 4 ; 3s — f- — m — t- r~ 1 3? » —3s =t — * i — — 4 9 J — 35 — f * i t m . V Rock’d in the era - die of the deep. And calm ■v- and peace - ful is my 104 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. OLD KING COLE. Author Unknown. Old Air. -fr-f— f — N * ^ k c ^ r — r — k — k — rh - r _fe 1 1 JL, 4 J k. iv r> 9 9 # 1 S ' S J N K 1 r « T r f * 9 9 - Z K 4 a/ _ w *—w a ~ * i rv n .1 ~ ' ' ~ ev’ - ry fid - dler had a fine fid - die, And ev’ - ry fid-dler had a fine fiid -dle, And a n_ if h. v . w .k i - _5_tt r 1 in c L V _P rs _l ~ - AT Or if “N ~h 0 M *1 9 9 v 4 & 1 7l A ! - ~N 1 J 9 trtz # <7 * # — H- * * I c. J5 TT mark for “Rex” was a TT V sin - gle “X” — And his drink was dit - to doub-le, For he L 1 — 1 1 1 -| 1 -i - - -L.ZL- v v_ii " f ■■ .f! & » ■■ p_ — * -5- -Jll J f ■ CV- it- s # —4 >4 - d — jt i* 1 — J . — L?-r ' ' ' :*7~, I OLD KINO COLE. 165 jT-i r k k k 1 N V . ^ A . k s. h. -p e c — N • « j K -V P pj n ^ n — 9 9 j r 6 - — 1 ^ 2 9 9 9 e * * 4 — b o V 1 ve - ry fine fid - die had he ; And a ve - ry fine fid-dle had • he, For •v K V K v k JL T ' N N s' v v k r> d 0 tp J n i - fc _Jv j. ff 9 9 9 9^ J* J* Z S * * w J __5 1 H 0 9 - J S J j 4 4 4 ® • • # v * W tt 9 9 «. T e * scorn’d the fet - ters of four-and-twen -ty let- ters, And it sav’d him a vast deal of trouble, For / □ — — '■ “ 4 1 ~fs « \0*— H H 4- ; , n 7 SI a * Hz 2 & & f * IT# — ^ u \ • ^ s 7 t •+ * + -* | # • f , - r~ n rr □ — " n r 3 !• * . 9 i - - * rf? * •* ; •» . ^ 9 i 3 } r i 9 / 7 J > 9 J L B — r J • s<= — * 9 | On Old King Cole’s left cheek was a mole, So he called for his secretary ; And he bade him look in a fortune-telling book. And read him his destiny. And the secretary said, when his fate he had read. And cast his nativity, A mole on the face boded something would take placej But not what that something might be. Bor Old King Cole, etc. 166 POPULAR SONGS OF ALL NATIONS. ROCK OF AGES. Words by Rev. Augustus Montague Toplady. Music by R. Redhead. MU8K1 TYPOGRAPHY BY J. M. ANM8TRONO 6k 00.. PHILADELPHIA PENMANSHIP. 167 THE HISTORY OF ITS RISE AND PROGRESS. T — fRITING is the art of ex- pressing ideas by visible signs or characters in- scribed on some material. It is either ideographic or phonetic. Ideographic writing may be either pic- torial, representing ob- jects by imitating their forms, or symbolic, by im- itating their nature or pro- portions. Phonetic writ- ing may be syllabic or alphabetic ; in the former each character represents a syllable ; in the latter, a single letter. Of the origin of this art nothing is positively known. The Egyptians ascribed it to Thoth ; the Greeks, to Mercury or Cadmus ; and the Scandinavians, to Odin. The first step towards writing was probably the rude pictorial representation of objects, without any indication of the accessories of time or place ; the next, the application of a symbolic signification to some of the figures, so that the picture of two legs, for example, represented not only two legs, but also the act of walking. Pictures, abbreviated for con- venience, gradually became conventional signs, and In time these characters were made to stand for the sound of spoken language. The various systems of writing of the ancient world had probably at least three different sounw — tlic Egyptian, the Assyrian and the Chinese systems, all of which were originally hieroglyphic. The Egyp- tians practiced four distinct styles of writing — the hieroglyphic, hieratic, demotic or enchorial, and Coptic. Hieroglyphic writing, which was in use much earlier than 3,000 B.C., was probably at first ideographic ; its symbols became gradually used to represent abstract ideas, and in time acquired a phonetic value. The phonetic characters are both syllabic and alphabetic. In the latter, pictoral figures are used to express the initial letters of the words which they represent ; for example, the figure of an eagle, ckhom , stands for a, of an owl, tnulag, for m, etc. The hieratic writing, which probably came into use 2,000 B.C., was a simplified form of the hie- roglyphic style, in which the pictorial symbols de- veloped through a stage of linear hieroglyph into a kind of curious hand. The demotic or enchorial writing was of a still simpler form of the hieroglyphic, and a nearer approach to the alphabetic system. It was in use from about the 7th century B.C. till the 2d century A. D., when it was gradually superseded by the Coptic, which grew out of the hieratic and demotic under Greek influences. The Ethiopians also used hieroglyphs similar tc those of the Egyptians, and their current written language resembled the Egyptian demotic, but its alphabet had fewer symbols. At a later period a third graphic system, somewhat analogous to the Coptic, came into use, which may be called Ethiopic Greek With what people the Assyrian Cuneiform or Spheno- graphic styles of writing originated is not known, but it was originally without doubt a hieroglyphic sys- tem, and became gradually modified by the different m PENMANSHIP. nations which occupied the Assyrian empire, until it assumed the form of the present known inscriptions. There are three classes of Cuneiform characters — the Assyrian or Babylonian, the Scythian or Median, and the Persian. The first is the most complicated, its hieratic symbols was probably derived the Phoe- nician alphabet, the parent of almost all the princi- pal graphic systems of the world. The Roman letters were used in Italy until the latter part of the 6th century, when the Lombardic style was introduced. This is also sometimes called Roman, because used by the Popes in their bulls ; it continued in use until the 13th century. The Visigothic style, carried into Spain by the Visigoths, was legally abolished in 1091, and Latin letters were adopt- ed for all public instru- ments. In France the Merovingian style pre- vailed from the close of the 6th century to the end of the 8th. Char- lemagne introduced the Caroline, which, having degenerated before the close of the 10th century, was restored by Hugh Capet, and was subse- quently called the Cape- tian. It was in use in England, France, and Germany till the middle of the 12th century, when the modern Gothic spread all over Europe. The present German al- phabet is a modification of this. There are no traces of writing in Britain before the Roman conquest, when Latin letters were containing from 600 to 700 symbols ; the second is less complicated, but contains about 100 symbols, or three times as many as the third, which is almost purely alphabetic. Of these three original systems, the Egyptian is by far the most important, for from introduced. What is called the Roman-Saxon, resembling the Roman, prevailed until the middle of the 8th century ; the set Saxon succeeded it, lasting until the middle of the 9th ; this was followed by the running- hand Saxon of the time of Alfred ; the rn ' v <*** PENMANSHIP. 1 6 $ Saxon, combining the Roman, Lomba/dic, and Saxon letters ; and the elegant Saxon, which was introduced in the ioth century, and did not become obsolete until the middle of the 12th. The Norman Style, quaint, illegible, affected, and composed of letters nearly Lombard ic, came in with William the Conqueror. The modern Gothic dates in England from the 12th century ; the old English, from the middle of the 14th. The English court had a barbarous cor- ruption of the Norman, which was contrived by the lawyers of the 16th century, and lasted till the reign of George II., when it was abolished by law. The utmost diversity exists among different nations in the manner or direction of writing ; but in general the Semitic races wrote from right to left, and the Aryan from left to right. In form ancient manuscripts were either rolls, volumnia , or flat pages like our printed books, codices. The Egyptian papyri are usually in rolls of an indefinite length, according to the subject matter, but some of the smaller ones are flat. The transcripts of manuscripts were committed by the Greeks and Romans principally to slaves, who were esteemed of great value when they excelled in the art. There were also at Rome professional copy- ists, some of whom were women. About the 5th century, associations of scribes, who worked under stringent rules, were formed. In the middle ages copying was almost exclusively in the hands of ecclesiastics, who were called clerks, clerici. In the Imperial library at Vienna is a Roman calendar executed in the first half of the 4th century. In the Vatican there is a fragment of a Virgil of the 4th century. The most ancient manuscripts extant are the papyrus rolls from the tombs of Egypt, where the dryness of the climate and of the sand beneath which they were buried preserved them in an almost perfect condition for thousands of years. EGIN with good paper, good pens, good ink. In a good copy the letters should be of elegant form, and constructed on natural principles. Every letter should be as perfect as it is possi- ble for human skill to execute, that wherever it occurs it may present an unvarying model tc the pupil. The turns and slopes should be alike, the loops of the same length and width, the proper distances between the letters carefully ob- served, and shade duly distributed. Curlicues, flourishes, and ornamental capitals, may delight an amateur in a show-case ; a thorough business man detests them in his correspondence. In a lady’s writing they are sim- ply vulgar. The course of instruction given in the copies should consti- tute a system, arranged in that order of progression which is indicated by a careful analysis of the forms of the letters andcf the powers of the human hand, so that each advance may pre- pare the way for the next, and the steps not be farther apart than the necessities of the case compel. To this end, thf, simpler forms should precede the more complex ; the short, the long. Those that have similar curves and turns and iden- tical parts should be together. Words should precede sen- tences. The columns should be first narrow, then broader, to accustom the hand by degrees to move easily on the given rests across the longest word. These columnar sections, in- tended to be written down, are the gradual preparation for the sentences, which occupy the width of the page. The se- lection of the words for the columns should be in accordance with the same principle of progressiveness, — first the easier, then the more difficult combinations. In them the loops should so occur that when the copy is written they may be hand- somely distributed, and the general appearance of the page be harmonious. A good paper costs more, but it is indispensable. It should be tolerably thick, well laid, with a smooth surface, moder- ately glazed ; so that the ink will not show through when dry, and that there may be no roughness or little hairs for the pen to pick up, and that the pen may glide along without jar on the muscles or nerves of the fingers and hand, — a very impor- tant consideration now that steel pens are used, as paralysis has in several instances resulted from their use, and their in- jurious effect must needs be greater on a rough surface. A white paper is generally to be preferred to a blue, indeed is almost invariably used. The pen should be fine-pointed, so that a good hair-line can be made, and have a good springy nib, that the shades may be cleanly cut, and that the writing may not be rendered stiff, a result inevitably following the use of a “ hard ” pen. They should be of a uniform character as much as possible, — not one 170 PENMANSHIP. very hard and another very soft. Slight differences cannot be avoided ; those that vary least are the best, if they are right in other respects. A new pen is often greasy, owing to a certain process in the manufacture, and will not retain the ink. Dip it and raise it from the ink slowly, then wipe it ; repeat this two or three times and the trouble will be removed. Good ink is a very difficult thing to procure. It should be sufficiently fluid to flow easily from the pen, dark enough to enable the pupil to see at the time what he is writing, and to judge of hair-strokes and shades. It must not evaporate rapidly from the inkstand, nor leave a layer of mud in it ; neither should it mould. Frost should not affect it. Ink should stain the paper in order to be permanent. Its color when thoroughly dry should be a deep black, which neither time nor exposure to the sun can change. Pupils will learn by experiment that, if they raise the pen ftom the ink suddenly, it will be too full, and apt to blot ; if very slowly, the attraction of the fluid will leave none in the pen ; and, therefore, a moderate motion must be used. One experiment is worth hours of talking. Attention to this will save many a blot. Cleanliness is as absolutely necessary for the well-being of the pen as for our own. Pens should be carefully cleaned at the close of the exercise. Always dip and wipe a new pen two or three times before it is written with, or it will be very likely to make a blot. To avoid the same mishap, the pen should never be wiped on the outside of the pen-wiper, but always between the leaves of it. Should the pen-wiper then happen to get on the book, no dam- age will be done. A stiff b/otter will last the longest, but common blotting- paper, or a piece of newspaper, or any paper, will answer, not indeed for blotting, but for the use we now designate. The copy-book must be kept perfectly clean, and the blotter is to be used for that purpose. The right hand does not soil the book, for it rests on the nails of two fingers and only touches the page with them. It is the left hand that does the mischief. To obviate k, piace the blotter so as to cover each column as soon as it is dry after being written, and rest the left hand on that, and not on the page. (WWWfff m PoMtton, Rests, and Movements, f HE immediate human instrument in writing is the arm. It consists of three parts, the upper- arm, the fore-arm, and the hand. The two connections of these are the elbow and wrist. The arm is attached to the body by the shoulder- joint. The position of the body must, there- fore, evidently depend upon the use we wish to make of the arm and hand. This use, then, must be dc»rmined first. Various ones have been advo- cated by different teachers. The three following are the most strongly distinguished ; the others arise from combinations ot two or more of them. First, considering the shoulder as a point of suspension, and moving the whole arm without any support and without any motion of the finger-joints. There are, however, very few who possess sufficient muscular strength and steadiness of nerve to write thus. It is the true move- ment for striking large capitals and flourishing. Secondly, resting the fore-arm near the elbow and on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and forming the letters by its move- ment without any help from the pen-fingers. Thirdly, rest- ing the fore-arm and hand as in the last, while the letters are formed by the movement of those fingers only which hold the pen. This generally leads to a feeble, constrained style. There Must Be Freedom of Style. — This condition can only be fulfilled by keeping the arm free from all unnatural constraint. This precludes it from affording any support to the body. Again, the letters are to be written across the page on a horizontal line. A requirement of beauty is that this line should be straight. This is secured without much diffi- culty where the base is ruled. The only important thing is to keep on it. If, now, we take pen in hand, use the elbow, placed opposite the middle of the page, for a pivot, and move the hand across, we find that the arc of a circle is described, touching the base line in only two points. In the middle it rises a full half inch above the base line. This is a difficulty to be overcome. Once more, whilst mere form does not de- mand consideration here, because readiness in shaping letters can only be acquired by practice, yet uniformity of slope and similarity of turns, which are required, will evidently greatly depend upon the maintenance of the same relative position of the pen, hand, and fore-arm for each letter. If we now ob- serve a little farther the movement above described, we find that in it the position of the hand in relation to each succeed- ing letter is changed, and assumes a new direction. How can this difficulty be overcome ? Again, it is clear that we shall be able to write much faster, if the pen touches the paper lightly, than if it presses on it heavily : this also contributes greatly to freedom of style. Finally, in order to boldness of style, powerful muscles must, if possible, be brought into play in aid of the slight muscles of the fingers, while forming the letters. This would also help to prevent fatigue. To sum up, the essentials of the work to be done are : long continu- ance, freedom, forming the letters on a horizontal straight line across the page, uniformity of slope and similarity of turns, rapidity and boldness. The conditions we have found to be hereby imposed on the arm are : avoidance of unnatural con- straint, relief of all unnecessary pressure, movement of the hand and fore-arm across the page with the same relative po- sition to each letter, and counteraction of the curve arising from this movement, adequate support, and use of powerfal muscles. The Human Instrument. — A little in front of the elbow, at the thickest part of the fore-arm, we find a mass of muscle. If the arm is placed on the desk, suspended from the shoulder, and resting lightly on this mass as a support, we find an ex- cellent ability for moving the fore-arm on it with freedom from left to right and back again, within a certain limited distance. PENMANSHIP. *7J the muscle rolling under the arm. We will name this support the tolling rest. It is of the highest importance to observe the peculiar movement of the fore-arm on this rest. It is not to be so used as that, when the hand passes to the left, the elbow moves to the right, and vice versa. The fore-arm moves side- ways as the muscle rolls under it, with sufficient play, when it is placed at right angles to the base line and opposite the mid- dle of a word or short clause, to carry the hand across from one end of it to the other without changing its direction. Bending the wrist sideways to the right — a most cramping movement, and painful if frequently repeated— is thus rendered quite unnecessary, and should be carefully watched against. By turning the third and fourth fingers under, so that the hand can rest on the comer of their nails, or, if preferred, on the little finger only, another support, like the runners of a sleigh, is provided, capable of moving freely over the paper. We name this the sliding rest. To avoid friction, the wrist should not touch the desk ; by means of the two rests, it may easily and comfortably be kept a little raised. These, then, we conceive to be the natural positions and rests, — namely, the right hand and fore-arm in the same straight line, at right angles to the line of writing, and oppo- site the middle of a long word or a clause of moderate length. The fore-arm is supported on the rolling rest, the hand on the sliding rest, and the wrist slightly raised. The left fore-arm and hand are placed at right angles to the right fore-arm, with the fingers on the blotter, which covers the part already written, to steady the book, and move it when necessary. The left fore-arm is therefore in the direction of the line of writing. What now are the movements of the right fore-arm and hand? On the rolling rest the whole fore-arm moves, so as always to be parallel to its first position, and carries with it the hand supported on the sliding rest. The rolling rest is sta- tionary ; the sliding rest glides along the paper on a horizon- tal line, — that is, parallel to the line of writing : this is its only movement. The whole fore-arm and hand move gradually to the right in this way, with a nearly continuous motion, for ihe formation of the successive letters, so that their relative posi- tion to every lette 1 is the same. All stoppages of the nails and jerks to get the hand forward are to be absolutely forbidden. This movement ot the hand is named the sliding movement ; the movement ol the fore-arm we have named the comital movement (Lat. comes, a companion), because it accompanies the hand. Since the corneal movement is more or less limited, some further means must be found of keeping the fore-arm and hand in the right relative position to the letters. Two methods • offer themselves to us for selection. One is, to draw the paper to the left as we write. The other, which we prefer, is, by means of a lift from the shoulder, to place the fore-arm and hand in a position farther to the right : this should be done Jnly at the end of a word. To distinguish this movement, we have named it the lateral movement. In performing it, the hand slides as before. Experiment will now demonstrate that, by the adoption of the rolling rest and the lateral movement, the difficulty mentioned above, of the curve formed by the hand crossing the page, is entirely done away with. For the attaining of Boldness of Style, the powerful muscles of the fore-arm must be brought into action by a slight play of the whole fore-arm forwards and backwards, in direc- tion of the slope on the rolling rest, over the sliding rest, — • fixed point, so far as this movement is concerned. This gives a full heft, through the medium of the hand, to the fingers which move the pen, and, as a consequence, boldness of style * just as a large and massive stone rolling down a hill maintains its course over considerable inequalities of surface, while the slightest obstacle diverts a small and light one. This play of the fore-arm we name the muscular movement. The resulting play of the hand, as the medium of its transmission to the pen- fingers, we name the medial movement. We are now prepared to form a correct judgment as to the best position of the body for the accomplishing of these move- ments most naturally, and consequently with the least fatigue. It may be summed up in two words. The body must be upright and self-supported. Its relative position to the desk is a matter of comparative indifference ; only, all the pupils should conform to one plan. Each position has its advantages and inconveniences. The simplest division of positions is twofold ; the right side to the desk, and the face to the desk. Where we adopt the former, we direct the pupil to turn on his seat, so that his right side may be directly to the desk with- out touching ; the body to be erect, and supported by the spi- nal column ; the left foot slightly advanced. The book is ad- justed with the back to the front edge of the desk, and at a two-seated desk, the top edge of one at the outside edge of the desk, of the other in a line with the inkstand. When opened, the left side of the page to be written is to be placed at the edge of the desk. The left hand is brought across, and the fingers placed on the leftside of the page to keep it steady. The right fore-arm is placed on the desk, parallel with the front edge. If necessary, from short-sightedness or bad adap- tation of the height of the seats to the desks, the body maybe inclined forward from the seat, — never by rounding the back and contracting the chest, — and the head may be bowed some- what forward by bending the neck. The advantages of this plan of seating the scholars are : the perfectly natural position of the body ; the freedom of the right arm from all avoidable weight, and its ability to form the movements required ; the certainty that both rests are on the desk ; and the facility with which the teacher can look down the files and along the lines in large classes, and see that every pen is rightly held, and every movement correctly made. An objection to this posi- tion is made on the ground that, in business, when using large account-bocks, it is impossible. We reply, that we adopt this position for learners, because it is very convenient for the teacher. When the art is acquired, the position becomes com- paratively a matter of indifference. Where we adopt the second method of seating, namely, the body fronting the desk fairly, or with more or less inclination of the right or left side to it, we take care of these two points: that both rests of the right fore-arm shall be on and be kept on the desk, and that the book is at right angles to the right fore-arm. The following troubles are apt to arise : A tendency to sprawl over the desk, and, as a necessary conse. quence, to press the chest against it, — a practice most injuri- PENMANSHIP. <7* ous. The book gets turned from its proper position at right angles to the right fore-arm. When writing down a column, a habit we strongly commend for learners, the book must be continually pushed up, or the back rest of the arm will get more and more off the desk. Indeed, pupils are sometimes found actually resting the wrist on the front edge of the desk. On the other hand, this is often the only position the seats ad- mit of ; it is the position that must be adopted, when writing in large account-books ; and there is no necessity that the above faults should prevail. They certainly will not under the care of a faithful teacher. We conclude, then, that the posi- tion of the body at the desk is matter of indifference, provided it is upright and self-supported. The next point which claims our attention is the manner of holding the pen, and the movement of the pen-fingers. We have seen that the hand is supported on the sides of the nails of the third and fourth fingers. Their ends, being bent under, are separated from the others, and there is room for the execu- tion of the pen-finger movements. The fingers should touch one another at the second joints, as far as the shape of the hand permits : this gives unity and support. The pen is held by means of the thumb and the first and second fingers. Place the right extremity of the holder against the left side of the second finger just below the nail ; the end of the finger will thus be above the pen. Next, adjust the holder obliquely across the left side of the third portion of the first finger, just behind the second joint, the middle finger be- ing at the same time slightly bent. The first two portions of the forefinger may now be closed down on the holder, which will be found to cross and touch them diagonally. The first and second fingers touch throughout. Next, let the upper cor- ner of the fleshy part of the thumb, near the nail, be placed, by slightly bending the thumb, against the lower half of the left side of the holder, opposite the first joint of the middle finger, and the pen will be found in a secure and natural po- sition, both for extension and retraction. It will be observed that we have given the medium position of the pen. The fin- gers and thumb with the joints slightly bent outwards, straight- ening them would extend the pen ; bending them still more would retract it. The pen is really held between three points, — the side of the end of the second finger, the side of the third portion of the first finger behind the second joint in front of the knuckle, and the side of the end of the thumb. The first finger is like the lid of a box placed on it to keep the pen from jumping out ; it is also the principal agent in ef- fecting the pressure for the shades. As to movement, the thumb may be regarded as a spring. The first and second fingers, by contraction of their muscles, press against it ; we relax its muscles, and it yields by bending : thus the downward strokes are made. By relaxing, in turn, the muscles of the (fingers, and straightening the thumb by calling its muscles into action, it pushes back the fingers, and the *p-strokes are formed. The movement is twofold and alternate, extending and retracting, to form oblique lines, ovals, or horizontals. The pen must be held with the least possible grasp. It is to be at right angles to the base line, and thus in a line with the fore-arm. Great care must be taken to guard against a wrong position of the hand and pen. The pen must be so held that the right side is turned a little down, so that the right nib touches the paper first when the pen is put down. With this right nib the hair-strokes are made. The nibs, so to speak, are at right angles to the slope ; not horizontal. By this means the shades can be made smooth. When it is neglected, the shades will be “ scratchy,” or rough on one side. A glance at the holder tells the teacher in a moment if the hand is right. With beginners, it will be found almost as variable as a weath- ercock. Now it is inclined to the right, showing that the hand is lying down, — a fault requiring constant watchfulness, and arising from neglect of the comital movement of the fore-arm ; now to the left, showing that the hand is turned too far over in that direction. Now the end points outwards, showing the elbow has got away ; again, it points inwards, showing that the wrist is bent to the right. The body with the right side to the desk, or directly facing it, or with either side more or less turned to it. It is to be up- right and self-supported. The fore-arms rest lightly on the desk at right angles to one another. The right is supported by the rolling rest, and the hand by the sliding rest. The left arm has the fingers on the left side of the book, to steady it and to move it when neces- sary. The copy-book is placed with its vertical lines in the direction of the right fore-arm, and its horizontal lines in that of the left. It must be kept far enough on the desk to allow the rests also to be on. This position of the book at right angles to the right fore-arm is invariable, whatever direction the arm may be in on the desk. The rolling rest is the muscle in front of the elbow ; the sliding rest, the comers of the nails of the third and fourth fingers bent under. The movements of the fore-arm are three. The comital, which accompanies the sliding movement of the hand, and is made sidewise on the rolling rest. The muscular, which causes the medial movement of the hand, and gives heft to the pen-fingers. It is a play of the arm forwards and backwards on the rolling rest. The consequent medial movement of the hand is made over the sliding rest, of which the only move, ment is in a horizontal line. The lateral is the lifting and moving the whole fore-arm and hand to the right : it is ren. dered necessary by the limited scope of the comital. The simplest movement for beginners is to form the letters by the motion of the fingers, moving the hand and arm along by the united sliding and comital movements, which should be nearly continuous. When thoroughly familiar with these, after considerable practice, the medial and muscular movements may be added to give freedom and boldness of style. The lateral will not be needed until sentences are written. The movements of the pen fingers are in different directions, by extension and retraction : thus are written oblique straight lines ; ovals, direct, inverted, and alternate ; and horizontal lines. The shades are made by pressure. As to these, great care is needed. They must be made in ovals, with a gradual increase and diminution of pressure. The usual fault is to make them too abrupt, or with the greatest thickness too long continued. The moment the thickest point is reached, the pressure should begin to diminish. Special directions are given in the analysis of the letters, where needed. PENMANSHIP. »73 teietyeiijfe ^3 Jirtyciples. 8MM } ORDS are represented in writing by a single letter, or by a combination of letters. Letters are complex ; they can be resolved into forms common to several of them : thus, the form repeated in u is found also in i and w ; or, they are expressed by one such form as /, found in g and_y. In some there are parts not found in any other. In writing, the letters are placed on horizontal lines, either ruled or imaginary. Some of the letters and parts of others are longer than the rest. The letter o, which is the pure oval, is taken as the standard of size. We name the line on which the writing rests the Base Line. Suppose a line parallel to this to be drawn so as to touch the top of the o. This, whether ruled or imaginary, is named the Head Line. The distance between the base and head lines is called one space, and gives the height of the first four principles, wherever they enter into the formation of letters. The dot of the r, the point of the t, the top of the second part of the k, are one-third of a space higher. Suppose, now, six lines parallel to the base line to be drawn, three above the head line, and three below the base line, at intervals equal to the first space. We shall have eight par- allel lines bounding seven equal spaces in a vertical direction. We call the middle space the first ; the next above and below, the second ; the next, the third ; and the last, the fourth One of these spaces is taken for the unit of measurement. Rule — Loop letters are four spaces, and double loops seven ; t and d two and a half, q three and a half, f< five, two above and two below the first space. All the rest are one space, except r, r, and the second part of k. which are one and a third. The capitals are four spaces. It will be observed that /, long r, and p extend as far above the first space as they do below ; and that the top of p is a little higher than that of Zand d, and the bottom of q a little lower than that of p. The commencing and ending lines of the letters are always to begin and terminate at the base and head lines respectively. There are two grammatical divisions of letters, distinguished by their forms : the small letters, which form the main body of writing, and the capitals, which are used on special occa- sions. We shall begin with the analysis of the small letters, because they occur oftenest and because their forms are sim- pler. We shall not take them up in their alphabetical order, but in that which gives the easiest first, and shows th ;i r simi- larity, arising from the possession of common pr mcipies. This is the method adopted in our copy-books, in >rder to render our system of teaching gradually progressive. THE CAPITAL LETTERS. General Rules. The height of the capitals is four spaces, the same as the loop letters. A. This letter has three parts. The first part is generally written upwards, the upper curve very slight. The second part is very slightly curved to one-third from the top, then it is a straight line, of which the shade gradually increases. The third part is the cross. It starts from the right foot, coincides for a half space, crosses to the left and forms a loop, the center of which is one-third the height of the letter, and on the double curve line. A line from the top through the center of the letter would be on the main slope ; hence it will be seen that the second part, or down-stroke, has a little less than the main slope, the first part a little more. Observe that the width of the letter gradually increases from the top to the b.Ti-r, and regulate the first up-stroke accordingly. N. This letter consists of three parts. The first two are the same as in A , except in slope ; at the bottom of the second a very narrow turn is made, and and a curve carried up from it, parallel to the first up- stroke, four-fifths the height of the letter. The spaces on a horizontal line across the middle are equal. The shade begins as in A, and is heaviest just before the turn. A line drawn through the centre of the letter, dividing it into two equal lateral halves, would be on the main slope. Observe the gradual increase and diminution of width in the two sections. See the cautions on A . M. This letter has four parts. The first three are the same as A r , ex- cept that the third stroke is carried to the full height. The fourth part is curved from the top, and closes with the direct oval. Observe the shades carefully. A line through the centre, dividing the letter into equal lateral halves, would be on the main slope. The widths at the top and the two at the base are equal. On a horizontal line through the middle there arc three equal spaces. T has two parts. The strongest curve is in the lower section. Thera is no shade except in the third principle and dot. F is T crossed in the middle by a small double curve placed horizon- tally, which is itself crossed by a small straight line on the main slope. P. This letter has two parts, the stem and the cap. It is on the main slope. The cap begins with the inverted oval, two-thirds the height, on the main slope, crossing the stem at right angles, the highest point of the cap being in the middle of the line between the section of the oval and the stem ; it is continued with the right curve, and terminates on the stem in a dot at half the height of the letter. On the short di- ameter of the first oval produced to the stem, there are four equal spaces ; on a parallel line from the left curve of the oval crossing the stem to the other curve, two equal spaces. A line on the main slope through the oval would pass through the dot. B. The stem and cap are like P, only that the right si je is carried down one-third instead of a half, and the dot is omitted. The separa- tion between the upper and lower sections of the right side is made by a horizontal loop. The lower curve ends with the inverted oval. A straight line drawn on the main slope, touching the right side of the upper curve, would pass through the center of the lower oval ; the lower right curve, therefore, projects beyond the upper. Across the first oval to stem on its short diameter produced, there are four equal spaces similarly as to the last oval, three. On a parallel line from the right side of the first oval to the right side of the upper lobe, there are two equal spaces. R is like B as far as the separating loop, which Is here made at right angles to the main slope. After that the descending curve is turned back to finish with the direct oval. Across each of the two ovals to the stem on their short diameters produced, there are four equal spaces. On a parallel line from the right side of the first oval to the right side of the upper lobe there are two equal spaces. A line on the main slope through the oval would pass through the d®t. X. The capital-stem is made first, writing downwards. Then the in verted oval and direct oval joined by a straight line on the main slope The two parts of the letter coincide through half the height, commeno- ing at one-fourth from the top. Across the ovals there are four equal (paces. The remark on the dot applies also. f74 PENMANSHIP. .V. Begin from base line with the right curve on the slope of the con- necting lines to half the height of the letter, then form a loop on the main slope, half the height, complete a double curve, and end with a dot on the commencing line. The dot is half a space high, and on the main slope. The double curve is the essential part of this letter. No- ' tice how the loop is formed on the upper part, and the greater intensity ■ of curve is on the lower part. Let the shade begin just below the loop, and he nicely graduated. Give much attention to the lower turn and the dot. An oblique line through the loop lengthwise has similar curves formed on the double curve, on .he upper left and lower right side. A. This letter begins like .S', but the double curve, instead of making a turn to end with the dot, is carried to the left to form a horizontal Ibop, which rests on the base line, and whose thickness is half a space ; it descends on the right side to touch the base line at precisely the same distance from the crossing as on the left ide, and ends with the direct oval incomplete. The lower curve of .he stem is stronger than the upper. It will be observed that the upper curve of the horizontal loop, and the curve to the right which touches the base line, together form a double curve. The right section only of the direct oval is used. The shade begins as in the S, below the loop. The bottom of this ietter. which may be termed the A-foot, occurs also in A>, Q and one form of Z. Take care that the direct oval is made on the main slope. I. Begin with the left curve at the height of one space from the base line, carry it round to the right to form a circular loop, and continue to curve to the height of the letter. The second part of the capital-stem and dot passing through the center of the circular loop, whose center is also in the middle of the stem. Take care that the upper part of the head is not made too hroad. Modify tile curve gently to accord with the upper part of the stem. . y. This letter begins as the /, but the circular loop is not so high ; its lower curve is one space from the base line, and the double curve is carried down to form a loop, the same length as j\ three spaces below the line. The left curve of the loop crosses at the base line. A line through the length of the loop should pass through the upper part of the letter. Notice the slight intensity of the curve in both parts of the stem. The heaviest shade is in the middle of the right side of the loop. The loop is one space wide. //. The commencement is the third principle. Next, the double curve with a loop, the hair-stroke of which is carried across and upwards, on the same slope, to form another loop similar to the first ; this side is finished with the direct oval. The first section is a little lower than the second, which is the full height. The middle of the hair-line between the two stems is half the height of the letter ; hence each loop is a little less than half the height. An oblique line through the center, dividing the central space equally, would be on the main slope. The width be- tween the down-strokes at the middle is one space. The second loop is longer than the first. A". The first part is T. The second part consists of the left curve turned back to make a small separating loop, then continued symmet- rically with the upper part, and closed with the direct oval. The sepa- rate curve is inclined as in A, and is one-third the he.ght of the letter from the top. The slope is the same as in H. V. Commencement. Next, down-stroke straight, shaded heaviest near the turn, which is narrow, like those of the small letters. Then, up-stroke parallel to previous one, branching off into the left curve, and terminated at the same height as the top of the introductory part, i An oblique line through the centre, dividing the letter into two equal 1 parts, would be on the main slope. i W. Commencement. Next, double curve down, ending on the base line ; then, double curve up with more slope. The second down-stroke is like the second of A, very slightly curved one-third, and then straight. The final stroke is the left curve, as in N. The spaces on a horizontal line drawn through the middle of the letter are equal. A line from the middle point at the top through the center of the letter would be on the main slope. Z. Commencement. The down-stroke and foot like A, except that 1 th* lower curve of the stem is a little less intense. It has the main slope. D. This letter begins with the double curve, commenced at the height of the letter ; its foot is like that of A until it touches the base line on the right side, whence it is carried up as the right side of an oval, crosses the stem near Its top. and ends with the direct oval. The highest part of the letter is well in front of the stem. Q. Begin with the inverted oval, and end like A. The oval is on the main slope. C. Begin with the left curve from the base line to half the height: next, make a loop half the height : end with the direct oval. Take care that the loop docs not pitch over too much. It necessarily has more than the main slope. E. Begin with the left curve a little distance from the base line, carry it two-thirds high, and make a loop one-third ; continue the curve to form a small separating, nearly horizontal, loop to the right, and closi with the direct oval The separating loop is a little inclined down tc the right, to corresp-nd to the lower oval. C. Begin with tnu left curve ; then, a loop two-thirds the height ol the letter ; continue the down-stroke as the bottom of an oval, whose width is twice that of the loop, the bottom of the turn being one-fourth from the base line. End with a double curve and dot : the double curve is half the height of the letter. Both parts of the letter are on the main slope. A line through the length of the loop would pass through the dot. Y. This letter begins with the inverted oval, continues like third ■inciplc to one-fourth from the base line, but the lower turn much na ower than the upper, and ends with the double curve and dot , heignt, two-thirds. U. Begin with the inverted oval ; continue as K, except that it rests on the base line. The second part is a straight line ending with a di- rect oval. The top of the second part lower than that of the first. Its width is two spaces. mUm of ’ LASSIFICATION relates to the arrangement of the letters in groups, according to their pos- session of common forms. Since every letter must have something peculiar to distinguish it from others which have a common principle, classification includes a description of this peculi- which is termed the characteristic. anty. CLASSES OF SMALL LETTERS. The most natural and convenient division of the small letters seems to give four classes. Some letters will be found to belong to two of them. The reason of the position here assigned is obvious. First Class. — Those letters which consist chiefly of the first, second, and third principles, i, «, «, v, w, x. Second Class. — Those formed from the oval, or the fourth principle, e, a, c y e. These two classes contain all the short letters except two. T hird Class. — Those which have stems formed of the firs* element, A y, A d. These are called the Stem Letters. Fourth Class. — Those which have the fifth and sixth principles, /, by]\gyy y Zy/y long s. These are th c Loop Letters. Besides these, there are two letters whose forms are anomalous, r,s. CHARACTERISTICS. The characteristics of the letters are as follows : In the First Class. Of i, one straight line with turn at the bottom and the dot above it ; — of «, two straight lines with turns at the bottom ; — of », two straight lines witli turns at the top ; — of m , three straight line* with turns at the top „■ — of v,, Its two uuarty parallel sides and the dot i— PENMANSHIP. 175 of w, its alternately parallel sides and the dot ; of x, the straight line forming the cross. In the Second Class. Of o, the oval of a, the addition of the first principle j — of c, the dot j — of e , the loop. In the Third Class. Of p, the third principle affixed ; — of q, the fourth principle prefixed of /, the cross of d, the fourth principle prefixed to the /-stem without the cross. In the Fourth Class. Of h, the third principle affixed; — of k, the knot or kink of /, the turn at the bottom of b, the parallel sides of the lower part and the dot of j\ the dot of g, the fourth principle pre- fixed ; — of y, the third principle prefixed ; — of z, the second principle and shoulder ; in the other form, the zig-zag ; — of/, the knot. In the anomalous letters. Of r, the dot and shoulder ; — of s, the twist on the right side. OF CAPITALS. We give the Capitals in the order of their introduction. O, — A , A r , M, ^■P, F,—P, B , R, X ,-S, L.—I , /—//, K,—V, !Y,-Z, D, Q—C , E,—G, Y, U. OCCURRENCE OF PRINCIPLES. The capital-stem, or line of beauty, ending with a dot, occurs in four- teen letters, A,N,M , T, F, P, B , R, X, S, /, K, G, Y. The capital-stem is written .— Generally upwards and light, in three letters, A , N, M. Downwards and light, in eleven letters, T, F, P, B, R, .V, //, A*, IY, Z, D. Downwards, light and short, in two letters, G , Y. Downwards and shaded in the lower curve, in three letters, /, A, S. Downwards, prolonged into a loop, shaded on the right side, in one letter, J. The third principle of small letters is used for the commencement of seven letters, T, G , H, X, Y, IV , Z. The direct oval, when of full size, forms the O. Four-fifths of the vertical height, it is the end or front of D. Half the height, it terminates eight letters, M, R, X , //, A", C, E , U. One-third the height, it ends A, Z, Q. The inverted oval, two-thirds the height, commences seven letters, P, B, R, X , Q, U, Y. Half the height it ends one letter, B. A curve and circular loop are used for the head of /, J. The loop, half the height of the letter, is found in six letters, 5 , Z, /, H, C, G ; one-third the height, in E. The knot, kink, or small separating loop, is found in three letters, B , R , K ; turned in the opposite direction, in E. The horizontal loop, or Z-foot, is found in four letters, Z, Z>, Q, Z. The first element, very slightly curved to one-third from the top, is found in A, N, M, IY; straight throughout, and .closed by a turn, in Y. OMBINATION treats of the arrangement of letters in words at proper distances. This is generally spoken of as Spacing. It is effected by the connecting lines of the two letters run- ning into one another, and thus forming one line, which may be distinguished as the Combining Line. Good taste requires that the letters in a word should look about the same distance apart ; in other Voids, that the space on the line which the word occupies should be evenly filled. If this is neglected, the writing will look “patchy,” — crowded in one place, scattered in another. We propose, therefore, to give rules for these distances, and to point out the reasons on which they depend. Every letter ends with a straight line, having a diagonal, connecting line with a turn, as u, or without a turn, as /, q; or is an oval with a horizontal connecting line ; or is open on the right side, as c and e. Every letter begins with a straight' line, having a diagonal connecting line without a turn, as u, h, p, or with a turn, as n, y ; or is an oval, as, o, a ; or is open on the left side, as /, in which the up-stroke is merely the con- necting line. The combinations of these different classes of letters may be determined by the following rules ; Rule i. — W hen two straight lines, or a straight line and an oval, are united by one turn and a combining line, or by a combining line only, the distance between them is one space, the height of 0: as zY, ni, it , ih , ip; io, ie; gi,go, qit, etc. Between is , us, etc., the distance is really the same, because the width of s equals that of o; but since we have to measure to the right side, it is a space and a half. Remark — In it, ih , ip, where the combining line joins the straight line at one-half, one-third, and the top, respectively, the distance is kept by giving less slope to the combining line. In gi, qu, etc., the same means are used. Rule 2. — When two straight lines are united by two turns and a combining line, the distance is one space and a half ; as, in, ir, nu, my, pn, etc. Remark. — This gives room enough to make the turns properly, and the line crossing diagonally prevents the distance from seeming too wide. Rule 3.— WTien two ovals, or an oval and a straight line, are united by a combining line only, or by a combining line and turn, the distance is three-quarters of a space ; as, 00, oc, od, ba, ve, wo ; oi, ot, oh , op, vi : on, z m, etc. The last part of b, v, w, is equivalent to the oval. In os the distance is really the same, since s is the width of 0 ; but as we measure to the right side, it is a little more than one space. Remark. — A full space for the distance mentioned in the first part of this rule would be too much, because, as the connecting line is horizon- tal, there is nothing to disguise it. We have, therefore, to bring the main lines nearer. Rule 4 — When c or e precedes a letter beginning like it, or an oval, the distance is one space and a half ; as, ci, ei, cl, el, cp; co, eo, ce, ce, etc. Remark. — The distance in this case is measured from the left side of the c and e, and is crossed by the combining line diagonally. General Remark. — The combining line does not have an invariable slope, but is determined by the necessities arising from the rules of combination. Rule 5. — Words are written about one space apart. This, however, depends very much on whether we wish to give the writing a free or condensed appearance. < <70 AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. AN EASY LESSON <=> E need not dwell on the value and advantages of 1 short-hand. Every boy who learns it has a twofold I advantage over those who do not, whether he goes to } college or at once enters into business-life. The col- f T 1 legian can take down a full report of his professor’s c ' a 1 lecture, while his fellow-students have only rough and often unintelligible notes. The young man who goes to learn a business, whether me- chanical or commercial, takes down in a moment instructions given, conversations, examinations, details of any machine, method of working, etc. There is no walk in life in which it does not come into play. It looks difficult to many, but is really easy to acquire. The following is the phonographic alphabet : \ \ J I / / Pee Bee Xfie See Chay Jay Kay Gay V \ ( (, ) ) * Ef Yea tth Dhco Ea Zee Isa lull Zliay O / ^ ^ s/ n r / Lay Ar Ray Em Bn. Ing Way Yay ifay The leUera for which the above signs stand arer YB ® ' D ChJ KQ M a 3J s Z B BhZh L 1 IB MNNg W Y S Observe the double consonants, ch, th, th, sh, zh, ng. I Th is used in words like think, thought , youth ; th in words like thou, they, them. One is alight the other a heavy sound. Sh, in words like hush, cask ; zh, as in pleasure, measure. Curved R is used in words ending in R ; straight line R when commencing a word, and a vowel follows after. The circle S begins or ends a word. The printed names, Pee, Bee, etc., under the signs, are the sounds of the letters, for convenience in talking and writing about them. The naming of signs is called the nomemlature ; and it is very necessary to attend to that, as well as to the let- ters for which the signs stand. The great value of the no- menclature in describing the Phonography will appear as we proceed with the lessons. Remember each one of these signs is a part either of a circle, or a straight line, perpendicular, horizontal, or diago- nal. Imitate the cut as near as you can, in length and in depth of pressure on the heavy letters. The use of heavy let- ters simplifies the alphabet, making a few directions answer double purpose. Continue to repeat your copying or reading of the signs, sounds, and letters (it is best to read aloud as you write), until you can skip about, and by covering up the signs, write them from the print from memory, or covering the print, read the signs. All the heavy signs, perpendicular or diagonal, must be written from top to bottom ; all the horizon' tal lines, heavy and light, from left to right, Learn this alphabet thoroughly before you go on. If you learn it in a week, you will do as well as many of the smartest reporters did when they began to learn it. So get around your center-table and see who leam it first. Above we give you the Phonographic alphabet, condensed- in fact, all the consonants in the language in a “ nutshell.” You will find it handy for easy reference. (Patent not applied for.) If you have not mastered the letters as presented, by all means continue your study and practice by reading, writing, and sounding them, until you can call them one by one, not only in regular order, but by skipping, and immediately on sight. This cut represents the shape, but not the relative length. AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. *77 All the letters, light and heavy, should at first be written of the same length — that is, about one-quarter of an inch long. You will notice the letters which are of the same form or di- rection, but which differ in depth and name, are placed op- posite each other, so that you can compare the single and double letters more easily. It can also be studied upside down, or sidewise, or two students may study it at the same time while sitting opposite one another. The cut might be made a little more complete by placing the circle letter s in the center. The rest is composed of four circles. Supposing, now, that you have learned the single letters, we proceed to give you a few examples of joining letters : ■pp pt pch pg pfi pd pj pic ^ (t tch tg tb td tj tk p ggtgch gg gb gd gj gk bp bt bch bg bb bd bj bk In like manner take some ruled paper and pen (which is better than pencil), and write the following, which you will see is a continuance of the order in the second cut, commencing with p, etc., joining the next letter on the right, until we come around to the letter from which we started. Let the first perpendicular letter come down to the line, and the rest fol- low. If horizontal, let the second letter rest on the line. Write : dp, dt, dch, dg, db, dd, dj, dk, jp, jt, jeh, jg, jb, jd, jj, jk, kp, kt, kch, kg, kb, kd, kj, kk, pm, tm, chm, km, bm, dm, jm, pn, tn, chn, kn, bn, dn, jn, pth, tth, chth, kth, bth; dth, jth, ps, ts, chs, ks, bs, ds, js, etc. It would be easier, perhaps, if a hyphen (-) were placed be- tween the single and the double letters, but if you are familiar with the alphabet you need not make a mistake, and try to write three letters in the above instead of two. Now, let us skip a little, and write three letters together : kmt, mnt, mlt, ltn, ntl, tin, tkk, mkt. nkt, kpl, itl. mt, vnt, snp, shrp, lrn. hng, etc. The proper place for using the two kinds of R, sh, and circle S. will be fully explained in our next. A good long drill on the letters will do you immense service before you take up the vowels to make words. So take the examples above, and practice, practice, until you can read the letters at sight, and write them from dictation. If you have had any difficulty in making any of the single or joined letters, so far, let us know, and we will answer as soon after as possible. Ish (sh) is generally written downward ; Shay ( sh ) upward ; Ar (r) is written downward ; Ray (r) upward ; Lay (1) upward, and commences a word ; but if the vowel comes before it in the spelling, El (/) is written instead, and downward. The circle S (iss) may either commence, occur in the middle, ©r at the end of a word. It also stands for Z. The words in which it happens will not be confounded, as there is but little differ- ence in the sound. Ch (ay) is always written downward, and a little more straight up than R (ay), which is always written upward and slanting to the right. If you try it you will no- tice how natural it is for you to make the distinction. G (ay) is the only letter that does not come under the rule that all the heavy letters are to be written downward, and that, of course, like all other horizontal letters, is to be written from left to right. Make your heavy signs heavy enough to show the difference between the light and heavy ones, and let them taper from and to a fine point gradually. Do not take off your pen or pencil between the letters in joining them. Double straight strokes should be made the full length of two single ones, as tt, kg, etc. In reading the joined signs, commence with the letter on the left and top, thus : t-ch, not rt. H (ay) is always written upward. S-h (not sh) is made with the hook part of II changed into a circle, We trust you may understand the remarks without giving you engraved examples in all cases. II (ay) and R (ay) are both written in the same direction. Now we give you a Vowel Scale, wdiich you must learn be- fore you begin to make up words. The straight up t sign in this table has no value as a letter, and is used only to show the place of putting the vowel, first, second and third place. The regular vowels, a, e, i, o, u, are not sufficient for all the sounds of the language, so they are left out in the cold fof the present, and the following, with the rest that will appeat in our two next, are substituted : 3 ^ . r 1 1 VOWELS. .. 1 .. -I J o a aa in cat, a 1®# all art, au o ought, oat, 00 lood 1 • ate acho aim eel awl ear oar _J*S • N x tea key may lay law raw row pour poor cheep shape four shave. E&hpol \ In like manner, write, and read aloud as you write *. Ape, 178 AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. ope, pa, paw, ate, ought or aught, oat, taw, to or toe, too, age, jay, jaw, Joe, Jew, ache, oak, key, caw, coo, be or bee, bay, bow or beau, each, chaw, chew, choose, me, ma, maw, mow, ^own, oath, ace, ail or ale, all, lo, lieu, foe, she, Shae, shawl, shoe, eve, we, way, woe, woo, ye, yea, you. This cut shows the vowels that occur in many words of the language, and are called the long vowels. Study the power of each vowel sign, by reference to the word underneath it, un- til you can detect the long vowels in any other word you may read. The exercise will improve your pronunciation of words. The long sound of e is placed in the beginning of every let- ter, in the first place, either before or after the letter ; the a sound is put in the middle, or second place, before or after the letter ; and the ah sound in the third place, before or after. So with the an, o, oo. Placed before the letter or letters, the vowel is read first ; placed after, it is read after ; placed above a horizontal letter, the vowel is read first ; placed under the letter, it is read after. If you commence the making of the letters from the top down, you begin to place the vowels from the top ; if the let- ter is slanting and upward, you reckon the positions from the bottom, or where you commenced. The stroke vowel signs must be written at right angles to the letter to which it belongs. The double vowel letters must be pronounced together, as au (awe), not a-u,oo (as in food), not double oo. The letters must be made first, and vowels put in afterward. Take all the consonants you can beginning with p or t, one at a time , and write the first place vowel e befiote it, until you go all round the circle. Then take the same consonants, one by one, and place the same first vowel e after it, until you complete the circle again. Then take the second vowel sound a and use it in the same manner. In every case be sure to sound the letter and vowel together, whether it happens to make a wo>d or not. This will give you plenty of exercise, interesting and instructive. If necessary, get some one to show you how to commence. Then pick out all the words you can in this reading matter which contain one or more long vowel sounds, and if they have no sound different from those in the words under the above scale, write them on paper, first the English word, and under it the Phonographic consonant outline, with the vowel properly placed. Don’t be alarmed at the task. The first principles are always the hardest, but the art becomes easier as you learn to understand it. Taking it for granted that you have learned the rules for writing the long vowels according to the scale, in proper po- sition, first, second, or third place, heavy dot or heavy dash, before or after the letters, we proceed to give you the scale of BBOJBT XOWttm. _1 J .1 3 :1 J ■ e a o u oo get h at got i‘ul foot «„ iftoro simply, wjlhopt rpferoQCO to : it, et, at, otiit; oot. •V'VN I ^ /•- pit pot pat top tap rich chap ~~r 'lellow berry merry marry lively Sunday Monday Mary, Johnnie, Sammy, Thomas, Billy, Joseph, Ella. You will see the short vowels follow the same arrangements of the long vowels in position, are somewhat alike in make and sound, only the short vowels are more quickly and more lightly spoken. Study this table also until you can pick out the words in the reading matter of any paragraph or column, whether the words contain long or short vowels, or both , and by the aid of your acquaintance with the full Alphabet, and vowels of both kinds, write them all in correct phonographic (short-hand) characters and without much time to study over it. The t sign before which the short vowels in the table are placed, has no value as a letter, but is to show the relative po- sitions of the vowels to any consonant, whether written before or after, at the beginning, in the middle, or end of a letter or letters. Referring to the table when necessary, copy, and read as you write, the above exercise with the short vowels. In like manner write, and read aloud as you do so, the fol- lowing words : Pick, peck, pack, peak, peach, poach, putty, tick, tack, tuck, took, touch, tip, top, tug, chick, check, cup, kept, cage, catch, cut, cud, bit, bid, biddy, budge, back, book, jot, jet, map, met, Mat, Mattie, mud, muddy, mint, meant, among, nothing, fish, ship, shape, shop. Some of these words you must write with three letters. Take the reading matter in this lesson, or any other print on this page, pick out all the words you can that have either or both sets of vowels, and write them out, first the consonant outline, then fill in the proper vowels. A great many words you will find have a kind of double vowel sound. These you can skip until a more convenient season. Now we conclude this lesson with the rule for placing the vowels, in writing words. First position vowels (long or short) are written after the first consonant. Second position vowels (long) are written after the first con- sonant ; if short , before the second consonant. Third position vowels (long or short) are written before the second consonant. You have a first-rate chance for practice in your every-day schools, public and private : that is, you can use the big black- board and chalk during recess, or before or after school hours. Besides, the beautiful, mysterious, puzzling signs will excite the curiosity and admiration of your fellow schoolmates, and perhaps induce your teachers to inquire into the subject, and to order the necessary books, and introduce short-hand into their schoolrooms as a regular branch of study. Practice in this way all the time you can spare, on the alphabet, then the joined letters, then the joined letters with the long vowels* AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. 175 then with both long and short vowels, then make up new words as fast as you can until you can write what you have been over without stooping to think much of how you must write. You had also better review every week the previous week’s lesson before you take up the new one. Be thorough — familiar — well acquainted — with your short-hand company as you go along together. Supposing that you have learned all the past lessons, we now give you the diphthongs. v l i Bound of I 01 ou u My boy bows (to) Suo IB) in ___\ v,')!! 1 !. pie pies wise size rise ariMt A x - nigh high spice spies Silas _.X boy boys voice alloy annoy spoil A A bow boughs vow mouse allow endow / . A - — 9 -- ■owl row arouse ounce cow x)<.. VJ?<- pew amuse shoes news accuse In like manner write the following words (from Graham’s list) : Vie, vice, vices, mice, tie, ties, entice, entices, die, dye, dies, sigh, sighs, ally, rye, arises, nice, spy, spices, sky, sly, slice, slices, eyes (i-zee), ice (i-es), sight, side, sign. Annoys, noises, choices Bough, dow, allows, rouse, rouses, arouses, ounces, cows, house, houses, south, sour. Abuse, abuses, fuse, mew, amuses, dew, due (same), adieu, adduce, chews and choose, juices, Jews, hew, suit (Iss [not Es] Tee), stew. It is easier to memorize the sounds of the diphthongs by the sen- tence above than by different and disconnected words. These signs have a place, like the single vowels, either first, second, or third, whether placed before, or after, at the be- ginning, in the middle, or at the end of a letter. Copy, and read aloud as you write, the above examples ; but do not simply copy them without you know how and why the signs f^ean what they read. Observe closely the angles of the diphthong signs, whether downward, upward, to the left, at the too or bottom. We might give you, in this lesson, much more to study, but it is best not to try to do too much all at once. If you leant these perfectly, you can exercise yourself in making other words like them from your school-books. You will notice a difference is made between the S and Z sign, by making the Z circle a little heavier than the S circle, Two short-hand signs may be written entirely alike with this exception, and have different meanings. The double Iss adds another S to a single S, and is called sis, ses, sus, or sez, according to the sound of the word you are writing, oftener ses, and is made twice the size of the single S circle, as in rise (Ray Iss), rises (Ray Sis), vices (Vee Ses), entices ( En Tee Ses), arises (Ar [not Ray] Ses), spices (Is Pee Ses), slices (Iss Lay Ses), voices (V ee Ses), noises (En Ses), and as in some of the above words. If you have forgotten what we have called the nomenclature, or describing of the letters (as just given in parenthesis), refer to the first of the alphabet. By using this naming , you see, we avoid all the drawing and engraving of examples, which yo can understand just as well as from the print. .'I ‘1 .1 L ’Ll- jvb wa wah wau wo woo .1 <1 J I >1.1 •vi we wa wo wu woo web wig wavy sweet switch swallo^ ^ L..£ 'win wool willow, wore ±JX 1 , 1 ,. wi wol won’ jExamplsss; Viae quoit wound From the above tables you will notice that the sounds, in their order and power, resemble the ordinary long or short vowels, and also the diphthongs, only with the addition of W before them. Instead of e, a, ah, au, o, 00, it is we, wa, wah, wau, wo, woo, etc. It would be well for you to repeat these sounds of the long and short vowels, and this table with the IV, constantly in succession, until you have the sounds familiar and in order, just like your common alphabet. Most scholars have some trouble in learning the difference between the third place long vowel and the first place vowel of the last half of the vowel scale ; this is, in forming words, they have some difficulty in distinguishing the sound of Ah from the sound Au. Be careful of this. You can simplify these tables by dividing them into threes ; that is, separate the first three sounds a little wider apart from the second three, and so relieving the eye, you can memorize the different sounds and forms by sets of threes — twelve sounds in all. The first six are heavy — the first three open on one side, and the next three open on the opposite side ; the last six are light, and open in contrary ways, to be easily distin guished. The next little cut represents sounds that do not occur ven often, espeoially the wot. Wi and wou are more frequent AN EASY LESSON IN PHONOGRAPHY. i9o Now, in same manner as recommended in previous lesson, take the letter p as a starting point, write all the above vowels preceded by W, before each letter of the round alphabet cut, going round from left to right, both with the long and short sounds above. This will give you plenty of exercise. In many cases you may not be able to make words or sense, but persevere in the sounds. In like manner, write the following words several times. Repetition gives you confidence and speed. Weep, warp, wait, wart, wit, wet, wot, watch, wag, weed, wade, wooed, wage, week, weak, wake, walk, woke, ween, wane, wan, weal, wail, wall, waif, woof, weave, wave, wove, wash, wish, wing, etc. The following suggestions are recommended for trial by students and reporters. Position according to accented syllable: Make all half-lengths of word-signs express it, and in the same position as the full lengths ; as, Blet 2 for believe it ; Diet 2 , deliver it. Write words ending in er same as the primitive, with the addition of downward R ; as pardoner , Par-Den-Ar, instead of Per-Dee-Ner ; Dinner , Den-Ar, instead of Dee-Ner ; Tinner , Tenor , Ten-ar instead of Tee-Ner. Make all words ending with R, with downward R ; and all words with a final vowel following the R, with upward R ; but R before J is always Ray. This is an established rule, yet often departed from with perplexing frequency ; but it is sug- gested as a standing and unexceptional rule. So also with Ret and Ard, down or up, as followed or not by a vowel. So also with Lay and El, Let and Eld. As disposal, Dees-Pees-El ; retail, Ret-El ; down-hearted, Den-Art : retained, Ret-End ; ordained, Ard-End, and numerous others. This rule thus provides a distinction between words ending in er, ry, el, and ly, which, in many cases, according to the standard dictionary, are written alike. Retain the Pitman Ler sign for Ir, instead of Lay Ar, which is longer, especially in compound words, as Chandler, Chent- Ler, instead of Chay-End, Lay-Ar. Write all words ending in tionist with the Steh loop inside the shon hook ; as abolitionist , Bee-Layshonst ; protectionist, Pret-Kayshonst ; prohibitionist, Per-Beeshonst : and as in revo- lutionist, resurrectionist, secessionist, rationalist. In advanced writing, ing may be omitted both in nouns and participles, increasing the opportunity for phrasing ; as in see- ing, doing ; loving us, Lay-Vees ; doing his, Dees ; doing it, Det. Write half the “ I ” sign in all phrases and compound words ; my idea, cue-sight, thine eyes, eyelid, eyelet. If in writing word-signs or phrases, the single sign or second word of the phrase is out of position, throw it into position by striking a line either above, through, or below such sign, for first, second, or third position, as the case may be. Simplify the pronunciation of the syllable oid, signifying tike, by ly substituting ty ; as petty, betty, tetty, detty, chetty, jetty, ketty, petty, pretty, etc., instead of pet-oid, bed-oid, etc. Write The. r joined, and of understood, instead of double length Veether ', to express 0/" their ; except when of is em- phasized. Write Tetty for on, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, b, v, n, ng, s, z, sli, zh, el, th th, and y ; Chetty before k, g, Lay, Ar, Ray, w and m. Write Ketty for /, above the line, before p, b, t, d, ch, j, k. g, s, and th ; Chetty before Ar, and Ray ; Petty before m, and mp. He, should, and the on the line, by Petty before p, b, d, t, ch, j ; Chetty before k, g, m. How same as the preceding, below the line. When new and now commence a phrase, write them below the line without the tick ; as nowadays, En-Dees ; knew-there - were, Enther-weh. Write the sounds of ar and er after m without the Ray ; as in March, merchant. Write “society” by S through the preceding word in all possible cases ; in a few other instances, join the S, as in “ good society,” “ modem society,” etc. “ I should ” may be joined to the rest of the verb, before Ray or Lay, by Retty-Chetty. As, I should rather, I should like. Emphasis and grammar usually suggest and should deter- minate whether you write “ therefore ” with a double-length and an Ef hook, or with a Ther tick with a hook. It always comes between commas, and therefore is better distinct. “ There,” also, whether by double-length or the Ther sign, is best determined by the force of the emphasis. As, “ do, there- fore,” Dee- Jefty instead Deetherf ; it should have, Tee-Retty Vee ; it should have, Tee-Chefty ; there is, therefore, Thers Befty ; there is, therefore, Ther-Zeetherf. An Messrs. Park & Tilford, New York: Gentlemen — I have just opened a large grocery store in this place, and the prospects of success seem assured. 1 should be happy to deal with your firm. ’ can refer you to Robinson & Charles, of 270 Broad- way, New York. This being our first transaction, I shall be prepared to pay the express co. upon delivery of goods, if you will forward me your ac. with the usual cash discount by a previous mail. Enclosed please find order, which I should wish filled as promptly 23 is consistent with j’our convenience. Very respectfully, R. M. Macartey. REPLY. Broadway, New York, 1 3 June , 1882. • Mr. R. M. Macarthyi Dear Sir — Your favor of the 1st to hand. We shall be pleased to open an account with you, Messrs. Robinson & Charles having spoke* very highly of you. We have this day forwarded to your address the goods according to your invoice, but being desirous of obtaining your approval of their quality and value, will await your examination for the enclosed bill, which is subject to 5 per cent, discount for prompt cash. A post-offico order or draft on one of our city banks will suit our convenience equally well as collection by Dodd’s Express. Hoping to receive further orders, we are, Yours respectfully. Park & Tilfort. LETTER OFFERING THE MS. OF A BOOK TO A PUBLISHER. Wilmington, N. C., April 2, 1882. Messrs. Provost & Co., Publishers, Tremont St., Boston, Mass.: Gentlemen — I have just written a society novel of the present day, and wish to have it put upon the market as soon as practicable. Please inform me if you are willing to publish it, and at what terms This is my first novel, but under the name cf “ Daisy Dean” 1 hava contributed quite a number of short stories to Frank Leslie’s and other popular publications. I may mention that my style is what is termed “ breezy that is, bright and crisp. Awaiting an early reply, I am, gentlemen. Very truly yours, Mrs. J. F. Murray. REPLY. 292 Trenton St., I Boston, Mass., April 4, 1882. ' Mrs. J. F. Murray: Dear Madam— H aving made all our arrangements for uuhlicaliont 1 88 THE LETTER WRITER. for the year, we are compelled to decline the offer of your MS., and trust that you may be successful elsewhere. We are, dear madam, Your obedient servants, Provost & Co., Per W. F. The goods must be sent to Warrington by rail, and to Mr. William Snipe, 240 State Street, who will pay C. 0 . D. Direct as follows : Mrs. Wilson Toft, Warrington Station, Tewkesbury Co., Mass. LETTER PROPOSING TO SELL GOODS ON COM- MISSION. ' Drakeville, Young Co., Md., I January 28, 1882. > Messrs. Short & Stelt: Gentlemen— I have been in business in this town for over twelve years, and refer to the National Bank, and to Mr. James E. Towns- end, ex-Mayor and a prominent citizen. I see a good opening for in- creasing my sales, and am desirous of a supply of your goods to sell on commission. If required I will give you full security against any loss. Should this proposition meet your views, please fill the accompanying order, and give me the benefit of your most favorable terms. Respectfully, John Riley. REPLY. B\ltimore, Feby. 2, ’82. Mr. John Riley — Dear Sir — We have to-day forwarded by Dodd’s Express the goods ordered per your letter of the 2Sth ult. ; the inquiries about you, as suggested by you, having proved most satisfactory. The commission is 10 per cent. The bill of sale accompanies each package. Trusting that opening will lead to a long connection of mutual benefit, We are yours respectfully, Short & Stelt. REQUESTING THE SETTLEMENT OF AN ACCOUNT. Milwaukee, Wis., July 30, 1882. Mr. T. W. Ingram : Dear Sir — As we have a large payment to make at the end of next week, and as your account remains unsettled, we must beg of you to send us a check for same by Tuesday next. We are reluctant to press you, but we are pressed ourselves. Very respectfully, Smith & Brown. REQUESTING PAYMENT CF RENT. FROM A FARMER IN IRELAND, PROPOSING TO EMIGRATE. Ballinkill, Co. Mayo, 1 A ugust 1st, 1882. > To Mr. John Murphy, Tippins Cove, Burke County, Montana. Sir — Pat Lynch, of Coolamore, tells me that you could give me all the information I want about that part of the county you are now in. I have been farming about 60 acres for the last fifteen years, and have saved up ,£500. I want to know what sort of a county you are in ; climate, soil, water, and all that, and what I could get for my ^300 ; also, if any in- ducements are held out to men of my class. I have a wife and seven children — 4 boys and 3 girls. The boys, thanks be to God, are all able to take a hand at farm work. Pat Lynch will answer for me. Yours obediently, Murty Joyce. To REPLY. Tippins Cove, Burke Co., Montana. Mr. Murphy Joyce : My dear Friend — If Pat Lynch, my old friend, advised you to emigrate here he did well. I have been here now for five years, and no induce- ment would tempt me to leave it. For half of your ,£500 you can buy as many acres as you wish to farm, and our little settlement is growing so rapidly thac in a short time your land will be worth double what you pay for it. Come to me straight, and stop with me, all of you, till your log hut is built. The climate here is healthy and invigorating ; the soil fine, and a lit. tie river of good water is close by, while the woods give us all thi fuel we require. You can come to within fifty miles of me by rail, but I’ll have horses and wagons at the station to take you and your family here. Let me hear full details of your starting, and give my warmest regards to Pat Lynch. I wish he was coming too with all my heart. Yours faithfully, John Murphy. E. 29TH St., New York, 1 March 27, 1882. > Mr. Patrick K. Chiselhurst : Dear Sir— I must call your attention to the fact that, although your agreement for the house rented by you from me stipulates monthly pay- ments in advance, you have failed to pay for three months and are now in arrears $206. If you fail to pay the account within six days I shall be reluctantly compelled to place the matter in the hands of my lawyer for collection. Very respectfully, Thomas Vosburg. FROM A LADY IN TEE COUNTRY ORDERING GOODS. Maida Vale, Tewkesbury Co., Mass., 1 Jan. 18, 1882. ’ Messrs. Calice & Twist, Washington Street, Boston : Gentlemen — Please send me by Dodd’s Express the following goods : j2 yards of green gauze. 24 yards gingham. 2 pair of six-button gloves, lavender color, size 6Jf, Dent’s make. 6 pocket handkerchiefs, plain white, with broad hem-stitched border. Also please send pattern of black satin of a good quality, price marked. TO THE FATHER OF A YOUNG LADY, ASKING HER HAND IN MARRIAGE. Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, 1 Mar. 12, ’82. f Sir — I venture to hope that you will call all your friendly feelings to my assistance, in considering a proposal I am about to lay before you, in which my happiness is completely concerned. For a long time past your daughter, Effie, has held a strong hold over my affections, and I have reason to believe that I am not indifferent to her. My position is such as to warrant my belief that I could support her in the style of comfort which she so well deserves, and which it has been your constant aim to provide for your children. As regards my character and disposition, I trust they are sufficiently well known to you to give you confidence in the prospect of your child’s happiness. I have not, however, ventured on any express declaration of my feel, ings, without first consulting you on the subject, as I feel persuaded that the straightforward course is always the best, and that a parent’s sanction will never be wanting when the circumstances of the case justify its being accorded. Anxiously awaiting the result of your consideration on this important and interesting subject, I remain, sir. Your most faithful and obedient servant, Edward L. Spring To W. Parsons, Esq, THE TETTER WRITER. kf 89 FAVORABLE. Meadow Bank, ) March 13, 1882. > Mv dear Edward Spring s I thank you very much for the manly and honorable way in which you have addressed me in reference to my daughter’s hand. I have long since perceived that your attentions to her were of a marked charac- ter, and that they appeared to give her much pleasure. I know no reason Whatever to oppose your wishes, and, if I may judge from the manner 'a which she received the communication from myself, you will find a by no means unwilling listener. Dine with us to-morrow at six o’clock, if you are not engaged, and you will then have an opportunity of pleading your own cause. Mean- while, believe me, with every confidence in your integrity and good feeling, Yours most sincerely, William Parsons. To E. L. Spring, Esq. UNFAVORABLE. Meadow Bank, ) March 13, 1882. ) Dear Sirs It is always painful to return an unfavorable answer, but such is un- fortunately my task on the presenteoccasion. My daughter has for a long time been engaged to a gentleman whose character and position give her no cause to regret the engagement. At the same time she duly appreciates the compliment implied by your pref- erence, and unites with me in the sincere wish that, as an esteemed friend, you may meet with a comoanion in every way calculated to en- sure your happiness. Believe me, dear sir, Your sincere friend, William Parsons. To E. L. Spring, Esq. A GENTLEMAN, AFTER MEETING A LADY - AT A PARTY, ASKING PERMISSION TO PAY HIS ADDRESSES. 18 W. afiTH^T., N. Y., I July 27, 1882. > Dear Miss Winslow : I must crave your pardon for the somewhat bold address I am about to make, trusting that its apparent presumption may be excused by the consideration that my feelings are deeply enlisted in its success. The marked attentions paid you at Mrs. Burke’s party could not, I flatter myself, have failed to attract your notice, nor have been wholly disa- greeable to yourself. Cherishing this pleasing belief, I am encouraged to crave the privilege of being permitted to improve my acquaintance with a lady for whom I entertain so high an esteem. The company in which we met will, I trust, be considered a sufficient guarantee of my character and position to warrant me in looking for- ward to an early renewal of the happy hours spent in your company. Your kind permission once granted, I shall lose no time in seeking, for my addresses, the sanction of your parents ; but I do not feel at liberty to take such a step until well assured that it will be agreeable to your wishes. May I entreat the favor of an early reply? which, dear Miss Wins- low, will be anxiously awaited by Your devoted admirer, William Thropcake. TO A WIDOW FROM A WIDOWER. 120TH St., New York, Nov. 19, 1882. My dear Madam— I am emboldened to lay open to you the present state of my feelings, being so convinced of your good sense and amia- ble disposition, that I feel assured you will deal nandidly with me in your reply. Like yourself, I have been deprived of the partner»of my earlier life, wwS. >» I rpproar.b the middle state of existence, I feel more and more the want of some kindred spirit to share with me whatever years are reserved to me by Providence. My fortune is such as to enable me to support a lady in the manner which I feel to be due to your accomplish- ments and position, and I sincerely hope that you will think carefully over my proposal ; and, if you can make up your mind to share my for- tune and affections, I trust that no efforts will be wanting on my part to ensure you the happiness you so well deserve. I need scarcely say that an early answer, on a matter so much co» nected with my future happiness, will be a great favor to, My dear madam, Your devoted friend and admirer, Arthur Borstop. To Mrs. Wadlow. A GENTLEMAN ASKING HIS BETROTHED TO NAME THE DAY. 2 Allen’s Ford, > St. Louis, July 8, 1882. ) My Own Darling Wife that is to be : — Let me implore of you to name the day that will make us one — that day which is to bring us together for all time. You blushed last night when I urged the question, and put me off with some pretty, but pitiful excuse. For once, darling, let me dictate and say Wednesday. Won’t you, my precious pet ? Yours, Ted. A YOUNG MAN IN COLORADO TO HIS BETROTHED IN NEW YORK. Leadville, Dec . 13, 18 — . Dearest Elizabeth — You have doubtless received letters from me lately, describing my situation here, and stating the projects that I had under consideration. In one of those letters, allusion is made to a spec- ulation in land in the neighborhood of this place, with the remark that, it it were successful, I should be able to make good my promise, and claim you as the partner of my joys and sorrows for life. My most san- guine expectations have been more than realized. Herewith you«will receive a draft on the National Park Bank, in New York, for $500, of which I pray you to make use in providing such ar- ticles as may be necessary to replenish your wardrobe, in anticipation of our speedy marriage, after my return home. Pray present your dear mother with my affectionate regards, and say that I can never forget, now that I have the power, that it is my duty to assist and cherish her declining years. I also send some few trinkets, made of Leadville gold, which you will please present on my’belialf to your sisters, as tokens of my brotherly regard ; for such I now consider my relations toward them. With my kindest respects to all, and trusting that I may soon be per- mitted to embrace my dearest, I remain Her devoted Mark Tapley. COMPLAINTS OF A LADY’S COOLNESS. Cedar St., Philadelphia, March 1. Dear Susan — The change in your behavior toward me — from the kindness of an attached friend to the cool indifference of a distant ac- quaintance — indicates but too plainly that, by some means, I have had the misfortune to excite your displeasure ; though how or when I can- not imagine. Recently, I have several times attempted to seek an ex- planation, but, in every instance, my courage failed me at the critical moment, and, as a last resort, intrusting to my pen the duty which my lips should have performed, I now write to you, to ask wherein I have offended. Whatever may be your reply, rest assured that my feelings toward yourself cannot be changed, and that your beloved image will ever be enshrined in the breast of Your affectionate friend. E. 4— * Dwyu, 190 THE LETTER WRITER. EXPLAINING AN APPARENT SLIGHT. Boston, March 8 , 1832. Dearest Julia— How could you consider me capable of inflicting a flight upon yourself, in whom are centered all my hopes of happiness 1 Nothing more than ordinary courtesy was intended by my attentions to Miss Frith. That she was a comparative stranger to the Stanleys, in- duced me to pay her those attentions which have occasioned you so much annoyance, but which otherwise I would not have considered my- self justified in tendering. 1 regrel from mysou! that anything should have occurred to originate in your mind a doubt of my sincerity. Your truly affectionate, George Rogers. To Miss Julia Tilchman, No. — N. Fifteenth St., Philadelphia. ON RECEIVING A FAVORABLE REPLY TO A PRO POSAL. Newton, N. Y., March 20, 1882. Darling — Words cannot express my rapture on finding your note on my table last night. How delightful was it to find a letter — and tuck a letter ! — from one whom I may now hope to hail as the compan- ion of my whole future life 1 The weight taken off my mind by the can- did and gentle confession of one whose love seemed too great a happi ness to hope for is beyond description. To-morrow I shall hasten to the presence of her from whom I hope 1 may never henceforth be parted ; but I could not retire to rest without making one feeble at- tempt to express my ecstasy at finding that hopes so flattering have not been in vain. Believe me, darling. Your devoted and happy Tom. COMPLAINING OF NOT RECEIVING A LETTER. Clifton, January 7, 1882. Dear Agnes — Four days have passed without my receiving a letter from you, and I am in painful anxiety lest illness should be the cause. Pray write auickly, or I shall really feel inclined to quarrel with you as an idie girl ; nay, I shall absolutely grow jealous, and fancy that some more favored suitor is undermining the affections of my dear girl. But 1 have no fears. I too well know that your innate goodness of heart would prevent your trifling with the feelings of anyone ; so, hop- ing you will take this little scolding in good part, and relieve the offense by a very long letter as speedily as your dainty fingers can write, be- leve me, Dear Agnes, Your affectionate Ed. ON A BIRTHDAY. New London. June 1, 1882. My dearest Fannie — How sad it is that I am hindered from being with you on this dearest of all days of the year. Accept, dearest, the enclosed portrait. I feel that its original is too deeply stamped on your heart to require any effigy to remind you of him. It is, however, the most appropriate present I could offer to the cause of my happiness on this brightest of all days. God grant that every succeeding year may see you increase in all that » charming in body and mind, and believe me. My dearest Fannie, Your own John. A COMPLAINT. July 10, 1882. Dear Maudie : It is with pain 1 v/rite to you in aught that can seem like a strain of reproach, but 1 confess that your conduct last night both surprised and vexed me. You received Mr. Watson’s attentions in so marked a way that I feel it due to yourself to comment on your conduct. Believe me, I am in no way given to idle jealousy ; still less am I selfish or unmanly enough to wish to deprive any girl on whom I have so firmly fixed my affections of any pleasure to be obtained in good society. But my peace of mind would be lost forever, did I believe that I had lost one atom of your affection. Pray write, and assure me that you still preserve your undivided affection for Your devoted but grieved Fred CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON HIS MARRIAGE. Omaha, August 20, 18 — . My dear Tom : As you have entered the enviable state of wedlock, and are no longer the merry bachelor formerly the butt of my crude jests, I must address you in a tone of greater gravity than has been my custom. My dear friend, I sincerely congratulate you upon this desirable change ; for in your choice of a partner you have given evidence of the possession of a sound judgment and much good taste. If my beneficent wishes were the only requisite to insure your happiness in the married state, you would never have occasion to regret the step you have recently taken ; for there is no one whom I more ardently desire to see surrounded with all the blessings of this life. Have the kindness to present my respectful compliments to Mrs. Armitage.and believe me ever to remain Your sincere well-wisher and friend, Edward Keogh. CONGRATULATING A GENTLEMAN UPON HIS MARRIAGE. Yankton, June 1. i88s Dear Bill I have just received the welcome message that informs me of you; new happiness. I hasten to offer you my most sincere congratulations and hearty good wishes. May every year of your married life find you happier than the last, and may Mrs. Chiffins find you as loyal a husband as you have been a friend. From my 'nra ist heart, dear Bill, I say, God bless you and your bride with His choicest blessings. Ever your friend, George Meyers. William Chiffins, Esq. CONGRATULATING A LADY UPON HER MAR- RIAGE. K St., Washington, D. C., A ugust 3, 1882. Dear Josie : Your cards have just reached me, and I write at once to try to express my heartfelt pleasure at your happy prospects. It is a great pleasure to your loving friends to be able to feel so much esteem and affection for the gentleman to whom you have confided your life’s happiness, and to hope, as 1 do, that every year will unite your hearts more closely. That heaven may bless you both, dear Josie, is the earnest prayer of Your loving Julia Robinson Mrs. Clifford Doyle. CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH 05 A SON. Batavia, N. Y., July 5, 1882. My dear Joe: What luck 1 A son bom on the great 4th. May he prove as good , as pure, and as honest a man and patriot as George Washington. What more can I say, old fellow, except to add that I earnestly trust that Mrs. Clithroe and George W. are doing well ? Yours, always sincerely, A. D. Hervy. Joseph Clithroe, Esq, THE LETTER WRITER. 191 CONGRATULATING A FRIEND ON THE BIRTH OF A DAUGHTER. Pegasus, Westchester Co., N. Y., I April 10, '82. Dear Millie : I congratulate you most heartily on your new acquaintance, and if “missy only grows up like “ mamma, ’’ the boys will be around pretty tf"ely. I suppose your husband is two feet taller. Take great care of yourself and the wee little lady. 1 hope very soon to come round to songratulate you in person. Your very sincere friend, James Todhunter. Mrs. E. F. Everligh. SEEKING A CLERKSHIP Troy, May 4, 1882. Gentlemen — Perceiving by your advertisement in the N. Y. Herald that you are in want of a clerk, I beg to inclose testimonials, and ven- ture to hope that from my previous experience in the line of business you pursue I should be of some use in your establishment. My habits of life are such as to assure regularity in the discharge of my duties, and I can only assure you that, should you honor me with your confi- dence, I shall spare no pains to acquit myself to your satisfaction. I remain, gentlemen. Your obedient servant, Harry Sanderson. To Messrs. Griffiths & Co. APPLICATION FOR SUBSCRIPTION TO A CHARITY. Midgeville, Tenn., October 8, 1882. Sir [or Madam] I take the liberty of inclosing a prospectus of an institution which is likely to have a most beneficial effect upon the poor in our neighborhood. \Here state particulars .] From your well- known liberality, I trust you will excuse this appeal from a stranger in furtherance of an act of benevolence, and remain. Sir [or Madam], Your most obedient servant, Julia [or John] Smith. DECLINING. 30 West 27TH St., New York, ! 29th October , 1882. > Mr. Thomas Jones regrets exceedingly that the numerous applications for kindred purposes near home render it impossible for him to com- ply with the request contained in Mr. [or Mrs.] ’s letter of the 18th October. A FRIEND IN THE COUNTRY ASKING A CITY FRIEND ABOUT BOARD. Erie, Pa., A ugust 14, '82. Dear William— In a few days I will have occasion to visit New York, and, being a comparative stranger, I wish to be as near the business center as possible, though located in a private boarding-house, as I have a strong aversion to hotel life. My object in writing is to ask you to recommend me to some private boarding-house, and to engage rooms in advance of my arrival, so that I may proceed thither at once on landing from the cars. Leaving the selection entirely to yourself, and hoping jto hear from you soon, I remain Yours faithfully, Isaac Jenkins. APPLICATION FOR A LOAN. State St., Chicago, July 27, ’82. Dear Sir — I am temporarily embarrassed tferough the failure of my New York correspondent to remit. The sum of $2,000 would relieve my present necessities, but I dislike borrowing money of professional lend- ers, and would rather solicit the aid of some one of my numerous friends. My first thought was of yourself ; and, therefore, my object in writing Is to ask if you can spare me the required sum without in any way interfering with your business arrangements ? \ ou may rely upor. having it returned to you on the 15th prox., and perhaps before thai time. Pray reply at your earliest convenience, .hd oblige Your obedient servant, George White To Philip Duke, Esq. REPLY IN THE AFFIRMATIVE. Grove St., Cincinnati, July 30, ’82. Dear Sir — Y our letter of yesterday was duly received, and it grati fies me to be able to say that you can have the lean asked for. In- closed you will find a check tor the amount, which you will return at the date named and oblige, Yours, very sincerely, P. Duke. To Geo. White, Esq. DECLINING TO LEND MONEY. Boston, April 8lh, 1882. My dear Sir — I have always made it a principle in liie never to bor- row or lend money, not even when members of my own fami.y have been concerned. As Shakespeare says • l> Neither a borrower nor a lender be. For loan oft loses both itself and friend." 1 theretore trust you will excuse conduct which -nay seem harsh and uncouneous on my part, but which I have ever found to be the safest, and, in the long run, the kindest course for all parties. I remain, my dear sir, Yours very faithfully, Joseph Johnson. To Howard Wells, Esq. SOLICITING RENEWAL OF A PROMISSORY NOTE. Ark St., Mobile, May 7, ’82 Gentlemen— Y ou have in your possession my note for $1,000, paya- ble May 14, which I am sorry to say I cannot meet at maturity, owing to a combination of circumstances adverse to my Interests, and not antici- pated. If you will do me the favor to renew it for nintty days, with interest added, Ido not doubt my ability to redeem it when due. A compliance with this request will confer an obligation upon, and oblige. Your obedient servant, Thomas Moran. To Messrs. Sadlier & Co., 30 William St., N. Y. TO A FIRM, WITH AN INSTALLMENT. Dean St., San Francisco, Cal., 1 May 20, 1882. j Gentlemen— Inclosed please find $500, in notes of San Francisco banks, which I will thank you to place to my credit, as the first install- ment upon my bill, now overdue nearly two months. The balance wlli be remitted during the second week in June, if not before that time. I regret the inconvenience caused you by my delay, which is a result erf our system of long credits, and entirely beyond my power to control, I remain, gentlemen, Your obliged and faithful servant, William Dkmpset. Messrs. Hatch, Wight & Co- 333 Broadwajr, New York. OFFERING A LOAN OF MONEY FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES. Elizabeth, N. J., Dec. 15, ’82. Dear Robert— Knowing that you are desirons of Stirling in business for yourself, I write to say that it is in my power to offer you a loan of two thousand dollars ($2,000) without interfering in any way with n® THE LETTER WRITER. '9* own business or expenditures. I trust that vou will let me have ? I Iriend’s privilege, and accept the money on sucn terms as will best suit you. With best wishes for your success, I am your friend, Austin Keep. Robert Rowe, Esq. Letters of condolence, though a necessity between friends, are very difficult to compose, since the more earnestly and touchingly they are written, the more deeply will they probe the wounds still bleeding under the stab of affliction. The shorter such letters are, the better. Let them be short and sin- cere, and always wind up with a hope that Providence will as- suage the grief with which it has pleased Him in His far-see- ing wisdom to afflict your friend. ON THE DEATH OS' A HUSBAND. Fordham, N. Y., Nov. 29, 1882. My dear Mrs. Manning: Words fail to convey my feelings of sorrow on receiot of the intelli- gence of the death of my old and esteemed friend, your late husband. My own grief at the loss of a true friend teaches me how crushing must be your affliction. May the Almighty in his goodness console you in tbis dark hour of your tribulation. Believe me always your true and sincere friend, Joseph Butler. ON THE DEATH OF A WIFE. Providence, R. I., November 8, 1882. My dear George 1 know how futile it is to address words, idle words, to you in this moment of supreme anguish, with which it has pleased God to visit you, and shall not say more than that the loss of your pure, good, and beautiful wife is a source of deep sorrow to the numerous friends who bad the privilege of knowing her, and to none more than Yours, in deep sympathy and affection, Terrence Barker. ON THE DEATH OF A SON. Norwalk, Conn., June 3, 1882. My dear Julia : If God has plucked the bright blossom from your home it is for a pur- pose none of us dare divine. He alone can pour balm upon your crushed heart. The holy joy is yours of knowing that angel eyes now watch for your coming, and that your beautiful boy will receive you when “ life’s dark day is done.” If the teDderest or much-loving sympathy could soothe you, dear Julia, learn that you have it from your Friend, Laura. ON THE DEATH OF A MOTHER. Tewkesbury, Mass., Nov. 8, 1882. My dear Charles: You have lost your mother. There is a very wail in the words. She may nevei be replaced. The dear good lady has passed away to a bet ter land, cheered by the knowledge of your love and affectionate tender- ness, consoled by the thought that her teaching, when you were a little boy at her knee, has not been in vain, and that she leaves behind her for a little while a son who treads the path of rectitude and of honor. Dear Charles, ever remember that your darling mother watches you from on high and as she was devoted to you in life, so is she devoted to you in death. God sustain you under tbis heavy affliction. Your true friend, John Tkavbr. REPLIES TO ADVERTISEMENTS. In replying to advertisements never omit to mention the name of the paper in which the advertisement appeared, also its date, and a brief allusion to the matter in the advertisement. Be as concise as possible, covering the ground in a few well chosen sentences. BOOKKEEPER. 28 Washington St., Boston, Mass.,! October 20, 1882. ’ To Messrs. Winsole, Bird & Co. : Gentlemen— In reply to your advertisement in this day’s Tratucript for a competent bookkeeper, I respec. fully beg to offer myself as candi- date for that position. I have been in the employment of Mr. Thomas Lepy, 19 Tremont Street, in this city- the large dry-goods store — in the capacity of bookkeeper for the last thiee years, and am about to leave on the 1st proximo, as Mr. Lepy is abnut to retire from business. Mr. Lepy has authorized me to refer to him in reference to character and ability. I can also refer to Messrs. Bose & Pickwick, 17 Remseo Street, with whom I clerked for a year and a half. Hoping to be fortunate enough to suit your requirements, I am, gentlemen, Respectfully, Joseph Sutcuff. GENERAL EMPLOYMENT. Newburg, I nth Sep/., ’82. * Sir— I hasten to reply to your advertisement in the N Y. Sun of to day. 1 am most desirous of obtaining employment, and would not conside* present emolument so much an object as the prospect of a permaneal and respectable situation. I am a young man (age 21), and single. I have received a good com mcrcial education, and am versed in bookkeeping a». J accounts geo erally. In other respects I am willing to render myself generally useful, and, although I have not hitherto filled a situation, I doubt not but thal in a short time I shall be able to fulfill any duties assigned to me. In the event of your doing me the honor to select me for the proffered employment, I could furnish you with satisfactory testimonials as t« character, and could, if necessary, provide guarantees for fidelity. Trusting that I may have the honor of hearing from you in reply, I remain, sir. Your obedient servant, Joseph L’Estrang*. To W. Henry Cullinan, 27 Wand St., N. Y. FROM A YOUNG MAN TO A FRIEND SOLICITING A SITUATION. Mohawk, March 28, 1882. Dear Edward : When you left Galveston, you were kind enough to promise that should it be in your power to forward my interest in any manner you would feel a pleasure in so doing. I am now in want of a position, my former employer having sold his business, and his successor having, as he in- forms me, a sufficient number of hands for all the work he is likely to have. If, therefore, you should hear of any situation or employment which you consider likely to suit me, either in ray own business, that ol a clerk, or in any other in which I can make myself useful, your reconi mendation would greatly oblige, and be of material service to, Dear Edward, Yours very truly, John Jambs. ASKING PERMISSION TO REFER TO A PERSON. New Haven, Conn. I July 7, ’82. ’ Dear Sir : As I have had the honor of being known to you for some yearn, dsn THE LETTER WRITER. 1 93 tag which period I trust my conduct has impressed you favorably, I lake the liberty of soliciting at your hand the following favor : Messrs. Sebthorp, of Beaver Street, New York, are in want of a cor- respondent at London, and as I am about tc, proceed there on some affairsof my own, and shall probably take up my residence in that cap- ital for some years, I am anxious to secure a post which appears to me in every way eligible, and accords with my views exactly. As a matter of course, Messrs. Sebthorp desire testimonials as to my capacity and integrity, and as you are in a position to speak positively on these points, I have written to ask you whether 1 may so far trespass on your kindness as to mention your name by way of reference. Should you kindly grant this request, I need scarcely assure you that my endeavor will be to prove both to Messrs. Sebthorp and yourself that you have not been mistaken in your opinion of me, while I shall ever feel grateful for this further instance of the interest evinced by you in the welfare of Your truly obliged, Walter Mott. To Mr. George Fouke, yth St., Cincinnati, O. A FEW LINES ACCOMPANYING A GIFT. A WEDDING GIFT. 200 Fifth Avenue, New York, i 1 8 th April. i Nelly Suter sends her best love, and best wishes, to Susie Lorimer, and a little bracelet as a souvenir of an event that Nelly trusts will ever prove as happy and auspicious as she wishes it to be. CHRISTENING GIFT. Heath House, 1 June 18, ’82. > God-papa sends little Mamie a coral ; to enable her to cut her teeth, but not the acquaintance of Joseph Chambers. FLOWERS. 15 Madison Avenue, 1 19 July. 1 Roses become Miss Irwin so much, that Mr. Harnett earnestly hopes to see the accompanying bunch in Miss Irwin’s corsage this evening at Wallack’s. CLERK. *9 Grove St., St. Louis, Mo., I November 16, 1882. * Mr. Isaac Waters: Sir— I see by this day’s Chronicle that you are in want of a competent Clerk, and I respectfully beg to apply for the position. Owing to the financial difficulties of my late employers, Messrs. Kendrick & Warts, with whom I was Clerk for eight years, I am out of employment. I can refer to either of these gentlemen for a testimonial as to my industry, good conduct and ability. I may add that I am a teetotaler. Hoping to receive a favorable reply, I am. Respectfully, Rudolph Meyer. COOK. 100 West 28th St., New York, | March 18, 1882. I Mrs. William Howard : Respected Madam— Having seen your advertisement for a plain Cook in this day’s Herald , I respectfully apply for the place. I can cook plain joints and do all manner of plain cooking, as my pres- ent employer, Mrs. James Posnett, is willing to testify. As Mrs Pos- nett is going to Europe on the 1st of April, I will be out of place on that day. A line to Mrs. Posnett will satisfy all inquiries in regard to my character and capacity. Respectfully, Jane Matthews. GOVERNESS 19 Bleecker St., Boston. I July 27, ’82. > Mrs. E. F. Slocum : Madam— In reply to your advertisement in to-day’s Courier for a Governess to teach three little girls French, German and English, I hasten to inform you that I am graduate of Vassar Class '80 ; that I have resided one year in Paris and five months in Vienna, sojourning in both capitals for the purpose of completing my knowledge of French and German. I have been Governess in the family of Mr. George F. Witmore, but owing to the death of my dear little pupil, their only daughter, Ada, I have been thrown out of employment. In addition to my College and Academy testimonials, I beg to refer to Mrs. Witmore, Holly Park, Brookline, and to the Rev. Mr. Brooks, St Matthew’s Church. Hoping to be favored by your selection, I am, madam. Yours respectfully, Miriam J . Packard. MUSIC. 13 Chestnut St. Philadelphia, I 28 th November , ’82. 1 Mr. John St. Ruth presents his compliments to Miss Delamore and begs to send her a few selections from the operas, her singing last night at Mr. Hamlyn’s having reminded him of the most celebrated prima donnas. EUROPEAN ETIQUETTE IN AD- DRESSING LETTERS. LETTERS TO THE QUEEN ; TO THE PRINCE AND PRINCESS OF WALES , TO RELATIVES OF THE QUEEN; TO DUKES, DUCHESSES, MARQUISESJ EARLS, COUNTESSES, ETC., ETC. ; TO JUDGES ; MEMBERS OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL, CLERGYMEN, ETC. Letters for her Majesty the Queen are sent under cover, either to the Prime Minister, or to whomso- ever has charge for the time being of her Majesty’s private correspondence. The inclosure is directed “To her Majesty the Queen.” Official communi- cations are ordinarily addressed, “To the Queen’s most excellent Majesty.” Letters to the Queen should be commenced, “ Madam,” or “ Most gra- cious Sovereign,” or “ May it please your Majesty,” according to the nature of the communication ; and should be concluded, “ I have the honor to remain, with the profoundest respect, madam, your Majesty’s most faithful and dutiful subject.” Letters for the Prince and Princess of Wales should be sent under cover to Lieut.-Col. Knollys, and the inclosure directed to “ His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales,” or, “ Her Royal Highness the Princess of Wales.” The sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, and uncles and aunts of the Queen, are all addressed as “ Royal Highness,” but her Majesty’s nephews 194 THE LETTER WRITER. and cousins are addressed simply as “Your High- ness." Letters to members of the Royal Family should begin, “ Sir,” or “ Madam,” and end, “ I have the honor to remain, sir (or madam), your Royal Highness’s most dutiful and most obedient servant.” A letter to a Duke or Duchess, not members of the Royal Family, should be addressed, “To His Grace, «. the Duke of ; ” “To Her Grace, the Duchess of .” It should begin with “ My Lord Duke but a duchess, in common with all other ladies, from the Queen downwards, is addressed as “ Madam.” In writing to a marquis, address the letter, “To the Most Hon. the Marquis of and to a mar- chioness, “To the Most Hon. the Marchioness of Begin, “ My Lord Marquis.” In writing to an earl or countess, address, “To the Right Hon. the Earl (or Countess) of Begin letters to earls, viscounts, or barons, with “ My Lord.” A letter to a viscount or viscountess should be addressed, “ To the Right Hon. the Vis- count (or Lady Viscountess) .” A letter to a baron should be addressed, “ To the Right Hon.” The younger sons of earls, and all the sons of vis- counts and barons, are addressed, “ The Hon. , Esquire ; ” and the daughters, and sons’ wives, “ The Hon. Mrs. , or Miss .” Letters should begin, “ Sir,” or “ Madam.” In addressing embassadors, begin, “ My Lord,” and use the title “Your Excellency” throughout, wherever the pronoun “ you ” would ordinarily be used. The same title is used in addressing the Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland, and the Governor of Western Australia. The Governor-General of Canada and the Governor of Dover Castle are addressed as “ Right Honorable.” A letter to a baronet is addressed to “ Sir William , Bart. ; ” one to a knight, “ Sir William .” Begin letters to baronets, knights, or their wives, “ Sir,” or “ Madam,” except, of course, in cases where acquaintanceship exists, when formality ceases, and letters are begun, “ Dear Sir William ; ” “ Dear Lady .” Though the word “ Esquire” means, in these days, little or nothing, yet it is considered more polite, when addressing persons of position, to write the vord in full. In addressing a French gentleman, also, it is impolite to use the initial of “ Monsieur ” only. The word must be written in full, and it is very frequently written twice, thus : “ A Monsieur. “ Monsieur .” Judges are addressed as “ Right Honorable.” In addressing a consul, write, “To A. B., Esq., Consul to Her Britannic Majesty, at .” In directing a letter to any member of the Privy Council, prefix “ Right Hon.” to the name, and add after it the title of the office held. Observe the same rules in addressing members of the Royal Household. Letters or addresses to the House of Peers as a body are addressed, “ To the Right Hon. the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament assembled and to the House of Commons, “To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.” The Speaker of the House is addressed as “ The Right Hon. , Esquire, Speaker of the House of Commons.” Individual members, who have no title, are addressed by their Christian and surname, fol- lowed by “Esq., M.P.,” except, of course, in those cases where they have a title. 'When clergymen have titles, these should be inserted after the word Rev., in addressing a let- ter. The following are the forms for addressing our Church dignitaries : “To His Grace the Archbishop of .” “ To the Right Rev. the Bishop of .” “ The Rev. John Smith, D.D.” “ The Very Rev. the Dean of .” “ The Very Rev. John Smith, D.D., Dean of .” “ The Ven. Archdeacon Rectors and curates are addressed as “ The Rev. John Smith ; ” “ The Rev. William Jones.” Holders of the higher appointments in the Army and Navy are addressed as follows : “To Lieut.- General the Duke of , K.C.B., Commander-in- Chief of Her Majesty’s Forces,” etc. “To Field- Marshal the Viscount , K.G., Master-General of the Ordnance,” etc. “To the Right Hon. Lord , Commander of Her Majesty’s Forces,” etc. “To Colonel the Hon. A. .” “To Sir , K.C.B., Admiral and Commander of the Channel Fleet,” etc. “To Sir , Captain of Her Majesty’s ship Black Prince." In address- ing majors, captains, or lieutenants, add the names of the regiments to which they belong. In the Navy, address, “ Lieutenant Brown, R.N., on board H.M.S. Resistance.” “.Mr. Smith, Midshipman of H.M.S. Devastation." VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. *95 Political. requehid the filcamie of your company at Jfo. 232 (fflvnton Ji venue, on J hutiday evening, Jllatch no Hi, at Cj.S0 o’clock, to meet Jio n. Sdh immediately after- hii addieii al the Jldvlfohi Jfcademy x Q $n gttemomm. 2lrtl)iir (£>. Colct, Bied June 3 5th, 3 880, ;J!U Springfirlb, $11., 2lgcb lo Scars anb 5 illontl)S. VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. jq6 Dancing. VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. 197 198 VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. VARIOUS FORMS OF INVITATIONS. 199 200 SPEECHES. SPEECH should be short and to the point. Remember that brevity is the soul of — a speech. A long speech, unless the speaker be exceptionally eloquent, or the occasion exceptionally mandatory, is one of the greatest of possible inflictions. Some men love to hear themselves talk, and, quite oblivious of the feelings of their listeners, continue to drone out labored sentences and weary platitudes until politely coughed or buzzed down. These men ought to be indicted as nuisances. The specimen speeches which we present in this Cyclopaedia, are merely meant to act as guides. They show the form of speech most popular, and give the length that is likely to be received with approval. Of course there are occasions when a long speech is absolutely necessary. The toasts and sentiments embrace all subjects, and are suited to occasions of a festive character. A PUBLIC OFFICER, ON RETIRING, IS PRESENTED WITH A SOUVENIR. Sir — Your friends — ar.d their name is legion — cannot permit you to retire into private life without a direct expression of their esteem and regard. I am desired on their part to present you with the accompany- ing ... as a very slight token indeed of their appreciation of so admirable an officer, so good a ciuzcn, and so perfect a gentleman. REPLY. Sir — To have won your approval, and that of the friends you so kindly represent, is indeed sweeter to me than anything else that life, with all its prizes, could offer. I am bold enough to say that 1 have en- deavored to win the good will of my fellow-citizens ot all grades and classes, but I am modest enough to assure you this gracious, superb, and totally unexpected offering so completely affects me. as to leave me poor in speech, but rich in thankfulness and gratitude. My children and children’s children shall treasure this souvenir, as the prize won in the big fight by at least the honest efforts of their sire. THE LADIES. WTiere is the man who, upon one occasion or another, has n o t been called, upon to respond to the toast of “ The Ladies? The following will enable the hashful youth to train his ideas in regard to the subject, and to prepare him with a reply when the mine shall have been sprung upon him. A ready response to this most popular of all toasts is as necessary as it is grace- ful and manly , so let there be no hemming or hawing, no hes- itations, stutterings or stammerings, but start to your feet at once and dash into the subject as though you were enchanted at the privilege Mr. President and Gentlemen: The high, the glorious privilege has been accorded me of replying to the toast of “ The Ladies." You could not have selected a better man. Impossible ! This you will say is rather cheeky of me ; but when 1 tel you that there breathes not a man who reveres, loves, and adores the sex so much as I do, I ask you in all honesty could the chance of reply- ing to the toast have fallen upon more deserving shoulders ? The ladies, God bless them 1 what would we do without them — that nearer, clearer, dearer heaven oi stars I In their smiles lie our sunshine, in their tears our anguish, in their beauty our heartaches. To the ladies we owe all the refining influences ot our lives. They are the bright flowers by the wayside, the quite too too tenderly utter beings, who make, mar, and marry us. Then here, gentlemen, is my response to the toast of The Ladies. May they ever shine like stars in our firmament, never cease to capti- vate us, and, vvheu we deserve it, of rewarding us. The ladies, God bless them ! ANOTHER REPLY. The toast to which I have the honor of responding is one that awakes in the manly heart the latent chivalry of manhood. The toast of The Ladies embraces womanhood, the mother, the wife, the daughter, the sister, and if you will, gentlemen, the cousins and the aunts. Su Wal- ter Scott has beautifully written : “ O woman ! in our hours of ease. Uncertain, coy, and hard to please. And variable as the shade By the light quivering aspen made ; When pain and anguish rack the brow, A ministering angel thou 1 ” What an admirable delineation of woman’s character ! In ourhou/sol ease, on the stoop, or by the stove, there is no doubt of it, gentlemen, that she is uncertain, extremely coy, and infernally hard to please — I mean at times— while as for her variability, she Is as whirly-giggy as a weather-cock on a windy March morning. But here is the other side of the shield, the silver one. Have any of you ever been ill ? Have any of you ever been smitten to the earth by grief or misfortune ? t hope not ; but if such has been your bitter experience, turn back on youi memories for the tender sympathy, the unfailing devotion, the cease- less graciousness of woman. Gentlemen, this is a theme upon which, like the brook, I could " run on for ever ; ’’ yet, delightful as it is, lima SPEECH. foi flies, and perhaps the time that I am spending in reply to the toast of The Ladies, could be far better spent in their company. Gentlemen, I return you my most heartfelt thanks for being called upon by you to reply to such an important and gracious toast. PRESENTATION OF A PIECE OF PLATE TO A PUB- LIC OFFICIAL. Sir — It affords me intense pleasure to represent a committee, who in turn represent your numerous friends and admirers, and on their behalf to present you with this as a very slight token of their apprecia- tion of the admirable and praiseworthy manner in which you have dis- charged the onerous and responsible duties appertaining to your posi- tion. Your high character, integrity, and zeal have not only won the esteem and confidence of your friends, and of those brought into immediate contact with you, but have radiated far and wide, so that you have reached the position — one that is not only a credit to yourself but to the country at large. That you may long continue in the service which you so admirably adorn is the wish of the many to whom your virtues are as household words. With this souvenir let me, on the part of those whom I repre- sent, wish you health, happiness, and prosperity. REPLY. Mr. and Gentlemen : I need hardly say with what gratitude I accept this splendid gift — a gift which is dearer to me than all the “ gold of Ind,” since it comes from a set of friends whose endorsement on a bad bill no amount of treasure could purchase. Gentlemen, my aim in life has been to do what is right, to labor with earnestness, to win on the merits. My efforts have been crowned with success, and in this superb souvenir I recognize my crown of victory. Gentlemen, your too flattering recognition will but serve as a greater impetus to exertion, and, rest assured that no effort on my part shall be wanting to repay in the fullest measure of my capacity the compli- ment it has pleased you this day to bestow upon me. PRESENTATION TO A TEACHER BY THE YOUNG LADY PUPILS. Dear Teacher : It devolves upon me to offer you, in the name of the young ladies of this school, a slight token of our esteem and regard. To myself it is a source of immense pleasure to be made their mouthpiece on this occa- sion, since my sincere delight may make some amends for my many shortcomings. I am not now addressing you as our teacher, but as our friend, our dear, trusted, and very much tried friend ; for how often have we not tried your temper and your forbearance ! Dear Teacher, we will ever keep your image enshrined in our hearts, and shall look back to the school, not as an abode cf penance, but rather of pleasure, since your kindness and your amiability have so rendered it— cur stud s having been illuminated by your patient graciousness. The little gift we offer you is of no intrinsic value, but it is rich in love, and gratitude, and respect. Please accept it, and with it our united hopes that your life will ever be as happy as you have made ours. REPLY. Mv Dear Pupils : I find that my heart is so anxious to speak that it has almost paralyzed toy lips. Yes, it is indeed my heart that returns thanks to yours, for I know how pure, gentle, generous, strong, and true your hearts are, and my heart says to yours, “ Oh, how deeply grateful I am for this tender mark of your affection ! ” My dear pupils, if- you have been a little inc.ined to — what shall I call it ? not idleness -no, no — well, a word from me ever brought you back from the plucking of the flowers of fancy, and a rebuke was but a reminder that you should tread the path of study for yet a little while. My life has been rendered doubly pleasant in the sueshine of your youth, and that I shall hold a place in your esteem and affection is indeed a delightful reward. That I thank you for your gift it is needless to say. Ah ! would that one spark of eloquence of some of the masters over whom we have studied together were given to me now, to let you know what I feel on this occasion, which shall ever be remembered as one of the brightest resting-places in my journey through lif« A BACHELOR. Ladies and Gentlemen : It seems rather hard that I, an unfortunate bachelor, should be sin- gled out to reply to this toast. Surely the misfortune of being unablei to meet a fair one to share my lot ought to have won your sympathy,! and to have left me unnoticed save by what the poets are pleased to term the “ passing tribute of a sigh.” Ladies, it is no fault of mine that I am unmated. I detest, abhor ' loathe bachelorhood — would that I could find stronger terms of detesta- tion— and if Fate, Kismet, Destiny, call it what you will, were to place some charming blushing maiden, such as 1 see around this board to- night, in my path, I would consider myself the most blessed of human mortals. What more contemptible being than the old bachelor 1 whoso / lonely, who so uncared for, who so infamously selfish ! Of course ladies, I allude to those cravens who have feared to risk their fate on that sweet small word “ Yes.” I must myself confess to a certain cow- ardice, and, with Sir Walter Raleigh, exclaim, “ Fain would I climb j but that I fear to fall.” Oh, if some fair lady would but say, “ If thy heart fail thee do not climb at all ! ” That I live in hope, white bios - 1 somed Hope, I do not deny, and whatever be my fate now, in the presence of such charming and beautiful witnesses, I denounce bach- elorhood and despise the bachelor. THE HOST. Gentlemen : Fill your glasses till the beaded bubbles at the brim topple over. This is a toast that to honor is a sacred duty. I give you the health of our host — God bless him ! REPLY. Gentlemen : I thank you most heartily for the manner in which you have drank the toast of my health. I assure you from my heart that I never feel se happy as when I see myself surrounded by my friends, and to behol one’s friends enjoying themselves is a sight fit for the gods. In the battle of life, which we are all compelled to fight, it becomes necessary to halt occasionally, stop by the wayside, and refresh. This brief snatching of pleasure at its best, makes us all feel that there is something worth living for, and that life without friends would indeed be but a dismal blank. I again thank you for your gracious good fellow- ship, and promise you that no effort shall be wanting on my part to enable you to propose the same toast, under the same circumstances, again, again, and yet again. A DISTINGUISHED GUEST. Gentlemen : A duty, and a most pleasant one, devolves upon me of proposing the health of a very distinguished gentleman who has honored us with his presence this evening. Mr. has done us the very great favor of joining our circle, and we feel the most intense pleasure in doing honor t j a citizen who has so justly elevated himself in the opinions and good wishes of his fellow-countrymen. Were Mr. absent I could talk about him for “ a long hour by Shrewsbury clock,” but as he is present I will endeavor to spare his blushes, and come at once to the drinl.ing of his health in a bumper. Gentlemen, longlife, prosperity and happi- ness to our distinguished guest, Mr. . Three times three and a tiger! Take the time from me 1 Hip, etc. REPLY. Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen : Our worthy host intimated that he wished to spare my blushes. Now it is so long since I blushed, that I forget the sensation, but I declare that I could find this no occasion to blush, save for very pleasure, since to be thus introduced and thus toasted is indeed an occasion so pleasurable to me, that it shall ever remain impressed on the tablets of both my memory and my heart. It is indeed a source of intense gratification to me to find that my little efforts, so far as they have gone, are appreciated, and by gentle- men such as I see around this board. True it is that I have done but little ; but, gentlemen, I assure you my object is to do a great deal, and failing in that, I have but done my share. If, however, I am to do my share in this evening’s bout, I am extremely grateful to our respected 202 SPEECHES. chairman for giving me an opportunity of speaking so tally in tne evening, as later on — well, least said soonest mended. WEDDING-DAY ANNIVERSARY. This is indeed an occasion where a speech is utterly unnecessary, for the fact of our being here speaks so eloquently, that the words even of a Demosthenes or a Cicero would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable. Ladies and gentlemen, just cast a glance at that happy man, out host, and that beautiful lady, our hostess. See the “ heavenly assenting cmile ” that speaks of the tendercst devotion, of a happiness those who wed whom they love, alone can know. The sunshine of unalloyed felicity is a nimDus to their lives, and it is well that, as the clock strikes another year upon their wedded bliss, we should be here to congratu- late and say God bless them both. That their journey of life will be always as smooth as it is now, and that they may ever be protected from storm and strait, is the sentiment I would couple with the health of our dear friends, Mr. and Mrs. , on this the anniversary of their wedding. REPLY. My very dear Friends : As a rule, no husband is perfectly sale in replying for Ins wife, since that much-to-be-respected party is usually so capable of replying for herself, and as on too frequent occasions, her sentiments differ a little from his. On this occasion, however, I reply for my dear wife, knowing that every word I say will be endorsed by her, and that every beat of her heart is in accord with mine. This is indeed a very joyous anniversary. It recalls the delicious rapture of the moment when I first could call my cherished partner by that sacred and endearing term of wife. It recalls the moment when she placed her happiness in my hands ; and, my dear friends, I ask ot you if that smile which puckers round her mouth now, does not do me infinite justice ? If I have not been disappointed in her, 1 trust in God she has not been disappointed in me, and as years pass around, and, Darby and Joan like, we descend the hill, may this anniversary ever prove a resting-place for happy retrospection. CRYSTAL WEDDING. In this age of transparency, when glass has arrived at such perfection, it behooves us upon this, the anniversary of the crystal wedding of our dear friends, to “ hold the mirror up to nature," and let them view themselves in the glass we now place before them. The lady smiles, as well she may, for Time’s glass has not shaken out a single sand, and the fifteen years that have passed since she made our host the happiest of men, have left scarce a trace upon her pellucid brow. The crystals which we present our dear friends upon this auspicious and delightful occasion are but a type of the transparency and bright- ness of their lives. May they never look on life “ as through a glass, darkly.” May the goblets which stand upon the festive board ever brim with the nectar distilled from love and harmony, and may these glass pitchers, and bowls, and decanters serve as crucibles through which their silver and golden anniversaries may yet be passed, and in this joyous and sympathetic company. REPLY. Dear Friends: True it is that we have been married fifteen long years, yet it seems to me that is just as young, just as fresh, just as lovely as when, on this day fifteen years ago, I took her for better or for worse. Yet, dear friends, I like this celebration. It reminds us that we have reached one of the great resting-places on the line, and that, whilst we look back with intense pleasure upon our journey, we also anticipate a great deal more farther on the road. It is indeed a source of intense gratification to us to find that, after fifteen years, so many friends come to visit us as we rest by the wayside, bringing gifts and bidding us to be of good cheer. These anniversaries are a sacred institution, and as you were good enough to express a hope that these beautiful goblets might prove crucibles, let me now engage each and every one of you not only to our silver and gold, but to our diamond weddings. I now drink your healths, thanking you for my fifteen-year partner from the bottom Ol my heart. SILVER WEDDING. Ladies and Gentlemen: On a certain day just twenty-five years ago, a certain lady and gen man entered for the race of life, and they have, I am delighted to dc. . clare, won the plate. Behold it! [Points to gifts.] They have, to continue the parlance of the turf, run neck and neck, and come in to this the winning-post in the easiest of possible canters. Ladies and gentlemen, let us drink to the winners, and let us earnestly hope that they may be matched for the gold plate, and that we may be present when the “ little event” comes ofl. Ladies and gentlemen, need we say how deeply we congratulate our dear friends ? Is not this occasion a lesson to maids and bachelors ? Never were there words more applicable, “ Go and do likewise.” I shall conclude, for I see that you are all eager to do honor to my toast, by quoting Sheridan : “ Ah, sure a pair were never seen So justly formed to meet by nature.” Their healths — God bless them 1 GOLDEN WEDDING. This is indeed a grand occasion, and one. which, while it brings joy and thankfulness to our hearts, bears with it one of the most beautiful and touching lessons in the book of life. Our respected and venerable friends have indeed reached the golden age of maturity. Hand in hand have they ascended the hill, hand in hand are they descending into the valley, a valley lighted with the un- dying and unshifting lamp of faithfulness, love, and devotion. What a privilege for us to be here to witness this beautiful sight, to see the bride and bridegroom of to-day in soul, in heart, the bride and bride- groom of this day half a century ago ! Time has sown fresh flowers in their dear old hearts ; time has gar- landed their brows with choicest flowers ; time has but mellowed their affections, which, like good wine, has but improved with age. We have come here to felicitate them upon the fiftieth anniversary of their marriage, to wish them many a long year yet before they snap the goiden link that bound them together ; that their bark may sail upon a golden sea, and that their sunset may be golden, is our united senti- ment. CONGRATULATING A CANDIDATE. Sir — It is not in mortals to command success, but, what is better, they should endeavor to deserve it. You have been successful because you have deserved it, and we come to exchange congratulations, since whilst we rejoice for you, you undoubtedly rejoice with us. We have won a proud victory, but much of the glory is due to our standard-bearer. That you will conscientiously and worthily fill the office which has beeD bestowed upon you is beyond the region of doubt. We have done honor to ourselves by proposing so clear-headed and able a candidate, and you, sir, will do honor to us by pursuing in your new position that pure and unsullied line of conduct which has this day led us to nominate you for election. We do not attempt to crow over the defeated candidate. We can afford to be magnanimous, and since we are now so worthily repre- sented, we feel assured that the enemy will regard you as the exponent of their opinions as much as we shall. Sir, we cordially congratula'e you on a well merited success, and we congratulate you, and congratu- late the good cause. REPLY. Gentlemen : Deeds, not words, is my motto. That I thank you, and the energeti* workers in the good cause which has led to this triumph, a triumph in which I am personally interested, need scarcely be said. I am as yet an untried man, but it is my purpose to prove to you that your votes of to-day have not been thrown away, and that you have honored an in- dividual who will at least endeavor to prove his gratitude by head, heart, and unflagging work. The good cause has indeed triumphed, and 1 pledge myself that the trust you have this day reposed in me shall lose nothing from being placed in my hands. I shall endeavor to the best of my poor ability to walk in the straight path, and to discharge the duties appertaining to my office without fear or tavoi. Once more . thank you for the high honor which you have done me. TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS. *03 AMATORY. AMERICAN belles and American fashions. Laughing lovers to merry maids. Love and opportunity. Love’s slavery. Love without licentiousness, and pleasure without excess. Love, liberty, and length of blissful days. Love without fear, and life without care. Love for one. Life, love, liberty, and true friendship. Love in every breast, liberty in every heart, and learning in every head. Love at liberty, and liberty in love. Love : may it never make a wise man play the fool. Artless love, and disinterested friendship. All that love can give, and sensibility enjoy. A speedy union to every lad and lass. Beauty’s best companion— Modesty. Beauty, innocence, and modest merit. Beauty without affectation, and virtue without deceit. Community of goods, unity of hearts, nobility of sentiment, and truth of feeling to the lovers of the fair sex. Charms to strike the sight, and merit to win the heart. Constancy in love, and sincerity in friendship. Here’s a health to the maid that is constant and kind. Who to charms bright as Venus' adds Diana’s mind, ril toast America’s daughters — let all fill their glasses — Whose beauty and virtue the whole world’s surpasses May blessings attend them, go wherever they will, And foul fall the man that e’er offers them ill. Love without deceit and matrimony without regret. Love’s garlands: may they ever entwine the brow3 of every true- hearted lover. Lovely woman— man’s best and dearest gift of life. Love to one, friendship to a few, and good-will to all. Long life, pure love, and boundless liberty. May love and reason be friends, and beauty and prudence marry. May the lovers of the fair sex never want the means to defend them May the sparks of love brighten into a flame. May the joys of the fair give pleasure to the heart. May we be loved by those whom we love. May we kiss whom we please, and please whom we kiss. May the bud of affection be ripened by the sunshine of sincerity. May a virtuous offspring succeed to mutual and honorable love May the presence of the fair curb the licentious. May the confidence of love be rewarded with constancy in its object. May the honorable lover attain the object of his wishes. May the lovers of the fair be modest, faithful, and kind. May the wings of love never lose a feather. May the blush of conscious innocence ever deck the faces ot the American fair. May the union ot persons always be founded on that of hearts. May the generous heart ever meet a chaste mate. May .he temper of our wives be suited to those of their husbands. May uuc paw toa never meet with a sli ght May every woman have a protector, but not a tyrant. The Girl we Love — When she is our toast, we don’t want any but her. May we find our wives to-night where Cain found his — in the land of Nod. Harmony in all the states of the world — Especially the Married State. The Graces that every Man desires — The good graces of woman. The best Union Bonds in the Market — M arriage certificate*. BACCHANALIAN. May we act with reason when the bottle circulates. May good fortune resemble the bottle and bowl. And stand by the man who can’t stand by himself. May we never want wine, nor a friend to partake of it. May our love of the glass never make us forget decency. May the juice of the grape enliven each soul. And good-humor preside at the head of each bowl. May mirth exalt the feast. May we always get mellow with good wine. May the moments of mirth be regulated by the dial of reason. Champagne to our real friends, and real pain to our sham friends. Come, every man now give his toast — Fill up the glass— I’ll tell you mine : Wine is the mistress 1 love most I This is my toast — now give me thine. Cheerfulness in our cups, content in our minds, and competency in oc* pockets. Come, fill the glass and drain the bowl 1 May Love and Bacchus still agree • And every American warm his soul With Cupid, Wine, and Liberty. Good-humor : and may it ever smile at our board. Full bags, a fresh bottle, and a beauty. Good wine and good company to the lovers ot reasonable enjoyment. A friend and a bottle to give him. A hearty supper a good bottle, and a soft bed to every man who figH the battles of his country. , A full purse, a fresh bottle, and beautiful face. A full bottle and a friend to partake of it. A drop of good stuff and a snug social party. To spend a dull evening, gay, social, and hearty. A mirth-inspiring bowl. A full belly, a heavy purse, .... 1 a light heart. A bottle at night and business in the morning Beauty, wit, and wine. Clean glasses and old corks. Wine : may it be our spur as we ride over the bad roads of life. While we enjoy ourselves over the bottle, may we never drive prudeno* out of the room. Wine— for there’s no medicine like it. Wine — the parent of friendship, composer of strife, The soother of sorrow, the blessing of life. Wine, the bond that cements the warm heart to a friend. Win a. Wit. amis Wisoom — Wine enough to sharpen wit j wit 204 TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS. to give zest to wine ; wisdom enough to “ shut down ” at the right moment. Tub Latch Key — May it never open the door to reproach. May we never lose our taste for any of the sweets of life — especially lasses. The first duty of Bachelors — To ring the city belles. Success to all parties that, like this party, are founded on friendship, harmony, and hospitality. The best of all Revolvers— The bottle as it goes round. COMIC. May the tax-gatherer be forgiven in another world. To the early bird that catches the worm. To the bird in the hand that is worth two in the bush. The land we live in : may he who doesn’t like it leave it. The three great Generals in power— General Peace, General Plenty, and General Satisfaction. May the parched pea never jnmp out of the frying-pan into the fire. The three R’s: Reading, ’Riting, and ’Rithmetic. May evil communications never corrupt good manners. May the celebrated pin a day, of which we have heard so much, always make the groat a year. May the groat a year never be unwisely invested In a Joint-Stock Company. May that man never grow fat Who carries two faces under one hat. Here’s to the best physicians— Dr. Diet, Dr. Quiet, and Dr. Merryman. Here’s to the feast that has plenty of meat and very little table-cloth. Here’s to the full purse that never lacks friends. May fools make feasts, and wise men eat them. Here’s to the man who never lets his tongue cut his own throat. Here’s to the man who never quarrels with his bread and butter. Here’s to the man who never looks a gift horse -.1 the mouth Here’s to the old bird that is not to be caught with chaff. CONSERVATIVE. The equilibrium of state, may it always he preserved. Judicious reforms and reformers. The universal advancement of the arts and sciences. May the dispensers of justice ever be ‘tnpartial. May the worth of the nation be ever inestimable. May taxation be lessened annually. May the sword of justice be swayed by the hand of mercy. May the seeds of dissension never find growth in the soil of America. May the love of country be imprinted in every American’s breast. Liberty, not license. Confusion to all men who desert their party. Party ties before all other ties. A lasting cement to all contending powers. The protectors of commerce and the promoters of charity. A revision of the code of criminal laws. ENGLISH. England, home, and beauty. English oak and British valor. England forever : the land we live in. England. Scotland, and Ireland : may tlie.r union remain undisturbed !~y plots or treachery to the end of time. England, the queen of the isles and the queen of the main. Way old England’s sons, the Americans, never forget their mother. IRISH. A high post to the enemies of Ould Ireland. Erin, the land of the brave and the bold. Ireland : sympathy for her wrongs, and a determination to redress them. The country that gave St. Patrick birth, the birthplace of wit, and hos- pitality’s home — dear Ould Ireland. May Ireland be ever equally distinguished by her love of liberty and true patriotism. May the enemies of Ireland never meet a friend. Justice to Ireland. Grauau and the Volunteers o t ’So, SCOTCH. A health to the friends of Caledonia. Caledonia, the nursery of learning and the birthplace of heroes. Scotland, and the productions of its soil. Scottish heroes, and may their fame live forever. Scotland, the birthplace of valor, the country of worth. The Queen and the Scottish Union. The nobles of Caledonia and their ladies. To the memory of Scottish heroines. The Rose, Thistle, and Shamrock : may they flourish by the commoo graft of union. To the memory of Scotland’s heroes. To the memory of those who have gloriously fallen in the noble strug gle tor independence. LIBERAL. Annihilation to the trade of corruption. Addition to our trader multiplication to our manufactures, subtraction to taxes, and reduction to places and pensions. Ali the honest reformers of our country. America : may the land of our nativity ever be the abode of freedom, and the birthplace of heroes. America’s annals : may they never suffer a moral or political blot. Confusion to those who barter the cause of their country for sordid gain. Confusion to those who, wearing the mask of patriotism, pull it off and desert the cause of liberty in the hour of trial. Confusion to those despots who con. bine against the liberties of man- Eind. Disappointment to all those who form expectations of places and pen sions on the ruin of their country. Everlasting life to the man who gave the death-bio A *0 the slave-trade. Community, unity, navigation, and trade. Faith in every kind of commerce. Freedom to the oppressed, and slavery to the oppressors. Freedom to all who dare contend for it. Oblivion to all party rage. Humanity to all created beings, especially to our own species, whether black or white. No party except mankind. May the meanest American scorn the highest slave. May every succeeding century maintain the principles of the glorious Revolution, enjoy the blessings of them, and transmit them to future ages unimpaired and improved. May the whole universe be incorporated in one city, and every inhabi- tant presented with the freedom. May freedom’s fire take new birth at the grave of liberty. May our country be, as it has ever been, a secure asylum to the unfor- tunate and oppressed. High wages, and sense to keep them. May the freedom of election be preserved, the trial by jury maintained, and the liberty of the press secured to the latest posterity. May the tree of liberty flourish round the globe, and every human be» ing partake of the fruits. May truth and liberty prevail throughout the world. May all partial and impolitic taxts be abolished. May the sons of liberty marry the daughters of virtue. May Americans never suffer invasion, nor invade the rights of others. May the miseries of war be banished from all enlightened nations. May our trade and manufactures be unrestrained by the fetters of monopoly. May the whole world become more enlightened and civilized. May revolutions never cease while tyranny exists. Our constitution as settled at the Revolution. The majesty of the people of America. The memory of our brave ancestors who brought about the Revolution, and may a similar spirit actuate their descendants. The sacred decree of heaven— Let all mankind be fiee. The people— the only source of legitimate power. The subject of liberty and the liberty of the subject. The greatest happiness of the greatest number. TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS. a°5 May the nation that plots against another's liberty or prosperity fall a victim to its own intrigues. LITERARY. Toleration and liberty of the press. The Fourth Estate. The liberty of the press, and success to its defenders The Press : the great bulwark of our libert'es, and may it ever remain unshackled. The glorious literature of America. The glorious literature of Scotland. The glorious literature of Ireland. The glorious literature of England. LOYAL. A lasting peace or an honorable war. A health to our patriots. Agriculture and its improvers. All societies associated for promoting the happiness of the human race. All the charitable institutions of the United States. American virtue : may it always find a protector, but never need one. Holy pastors, honest magistrates, and humane rulers. Improvement to the inventions of our country. Improvement to our arts, and invention to our artists. May the sword of Justice be swayed by the hand of Mercy. May the love of country always prevail. May our sons be honest and fair, and our daughters modest and fair. May every American’s hand be ever hostile to tyranny. May our jurors ever possess sufficient courage to uphold their verdict. May every American manfully withstand corruption. Our wives, homes, our country. May every American manfully withstand tyranny. May the glory of America never cease to shine. May our hearts ever be possessed with the love of country. May the brave never want protection. May we ever honestly uphold our rights. May we never cease to deserve well of our country. May the liberties of the people be immortal. May the brow of the brave be adorned by the hand of beauty. May we never find danger lurking on the borders of security. May the laurels of America never be blighted. May all mankind make free to enjoy the blessings of liberty, but never take the liberty to subvert the principles of freedom. May America’s name and America’s fame stand forever pure, great and free. May every true American be possessed of peace, plenty, and content. May every American act the patriot’s part. May victory spin the robe of glory for the brave, and fame enroll his deeds. May the laws never be misconstrued. May the weight of our taxes never bend the back of our credit. MILITARY. To the memory of Washington and all like him. May the enemy’s flag be surmounted by the American standard. May the arms borne by a soldier never be used in a bad cause. May American soldiers fight to protect, and conquer to save. May the gifts of fortune never cause us to steer out of our latitude. May the brow of the brave never want a wreath of laurel to adorn it. May the brave soldier who never turned his back to the enemy never have a friend turn his back to him. May bronze and medals not be the only reward of the brave. May the laurels of America never be blighted May all weapons of war be used for warlike purpose only. May a soldier never fall a sacrifice but to glory. To the memory of all brave soldiers who fall in defense of their coun- ts'. NAVAL May our iron-clads do as much as our brave old oaks. May rudders govern and ships obey. May no true son of Neptune ever flinch from his gun. May no son of the ocean ever be devoured by his mother. May our navy never know defeat but by name . May our officers and tars be valiant and brave. Success to the fair for manning the navy. May gales of prosperity waft us to the port of happiness. May the pilot of reason guide us to the harbor of rest. ^ May the memory of the noble Farragut inspire every seaman to do&S duty. i May the tar who loses one eye in defense of his country never see dis» tress with the other. j The heart of a sailor : may it be like heart of oak. Though our bold tars are fortune’s sport, may they ever be fortune 1 * care. The flag of America : may it ever brave the battle and the breeze. The sea, the rough sea, the open sea : may our lives be spent upon It. The sea. the sleepless guardian of the world. Safe arrivals to our homeward and outward bound fleets. RELIGIOUS. The friends of religion, liberty , and science in every part of the globe. The honest reformers of our laws and religion. The friends of religious toleration, whether they are within or without the Establishment. SENTIMENTAL. May we ever have a sufficiency for ourselves, and a trifle to spare far our friends. May we always look forward to better time, but never be discontented with the present. May the miseries of war never more have existence in the world. May the wing of friendship never moult a feather. May our artists never be forced into artifice to gain applause and for. tune. May solid honor soon take place of seeming religion. May our thoughts never mislead our judgment. May filial piety ever be the result of a religious education. May real merit meet reward, and pretension its punishment. May prosperity never make us arrogant, nor adversity mean. May we live happy and die in peace with all mankind. May the unsuspecting man never be deceived. May noise and nonsense be ever banished from social company. May the faults of our neighbors be dim and their virtues glaring. May industry always be the favorite of Fortune. May the rich be charitable and the poor grateful. May the misfortunes of others be always examined at the chart of >uf own conduct. May we never be so base as to envy the happiness of another. May we live to learn, and learn to live well. \ May we be more ready to correct our own faults than to publish th* faults of others. May we never hurt our neighbor’s peace by the desire of appearing witty. Modesty in our discourses, moderation in our wishes, and mutuality!* our affections. j May we never envy those who are happy, but strive to imitate them. May we derive amusement from business and improvement from pleas- ure. May our faults be written on the seashore, and every good action prov* a wave to wash them out. | May virtue find fortune always an attendant. May we never repine at our condition, nor be depressed by poverty. 1 May reality strengthen the joys of imagination. } May we never make a sword of our tongue to wound a good man s rep» utation. May our distinguishing mark be merit rather than- money. A total abolition of the stave-trade. TOASTS AND SENTIMENTS. fob A heart to glow for others’ good. A heart to feel and a heart to give. A period to the sorrows of an ingenuous mind. A health to our sweethearts, our friends, and our wives. May fortune smile on them the rest of their lives. May genius and merit never want a friend. Adam’s ale : and may so pure an element always be at hand lAltthat gives us pleasure. AH our wants and wishes. All our absent friends on land and sea. An honest guide and a good pilot. As we bind so may we find. As we travel through life may we live well on the road. May truth and liberty prevail throughout the world. May we never engage in a bad cause, and never fly from a good one. May the fruits of America’s soil never be denied to her children. SPORTING. May the to vers of the chase never want the comforts of life. The clear-sighted sportsman that sees his game with one eye. The steady sportsman that always brings down his game. The beagle that runs by nose and not by sight. The jolly sportsman that never beats about the bush. The joys of angling. May the pleasures of sportsmen never know an end. May we always gain fresh vigor from the joys of the chase. May the sportsman’s day be spent in pleasure. ^ May strength the sportsman’s nerves in vigor brace. May cruelty ne’er stain with foul disgrace. The well-earned pleasures of the chase. May the love of the chase never interrupt our attention to the welfare of our country. May every sport prove as innocent as that of the field. May those who love the crack of the whip never want a brusn to pursue. May the heart of a sportsman never know affliction but by name. MISCELLANEOUS. The three A’s : Abundance, abstinence, and annihilation. Abundance to the poor. Abstinence to the intemperate. Annihilation to the wicked. The three B’s : Bachelors, banns, and buns. Bachelors for the maidens. Banns for the bachelors. Buns after the consummation of the baans The three C’s : Cheerfulness, content, and competency. Cheerfulness in our cup. Content in our minds. Competency in our pockets. The three F’s : Firmness, freedom, and fortitude. Firmness in the senate. Freedom on the land. 1 Fortitude on the waves. The three F’s : Friendship, feeling, and fidelity. Friendship without interest. | Feeling to our enemies. Fidelity to our friends. The three F’s : Fair, fat, and forty The three generals in peace. General peace. General plenty. General satisfaction. The three generals in power: General employment. General industry. General comfort The three H’s : Health, honor, and happiness. Health to all the world. Honor to those who seek tor It. Happiness in our homes. The three L’s : Love, life, and liberty. Love pure. Life long. Liberty boundless. The three M’s : Mirth, music and moderation. Mirth at every board. Music in all instruments. Moderation in our desires. The three golden balls of civilization i Industry, commerce, and wealth. The three companions of beauty : Modesty, love, and constancy. The three blessings of this life. Health, wealth, and a good conscience. The four comforts of this life : Love, liberty, health, and a contented mind. The three spirits that have no souls : Brandy, rum, and gin. When we go up the hill of prosperity may we never meet a friend. The three M’s : i Modesty, moderation, and mutuality Modesty in our discourse. Moderation in our wishes. Mutuality in our affection. The Musician’s Toast — May a crotchet in the head never bar the ut- terance of good notes. May the lovers of harmony never be in want of a note, and its enemies die in a common chord. The Surgeon’s Toast— T he man that bleeds for his country. The Waiter’s Toast — The clever waiter who puts the cork in first and the liquor afterwards. The Glazier’s Toast— The praiseworthy glazier who takes panes to see his way through life. The Painter’s Toast— When we work in the wet may we never want for dryers. The Hatter’s Toast— When the rogue naps it, may the lesson b e/c/t. The Tailor’s Toast — May we always sheer out of a law-suit, and by so doing cut bad company. The Baker’s Toast— May we never be done so much as to make us crusty. The Lawyer’s Toast — May the depth of our potations never cause ue to let judgment go by default. LATIN. Ad finetn esto fidelis. Be faithful to the end. Amor patricr. The love of our country. Diiige amicos. Love your friends. Dum vivimus vivamtts. Let us live while we five. Esto perpetua. Be thou perpetual. Palmam qui meruit ferat. Let him who has won bear the pahn. Pro arts et focis. For our altars and firesides. Vox populi vox Dei. The voice of the people is the voice of G«d. ClhnfeHmE&pMa Medium Hand, Corresponding Hand, . , /■/ / . /// , '/zznc BOOK-KEEPING. 207 P HERE are, properly speaking, only two methods of book-keeping, founded on distinct principles — viz., Single and Double Entry. Single Entry is the more simple, and is generally adopted by shop- >ers and others who deal in a great vari- f articles, where the sales are small and nu- merous ; and to such it is peculiarly applicable, as they have seldom time to record them particularly. There is merely required a memorial of occurrences, in the order of time, with a Ledger, in which the names of all parties between whom transactions take place are entered ; debtor and creditor accounts of each party being arranged on the two opposite pages which are presented at an opening, the first on the right hand, and the second on the left. By this method the Ledger is defective, since it contains no accounts of cash, bills, or goods ; consequently it affords to the owner no knowledge of these particulars, but only records the debts due to and by him, with, at most, the accounts of stock, family expenses, and shop fur- niture. The Italian method of Double Entry differs from Single Entry chiefly in making cash, stock, goods, etc., parties as well as persons, and in mak- ing a debtor and creditor account in every transac- tion. Thus, if cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor to cloth, and cloth creditor to A ; if cash is received from B, cash is made debtor to B, and B creditor to cash ; and in every case the party, whether animate or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which pays, and inversely. A double entry is therefore requisite in every transaction, and a balance may at any time be struck between things as well as persons ; and in order to avoid the confusion which would arise in a direct transfer of account from the Waste- book to the Ledger before the proper relation of debtor and creditor in each transaction is distinctly ascertained and recorded, they are first entered in the Journal in the same form in which they must ap- pear in the Ledger. But in order to form a proper criterion of the existing methods of book-keeping, it will be necessary to compare them, as we will now do, before proceeding further. As the Ledger, when kept by Single Entry, con- tains no accounts of cash, bills, and goods, it con- sequently affords to the owner no knowledge of these particulars ; but these must be collected from the subsidiary books. In a simple trade, such as the set by single entry which follows this, the information wanted may be obtained by the present arrangement of the Day-book, Cash-book, and Stock-book ; but in an extensive and diversified concern this arrange- ment would by no means be advisable, as the objects in question could not be easily and concisely ob- tained. Posting from a number of books, when one only is necessary, is of itself an insuperable objec- tion, because it is more liable to errors and omissions ; and from the unsightly appearance these books would exhibit by the multiplicity of figures, the eye would soon become fatigued and bewildered. It is both a slovenly and tedious method to enter each sum singly into the Ledger, and unnecessarily swells the accounts with lines, as by the Italian method, which increase the laLor and difficulty of balancing. Besides, previous to taking a general balance, the number of entries, such as interest, commission, and postage, arising from the accounts current, must unavoidably be made either with a journal entry, or each entered singly by a simple transfer from one account to another, which is, in fact, a double entry, and would be both awkward and improper. The Cash-book might be constructed with columns to show the monthly amounts of the cash received and paid on account of bills receivable and bills payable, BOOK-KEEPING. ao8 etc. ; yet the information in other respects would not be obtained, for the amounts of the sales, of con- signments and shipments, etc., monthly, would not be shown by Single entry. Although the Ledger, by the Italian method of book- keeping, contains accounts of cash, bills, goods, and other property, yet the arrangement of it and the Jour- nal is by no means adequate to the purposes of an extensive and complicated concern. By making all the original entries in one book, namely, the Waste- book, a jumble of transactions so heterogeneous is produced as cannot fail to render the business not only more complex in itself, and consequently more difficult, than if a separate book were kept for each kind ; but when dispatch is required, as in selling, shipping goods, etc., the greatest inconvenience is experienced, as only one person can be employed at once in making the entries. But the principal de- fects lie in journalizing daily, in posting each sum singly into the Ledger, and opening separate ac- counts for each kind of goods. Hence the imprac- ticability of following this method without the books of an extensive business falling behind, the patience of the book-keeper exhausted, or, perhaps, his health destroyed. Besides swelling the Journal and par- ticularizing the Ledger to an unwieldy size, it ren- ders the balancing of the latter a laborious and, in most cases, a difficult task. By the practice at present followed in the count- ing-house, the Waste-book is not recognized by that title. It is represented, however, by a number of subsidiary books, suited to the nature of the busi- ness carried on, each containing such transactions as exclusively apply to its title. Thus, a Cash-book, in which is entered the money received and paid ; a Bill-book, in which are recorded the bills received and accepted ; a Purchase-book, or Invoice-book Inward, in which are entered or posted invoices of all goods purchased ; a book of shipments, or Invoice-book Outward, in which are entered all goods shipped ; an Account Sales-book, in which are entered the particulars of such goods as are sold on commission, with the charges attending them ; a Day-book, in which are entered the sales of goods on the merchant’s own account, with such other transactions as do not apply to any of the above books ; an Account Current-book, containing dupli- cates of the accounts as they stand in the Ledger, with the particulars of each article drawn out in a plain circumstantial manner, being exact copies of the accounts transmitted or delivered to the persons whose names they bear. These are the principal subsidiary books used either in inland or foreign trade, and from which the Journal or Ledger are made. The division of the Waste-book into a num- ber of books adapted to the nature of the business, is a valuable modem improvement, both for sim- plicity and dispatch. By bringing each kind of transactions together, and dividing the labor among a number of hands, the utmost simplicity, accuracy, and dispatch are obtained. The arrangement of the Journal, by combining together each class of accounts, and carrying only the amounts of these once a month into the Ledger, not only simplifies the Journal, but greatly abridges the former of these books, because no more than twelve lines yearly will be required in general at the accounts, though transactions be ever so numerous. The Ledger, when kept by this method, may there- fore be considered a general index to the Journal, as that book is to the subsidiary books. By this means flie case of each account is brought into a concise point of view, and is easily examined, without fatiguing the eye with a multiplicity of figures, which unavoidably takes place when each sum is posted separately, as by the Italian method. It must also be observed that instead of opening dis- tinct accounts for each kind of goods, as by the Italian method, only one general account of goods is by the present practice opened ; for when the articles are numerous, one account of goods in the Ledger is quite sufficient, and will be found to answer every useful purpose. In an extensive business, where separate accounts for each kind of goods have been attempted, it was found difficult to keep the Journal and Ledger from falling behind. The Stock-book is the proper place for every particular of this sort, which may be kept exclusively by one of the junior clerks, when the business requires it. The result of the general account in the Ledger of goods will always correspond with the particular profits and losses from the Stock-book. But superior as the present practice is for saving both time and labor in posting, it will be found still more so at balancing the Ledger. What was formerly a laborious, and, in some cases, next to an impracticable task, where that book was posted daily, namely, to bring the stock and balance accounts to BOOK-KEEPING. 209 agree (chiefly owing to the numerous entries on the property and nominal accounts), is by the present method completely avoided, and that which was be- fore the labor of weeks, can now be accomplished in as many hours or days. It will be of more advantage to the learner to pro- cure or prepare for himself several sheets of ruled paper, with cash columns, and enter each transaction in the order of time, than to trace the entries in the Day-book and Cash-book which we have prepared. In the first case he will find the task, as he proceeds, familiar and interesting, while his knowledge and self-reliance will be increasing ; whereas, in the other case, he will acquire so superficial an acquaintance with the accounts that it will soon vanish from his memory. The Day-book is arranged so as to admit of entries being made both of sales and purchases, the former on the right side, and the latter on the left. By this means he will be taught what debit and credit entries are before he is called upon to post the Ledger, and, moreover, avoid the risk of carry- ing error and confusion forward to the last stage of his work. It has been observed that in an extensive business it is preferable to enter the purchases in one book and the sales in another ; and by adding these up monthly the amounts of each would be shown, which would enable the owner to extend or lessen the purchases as circumstances point out. The Day- book as now given will also serve this purpose, only that instead of having separate books for the sales and purchases, they are here arranged in one, and disposed, as we have said, in the form of debtor and creditor. It therefore follows that if we add at any time to the credit side the value of the articles re- maining on hand, the difference betwixt the sums total on the two sides will show the whole gain or loss upon the goods, and by entering the charges, etc., attending the business, with the discount, both against and in favor of it, to the proper sides, this book will exhibit the result of the whole. The following general rule is sufficient to direct the learner respecting debtor and creditor. The person from whom you buy goods on trust, or re- ceive money, is Creditor ; and, on the contrary, the person to whom you sell goods on credit, or pay money, is Debtor. For instance, if you buy goods on credit from John Carter, he, being the deliverer, is creditor for the value, and when you pay him for them, he, being | the person who receives, is debtor. On the same principle, if you sell goods on credit to Philip Meek, he, being the receiver, is debtor ; and when he pays you for them, he, being the deliverer, is creditor. The same rule is observed when you contract or discharge a debt by any othe : transaction. Thus the person who becomes indebted to you is debtor, and the person to whom you become indebted is creditor. In the same manner, the person whose debt you pay is made debtor, and he who pays a debt to you, or for you, is creditor. In the Day-book, enter on the debtor, or left-hand, page all the purchases, with the discounts allowed by you, as these occur ; also all the petty expenses, monthly. Enter on the creditor, or right-hand page, all the sales, with the discount or interest allowed to you ; also the value of goods on hand at balancing. The Cash-book. — This book is very useful, whether the Ledger be kept by Single or Double Entry, in order to show at all times the money you receive and pay, and how much at any time should remain in hand. On the debtor, or left-hand page, is en- tered every sum you receive ; and on the creditor, or right-hand page, every sum you pay. The differ- ence between the two sides is called the balance, which should always agree with the money re- maining in hand. This book is generally added up and the amounts set down, at the end of each month ; and the balance is entered on the credit side to make the two sides equal, and likewise upon the debtor side of the succeeding month. The Bill-book is divided into two parts. In the first are entered all bills which you receive, and are therefore called Bills Receivable. It is ruled with a number of columns for recording the several clauses of the bill. When kept correctly the blank spaces in the last column towards the right hand will always show the bills which remain in your possession. As soon as a bill passes out of your hands, by being either paid, discounted, or endorsed to another per- son, it must be marked off in the above column. In the second part are entered all the bills which you accept, or agree to pay, and are therefore called Bills Payable. As soon as you pay a bill, it should also be marked off in the column towards the right hand ; when, of course, the blank spaces will just present such bills of yours as are unpaid. A dealer who does a cash business only requires but a single book — the Cash-book. In it he enters 210 BOOK-KEEPING. on its appropriate side all his transactions : on the one side all he pays out, and what for, on the other all he receives and its vouchers. The balance be- tween the two sides will at any time show the state of his affairs. Suppose, for instance, his Cash-book shows on the debtor side a total transaction of $i,- 450.73, and on the credit side §659.32, the differ- ence, $791.41, is the sum which he ought to have on hand. These will appear on the Cash-book, thus : Dr. Cr. To balance brought for- ward 791 41 I The transactions of which the foregoing forms a total may be like the following : Dr. CASH. Cr. 1880. . X. Capital OO 2 . Sales <5 3- ‘ 8 94 4- 17 20 5- 80 6. 19 73 8. 4 ........ 07 9- 41 <5 II. * 44 12. “ 4 < »3- 7 l6 <5- 44 02 l6. »7 *7- 06 19. 8. 20. 44 94 22. 44 20 *3- U l6 * 4 - 47 33 $<.450 73 Jan. 1. Pd. Smith & Co. for 10 bbls. Sour. 5 * 5 ® 2. Expenses 20 15 3 - “ 10 00 <9 50 4 25 6 . 44 I 30 8 . Wages 50 00 g. Expenses 24 00 IO. " 19 72 XI. 44 60 40 12. 44 72 16 <3 “ 40 ox <5- „„ 27 go 16. Wages so 00 17. Expenses 27 00 l8. * >9 25 20. “ 7 14 32. Wages 50 00 23. Expenses. 17 84 *4- “ 86 20 $659 33 A single operation will enable you to ascertain at any time the state of your affairs. Thus : Balance of cash on hand 791 41 Cost of goods in stock 300 00 991 41 If you owe anything on your stock, you must ar- rive at the result differently. Thus : Balance of cash on hand 791 41 Cost of goods in stock 4*0 00 1,191 41 Deduct amounts due to various persons for stock. . *00 00 Balance as before 1 991 41 So if you give no credit, but sell only for cash over your counter, you need only the one book, the Cash-book, which will at any time you wish, if cor- rectly kept, show the actual state of your business. But as very few tradesmen or dealers confine themselves to a cash business, it becomes necessary to have other books, so when credit is given a Ledger is demanded, so that the dealer may at all times know not only what cash he has on hand, but what money is owing him. Suppose you are a bookseller, and your customers keep running accounts, you will find it necessary to have at least three books, a Cash-book, for the en- tries of moneys received and paid out ; a Blotter, as it is usually called, for recording the daily trans- actions ; and a Ledger, for posting the accounts. A customer, say Mr. Robert Walpole, comes to you and asks how his account stands. Looking at the index in the front of your ledger, you find Mr. Walpole’s account on page 96. Turning to this page, you discover the following statement ; Dr. MR. ROBERT WALPOLE. Cr. I880. 1880. Jan. 4 8 T 0 mdse 66 38 Jan. IO 25 7 17 My acceptance at 3 months, dated 16 April 10 60 00 10 24 Cash paid your order in favor of Brown & Co 18 14 144 52 By cash | 80 Your acceptance at 3 months, due April 13 50 13000 The debtor side, or what he owes you, is $144,25. and the creditor side, or what you owe him, is $130.00 ; the difference, $14.52, being in your favor, is therefore his debit to you. If he pays you, enter it on the cash-book and on the credit side of the ac- count in the ledger, thus making it balance. BOOK-KEEPING. 211 NARRATIVE OF TRANSACTIONS. 1878. Jan. I. Began trade with $2,000. Bought goods as follows : Of J. W. Bouton $150 20 Of Dodd, Mead & Co 241 00 Of A. S. Barnes & Co 300 00 Of D. Appleton & Co 124 30 Sold 24 Annuals over the counter for ready money, amounting to 14 80 Jan. 2. Paid J. W. Bouton, Cash So 00 Paid Dodd, Mead & Co. ditto 120 00 Paid A. S. Barnes & Co. ditto .... 150 00 Paid D. Appleton & Co. ditto 61 00 Accepted the following bills drawn on me : J. W. Bouton, at 2 months 40 00 Dodd, Mead & Co., at 2 months go 00 A. S. Barnes & Co, at 3 months 60 00 D. Appleton & Co., 1 month 40 00 Bought of A. D. F. Randolph, goods, value. 198 64 Jan. 3. Sold Tenter & Co., of Philadelphia, as follows : 120 Dodd, Mead & Co.’s Hand Books, at 20c 24 00 80 Novels 26 00 40 Assorted books 24 00 74 00 Terms, half Cash, half Bills at 3 months. Received from Tenter & Co.’s house in town, cash 36 20 Idem, bill at three months 36 20 Sold B. Flock, of Pittsburgh, 42 assorted books 50 80 Received from Flock’s house in town, cash. 20 00 And a bill at 3 months date 30 80 Jan. 4. Sold Roberts Bros., Boston, 36 Elements of Commerce 74 32 Received from Roberts Bros., of New York, for account of their house in Boston, their acceptance at two months for 74 32 Paid A. D. F. Randolph on account of what I owe him : Bill paid to me by Flock 30 80 Bill paid to me by Roberts Bros 74 32 Together 105 12 Bought of W. H. Vernon, 20 reams of paper. 170 00 Sold him 240 odd volumes all at 82 30 Sold for ready money over the counter, 6 vols Hume and Smollett’s History of En- gland 6 60 HOW THEY ARE TO BE ENTERED IN THE BOOKS. This item being tAsh in hand, must be placed on the debtot side of the Cash Book. To be entered in the Day Book as goods bought at the time of receiving the invoices. Each name, with the relative^ amount of invoice, to form a separate entry. To the Dr. side of Cash Book, as ready money received for goods. To be entered on the Cr. side of Cash Book, each name and amount forming a separate line. To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, on separate lines, according to the printed form sold for that purpose. As before. To be charged in the Day Book, explaining every particu- lar relating to the conditions of sale, and how forwarded. To be entered in Cash Book as cash received for account of Tenter & Co., Philadelphia. To be entered in the Bills Receivable to the account of Tenter & Co., Philadelphia, according to the printed forms. As before. As before. As before. As before. As before. This is a very peculiar entry, and one which persons Ignorant of book-keeping will find comparatively difficult to arrange. As it is, however, a transaction which occurs continually, due attention ought to be given to it. There ate two ways of entering it — one by the Cash Book, the other by the Day Book. If by the former , the amount must be first entered on the Dr. side as received for the bills, and then the Cr. side as paid to the parties. This, however, is a mode I do not like, because, in the first place, it is not a cash transaction at all • and secondly, because an entry on the Dr. side of the Cash Book is obliged to be created in order to balance the other on the Cr. side. An entry by the Day Book is far the best, as nothing more is necessary than to charge the person to whom the bills are paid, with the amount of them, in the same way a for goods sold. The latter method is the one adopted in the exampea Day Book, as before. As before. As before. era BOOK-KEEPING. Jan. 6. Paid trade charges and wages this day 4 22 Paid expenses to this day 6 60 Feb. 5. Paid cash for my accc ptance to D. Apple- ton & Co 40 00 Mar. 5. Idem to J. W. Bouton 40 00 Idem Dodd, Mead & Co go 00 Apr. 5 Idem A S. Barnes & Co 60 00 6. Received the amount of Tenter’s acceptance, paid me on the 3d Jan 36 20 7. Flock’s acceptance returned to me by A. D.F. Randolph, to whom I had paid it, it not having been honored by the acceptor .... 30 80 8. Paid one month’s Rent 80 00 Income Tax 20 24 City Taxes 15 20 Nov. 1. Sold the following goods : Ramsden & Co 20 00 S. Green 18 24 G. Barrows 80 00 W. Sinn 120 00 V. S. Brown 74 20 Dec. I. Received the following acceptances, at three months : Ramsden & Co 20 00 S. Green 18 24 G. Barrows 80 00 , W. Sinn 120 00 V. S. Brown 74 20 Dec. 20. Bought goods as follows : From Leggat Bros 52 20 From Houghton, Mifflin & Co 200 00 From S. R. Wells 192 40 From James R. Osgood £ Co 170 80 Dec. 30. Gave my acceptances as follows, at three months : Leggat Bros 52 20 To Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 200 00 To S R. Wells 192 40 To James R. Osgood & Co 170 80 Having entered all these various items in their proper books, as explained, we proceed to transfer them under their respective heads in the Ledger, which is technically called Posting. First, taking the Day Book, we post all under the date of the 1st of January ; then follows the Cash Book in the same way, and finally the two Bill Books, care being taken to mark the proper page of the Ledger in the col- umns left for that purpose in the other books, and vice versa to note in the Ledger, in like manner, the {olio of the book from which the entry has been ex- To be entered on the Cash Book, under the head of Trade Expenses. Idem. To be entered in the Cash Book to the charge of Bills Pay- able, specifying the number of the Bill, D. Appleton & Co. having been debited with the amount when my acceptance was given. , Idem. Idem. Idem. To be entered in the Cash Book to the account of Bills Re- ceivable, specifying the number, Tenter & Co. having been credited for the Bill when I received it from them. As I was obliged to take up this Bill, in other words to pay it, for account of Flock who ought to have paid it, I charge Flock in the Cash Book with the amount I pay to A. D. F. Randolph. In the Cash Book, in the same way I entered trade and other expenses. To be entered in the Day Book, as before. To be entered in the Bills Receivable Book, as before. To be entered in the Day Book, as before. To be entered in the Bills Payable Book, as before. tracted. Thus, day by day, all the entries in the Ledger are condensed from these four books. All the items contained in the Cash Book, Bills Receivable and Payable Books, and Day Book hav- ing been properly posted in the Ledger, the next operation will be to Balance ! This is generally done on the last day of the year, at which time the value of the stock on hand is taken. By reference to the Ledger, it will be seen how those accounts are ruled off which balance of themselves, and in what way the balances of the others are brought down. BOOK-KEEPING. * 1 $ some being amounts we owe, and others due to us. The balances due us stand upon the Debtor side of each account, and those we owe on the Creditor side. Having done this, we next proceed to draw up the Balance Sheet, by which we shall ascertain the amount of profit made or loss incurred upon the year’s transactions, after having paid all expenses and trade charges. In order to do this properly, we must collect into one sum all we owe , and into an- other all we are possessed of, and the difference be- tween the two will be the amount we are worth. The amounts we owe are to be found in the Ledger and the Bills Payable Book. The amounts due to us in the Ledger, also, and the Bills Receivable Book. Pre- sides these we must reckon as assets, Cash in hand, as will appear by balancing Cash Book, and stock on hand, which must be taken at a proper valuation. Below will be found a General Balance Sheet, drawn up according to these instructions. Dr. BALANCES. AMOUNTS DUE TO ME, OR ASSETS. Folio in 1 the Ledger. Accounts extracted. Balances as per Ledger. B. Flock $30 80 $ 3 o 312 1,315 1 , 39 ° 80 * Bills Receivable in my hands not yet due. 44 80 28 $ 3,049 24 $2,090 44 Which shows that after paying house and trade charges, rent and taxes, I have made a clear net profit of £50.44 on my capital of $2,000. * Enumerate each item. 31st December, 1880. Cr. AMOUNTS I OWE, OR LIABILITIES. Folio in the Ledger. Accounts extracted. Balances as per Ledger. I J. W. Bouton £30 20 2 bodd. Mead &Co 31 OO 3 A. S. Barnes & Co 90 OO D. Appleton & Co 22 60 5 A. D. F. Randolph 82 60 6 W. H. Vernon »/ Amount of book debts due by me $343 40 Bills accepted by me not yet due * 614 40 $958 80 Balance carried down 2,090 44 $3,049 24 1 * Enumerate each bill separately. Dr. CASH BOOK. Cr. l88o. Jan. 1.. 3 - 4 - Feb. 1.... * * 6 l To Capital Cash received for goods ' ready money Tenter & Co., received for account of their house in Baltimore B. Flock Cash received for goods (ready money). $2,000 M 3 6 20 6 $2,067 80 00 20 60 60 To Balance $1,654 40 $1,654 40 March 1. T 0 Balance $1,614 40 $1,614 40 April 1 . . . To Balance $1,484 40 6. * Bill receivable, No. ioi, received in cash, this day 38 24 $1,522 04 May 1 . . . To Balance $1,315 80 Note — The amounts marked in the folio margin with a star, are not by single entry, posted in the Ledger ; the Cash Book alone, under that system, being quite sufficient for their registery. Only accounts with persons are kept ; not with things as in Double Entry. At the same time they may, if wished, be posted under their respective heads as matters of reference, but care must be taken not to include them in the Balance, of which they form no part. 1880. Jan. 2. . Feb. s. March 5. April 5... 7 - By amount paid J. W. Bouton Dodd, Mead & Co. A S. Barnes A Co. D Appleton & Co. this day Balance to next month . By Bill Payable, No. 104, due this day. Balance By Bill Payable, No. 101, due this day Do do. 102, do Balance . By Bill Payable, No. 103, due this day A. D. F. Randolph for Flock’s Accep- tance, due this day returned unpaid One month’srent due this day — Income Taxes City Taxes Balance . $80 OO 120 OO *50 OO 6a OO OO IX 20 $<23 20 $1,654 40 >2.077 60 $40 OO 1 ,614 40 $T 654 40 $40 OO 90 OO 130 $1,484 CO 40 $1 6l4 J° $60 00 30 80 80 00 20 24 15 20 $206 24 1,315 80 $i,5*a 04 *14 BOOK-KEEPING. DAY BOOK. Folio in Ledger. $150 20 Bought of J. W. Bouton Goods as per invoice 1 2 1 Bought of Dodd, Mead & Co. Goods as per invoice $240 IO 3 Bought of A S. Barnes $300 4 Bought of D. Appleton & Co. Goods as per invoice fl24 60 . .. 5 Bought of A D. F. Randolph $188 60 6 Sol J Tenter & Co. Half Cash. Half Three Month’s Bill 120 Dodd, Mead & Co.'s Hand Books 80 Novels 24 OO OO OO 40 Books, (assorted) Forwarded by Union Express. $74 OO 7 Sold B Flock 84 Assorted Books $50 80 8 Sold Roberts Bros. 72 Elements of Commerce $74 3* Forwarded per U. S. Express. 5 Paid A. D. F. Randolph Flock’s Acceptance, due April 7 ft*. 80 33 Roberts Bros.’ Acceptance, due March 7. .. $107 xa DAY BOOK — Continued. Folio In Ledger. 9 $170 OO Bought of W. H. Vernon 200 Reams of Paper 9 Sold W. H. Vernon 240 Odd Volumes all for 30 IO Sold Ramsdcn & Co. Books OO II Sold S. Green Books s* 34 12 Sold G. Barrows Books Sc*- 00 «3 Sold W. Sinn Books $120 00 »4 Sold V. S. Brown $74 $53 20 OO «5 Bought of Leggat Bros. ooods as per invoice l 6 Bought of Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Goods as per invoice $200 OO 17 Bought of S. R. Wells Goods as per invoice $192 40 18 Bought of J. R. Osgood & Co. Goods as per invoice $170 80 N. B.— The folios should be marked in red inlr. jS2cl BILLS RECEIVABLE. Folio. Number of the Bill. On whose account. Date. Time. | When due. Amount. 6 January 3 months April 6 $36 32 74 102 X 0 3 80 3 2 l 1879. March 4 $ T 43 32 xo 17 xa 13 *4 104 December 3 20 00 18 24 3 80 00 W Sinn 00 _ . 74 20 31* 44 BILLS PAYABLE. 1880. Folio Number of Bill. By whom drawn. Date. Time. When due. Amount. January 2 2 months March 5 $ 4 ° OO xoa j OO * April 5 60 OO 3 103 OO 4 104 Apn? 2 $230 OO *5 16 103 100 Houjhton. Mifflin & Co December 30 3O 3 3 $52 200 20 OO 4 ° l i 3 Jas. R. Osgood & Co 3 ° ~ 5 170 $6ij 80 40 BOOK-KEEPING. 215 THE LEDGER. Folio 1. J. W. BOUTON. Dr. Cr. 1880. $80 By goods $150 2 I To balance carried down 40 OO 3 * To bills payable, No. iox 30 20 150 20 « 5 ° 20 Dec. 3 « 150 20 Folio a. DODD. MEAD & CO. Dr. Cr. 1880. Ian. 2 I To cash $120 OO 2 2 'Y* Dec. 3 1 To balance' carried down 3 * OO 241 OO 188O. 1 Jan. z X By goods $e 4 t OO 241 OO Dec. 31 By balance brought down 3 » OO Folio 3. A. S. BARNES & CO. Dr. Cr. 1880. 1880. Jan. Jan. $300 Dec. 3 X To balance carried down 9 ° OO 300 OO 300 OO Dec. 3 « By balance brought down 9 ° OO Folio 4. D. APPLETON & CO. Dr. Cr. 1880. Jan. $62 40 22 1880. Jan. $124 60 Dec. 3 1 To balance'carried down 60 124 60 124 60 Dec. 3 * By balance brought down 20 60 Folio 5. Dr. A. D. F. RANDOLPH. Cr. 1880. Jan. 4 X To two bills receivable, paid them $106 00 Dec. 3 « To balance carried down 82 60 188 60 1880. Jan. Dec. By goods. By balance brought down . $188 j 8 82 Folio 6. Dr. 1880. Jan. To goods . TENTER & Co., Philadelphia. Cr. 1880. | || $72 40 Jan. 3 t 1 By cash $36 20 x 1, By bill receivable, No. iox 36 20 72 40 1 72 40 Folio 7. Dr. W. SINN, Partsburg, West Va. Cr. 1880. Ian. April Dec. To goods To your acceptance returned unpaid To balance brought down $50 3 ° 80 80 81 60 3 ° so 1880 Jan. Dec. By cash By bill receivable, No. 102 By balance carried down . . $20 3 ° 30 81 216 BOOK-KEEPING. Folio 8. ROBERTS BROS., Boston. Dr. i89». 1880. 1 Jan. 4 1 To goods $74 3 2 Jan. 4 1 |By bill receivable. No. 103 Cr. ?74 3* Folio 9. W. H. VERNON. Dr. Cr. 1880. $82 87 30 OO 169 3 ° 1880. I Jan. 4 I By goods $169 30 169 3 ° Dec. 31 By balance brought down 87 OO Folio xo. RAMSDEN & CO. Dr. Cr. 1880. Nov. To goods, 1 l88o. $20 20 Dec. z I By bill receivable, No. 104 $20 20 Folio 11 Dr. 1880. Nov. 1 S. GREEN. 1S80. I To goods $18 24 Dec. z I By bill receivable, No. 105 Cr. $18 Folio 12. GEORGE BARROWS. Dr. Cr. 1880. Nov. To goods 1 1880. 1 $80 00 Dec. I z By bill receivable, No. 106 $80 OO Folio 13. W. SINN. Dr. l88o. I 1S80. | Nov. 1 1 j To goods $120 OO Dec. 11 By bill receivable, No. 107 Cr. $120 00 Folio 14. V. S. BROWN. Dr. l88o. 1880. — — Nov. I z To gooda $74 20 Dec. 1 I By bill receivable, No. 108 Cr. 20 Folio 15. LEGGAT BROS. Dr. Cr. 1880. Dec. 30 l88o. To bill payable, No. 105 $52 20 Dec. 30 z so Folio 16. HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. Dr. Cr. 1880 Dec. 30 1 To bill payable, No. 106, 1880. $200 OO Dec. 3 ° z By goods . Folio 17. Dr. S. R. WELLS. Cr. 1880. Dec 3 ° z 1 $19* 40 1 >880. Dec. 3 ® z By goods $192 40 V... "v. iv/ Folio 18. JAMES R. OSGOOD & CO. Dr. Cr 1880. Dec. 3® 1 $170 80 1 880. Dec. 3 ° 1 1 1 1 1 1 $170 80 BOOK-KEEPING. 217 After the Ledger has been duly examined, and it is seen that the balances are struck and brought down correctly, pro- ceed to observe if those balances are transferred properly to the general Balance Sheet at page 213, which is the last operation of all. Beyond this. Book-keeping by Single Entry “can no further go.” It is only a confined system, and its results are never demonstrated or proved. Errors of omission, of addition, and of wrong posting, may, and in large establishments do fre- quently occur without any means of detection, except the tire- some and frequently fallacious method of a re-examination of the entire books by another person. But by Double Entry, provided the system be a correct one, no error of any kind can escape without detection, because everything is verified by an infallible rule. Nevertheless the diligent study of the method of Single Entry is absolutely necessary as a preparatory step towards acquiring a knowledge of the other. No one can keep a set of books by Double Entry who does not understand Single Entry, because the one is based upon the other. When the learner has well studied what has already been laid before him, let him pass on to the following pages, where he will find the same transactions registered by Double Entry. BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. This method differs from the former chiefly in making cash, stock, goods, &c., parties, as well as persons, and in making a debtor and creditor account in every transaction. Thus, if cloth is sold to A, A is made debtor to cloth, and cloth creditor to A ; if cash is received from B, cash is made debtor to B, and B creditor to cash ; and in every case the party, whether animate or inanimate, which receives is debtor to that which pays, and inversely. In Single Entry the record is single, and there it ends, whereas in Double Entry every transaction has a debit and credit, and every account in which it is not so represented is imperfect. Two parties are necessarily engaged in every transaction, and therefore each of them requires in his Ledger two separate accounts, one for himself, and a sec- ond for his customer or furnisher, as the case may be. Now, by the use of what are called nominal accounts representing the proprietor in his own Ledger, the double receptacle is provided which every transaction requires. The nominal accounts receive the counter entries of all the personal accounts, and through their operation the merchant is enabled to ascer- tain whether his business is profitable or the reverse. These accounts are those or Stock, Profit and Loss, and its branches. Stock is a term used to represent the proprietor, and it con- tains on the credit side the amount of the money, goods, or cither property brought into trade ; and on the debtor, the owner’s liabilities. In Profit and Loss, the credit side exhibits the gain of the business, and the debit the loss. In Single Entry, nominal accounts have no place. There is a record only of the side of the accounts belonging to the person deal- ing with the concern, and none whatever of that which repre- sents the owner. Such a method enables us to balance the accounts of each party, but exhibits no register by which the state of the stock in trade, and the balances of capital and cash, can be at once ascertained without a separate and inde- pendent investigation. We have seen, that by Single Entry the items are transferred from the Cash Book, Day Book, and Bill Books, at once, into the Ledger ; but in Double Entry, another book, called the Journal, is necessarily used, in which the items from all the others are first arranged in proper form, and then passed into the Ledger. Thus, posting by Single Entry is done fromj several books ; whereas by Double Entry from the Journal' alone. j The old Italian method of keeping a Journal is fraught with ; ’ so many crudities, useless repetitions, and technical jargon, | that it has been long abandoned for one a thousand fold more' simple in its construction, and perfect in its results. Instead of continually entering “ Sundries Dr. to Cash,” “ Interest Dr. to Sundries,” “ Commission Dr. to A. B. C.,” and “ D. E. F. Dr. to Commission,” with a multitude of such anomalies, the Journal is divided into two parts, (the right and left hand side of the book) the one called the Debtor side and the other the Creditor side. Under the Debtor side must be entered unin- terruptedly everything that is to be debited ; and under the Creditor side, everything that is to be credited ; and both sides must agree, if the entering has been done correctly. In addition to the simplicity of this arrangement, there are other advantages which may not be overlooked. In the first place, all the entries on one side of the Journal are posted upon the same side in the Ledger, a convenience which every book- keeper will know how to prize. Next, all the items for eachj account in a month are consolidated in one entry previous to posting, thus greatly reducing that labor, and offering the phenomenon of a Ledger wherein no account for one year can have more than twelve lines, one for each month ; and, finally, the totals of each month in the Journal added together must correspond with the gross amount of all tire totals in the Ledger, the last and surest demonstration of correctness which figures can offer. Let us proceed to Journalize according to this method all the entries contained in the preceding Day Book, Cash Book, Bills Payable Book and Bills Receivable Book, (for which seepages 213, 214) begging the learner meanwhile, to recol- lect the following rules : — 1st. When Goods are sold, the buyers must be debited and Trade Account credited with the amount. 2d. When goods are bought Trade Account must be debited and the sellers credited for the amount. 3d. When Cash is paid, the parties receiving it must be debited and Cash Account credited, and when it is received the Account must be debited and the payers credited. 4th. When Acceptances are given, the persons on whose account they are drawn must be debited, and Bills Pay- able credited ; and when they are received Bills Receiv- able must be debited and the party on whose account they are received must be credited. 5th. When Accepted Bills become due and are paid. Bills Payable must be debited and Cash credited ; and when Bills to be received become due and are paid, CASH must be debited with the amount, and Bills Receivable credited. Finally. No entry can be made in the Ledger unless it be extracted from the Journal, consequently everything must go into the Journal first. These rules must be most carefully heeded in order to rapidly acquire the science of book-keeping. 2x8 BOOK-KEEPING. Dr. JOURNAL. January, 1880. Cr. Tenter & Co. D. Flock. Roberts Bros. A. D. F. Randolph. W. H. Vernon. J. W. Bouton. Dodd, Mead & Co. A. S. Barnes & Co. D. Appleton & Co. Bills Receivable. Cash. Trade Acount. 3. Goods sold as per invoice 3. ditto 4. ditto .... 4. Paid them Bill Receiv- able, No. 102 30 80 Idem 103 74 32 4. Goods, as per invoice 2. Bill Payable, No. ioi...4o 00 Cash paid them 80 00 2. Bill Payable, No. 102.. 90 00 Cash paid them 120 00 2. Bill Payable, No. 103.. 6000 Cash paid them r o 00 2. Bill Payable, No. 104... 40 00 Cash paid them 62 00 31. Amount received this month as per Bill Receivable book 31. Amount received this month as per Cash Book Goods bought this month : j. OfJ. W. Bouton 150 20 1. Dodd, Mead & Co. . 241 00 1. A. S. Barnes & Co. .300 00 1. D. Appleton & Co.. 124 60 4. A. D. F. Randolph. 186 60 4. W. H. Vernon 17000 6. Cash paid charges as per Cash Book 10 28 105 82 zos Z42 1,076 z,:8a 68 J. W. Bouton. Dodd, Mead & Co. A. S Barnes & Co. D. Appleton & Co. A. D. F. Randolph. W. H. Vernon. Bills Payable. Tenter & Co. B. Flock. Robert Bros. Trade Account. Cash. Bills Rcefvable. 1 . Goods as per invoice 1. ditto 1. ditto t. ditto 2. ditto 4. ditto 31. Amount of Blllsaccepted this month as per Bill Book 3. Bill Receivable No. iot . .36 20 Cash received 36 20 4. Bill Receivable No. 102. 30 80 3. Cash Received 20 00 4. Bill Receivable No. 102 1. Cap’al invested this day 2,000 Goods sold this month : 3. To Tenter &Co 74 00 3. Flock 50 80 4. Roberts Bros 74 32 W. H. Vernon 82 30 1. Cash received 14 80 4. Ditto 6 60 31. Amount paid this month as per Cash Book 4. No. 102, paid A. D. F. Randolph 30 80 No. 103, ditto 74 32 150 241 300 1 24 186 170 230 50 8a 74 33 3.302 420 4,430 28 Bills Payable. 5. Cash paid, No. 104. February, 40 1880. Cash. 26. Amount paid this month as per Cash Book 4 ° Dr. Bills Payable. 5. Cash paid No. 102. Ditto 1880. 90 40 00 00 Cash. 31. Amount paid this month, as per Cash Book 130 00 Cr. 130 130 Bills Payable. B. Flock. Charges on Trade. Cash. Cash paid No. 103 His bill returned unpaid Cash for rent 80 00 Taxes 20 24 Taxes 15 20 Amount received this month per Cash Book 1880. 60 3 ° 00 80 Cash. Bills Receivable. 30. Amount paid this month, as per Cash Book 6. Cash received No. ioi 206 36 115 44 36 20 342 44 242 November, Ramsden & Co. 1. Goods sold them 20 00 Trade Account. Goods sold this month ; — S. Green. 1. Goods sold him 18 24 1. To Ramsden & Co G. Barrows. i. Goods sold him So 00 1. S. Green W. Sinn. 1. Goods sold him 120 00 1. G. Barrows V. S. Brown. 1. Goods sold him 74 30 1. W. Sinn 120 OO 1. V. S Brown 74 10 — 312 44 312 44 312 44 Trade Account. 20. Goods bought this month : Of Leggatt Bros 52 ao Houghton, Mifflin & Co 200 00 S. R. Wells 192 40 Jai. R. Osgood & Co. .170 80 Leggat Bros. 30. Bill Payable, No. 105 Houghton, Mifflin A Co 30 Idem 106 S. R. Wells. 30. Idem 107 J. R. Osgood. 30. Idem 108 Bills Receivable. 31. Amount received this month as per Bill Book December, 615 53 206 192 170 7*4 »,544 84 «4 1880. Leggat Bros. 20. Goods bought by him. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 20. Idem S. R. Wells. Jas. R. Osgood & Co. Bills Payable. Ramsdcn & Co. S Green. G. Barrows. W. Sinn. V. S. Brown. 20. Idem 20. Idem 30. Bills accepted this month as per Bill Book 1. Bill Receivable, No. 104.. 1. Idem No. 105. 1. Idem No. to6.. 1. Idem No. 107 1. Idem No. 108.. 53 200 192 x 7 ° 615 20 *9 80 120 74 U 544 8 BOOK-KEEPING. 2IQ THE LEDGER. Wherein the contents of the preceding Journal are posted. Dr. TENTER s88o. Jan . 3 To Goods 74 00 & Co. Cr. 1880. Jan 31 By Sundries .. 740c Dr. B. Jan. 3 To Goods 5080 April 7 To Bill returned 30 80 8l 60 To Balance 30 00 FLOCK Cr. Jan. 31 By Sundries 50 80 By Balance 30 80 8l 60 Dr. ROBERTS Jan. 4 To Goods 74 32 BROS Cr. By Bill Receivable 74 32 Dr. A. D. F. Jan. 4 To Sundries 106 oo To Balance 82 66 188 60 RANDOLPH. — Jan. 2 By Goods 188 60 188 60 By Balance 82 60 Dr. W. H. VERNON. Cr. To Balance 87 00 i ®9 3 ° 189 30 By Balance 87 oo 'Dr. J. W. BOUTON. Cr. To Balance 30 20 150 20 I50 20 By Balance 30 10 Dr. DODD, Tan. 2 To Sundries 21000 To Balance.. 31 00 241 00 MEAD & Co. Cr. Jan. 4 By Sundries ...24100 210 OO By Balance 31 00 Dr. A. s. BAR NES & Co. Cr. To Balance go oo 300 OO 300 OO By Balance 90 00 Dr. D. AP tan. 2 To Sundries 10200 To Balance 22 60 124 60 PLETON A Co. Cr. Jan. 1 By Goods 12460 124 60 By Balance 22 60 Dr. BILLS Jan. 31 To Sundries 142 20 RECEIVABLE. Cr. Jan. 31 Bv Sundries 106 00 456 60 To Balance 314 40 742 20 Balance 314 40 456 60 Dr. CASH Jan. 31 To Sundries 2,076 34 ACCOUNT. Cr. Jan 31 Bv Sundries 42228 *1*1* 54 To Balance ** 3*3 8 ° March 31 Idem 130 00 April 30 Idem 206 40 798 68 Bakaee 1,313 86 54 220 BOOK-KEEPING. Dr. TRADE .Ran. 31 To Sundries 1,184 34 April 30 Idem 114 36 Dec. 31 Idem 614 34 1,913 04 Balance 700 20 ACCOUNT. Cr. Jan. 31 By Sundries 2,304 40 Nov. 30 Idem 308 84 2,613 24 2,613 24 By Balance 700 20 Dr. BILLS | Feb. 28 To Sundries 40 00 March 31 Idem 130 00 April 30 Idem 6000 23O OO Balance 614 34 PAYABLE. Cr. Jan. 31 By Sundries 330 00 Eec. 31 Idem 614 34 844 34 „ „ , 844 34 By Balance 614 34 Dr. RAMSDEN Nov. 1 To Goods . 20 00 & Co. Cr. Dec. 1 By Bill Receivable 20 00 Dr. S. Nov. 1 To Goocte 18 24 GREEN. Cr. Dec. 1 By Bill Receivable, No. 105 18 24 Dr. G. Nov. 1 To Goods 80 00 BERGER. ’ Cr. Dec. 1 By Bill Receivable, No. 106 So 00 Dr. W. Nov. 1 To Goods 120 00 SINN. Cr. Dec. 1 By Bill Receivable, No. 107 120 00 Dr. V.S. Nov. 1 To Goods 74 20 BROWN. Cr. Dec. 1 By Bill Receivable, No. 108 74 20 Dr. LEGGAT Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. 105 52 20 BROS. Cr. Dec. 20 By Goods 52 20 '~Dr. ' ' HOUGHTON, Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. 106 200 00 MIFFLIN Sl Co. Cr. Dec. 20 By Goods 200 00 Dr. S. R. Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. 107 192 40 WELLS. Cr. Dec. 20 By Goods 192 40 Dr. JAS. R. OSGOOD Dec. 30 To Bill Payable, No. 108 170 80 & Co. Cr. Dec. 20 By Goods 170 80 In the preceding Ledger we have posted under the head of Trade Account all goods bought and charges incurred (both in business and family matters) to the Debit ; and to the Credit, the amount of my capital and goods sold, consequently the balance of this account added to the amount of stock on hand always shows the profit of the business. For instance : Balance of the account 700 16 Value of stock on hand, as estimated in the Balance Sheet by Single Entry 1,390 28 Total balance in my favor as shown in the Balance Sheet by Single entry 2,090 44 But in partnership accounts, such a plan would not do, be- cause domestic expenses cannot be charged to trade, nor should the respective capitals be included. In such cases separate accounts must be opened for each individual, which must be credited with their separate capitals and debited with their relative charges. At the end of the year, a balance is struck, the profit or loss determined, and the sum total di- vided into proper proportions, and tiansferred from the gen- eral Trade or Profit and Loss Account, to each individual’s debit or credit, as the case may be. N. B . — A Profit and Loss Account is merely another name for a Trade Account. All bad debts must be charged to that Ac- count which shows the Profit and Loss ( whatever the name may be), and the bad Accounts themselves closed by transfer. Let us now see if the Ledger is correct. To determine this, first extract all the totals, Dr. Cr. (before the balances are struck) which must not only agree with each other, but corr& spond as well with the sums total in the Journal. Put all the amounts at debit on one side, and the amounts at credit on the other. The totals must agree with the totals in the Jour- nal. If this prov« to be the fact, it is thus demonstrated that everything in the Journal has been posted in the Ledger. Having thus seen that the totals on both sides of the Ledger not only agree with each other, but correspond as well with those of the Journal, which is proof positive that the books are correct, the next and last care will be to see that the balances are properly struck and brought down, which is done by ex- tracting them, and observing that both sides are alike. If they agree, the balancing has been properly done. This is the final operation at the end of a year ; and the Journal of the next should have for its first entries Debtor and Creditor, an exact copy of the Balance Sheet, registered the same as all other items and included in the monthly total ARITHMETIC. ZJt yHE numerals now In use, with the mode of causing them by peculiar situation to express any number, and whereby the processes of arithmetic have been rendered so highly convenient, have heretofore been supposed to be of Indian origin, transmitted through the Persians to the Arabs, and by them introduced into Europe in the tenth century, when the Moors invaded and became masters of Spain. Such in reality appears to have been in a great measure the true history of the transmission of these numerals ; but as it has been lately found that the ancient hieroglyphical inscriptions of Egypt contain several of them, learned men are now agreed that they originated in that early seat of knowledge, between which and India there exist more points of resemblance, and more traces of intercourse, than is generally supposed. In the eleventh century, Gerbert, a Ben- edictine monk of Fleury, and who afterwards ascended the Papal throne under the designation of Sylvester II., traveled into Spain, and studied for several years the sciences there cul- tivated by the Moors. Among other acquisitions, he gained from that singular people a knowledge of what are now called the Arabic numerals , and of the mode of arithmetic founded on them, which he forthwith disclosed to the Christian world, by whom at first his learning caused him to be accused of an alliance with evil spirits. The knowledge of this new arithmetic was about the same time extended, in consequence of the intercourse which the Crusaders opened between Europe and the East. For a long time, however, it made a very slow and obscure progress. The characters themselves appear to have been long considered in Europe as dark and mysterious. Deriving their whole efficacy from the use made of the cipher, so called from the Arabic word tsaphara , denoting empty or vmd, this term came afterwards to express, in general, any secret mark. Hence, in more troublous times than the pres- ent, a mode of writing was practiced, by means ot marks pre- viously concerted, and called writing in cipher. The Arabic characters occur in some arithmetical tracts composed in Eng- land during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, particu- larly in a work by John of Halifax, or De Sacrobosco ; but another century elapsed before they were generally adopted. They do not appear to have settled into their present form till about the time of the invention of printing. It would be impossible to calculate, even by their own tran- scendent powers, the service which the Arabic numerals have rendered to mankind. HE Arabic numerals take the following well* known forms : — r, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Q. The first nine of these, called digits, or digital numbers, represent each one of the numbers be- tween one and nine , and when thus employed to represent single numbers, they are considered as units. The last (o), called a nought, nothing ot cipher, is, in reality, taken by itself, expressive of an absence of number, or nothing ; but, in connection with other numbers, it becomes expressive of number in a very remarkable manner. The valuable peculiarity of the Arabic notation is the en- largement and variety of values which can be given to the fig- ures by associating them. The number ten is expressed by I and o put together — thus, 10 ; and all the numbers from this up to a hundred can be expressed in like manner by the asao- 222 ARITHMETIC. ciation of two figures — thus, twenty, 20 ; thirty, 30; eighty- five, 85 ; ninety-nine, 99. These are called decimal numbers, from decern, Latin for ten. The numbers between a hundred and nine hundred and ninety-nine inclusive are, in like man- ner, expressed by three figures — thus, a hundred, 100 ; five hundred, 500; eight hundred and eighty-five, 885 ; nine hun- dred and ninety-nine, 999. Four figures express thousands ; five, tens of thousands ; six, hundreds of thousands ; seven, millions ; and so forth. Each figure, in short, put to the left hand of another, or of several others, multiplies that one or m®re numbers by ten. Or if to any set of figures a nought (o) be added towards the right hand, that addition multiplies the number by ten ; thus 999, with o added, becomes 9990, nine thousand nine hundred and ninety. Thus it will be seen that, in notation, the rank or place of any figure in a number is what determines the value which it bears. The figure third from the right hand is always one of the 1. 2 3 4,5 6 7,8 90 hundreds ; that which stands seventh al- i_3 *T< uJ •=> *T* i-J i-l *T* vs expresses millions : and so on. And y 5) p ■ whenever a new figure is added towards the right, each of the former set obtains, as it were, a promotion, or is made to express ten times its former value. _ — ' C M * 5 ° S “ A large number is thus expressed in the P ” g- Arabic numerals, every set of three from the right to the left hand being divided by a :omma for the sake of distinctness. The above number is therefore one thousand two hundred and thirty-four millions, five hundred and sixty-seven thous- ands, eight hundred and ninety. Higher numbers are ex- pressed differently in France and England. In the former country, the tenth figure expresses billions, from which there is an advance to tens of billions, hundreds of billions, tril- lions, etc. In our country, the eleventh figure expresses ten thousands of millions, the next hundreds of thousands of mil- lions, the next billions, etc. The two plans will be clearly apprehended from the following arrangement : — O h 3 ‘ (— ? in > Co.^oO.“ >e - D&-. ln o.-,3a _ C/> cr£ ENGLISH METHOD. Units. Tens. Hundreds. Thousands. Tens of thousands. Hundreds of thousands. Millions. Tens of millions. Hundreds of millions. Thousands of millions. Ten thousands of millions. Hundreds of thousands of mil- lions. Billions. Tens of billions. Hundreds of billions, etc. FRENCH METHOD. Units. Tens. Hundreds. Thousands. Tens of thousands. Hundreds of thousands. Millions. Tens of millions. Hundreds of millions. Billions. Tens of billions. Hundreds of billions. Trillions. Tens of trillions. Hundreds of trillions, etc. SIMPLE OR ABSTRACT NUMBERS. There are four elementary departments in arithmetic — Ad- dition, Multiplication, Subtraction, and Division, 27 5 536 352 275 1195 DDITION is the adding or summing up of several numbers, for the purpose of finding out their united amount. We add numbers to- gether when we say, r and 1 make 2 ; 2 and 2 make 4 ; and so on. The method of writing numbers in addition, is to place the figures under 4 : one another so that units will stand under units, x -- tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, etc. Sup- pose we wish to add together the following numbers — 2 7. 5, 536, 352, and 275 ; we range them in columns one under the other, as in the margin, and draw a line under the whole. Be- ginning at the lowest figure of the right-hand column, we say 5 and 2 are 7 — 7 and 6 are 13 — 13 and 5 are 18 — 18 and 7 are 25 ; that is, 2 tens and 5 units. We now write the five below the line of units, and carry or add the 2 tens, or 20, to the lowest figure of the next column. In carrying this 20, we let the cipher go, it being implied by the position or rank of the first figure, and take only the 2 ; we therefore proceed thus — 2 and 7 are 9—9 and 5 are 14 — 14 and 3 are 17 — 17 and 2 are 19, Writing down the 9, we proceed with the third column, carry- ing 1, thus — 1 and 2 are 3 — 3 and 3 are 6 — 6 and 5 are II. No more figures remaining to be added, both these figures are now put down, and the amount or sum of them all is found to be 1195. Following this plan, any quantity of numbers may be summed up. Should the amount of any column be in three figures, still only the last or right-hand figure is to be put down, and the other two carried to the next column. For example, if the amount of a column be 127, put down the 7 and carry the other two figures, which are 12 ; if it be 234, put down the 4 and carry 23. For the sake of brevity in literature, addition is often de- noted by the figure of a cross, of this shape +. Thus, 7 + 6 means 7 added to 6 ; and in order to express the sum result- ing, the sign =, which means equal to, is employed, as 7 + 6 = 13 ; that is, 7 and 6 are equal to 13. The Sign of Dollars is $. It is read dollars. Thus, $64 dollars is read 64 dollars ; $5 is read 5 dollars. When dollars and cents are written, a period or point ( . ) is placed before the cents, or between the dollars and cents. Thus, $4.25 is read 4 dollars and 25 cents. Since 100 cents make $1.00, cents always occupy two places, and never more than two. If the number of cents is less than 10 and expressed by a single figure, a cipher must occupy the first place at the right of the point. Thus, 3 dollars 6 cents are written $3.06 ; 1 dollar 5 cents are written $1.05. When cents alone arc writ- ten, and their number is less than 100, either write the word cents after the number, or place the dollar sign and the point before the number. Thus, 75 cents may be expressed, $.75. In arranging for addition, dollars should be written under dol- ARITHMETIC. 22 » lars, and cents under cents, in such order that the points stand in a vertical line. The sign $, and the point ( . ) should never be omitted. , ULTIPLICATION is a short method of ad- dition under certain circumstances. If we wish to ascertain the amount of twelve times the number 57, instead of setting down twelve rows of 57, and adding them together, we adopt a shorter plan by which we come to the same conclusion. For ascertaining the amount of all simple numbers as far as 12 times 12, young persons commit to memory the following Multiplication Table, a knowledge of which is of great value, and saves much trouble in after-life : — I 2 3 4 5 6 7 81 9 10 1 1 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 ■4 *6| 18 20 22 24 3 6 9 12 IS .8 21 24 1 27 30 33 36 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 | 36 40 44 48 5 IO 15 20 25 3 ° 35 40 | 45 50 55 60 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 1 48 1 54 60 66 72 7 M 21 28 35 42 49 56 1 63 70 77 84 8 .6 24 3 » 40 48 56 64 | 72 80 88 96 9 ,8 27 36 45 54 1 63 72 1 81 90 99 I08 IO 20 30 40 50 60 0 5 90 100 I IO 120 II 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 | 99 1 10 121 132 12 24 | 36 48 60 72 84 1 96 1 108 120 *32 1 44 This table is so well known, that it is almost superfluous to explain that, when any number in the top row is multiplied by any number in the left-hand side row, the amount is found in the compartment or square beneath the one and opposite the other. Thus, 2 times 2 are 4 ; 5 times 6 are 30 ; 12 times 12 are 144. The multiplying of numbers beyond 12 times 12 is usually effected by a process of calculation in written figures. The rule is to write down the number to be multiplied, called the multiplicand ; then place under it, on the right-hand side, the number which is to be the multiplier, and draw a line under them. For example, to find the amount of 9 times 27, we set down the figures thus — 27 ( Multiplicand .) 9 ( Multi pier .) 243 ( Pioducl .) Beginning with the right-hand figure, we say 9 times 7 are 63 ; and putting down 3 we carry 6, and say 9 times 2 are 18, and 6, which was carried, makes 24 ; and writing down these fig- ures next tha 3, the product is found to be 243. When the multiplier consists of two or more figure^ place it so that its right-hand figure comes ex. actly under the right-hand figure of the multiplicand; for instance, to multiply 5463 by 34, we proceed as here shown. Here the number is multiplied, firs! by the 4, the product of which being written down, we proceed to multiply by 3, and the amount produced is placed below the other, but one place farther to the left. A line is then drawn, and the two products added together, bringing out the result of 185742. We may, in this manner, multiply by three, four, five, or any number of figures, always placing the product of one figure below the other, but shifting a place far- ther to the left in each line. An example is here given in the multiplying of 76843 by 4563 . Multiplication is denoted by a cross of this shape x : thus 3x8 = 24, signifies, that by multiplying 8 by 3, the product is 24. A number which is produced by the multiplication of two other numbers, as 30 by 5 and 6, leaving nothing over, is called a composite number. The 5 and 6, called the factors (that is, workers or agents), are said to be the com- ponent parts of 30, and 30 is also said to be a multiple of either of these numbers. The equal parts into which a number can be reduced, as the twos in thirty, are called the aliquot parts. A number which cannot be produced by the multiplication of two other numbers, is called a prime number. When the mul- tiplicand and multiplier are the same, that is, when a number is multiplied by itself once, the product is called the square of that number : 144 is the square of 12. 5463 34 21852 16389 185742 76843 4563 230,529 4,610,58 38,421,5 3 0 7.372 350,634,609 cates UBTRACTION is the deducting of a smaller number from a greater, to find what remains, or the difference between them. The Sign of Subtraction is — . It is read minus, and signifies less. When placed between two numbers, it indi- tliat the one after it is to be subtracted from the one before it. Thus, 12 — 7 is read 12 minus 7, and means that 7 is to be subtracted from 12. A Parenthesis ( ) is used to include within it such numbers as are to be considered together. A Vinculum has the same signification. Thus, 25 — (12 + 7), or 25 — 12 + 7, signifies that from 25 the sum of 12 and 7 is to be subtracted. PRINCIPLES. — I. Only like numbers and units of the same order can be subtracted. 2. 7 'he minuend must be equal to the sum of the subtrahend and remainder. m ARITHMETIC 537 325 We subtract when we say, take 3 from 5, and 2 remains. To ascertain what remains, after taking 325 from 537, we proceed by writing the one under the other as here indicated, and then subtracting. Commencing at 5, the right-hand figure of the lower and smaller number, we say, 5 from 7, and 2 remains ; setting down the 2, 212 we say next, 2 from 3, and I remains; and setting down the I, we say, 3 from 5, and 2 remains ; total remainder, 212. To subtract a number of a higher value, involving the car- rying of figures and supplying of tens, we proceed as in the margin. Commencing as before, we find that 5 cannot be subtracted from 2, and therefore supply or lend 10 to the 2, making it 12 ; then we say, 5 from 12, and 7 remains. Setting down the 7, we lake 1, being the de- cimal figure of the number which was borrowed, and give it to the I, making it 2, and taking 2 from 3, we find that I remains. Setting down the 1, we go to the 8, and finding it cannot be taken from the 4 above it, we lend 10 to the 4, making it 14, and then we say, 8 from 14, and 6 remains. In the same manner as before, adding the first fig- ure of the borrowed number (1) to the 6, we say, 7 from S, and 1 remains ; thus the total remainder is found to be 1617. From these explanations, which apply to all calculations in subtraction, it will be observed, that when the upper figure is less than the figure directly under it, 10 is to be added, and for this one is carried or added to the next under figure. A man having $15, paid $4 for a hat, and $2 for a vest. How many dollars had he left ? Analysis. — The difference between $15, and the sum of $4 and $2, which is $9. 8432 6815 1617 IggJ^IYISION is that process by which we discover how often one number may be contained in an- other, or by which we divide a given number into any proposed number of equal parts. By the aid of the Multiplication Table, we can ascertain without writing figures how many times any number is contained in another, as far as 144, or 12 times 12 ; beyond this point notation is employed. There are two modes of work- ing questions in division, one long and the other short Let it be required to divide 69 by 3 : accord- ing to the long method, write the figures 69 as an- nexed, with a line at each side, and the divisor, or 3, on the left. The question is wrought out by ex- amining how many times 3 is in 6, and finding it to be 2 times, we place 2 on the right side ; then placing 6 be- low six, we draw a line and bring down the 9, and proceed 3) 6 9( 2 3 6 9 9 6 ) 7958(1326 6 19 18 15 12 38 36 with it in the same manner. The quotient is found to be 23. But we take a more difficult question — the divi- sion of 7958 by 6. In commencing we find that there is only one 6 in 7, and I over ; we therefore place the 6 below the 7, and subtract it, in order to bring out the 1. The r being written, we bring down the 9 to it, and this makes 19. There being 3 times 6 in 18, we place the 3 to the product (which in division is called the quotient , literally, How many times ?) and 18 below the 19, leaving 1 over as before. To this 1 we bring down the 5, and trying how many sixes there are in 15, it appears there are only 2. We place 2 to the quotient, and 12 below the 15. This leaves 3 over, and bringing down 8 to the 3, we have 38, in which there are 6 sixes. Six sixes make 36 ; therefore, placing 6 to the quotient, and 36 below the 38, we find that there are 2 over. Here the account terminates, it being found that there are 1326 sixes in 7958, with a remainder of 2 over. In this question, 6 is called the divisor ; the 795S is the dividend , and 1326 is the quotient. Skillful arithmeticians never adopt this long method of di- vision ; they pursue a plan of working out part of the question in the mind, called short division. They would, for example, treat the above question as here shown. The over number of 1 from the 7 is carried in the mind to the 9, making 19 ; the I from 19 is in the same manner carried to the 5 ; and the 3 from it is carried to the 8, leaving the overplus of 2. In Short Division the quotient only is written, the opera- tions being performed mentally. It is generally used when the divisor does not exceed 12. Divide $48.56 by 8 cents. Eight cents may be written $.08. When the divisor and dividend are like numbers, the quotient is an abstract number. Hence, 8 cents are contained 6)7958 1326-2 OPERATION. $.o8)$4S.s6 607 times. in $48.56, 607 times. Division is denoted by the following character ; thus, 75 25, signifies that 75 is to be divided by 25. These explanations conclude the subject of simple or ab- stract numbers. On the substructure of the few rules in Ad- dition, Multiplication, Subtraction, and Division, which we have given, whether in reference to whole numbers or frac- tions, every kind of conventional arithmetic is erected, be- cause these rules are founded in immutable truths. Mankind may change their denominations of money, weights, and measures, but they can make no alteration in the doctrine of abstract numbers. That 2 and 2 are equal to 4, is a truth yes- terday, to-day, and forever. ARITHMETIC. ITHERTO we have spoken only of whole numbers which in arithmetic are called integers. We have now to treat of fractions, or the parts into which integers may be broken. The more ordinary fractions of any single article or number are a half, third, quarter, etc. ; but a num- ber admits of being divided into any quantity of equal parts. All such fractions are called vulgar fractions , from their being common. It is the practice to write vulgar fractions with two or more small figures, one above the other, with a line between, as follows : { (one- half), i (one-third,) i (one-fourth or quarter), \ (one-eighth), i (four- fifths), ) 9 j (nine-tenths), and so on. In these and all other instances, the upper number is called the numerator, the lower the denominator. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FRACTIONS. I. Multiplying the numerator, or) Dividing the denominator, ) 1 . Dividing the numerator, or ) Multiplying the denominator, ) 3. Multiplying or dividing bothl numerator and denominator J- by the same number, J Multiplies the fraction. Divides the fraction. Does not change the value of the fraction. These three principles may be embraced in one GENERAL LAW. A change in the numerator produces a like change in the value of the fraction ; but a change in the denominator pro- duces an opposite change in the value of the fraction. It may happen that it is necessary to add together different fractions to make up whole numbers. In working all such questions, we must, in the first place, bring all the fractions into one kind ; if we have to add $ and i together, we make all into eighths, and see how many eighths we have got ; thus ) is I ; then i is 1, that is 2 and 4, which make 6, and J makes a total of J. The same plan is to be pursued in the subtraction of vulgar fractions. It is necessary sometimes to speak of the tenths hun- dredths, or thousandths of a number, and for this arithmetic has provided a system of decimal fractions. Where great ex- actness of expression is required, decimals are indispensable. It has been already shown that, in writing common numbers, the value of a figure increases by ten times as we proceed from right to left ; in other words, we ascend by tens. Now. there is nothing to prevent us in the same manner descending by tens from unity. This is done by decimal fractions. We place a dot after unity, or the unit figure, which dot cuts off the whole number from its fractional tenths ; thus 120. 3 means 120 and 3-tenths of a whole ; if we write 120.31, the meaning 22 J is 120 and 31-hundredths of a whole, that is, 31 parts in 100 into which a whole is supposed to be divided. If we go on adding a figure to the right, we make the fraction into thou- sandths ; as, for instance, 120.315, which signifies 120 and 315 out of a thousand parts. Tables of specific gravities, population, mortality, and many matters of statistics, are greatly made up of decimal fractions, and therefore it is proper that all should comprehend the principle on which they are designed. In many cases, it would answer the purpose to write the fractions as vulgar fractions ; but there is a great advantage in reducing all broken parts to the decimal notation, for it allows of adding up columns of decimals all of the same denomination. Their great excellence, indeed, consists in the uniformity which they give to calculations, and the easy methods which, by these means, they present of pursuing fractional numbers to any de- gree of minuteness. The method of reducing a vulgar to a decimal fraction is a simple question in division. For instance, to reduce J to a decimal, we take the 3, and putting two ciphers after it, divide by 4, thus — ; therefore, .75 is the decimal, or, what is •75 the same thing, 75-hundredth parts of a whole are equal to the three-quarters of a whole. SERIES of numbers is a succession of numbers that increase or decrease according to some law. Of the two kinds of series usually treated of in arithmetic, the simpler is one whose terms in- crease or decrease by some constant number called the common difference. This common difference or rate of increase is only one, when we say, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ; it is two, when we say 7, 9, ir, and four, when we say 6. 10, 14, 18, and so on. Every advancement of this nature, by which the same number is added at every step, is called arithmetical prog: cssion. There is a different species of advancement, by which the last num- ber is always multiplied by a given number, thus causing the series to mount rapidly up. Suppose 4 is the multiplier, and we begin at 2, the progression will be as follows : 2, 8, 32, 128, 512, 2048, and so on. It is here observed, that multiply- ing the 2 by 4 we have 8 ; multiplying the 8 by 4, we have 32 ; and multiplying the 32 by 4. we have 12S, etc., till at the fifth remove we attain 2048. This kind of advancement ol numbers is called geometrical progression. The very great dif- ference between the two kinds of progression is exemplified in the following two lines, the number 3 being added in the one case and being used as the multiplier in the other ; zzO ARITHMETIC. 8, II, 14, 17 — Arithmetical Progression. 5 » * 5 . 45 . 135 . 4°5 — Geometrical Progression. In the case of arithmetical progression, as above or in any other manner exemplified, it may be noticed that the amount of the first and last term is always the same as twice the amount of the middle term ; thus 5 and 17 being 22, are equal to twice 11, or 22. The cause of this is, that as the numbers increase or decrease in equal degrees, the last number is just as much more as the first is less than the number in the middle ; and the two being added, the amount must conse- quently be double the central number. The same rule holds good with respect to any two numbers at equal distances from the number in the middle. If the series be an even number, and do not possess a middle term, then the two terms nearest the middle (called the mean terms) must be added together : thus in the natural series from 1 to 24, 12 and 13 are the two nearest the middle, and one being added to the other makes 2 5, the sum of the first and last term. In geometrical progression, each term is a factor of all the numbers or terms that follow, and a product of all that go be- fore, so that there is an harmonious ratio pervading the whole. Each term bears an exact proportion to its predecessor, be- cause the multiplier is the same. Supposing, as above, the multiplier to be 3, the term 15 is proportionally greater than 5, as 45 is greater than 15. In the technical language of arithmetic, as 15 is to 5, so is 45 to 15. To save words such a proposition is written down with dots, thus — 15 : 5 :: 45 : 15. The two dots mean is to, and four dots mean so is. The same formula is applicable to any series of proportional terms, though not in continued proportion to each other. In order to discover the ratio between any two terms we divide the largest by the least, and the quotient is the ratio : 45 divided by 15 gives 3 as the ratio. By thus ascertaining the ratio of two terms, we are furnished with the means of arriving at the ratio of other terms. We cannot do better than explain the method of working out this principle in the ratio of numbers, by giving the following passages from the admi- rable Lessons on Arithmetic, by Mr. T. Smith of Liverpool. Taking the four regularly advancing terms, 15, 45, 405, and 1215, he proceeds: “Suppose that we had only the first three, and that it were our wish to find the fourth, which term bears the same proportion to the third as the second does to the first. The thing we have first to do, is to discover the ratio between the first and second terms, in order to do which, as before shown, we divide the larger by the smaller, and this gives us the ratio 3, with which, by multiplying the third term, we produce the fourth ; or, let the three terms be these, 405, 1215, 5. and let it be our wish to find a fourth which shall bear the same relation to the 15 as 1215 does to 405. We divide and multiply as before, and the fourth term is produced. And in this manner, having two numbers, or two quantities of any kind, bearing a certain proportion towards each other, and a third, to which we would find a number or quantity that should bear a like proportion, in this manner do we proceed, and thus easily may we find the number we require.” Referring to the discovered ratio of 45 to 15 to be 3, or the fifteenth part — “ Now ” (continues this author), “ what would have been the consequence had we multiplied the third term (405) by the whole, instead of by a fifteenth part of the second ? The consequence would have been, that we should have had a term or number fifteen times larger than that required. But this would be a matter of no difficulty ; for it would be set right at once and our purpose gained, by dividing the over- large product by 15. Let us write this process down : 405 x 45 = 18225, and 1S225 -f- 15 = 1215, — which 1215 bears the same proportion to 405 as does 45 to 15. And this is the rule, when the terms are properly placed — multiplying the second and third terms together, and dividing the product by the first ; this avoids all difficulties arising from the occurrence of frac- tions in the course of the process, and gives us, in all cases, any proportional terms we may require." P N the principle now explained, we can, in any affairs of business, ascertain the amount of an unknown quantity, by knowing the amount of other three quantities, which, with the unknown quantity, bear a proportional relation. The word r nhty is here used, but any sum ofi money is also i^et it be remembered, that the ratio of one number to another is the number of times that the former contains the latter ; for example, the ratio of 6 to 3 is 2, that of 12 to 4 is 3, and that of 8 to 12 is When two numbers have the same ratio as other two, they constitute a proportion. Thus, the ratio of 8 to 6 is the same as that of 12 to 9, and the equality of these two ratios is represented thus : 8 : 6 = 12 : 9, or, 8 : 6 :: 12 : 9. The following is the rule for stating and working questions: — Make that term which is of the same kind as the answer sought, the second or middle term. Consider, from the nature of the question, whether the answer should be more or less than this term ; if more, make the smaller of the other two terms the first, and the greater the third; if the answer should be less than the middle term, make the greater of the two terms the first, and the smaller the third ; then multiply the second and third terms together and divide the result by the first term. The quotient found will be the answer to the question, and it will be found to bear the same proportion to the third term as the second does to the first. Such is the principle of working Rule of Three questions, whatever be their apparent complexity. If either the first or third term, or both, include fractional parts, they must be re- duced to the denomination of the fractions before working; thus if one be reduced to shillings, the other must be made shillings also ; if to pence, both must be pence, and so ARITHMETIC. *27 on. If the middle term be also a compound quantity, it may either be reduced to its lowest term, before multiplying and dividing by the other terms, or you may multiply and divide by Compound Division and Multiplication. NTEREST is a sum paid for the use of money. The Principal is the sum for the use of which interest is paid. The Rate of Interest is the per cent., or number of hundredths of the prin- cipal, paid for its use one year. The Amount is the sum of the principal and the interest. Principle. — The interest is the product cf three factors, namely : the principal , rate pc annum, and time. To find the int. on $120.60 for 3 yr. 4 mo. at 8#. Analysis. — Since the interest of any sum at 8 p for 1 yr. is .08 of the principal, the interest of OPERATION. ,$120.60 = Principal. .08 = Rate per cent. $9 .6480 = Int. for 1 year. 3^ = Time in years. $3 2. 1 60 = Int. for 3 yr. 4 mo $120.60 at 8;' for I yr. is $9,648 ; and the interest for 3 yr. 4 mo. is 3' times $9,648, or $32.16. RULE. — I. Multiply the principal by the rate per cent., and the produ t -will be the interest for 1 year. II Multiply the interest for I year by the time in years and the fraction of a year, and the product ibill be the required in- terest. In ordinary business transactions involving interest, 30 days are considered one month, and 12 months, 1 year. To find the interest of $175 for 1 yr. 7 mo. 15 da. at 7 ,. A N A LYSIS. OPERATION. $175 = Principal. .07 = Rate per cent. — First multi- plying the principal by the rate %, we have $12.25, the int. for 1 yr. Then, for 6 mo. take 3 of 1 year’s int., for I mo. take J of 6 months’ int., and for 15 da. take £ of 1 month’s int. The sum of the several results is the int. for the whole time. Adding the principal to the interest gives the amount. $12.25 =Int. for i yr. 6. 1 25 = Int. for 6 mo. 1.020 = Int. for 1 mo. •5io = Int. for 15 da. $19,905 = Int. for 1 yr. 7 mo. 15 da. P75 = Principal. [>194.905 = Amt. for 1 yr. 7 mo. 15 da. An easy and uniform method of computing interest, D. Fish’s method, is to place the principal, the rate, and the time in months, on the right of a vertical line, and 12 on the left; or, if the time is short and contains days, reduce to days, and place 360 on the left. After canceling equal factors on both sides of the line, the product of the remaining factors on the right, divided by the factor, if any, on the left, will give .he required interest. To find the interest of $184.80 for 1 yr. 5 mo. at 5#. OPERATION. 115.40 •°5 $13.09, Arts. Analysis. — $ 184.80 x .05 gives the interest for 1 yr or 12 months, which divided by 12 gives the interest fort month ; the quotient multiplied by 17, the number of months in 1 yr. 5 mo., gives $13.09, the interest required. To find the interest of $240 for 2 mo. 18 da. at 7#. OPERATION. $ 240 “ .07 28 10.92 $3.64, Am. Analysis. — $ 240 x .07 gives the in. terest for 1 year or 360 days, which divided by 360 gives the interest for 1 day ; the quotient multiplied by 78, the number of days in 2 mo. 18 da., gives $3.64, the required interest. To find the interest of $696 for 93 da. at 1 % a month. Of $325.20 at i% a month for 63 da. OPERATION. $W 348 .n n 31 5 $ 107.88 $2I. 57 ( < 6*000 OPERATION. $ 32 $. 20 8 - 19 .00 6.3 $ 5 - io 3 . Am. See interest tables in our Lightning Calculator. An Aliquot Part or Even Part of a number is such a part as will exactly divide that number. Thus, 2, 2'., S^and 5, are aliquot parts of 10. An aliquot part may either be an integer or a mixed num- ber, while a component factor must be an integer. Aliquot Parts 5 cents = -Jx, of $1. 10 cents = rbr of $1. 20 cents = of $1. 25 cents = I of $1. 50 cents = i of $1. of One Dollar. 6i cents = of $1. 8 1 , cents = i 1 . of $1. 12] cents = i of $1. i6'J cents = J of $1. 33 i cents = i of $1 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. 428 TO TELL ANY NUMBER THOUGHT OF. ESI RE any person to think of a number, say a j^V] certain number of shillings ; tell him to borrow that sum of some one in the company, and add the number borrowed to the amount thought of. It will here be proper to name the person who lends him the shillings and to beg the one who makes the calculation to do it with great care, as he may readily fall into an error, especially the first time. Then, say to the person — “ I do not lend you, but give you IO, add them to the former sum.” Continue in this manner —“Give the half to the poor, and retain in your memory the other half.” Then add : — “ Return to the gentleman, or lady, what you borrowed, and remember that the sum lent you was exactly equal to the number thought of.” Ask the person if he knows exactly what remains. He will answer “ Yes.” You must then say — “ And I know, also, the number that remains ; it is equal to what I am going to conceal in my hand.” Put into one of your hands five pieces of money, and desire the person to tell how many you have got. He will answer five ; upon which open your hand, and show him the five pieces. You may then say — “I well knew that your result was five , but if you had thought of a very large number, for example, two or three millions, the result would have been much greater, but my hand would not have held a number of pieces equal to the remainder.” The person then supposing that the result of the calculation must be different, according to the difference of the number thought of, will imagine that it is necessary to know the last number in order to guess the result : but this idea is false ; for, in the case which we have here sup- posed, whatever be the number thought of, the remainder must always be five. The reason of this is as follows: — The sum, the half of which is given to the poor, is nothing else than twice the number thought of, plus IO ; and when the poor have received their part, there remains only the number thought of, plus r ; but the number thought of is cut off when the sum borrowed is returned, and, consequently, there re- main only 5 It may be hence seen that the result may be easily known, since it will be the half of the number given in the third part of the operation ; for example, whatever be the number thought of, the remainder will be 36 or 25, according as 72 or 50 have been given. If this trick be performed several times successively, the number given in the third part of the operation must be always different ; for if the result were several times the same, the deception might be discovered. When the first five parts of the calculation for obtaining a result are finished, it will be best not to name it at first, but to continue the opera- tion, to render it more complex, by saying, for example : — “ Double the remainder, deduct 2, add 3, take the fourth part,” etc. ; and the different steps of the calculation may be kept in mind, in order to know how much the first result has been increased or diminished. This irregular process never fails to confound those who attempt to follow it. A Second Method. — Bid the person take I from the number thought of, and then double the remainder ; desire him to take I from the double, and to add to it the number thought of ; in the last place, ask him the number arising from this addition, and, if you add 3 to it, the third of the sum will be the num- ber thought of. The application of this rule is so easy, that it is needless to illustrate it by an example. A Third M ethod. — Desire the person to add 1 to the triple of the number thought of, and to multiply the sum by 3 ; then bid him add to this product the number thought of. and the result will be a sum, from which, if 3 be subtracted, the re- mainder will be ten times the number required ; and if the cipher on the right be cut off from the remainder, the other figure will indicate the number sought. Example : — Let the number thought of be 6, the triple of which is 18 ; and if I be added, it makes 19 ; the triple of this last number is 57, and if 6 be added, it makes 63, from which, if 3 be subtracted, the remainder will be 60 ; now, if the cipher on the right be cut off, the remaining figure, 6, will be the number required. A Fourth Method. — Bid the person multiply the number thought of by itself ; then desire him to add 1 to the number thought of, and to multiply it also by itself ; in the last place, ask him to tell the difference of these two products, which will certainly be an odd number, and the least half of it will be the number required. Let the number thought of, for exam- ple, be 10, which, multiplied by itself, give 100 ; in the next place, 10 increased by 1 is II, which, multiplied by itself, makes 121 ; and the difference of these two squares is 21, the least half of which, being 10, is the number thought of. This operation might be varied by desiring the person to multiply the second number by itself, after it has been diminished by L. ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. 229 this case, the number thought of will be equal to the greater half of the difference of the two squares. Thus, in the preceding example, the square of the number thought of is 100, and that of the same number less 1, is 81 ; the difference of these is 19 ; the greater half of which, or 10, is the number thought of. TO TELL TWO OR MORE NUMBERS THOUGHT OF. If one or more of the numbers thought of be greater than 9, we must distinguish two cases ; that in which the number or the numbers thought of is odd, and that in which it is even. In the first case, ask the sum of the first and second, of the second and third, the third and fourth, and so on to the last, and then the sum of the first and the last. Having written down all these sums in order, add together all those, the places of which are odd, as the first, the third, the fifth, etc. ; make another sum of all those, the places of which are even, as the second, the fourth, the sixth, etc., subtract this sum from the former, and the remainder will be the double of the first number. Let us suppose, for example, that the five fol- lowing numbers are thought of, 3, 7, 13, 17, 20, which, when added two and two as above, give 10, 20, 30, 37, 23 : the sum of the first, third, and fifth, is 63, and that of the second and fourth is 57 ; if 57 be subtracted from 63, the remainder, 6, will be the double of the first number, 3, Now, if 3 be taken from 10, the first of the sums, the remainder, 7, will be the second number, and by proceeding in this manner we may find all the rest. In the second case, that is to say, if the number or the numbers thought of be even, you must ask and write down, as above, the sum of the first and the second, that of the second and third, and so on, as before ; but, instead of the sum of the first and last, you must take that of the second and last ; then add together those which stand in the even places, and form them into a new sum apart ; add also those in the odd places, the first excepted, and subtract this sum from the former, the remainder will be the double of the second num- ber ; and if the second number, thus found, be subtracted from the sum of the first and second, you will have the first number; if it be taken from that of the second and third, it will give the third ; and so of the rest. Let the numbers thought of be, for example, 3, 7, 13, 17 ; the sums formed as above are 10, 20, 30, 24, the sum of the second and fourth is 44, from which, if 30, the third, be subtracted, the remainder will be 14, the double of 7, the second number. The first, therefore, is 3, the third 13, and the fourth 17. When each of the numbers thought of does not exceed 9, they may be easily found in the following manner : — Having made the person add 1 to the double of the first number thought of, desire him to multiply the whole by 5, and to add to the product the second number. If there be a third, make him double this first sum, and add 1 to it ; after which, desire him to multiply the new sum by 5, and to a Id to it the third number. If there be a fourth, proceed in the same manner, desiring him to double the preceding sum, to add to it 1. to multiply by 5, to add the fourth number, and K Cut-. Then ask the number arising from the addition of the last number thought of, and if there were two numbers, subtract 5 from it ; if there were three, 55 ; if there were four, 555, and so on, for the remainder will be composed of figures, of which the first on the left will be the first number thought of, the next the second, and so on. Suppose the number thought of to be 3, 4, 6 ; by adding r to 6, the double of the first, we shall have 7, which, being mul- tiplied by 5, will give 35 ; if 4, the second number thought of, be then added, we shall have 39, which, doubled, gives 78; and, if we add I, and multiply 79, the sum, by 5, the result will be 395. In the last place, if we add 6, the number thought of, the sum will be 401 ; and if 55 be deducted from it, we shall have, for remainder, 346, the figures of which, 3, 4, 6, indicate in order the three numbers thought of. THE MONEY GAME. A person having in one hand a piece of gold, and in the other a piece of silver, you may tell in which hand he has the gold, and in which the silver, by the following method : — Some value, represented by an even number, such as 8, must be as- signed to the gold ; and a value represented by an odd num- ber, such as 3, must be assigned to the silver ; after which, desire the person to multiply the number in the right hand, by any even number whatever, such as 2 ; and that in the left hand by an odd number, as 3 ; then bid him add together the two products, and if the whole sum be odd, the gold will be in the right hand, and the silver in the left ; if the sum be even, the contrary will be the case. To conceal the artifice better, it will be sufficient to ask whether the sum of the two products can be halved without a remainder ; for in that case the total will be even, and in the contrary case odd. It may be readily seen, that the pieces, instead of being in the two hands of the same person, may be supposed to be ia the hands of two persons, one of whom has the even number, or piece of gold, and the other the odd number, or piece of silver. The same operations may then be performed in regard to these two persons, as are performed in regard to the two hands of the same persons, calling the one privately the right, and the other the left. THE GAME OF THE RING. This game is an application of one of the methods employed to tell several numbers thought of, and ought to be performed in a company not exceeding nine, in order that it may be less complex. Desire any one of the company to take a ring, ai.d put it on any joint of whatever finger he may think proper. The question then is, to tell what person has the ring, and on what hand, what finger, and on what joint For this purpose, you must call the first person 1, the second 2, the third 3, and so on. You must also denote the ten fingers of the two hands by the following numbers of the natural progression, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., beginning at the thumb of the right hand, and ending at that of the left, that this order of the number of the finger may, at the same time, indicate the hand. In the last place, the joints must be denoted by 1, 2 3, beginning at the points of the fingers. *30 ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. To render the solution of this problem more explicit, let us suppose that the fourth person in the company has the ring on the sixth finger, that is to say, on the little finger of the left tund, and on the second joint of that finger. Desire some one to double the number expressing the per- son, which, in this case, will give 8 ; bid him add 6 to this double, and multiply the sum by 5, which will make 65 ; then tell him to add to this product the number denoting the finger, that is to say 6, by which means you will have 71 ; and, in the last place, desire him to multiply the last number by 10, and to add to the product the number of the joint, 2 ; the last result will be 712 ; if from this number you deduct 250, the remain- der will be 462 ; the first figure of which, on the left, will denote the person ; the next, the finger, and, consequently, the hand ; and the last, the joint. It must here be observed, that when the last result contains a cipher, which would have happened in the present example had the number of the figure been 10, you must privately sub- tract from the figure preceding the cipher, and assign the value of 10 to the cipher itself. THE GAME OF THE BAG. To let a person select several numbers out of a bag, and to tell him the number which shall exactly divide the sum of those he had chosen : — Provide a small bag, divided into two parts, into one of which put several tickets, numbered 6, 9, 15. 3^. 63, 120. 213, 3°9> etc. , and in the other part put as many other tickets, marked No. 3 only. Draw a handful of tickets from the first part, and after showing them to the com- pany, put them into the bag again, and having opened it a second time, desire any one to take out as many tickets as he thinks proper ; when he has done that, you open privately the other part of the bag, and tell him to take out of it one ticket only. You may safely pronounce that the ticket shall contain the number by which the amount of the other numbers is divisi- ble ; for, as each of these numbers can be multiplied by 3, their sum total must, evidently, be divisible by that number. An ingenious mind may easily diversify this exercise, by mark- ing the tickets in one part of the bag with any numbers that are divisible by 9 only, the properties of both 9 and 3 being the same ; and it should never be exhibited to the same com- pany twice without being varied. THE CERTAIN GAME. Two persons agree to take, alternately, numbers less than a given number, for example, II, and to add them together till one of them has reached a certain sum, such as 100. By what means can one of them infallibly attain to that number before the other ? The whole artifice in this consists in immediately making choice of the numbers I, 12, 23. 34, and so on, or of a series which continually increases by 11, up to roo. Let us suppose that the first person, who knows the game, makes choice of 1 ; it 'vident that his adversary, as he must count less than II, c most reach 11, by adding 10 to it. The first will then ' , which will make 12 ; and whatever number the second uhl, the first will certainly win, provided he continually add the number which forms the complement of that of his adversary to 11 ; that is to say, if the latter take 8, he must take 3 : if g, he must take 2 ; and so on. By following this method he will infallibly attain to 89 : and it will then be im- possible for the second to prevent him from getting first to 100 ; for whatever number the second takes he can attain only to 99; after which the first may say — “and 1 makes ioo.’ If the second take 1 after 89, it would make 90, and his ad. versary would finish by saying — “and 10 make 100.” Between two persons who are equally acquainted with the game, he who begins must necessarily win. If your opponent have no knowledge of numbers, you may take any other number first, under 10, provided you subse- quently take care to secure one of the last terms, 56, 67, 78, etc., or you may even let him begin, if you take care after- ward to secure one of these numbers. This exercise may be performed with other numbers ; but, in order to succeed, you must divide the number to be attained by a number which is a unit greater than what you can take each time, and the remainder will then be the number you must first take. Suppose, for example, the number to be attained be 52, and that you are never to add more than 6 ; then, di- viding 52 by 7, the remainder, which is 3, will be the number which you must first take ; and whenever your opponent adds a number you must add as much to it as will make it equal to 7, the number by which you divided, and so in continua- tion. ODD OR EVEN. Every odd number multiplied by an odd number produces an odd number ; every odd number multiplied by an even number produces an even number ; and every even number multiplied by an even number also produces an even number. So, again, an even number added to an even number, and an odd number added to an odd number, produce an even num- ber ; while an odd and even number added together produce an odd number. If any one holds an odd number of counters in one hand, and an even number in the other, it is not difficult t» discover in which hand the odd or even number is. Desire the party to multiply the number in the right hand by an even number, and that in the left hand by an odd number, then to add the two sums together, and tell you the last figure of the product ; if it is even, the odd number will be in the right hand ; and if odd, in the left hand ; thus, supposing there are 5 counters in the right hand, and 4 in the left hand, multiply 5 by 2, and 4 by 3, thus : — 5 x 2 = 10, 4 x 3 = 12, and then adding 10 to 12, you have 10 + 12 = 22, the last figure of which, 2, is even, and the odd number will consequently be in the right hand. PROPERTIES OF CERTAIN NUMBERS. Ok Odd Numbers. — All the odd numbers above 3, that can only be divided by 1, can be divided by 6, by the addition or subtraction of a unit. For instance, 13 can only be divided by 1 ; but after deducting 1, the remainder can be divided by 6 ; for example, 5+1 = 6; 7—1=6; 17+1 = 18) 19—1 = 18; 25 — 1 = 24, and so on. ARITHMETICAL AMUSEMENTS. *31 Of Number Three. — S elect any two numbers you please, and you will find that either one of the two, or their amount when added together, or their difference, is always 3, or a number divisible by 3. Thus, if the numbers are 3 and 8, the first number is 3 ; let the numbers be I and 2, their sum is 3 ; let them be 4 and 7, the difference is 3. Again, 15 and 22, the first number is divisible by 3 ; 17 and 26, their difference is divisible by 3, etc. Of Number Five. — I f you multiply 5 by itself, and the quotient again by itself, and the second quotient by itself, the last figure of each quotient will always be 5. Thus, 5x5 = 25 ; 25 x 25 = 625 ; 125 x 125 = 15,625, etc. Again, if you proceed in the same manner with the figure 6, the last figure will constantly be 6. To divide any number by 5, or any multiplicand of that number, by means of simple addition : — To divide by 5, dou- ble the number given, and mark off the last figure, which will represent tenths. Thus, to divide 261 by 5 : — 261 + 261 = 522, or 5 22-ioths. Again, to divide the same number by 25, you must take four times the number to be divided, and mark off the last two figures, which will be hundredths, thus, 261 + 261 + 261 + 261 = 1044, or 10 44-looths. Of Number Nine. — The following remarkable properties of the number 9 are not generally known : — Thus, 9 x 1=9; 9X 2=18, 1 + 8 = 9; 9 x 3 — 2 7, 2 + 7 = 9 , 9 x 4= 36, 3 + 6 = 9: 9 x 5 = 45, 4 + 5=9; 9 x 6 = 54, 5 + 4 = 9; 9x7 = 63, 6 + 3 = 919x8 = 72, 7 + 2 = 9:9x9 = 81, 8 + 1=9. It will be seen by the above that — 1. The component figures of the product made by the multiplication of every digit into the number 9, when added together, make nine. 2. The or- der of these component figures is reversed, after the said num- ber has been multiplied by 5. 3. The component figures of the amount of the multipliers (viz. 45), when added together, make NINE. 4. The amount of the several products, or mul- tiples of 9 (viz. 405), when divided by 9, gives, for a quotient, 45 ; that is, 4 + 5 = nine. It is also observable, that the number of changes that may be rung on nine bells is 362,880; which figures, added to- gether, make 27 ; that is, 2 + 7 = nine. And the quotient of 362,880, divided by 9, will be 40,320 ; that is, 4 + 0+ 3 1-2 + 0= nine. To add a figure to any given number, which shall render it divisible by Nine : — Add the figures together in your mind, which compose the number named ; and the figure which must be added to the sum produced, in order to render it divisible by 9, is the one required. Thus, suppose the given number to be 7521 Add those together, and 15 will be produced ; now 15 re- quires 3 to render it divisible by 9 ; and that number 3, being added to 7521, causes the same divisibility : — 7521 3 9)7524(836 This exercise may be diversified by your specifying, before the sum u named, the particular place where the figure shall j be inserted, to make the number divisible by 9 ; for it is ex* actly the same thing whether the figure be put at the head of the number, or between any two of its digits. To multiply by Nine by Simple Subtraction . — Supposing you wish to multiply 67583 by 9, add a cipher to the end of the sum, then place the sum to be divided underneath the amount, 1 and subtract it from the same ; the quotient will be the pro- duct of 67583 multiplied by 9 ; thus 675830 67583 608247 ( Number Nine and Eighteen. — If any two of the following sums, 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 207, 216, 252, 261, 306, 315, 360, 432, are added together, the figures in the quotient, when cast up, will make either 9 or 18. For instance, 216 + 252 = 468, and 4 + 6 + 8 = 18 ; or, 63 + 81 = 144, and I + 4 + 4 = 9. THE UNITED DIGITS. The figures I to 9 may be placed in such order that the whole added together make exactly 100. Thus— 15 36 47 98 2 100 The secret is to arrange the figures 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, in such a manner that, added together, they make 98, when by add- ing 2 you get the whole nine digits into the calculation. TO DISCOVER A SQUARE NUMBER. A square number is a number produced by the multiplica- tion of any number into itself ; thus, 4 multiplied by 4 is equal to 16, and 16 is consequently a square number, 4 being the square root from which it springs. The extraction of the square root of any number takes some time ; and after all your labor you may perhaps find that the number is not a square number To save this trouble, it is worth knowing that every square number ends either with a 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9, oi with two ciphers, preceded by one of these numbers. Another property of a square number is, that if it be divi de 4 by 4. the remainder, if any, will be 1 — thus, the square of 5 is 25, and 25 divided by 4 leaves a remainder of I ; and again, 16, being a square number, can be divided by 4 without leav- ing a remainder. A MAGIC SQUARE. The following arrangement of figures, from 1 to 36, in the form of a square, will amount to the same sum if the numbers are cast up perpendicularly, horizontally, or from ARITHMETIC A I- AMUSEMENTS. •32 corner to corner, the result in every direction being hi : — 29 12 28 9 7 26 32 31 3 4 3f> 5 23 18 15 l6 19 20 14 24 21 22 13 17 2 I 34 33 6 35 II 25 IO 27 30 8 TO WEIGH FROM ONE TO FORTY POUNDS WITH FOUR WEIGHTS. To weigh any weight from 1 to 40 pounds by the use of four weights only, the weights must be respectively 1, 3, 9, and 27 pounds each. Thus, 2 pounds may be weighed by placing 3 pounds in one scale and 1 in the other ; 5 pounds, by placing 1 and 3 in one scale and 9 pounds in the opposite, and so on. THE CANCELLED FIGURE GUESSED. To tell the figure a person has struck out of the sum of two given numbers : — Arbitrarily command those numbers only that are divisible by 9 ; such, for instance, as 36, 63, 81, 117, 126, 162, 261, 360, 315, and 432. Then let a person choose any two of these numbers ; and, after adding them together in his mind, strike out from the sum any one of the figures he pleases. After he has so done, desire him to tell you the sum of the remaining figures ; and it follows, that the number which you are obliged to add to this amount, in order to make it 9 or 18, is the one he struck out. Thus — Suppose he chooses the numbers 162 and 261, making alto- gether 423, and that he strikes out the centre figure, the two other figures will, added together, make 7, which, to make 9. requires 2, the number struck out. THE DICE GUESSED UNSEEN. A pair of dice being thrown, to find the number of points on each die without seeing them : — Tell the person who cast the dice to double the number of points upon one of them, and add 5 to it ; then to multiply the sum produced by 5, and to add to the product the number of points upon the other die. This being done, desire him to tell you the amount, and, having thrown out 25, the remainder will be a number con- sisting of two figures, the first of which, to the left, is the number of points on the first die, and the second figure, to the right, the number on the other. Thus — Suppose the number of points on the first die which comes up to be 2, and that of the other 3 ; then, if to 4, the dou- ble of the points of the first, there be added 5, and the sum produced, 9, be multiplied by 5, the product will be 45 ; to which, if 3, the number of points on the other die, be added, 48 will be produced, from which, if 25 be subtra"ted, 23 will remain ; the first figure of which is 2, the number of points on the first die, and the second figure 3, the number on the other. THE SOVEREIGN AND THE SAGE. A sovereign being desirous to confer a liberal reward on one of his courtiers, who had performed s< me very important service, desired him to ask whatever he thought proper, assur- ing him it should be granted. The courtier, who was well acquainted with the science of numbers, only requested that the monarch would give him a quantity of wheat equal to that which would arise from one grain doubled sixty-three times successively. The value of the reward was immense ; for it will be found that the sixty-fourth term of the double progression divided by 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., is 9,223,372,036,854,775,808. But the sum of all the terms of a double progression, begin- ning with 1, may be obtained by doubling the last term, and subtracting from it I. The number of the grains of wheat, therefore, in the present case, will be 18,446.744,073,709,551,. 615. Now, if a pint contain 9216 grains of wheat, a gallon will contain 73,728 ; and. as eight gallons make one bushel, if we divide the above result by eight times 73,728 we shall have 31,274,997,411,295 for the number of the bushels of wheat equal to the above number of grains, a quantity greater than what the whole surface of the earth could produce in several years, and which, in value, would exceed all the riches, perhaps, on the globe. THE HORSE-DEALER’S BARGAIN. A gentleman taking a fancy to a horse, which a horse- dealer wished to dispose of at as high a price as he could, the latter, to induce the gentleman to become a purchaser, offered to let him have the horse for the value of the twenty-fourth nail in his shoes, reckoning one cent for the first nail, two for the second, four for the third, and so on to the twenty- fourth. The gentleman, thinking lie should have a good bap- gain, accepted the offer ; how mistaken he was the result will show. By calculating as before, the twenty-fourth term of the pro* gression, 1, 2, 4, 8, etc., will be found to be 8,388,608, equal to the number of cents the purchaser gave for the horse ; the price, therefore, amounted to $S3, 886.08. THE DINNER PARTY. A club of seven persons agreed to dine together every day successively, so long as they could sit down to table differ ently arranged. How many dinners would be necessary for that purpose ? It may be easily found, by the rules of simple progression, that the club must dine together 5,040 times be- fore they would exhaust all the arrangements possible, which would require above thirteen years. THE BASKET AND STONES. If a hundred st«mes be placed in a straight line, at the dis- tance of a yard from each other, the first being at the samedis- .Arithmetical amusements. 2 3S tance from a basket, how many yards must the person walk who yigages to jfick them up, one by one, and put them into the basket? It is evident that, to pick up the first stone and put it into a basket, the person must walk two yards ; for the sec- ond, he must walk four ; for the third, six ; and so on, in- creasing by two to the hundredth. , The number of yards, therefore, which the person must walk will be equal to the sum of the progression, 2, 4, 6, etc., the last term of which is 200 (22). But the sum of the pro- gression is equal to 202, the sum of the two extremes, multi- plied by 50, or half the number of terms ; that is to say, 10,100 yards, which makes more than 5J miles. THE CAN OF ALE. How to divide 8 gallons of ale contained in an 8-gallon can into two equal parts, having only two empty bottles to effect it with, one containing 5 gallons and the other 3. First, fill the 5-gallon bottle, and you will have 3 remaining in the 8-gal- lon can ; fill the 3-gallon bottle from the 5-gallon, which will then contain only 2 gallons ; pour the 3 gallons in the 3-gallon bottle into that which holds 8 gallons, which will then contain 6 gallons ; then pour the 2 gallons out of the 5-gallon bottle into the 3-gallon bottle, and filling the 5-gallon bottle from the 8-gallon can, which at present contains 6 gallons, you will have 1 gallon in the can, 5 in the largest bottle, and 2 in the smallest ; by filling up the 3-gallon can from the 5-gallon, you leave 4 gallons, or one-half the 8 gallons, in the largest bottle ; and, lastly, pouring the contents of the 3-gallon bottle into the 8-gallon can, which contains I gallon, you have the second half, or 4 gallons. COUNTING A BILLION. What is a billion ? The reply is very simple — a million times a million. This is quickly written, and more quickly still pronounced. But no man is able to count it. You can count 160 or 170 a minute ; but let us even suppose that you go as far as 200 in a minute, then an hour will produce 12,000 ; a day, 288,000 ; and a year, or 365 days (for every four years you may rest from counting, during leap year), 105,120,000. Let us suppose, now, that Adam, at the beginning of his ex- istence, had begun to count, had continued to do so, and was counting still, he would not, even now, according to the usually supposed age of our globe, have counted nearly enough. For, to count a billion, he would require Q512 years. 34 days, 5 hours, and 20 minutes, according to the above rule. THE NUMBER SEVENTY-THREE. If number 73 be multiplied by any of the progressive num- bers arising from the multiplication of 3 with any of the units, the result will be as follows : — 73 x 3 = 219 73 x 6 = 438 73 x 9 = 657 73 x 12 = S76 73 x 15 = 1095 73 x 18 = 1314 73 x 21 = 1533 73 x 24 = 1752 73 x 27 = 1971 On inspecting these amounts it will be seen that the last figures run thus — 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. Again, if we refer to the sums produced by the multiplication of 73 by 3, 6, 9 12, and 15, it will be found that by reading the two figures to the left of each amount backwards, it will give 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o. CURIOUS CALCULATION. If a pin were dropped into the hold of the Great Eastern steamship, and on that day week a' second pin, and on that day week four pins, and so on, doubling the number of pins each week for a year, there would, by the end of the 52 weeks, be deposited no fewer than 4,503,599,627,370,495 pins. Al- lowing 200 to the ounce, the weight of the whole would be 628,292,358 tons ; and to carry them all would require 27,924 ships as large as the Great Eastern, which is calculated to hold 22,500 tons. ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION. If you could buy a hundred ships, giving a farthing for the first, a halfpenny for the second, a penny for the third, two- pence for the fourth, and so on to the last, doubling the sum each time, the whole amount paid would be £557,750,707,- 053, 344, 04 1 , 463, 074, 442 18s. 7Jd. — a sum which in words runs thus : 557 quadrillions, 750,707 trillions, 53,344 billions, 41,643 millions, 74 thousand, 442 pounds, eighteen shillings and sevenpence three farthings. This amount in sovereign* would weigh 3.557.083,590,327.409- ***418 ton* *34 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. a ■ ana a m b y i¥h h torn an a u a m +a tri f¥a al caal n n a n m an n nn n mini mwmwffl^ These tables, too, will operate in other directions, and show the number of articles, when the total amount and the price per capita are given ; also when the number of articles and the total amount are given, the price per capita is easily ascertained. When fractions of a cent are involved, it is often confusing to an inexpert accountant to readily com- pute the amount. A reference to these tables will quickly give the required result, thereby saving that which is so important to the business man — time. The convenience of these tables cannot be over- rated. Not only do they save time, but are also conducive to perfect accuracy, a result which is not always certainly obtained in a hurried calculation. At 4 Cent. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. ' No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. 1 . 4 18 •44 35 . 84 52 •13 I 6 9 .174 86 ■ 2ii 2 • 4 19 • 44 36 • 9 53 .134 70 • 174 87 • 2l4 3 • i 20 •5 37 • 94 54 .134 7i .174 88 .22 i . 1 21 •54 38 • 94 55 .134 72 .18 89 .224 l .14 22 •54 39 . gi 56 .14 73 .184 90 .224 6 •U 23 •54 40 . IO 57 . 14! 74 • 18 4 9 1 .22^ 7 .14 24 .6 4i . io4 58 .144 75 .184 92 •23 8 .2 25 .64 42 .104 59 •i 4 4 76 .19 93 •23i 9 .24 26 .64 43 .104 60 •15 77 •19I 94 .234 IO .24 27 .64 44 .11 6l •154 78 .19! 96 .24 II .24 28 .7 45 .114 62 • is4 79 .i 9 4 98 .24 4 12 • 3 29 .74 46 .114 63 • 154 80 .20 IOO • 25 13 •34 30 • 74 47 .114 64 .16 81 . 20 i 200 ■ 5 ° 14 •34 31 • 74 48 . 12 65 . 16I 82 .204 300 •75 15 •34 32 .8 49 .124 66 . 164 83 .204 400 I. OO 16 •4 33 .84 50 .124 67 . 164 84 .21 500 1.25 *7 .44 34 .84 51 .124 68 •17 85 . 2 X 4 IOOO 2.50 HE following tables show at a glance the price of any number of articles at any given rate : The first column of figures shows the number of articles, and the second, the total ; e. g., 87 articles at £ cent each, amount to 21^ cents; 46 articles at 56^ cents each, give for a total $25. 87^. If the price be one not given in the tables, the sum is easily ascertained by adding together two or more of those which are given, thus : 23 articles at 19^ cents, 23 at 10 cents would be 2.30, at 5 cents 1. 15, at 2 cents 46 cents, at \ ii£ cents, and at \ 5! ; adding these totals, 2.30 + 1.15 +46 + 46 + ni + 5$ = $+54i, the amount sought for. THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. *35 At | Cent. No. Dols. Cts. 1 No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I . i 32 .16 63 • 31 * 2 . I 33 . 165 64 •32 3 . I k 34 •17 65 .32* 4 . 2 35 •U* 66 •33 5 • 24 36 .18 67 • 33 * 6 • 3 37 . 18* 68 • 34 , 7 • 3 * 38 .19 69 • 34 * 8 . 4 39 • I 9 i 70 •35 9 • 44 40 .20 71 • 35 * IO • 5 4 i •20* 72 • 3 6 II • Si 42 .21 73 .36* 12 . 6 43 •21* 74 • 37 , 13 . 64 44 .22 75 • 37 5 14 • 7 45 .22* 76 •38 15 • 7 i 46 •23 73 •39 16 . 8 47 • 23 * 80 .40 17 • 84 48 .24 82 .41 iS • 9 49 . 24 * 84 .42 19 . 94 50 •25 86 •43 20 .10 5 i • 25 * 88 •44 21 .104 52 .26 90 •45 22 .11 53 .26* 92 .46 23 ■ Ili 54 •27 94 •47 24 .12 55 . 27 * 96 .48 25 .124 56 .28 98 •49 26 •13 57 .28* 100 .50 27 • I 3 i 58 •29 200 I. 28 •14 59 • 29* 300 1.50 29 -14I 60 • 30 400 2. 30 • 15 6l .30* 500 2.50 31 • i 5 i 62 • 31 1000 5 - At I Cent. No. Dois. Cts. | No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I . I 32 •32 63 .63 2 . 2 33 •33 64 .64 3 • 3 34 •34 65 .65 4 • 4 35 •35 66 .66 5 • 5 36 •36 67 .67 6 . 6 37 •37 68 .68 7 • 7 38 •38 69 .69 8 . 8 39 •39 70 .70 9 • 9 40 • 40 7 i • 7 i IO .IO 41 • 4 i 72 •72 11 .11 42 .42 73 •73 12 . 12 43 •43 74 • 74 13 • 13 44 •44 75 •75 14 .14 45 •45 76 .76 15 • 15 46 .46 78 •78 16 . l6 47 •47 80 .80 17 • 17 48 .48 82 .83 18 .18 49 •49 84 .84 19 .19 50 •50 86 .86 20 .20 51 • 5 i 88 .88 21 21 52 •52 90 .90 22 .22 53 •53 92 •92 23 .23 54 •54 94 •94 24 .24 55 •55 96 .96 25 .25 56 •56 98 •.98 26 .26 57 •57 lOO I . 27 .27 58 •58 200 2. 28 .23 59 •59 300 3 - 29 .29 60 .60 400 4 - 30 • 30 6 l . 6 l 500 5 - 31 1 -31 62 .62 IOOO IO. At 2 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts 1 . 2 32 .64 63 1 . 26 2 • 4 33 .66 64 1.28 3 . 6 34 .68 65 1.30 4 . S 35 .70 66 1.32 5 . IO 36 .72 67 1 34 6 . 12 37 •74 68 1 36 7 • 14 38 .76 69 1.38 8 . l6 39 .78 70 1.40 9 .18 40 .80 7 i 1.42 IO .20 41 .82 72 1.44 II .22 42 .84 73 1.46 12 •24 43 .86 74 1 .48 13 .26 44 .88 75 1.50 14 .28 45 .90 76 1-53 15 •30 46 .92 78 1.56 l6 •32 47 ■94 80 1.60 17 •34 48 .96 82 1.64 18 •36 49 .98 84 1.68 19 •38 50 I. 86 1.72 20 .40 5 i 1.02 88 1.76 21 •42 52 1.04 90 1.80 22 .44 53 1.06 92 1.84 23 .46 54 1.08 94 1.88 24 .48 55 I.IO 96 1 .92 25 .50 56 I. 12 98 1.96 26 • 52 57 1. 14 IOO 2 27 •54 58 I . l6 200 4 - 28 • 56 59 1 . iS 300 6. 29 • 58 60 1.20 400 8. 30 .60 6l 1.22 500 10. 31 .62 62 1.24 IOOO 20. At S Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. ) No. Dols. Cts. I • 5 32 1 .60 63 315 2 .IO 33 1.65 64 3.20 3 • 15 34 1.70 65 325 4 .20 35 i -75 66 3-30 5 .25 36 1 .80 67 3 35 6 .30 37 1.85 68 3.40 7 •35 38 1.90 69 3-45 8 .40 39 1.95 70 3 ■ 5 ° 9 45 40 2. 7 i 3 55 10 .50 4i 2.05 72 3 60 II .55 42 2.10 73 3-65 12 .60 43 2.15 74 3.70 13 .65 44 2.20 75 3-75 14 .70 45 2.25 76 3- 80 15 • 75 46 2.30 78 3-90 l6 .80 47 2.35 80 4 - 17 •85 48 2.40 82 4-10 18 .90 49 2.45 84 4.20 19 •95 50 2. 50 86 4.30 20 I . 51 2-55 88 4.40 21 1.05 52 2.60 90 4 - 5 C 22 1 . 10 53 2.65 92 4 ( r > 23 i- r 5 54 2.70 94 4.70 24 1.20 55 2-75 96 4.80 25 1.25 56 2.80 98 4 90 26 1.30 57 2.85 100 5 - 27 1 35 58 2.90 125 6.25 28 I.40 59 2-95 150 7.50 29 1.45 60 3 - i 75 8.75 30 1.50 6l 305 200 IO. 31 1 55 62 3.10 225 II 2 4 175 45 5 62} 76 9-50 15 1. S 7 } 46 5 75 78 9-75 l6 2 . 47 5 87} 80 IO. 17 2.12} 48 6 82 10.25 rS 2.25 49 6 12} 84 10.50 19 2-372 50 6 25 86 10.75 20 2. 50 51 6 37} 88 II. 2T 2.62} 52 6 50 90 11.25 22 2-75 53 6 62} 92 11.50 23 2.87} 54 6 75 94 n-75 24 3- 55 6 87} 96 12. 25 3- 12.- 56 7 98 12.25 26 3-25 57 7 12} IOO 12.50 27 3-37} 58 7 25 125 15-62} 28 3-50 59 7 37} 150 18.75 29 3 62} 60 7 50 175 21.87} 30 3 75 61 7 62} 200 25- 31 3 87} 62 7 75 38 12} At 25 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I •25 32 8. 63 15-75 2 ■50 33 8 25 64 l6. 3 •75 34 8.50 65 16.25 4 I . 35 8 75 66 16.50 5 1 25 36 9- 67 16-75 6 1-50 37 9 25 68 17- 7 1 75 38 9 50 69 17.25 8 2. 39 6-75 70 17-50 9 2.25 40 10. 71 17-75 IO 2.50 4t 10.25 72 18. II 2-75 42 IO. 50 73 18.25 12 3 43 10.75 74 18.50 13 3-25 44 II . 75 18.75 14 3-50 45 II 25 76 r 9* 15 3-75 46 11.50 78 19.50 l6 4- 47 11.75 80 20. 17 4.25 48 12. 82 20.50 iS 4.50 49 12.25 84 21 . 19 4-75 50 12.50 86 21.50 20 5- 51 12.75 88 22. 21 5-25 52 13- go 22.5O 22 5-50 53 13-25 92 23. 23 5-75 54 13-50 94 23.50 24 6. 55 13-75 96 24. 25 6.25 56 14. 98 24.50 26 6.50 57 14.25 IOO 25- 27 6.75 58 14.50 125 31-25 28 7- 59 14-75 150 37-50 29 725 60 15- 175 43-75 30 7.50 6l 15-25 200 50. 31 7-75 62 15-50 225 56.25 At 33} Cents, or } of a Dollar No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I ■33} • 66J 32 10.665 63 U ~ 21 * 2 33 II. 64 21-33} 3 I . 34 n-33i 65 21 66} 4 1-33} 35 11.66} 66 22. 5 i.66§ 36 12. 67 22.33} 6 2. 37 12.33} 68 22.661 7 2 -33a 38 12.66} 69 23. 8 2.66} 39 13 - L 13-33,- 70 23-33} 9 3- 40 7i 23 . 66} IO 3 33.V 4i 13.66} 72 24. II 3.66} 42 I4 ‘ , 73 24-33} I 2 4- 43 J 4 -33 j 74 24 . 66* 13 4-33} 44 14.66} 75 25. 14 4.66} 45 t5 ‘ , 76 25-33} 15 5- 46 I5-33} 78 26. l6 5 • 33 47 15.66} 80 27- 17 5 ■ 66} 48 16. 82 27-33} 18 6. 49 16.33} 84 28. 19 6-33\ 50 16.66} 86 28.66} 20 6 66} 5i 17- 88 2g . 66} 21 7- 52 I7-33} 90 30- 22 7-33} 53 17 66} 92 30.66} 23 7 • 66} 54 18. 94 31 33} 24 - 8. 55 18.33} 96 32- 25 S- 33 1 * 56 18.66} 98 32-66} 26 8.66} 57 19. IOO 33-33} 27 9- 58 19-33} 125 41.66} 28 9-33i 59 19.66} 150 50. 29 9.66} 60 20. 175 58 33s 30 IO. 6l 20.33} 200 66 66} 31 10.334 62 20.66} 225 Ih THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 237 At 435 Cents or fg of a Dollar At 56* C ants, or of a Dollar. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. 1 •43? 32 14- 63 27.56? 1 .56 32 18. 63 35-43? 2 .871 33 14 43? 64 28. 2 I • I2j» 33 18.56? 64 36. 3 1.31I 34 14.87* 65 28-43? 3 1.68$ 34 19 12* 65 36.56? 4 i-75 35 i5-3ii 66 23.87* 4 2.25 35 19.68? 66 37-12* 5 2. 184 36 15-75 67 29-31? 5 2.81? 36 20.25 67 37-68? 6 2.624 37 16. 18? 68 2 9-75 6 3-37* 37 20. Si? 68 3825 7 3.064 38 16.62* 69 3° • 18? 7 3-93? 38 21-37* 69 38.81? 8 3-50 39 17.064 70 30. 62* 8 4.50 39 21.93? 70 39-37* 9 3-935 40 17.50 7i 31.06? 9 5-06? 40 22.50 7i 39-93? 10 4- 37i 4i 17 93? 72 31-50 IO 5.62* 41 23.06? 72 40.50 11 4.814 42 18.37* 73 3i 93? II 6.18? 42 23.62* 73 41.06? 12 5-25 43 1S.81! 74 32-37* 12 6-75 43 24.18? 74 41.62* 13 5-684 44 19 25 75 32.81? 13 7-3 1 ? 44 24-75, 75 42.18? 14 6.124 45 19.68? 76 33 • 25 14 7.87* 45 25-31? 76 42.75 15 6-564 46 20.12* 78 34-125 15 8-43? • 46 25.87* 78 43-87* l6 7 - 47 20. 56? So 35- l6 9- 47 26 43? 80 45- 17 7-435 48 21 . 82 35-87 * 17 9.564 43 2 7- , S2 46. 12* 18 7-S7J 49 21-43? 84 36.75 18 IO. 12 J 49 27 56? 84 47-25 19 8-3i4 50 21.87* 86 37-62* 19 10.68I 5° 28.122 86 48.37* 20 8.75 51 22.314 88 38.50 20 n.25 51 28.68? 88 49-50 21 9.18? 52 22.75 90 39-37* 21 11. 81* 52 29.25 90 50.62* 22 9.624 53 23.18? 92 40.25 22 12.37* 53 29.81? 92 51.75, 23 io.o64 54 23.62* 94 41.12* 23 12.93? 54 30.37* 94 52.87* 24 10.50 55 24 . 06? 96 42. 24 13-50 55 30-93* 96 54- 25 10.934 56 24-50 98 42.87* 25 14.06? 56 3i-5o 98 55-12* 26 11.374 57 24-93? IOO 43-75 26 14.62* 57 32 . O64 IOO 56.25 27 11 . 81 4 58 25 37 4 125 54-68? 27 15.18? 58 32.62* 125 70 31? 28 12.25 59 25.81? 150 65.62* 28 15 75 59 33. 18? 150 84-37* 29 12.684 60 26.25 175 76.56? 29 16.31? 60 33 75 175 98-43! 30 13. 124 6l 26.68? 200 87.50 30 16.87* 6l 34-3i? 200 112.50 31 I3-654 62 27.12* 225 98-43? 3i 17-43? 62 34.87* 225 126.56? At 50 Cents. At 87] Cents , or * of a Dollar. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I .50 32 l6. 63 31-50 I .87* 32 28. 63 55-12* 2 1. 33 16.50 64 32. 2 I -75, 33 28.87! 64 56. 3 1.50 34 17- 65 32-50 3 2.62* 34 29-75 65 56.87* 4 2. 35 17-50 66 33- 4 3-50 35 30.62* 66 57-75 5 2.50 36 18. 67 33-50 5 4-37* 36 3i-5o 67 58.62* 6 3- 37 18.50 68 34- 6 5-25 37 32-37* 68 59-50 7 3-50 38 19. 69 34-50 7 6. 12* 38 33-25 69 60.37* 8 4- 39 19.50 70 35- 8 7- , 39 34-12* 70 61.52 9 4.50 40 20. 71 35-50 9 7 87* 40 35- 71 62.12* 10 5 - 4i 20.50 72 36. IO 8-75, 4i 35-87* 72 63- 11 5.50 42 21 . 73 3650 II 9 62* 42 36-75, 73 63-87* 12 6. 43 21.50 74 37- 12 10.50 43 37.62* 74 64-75 13 6.50 44 22. 75 37-50 13 H-37* 44 38.50 75 65.62* 14 7- 45 22.50 76 38. 14 12.25 45 39-37* 76 66.50 15 7.50 46 23- 78 39- 15 13.12* 46 40.25 78 68.25 l6 8. 47 23.50 80 40. l6 14. 47 41 • I2k 80 70. 17 8.50 48 24. 82 41. 17 14.87* 48 42. 82 7i 75 18 9 - 49 24 50 84 42. 18 15-75, 49 42.87* 84 73-50 19 9.50 50 25- 86 43- 19 16.62* 50 43-75. 86 75-25 20 IO 5i 25-50 88 44- 20 17.50 5i 44 . 62* 88 77- 21 10.50 52 26. 90 45- 21 18.37* 52 45-50 90 78.75 22 II. 53 26.50 92 46. 22 19.25 53 46.37* 92 80. 50 23 11.50 54 27- 94 47- 23 20. I2i 54 47-25, 94 82 25 24 12. 55 27.50 96 48. 24 21 . 55 48 122 96 84. 25 12.50 56 28. 98 49- 25 21.87* 56 49. 98 85-75 26 13- 5? 28.50 IOO 50. 26 22.75 57 49-87* IOO 87.50 27 13-50 58 29. 125 62.50 27 23.62* 53 50.75 125 109.37* 28 14. 59 29.50 150 75- 28 24.50 59 51-62* 150 131.25 29 14.50 60 30. 175 87.50 29 25-37* 06 52.50 175 153.12* 30 15- 6l 30-50 200 IOO. 30 26.25 6l 53-37* 200 175- 41 15-50 62 31- 225 112.50 31 27.12* 62 54-25 225 106.87* 9 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. «3 8 At $1.25 Cent . No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I 1.25 36 45 - n 88.75 2 2.50 37 46.25 .' 2 90. 3 3-75 38 47-50 73 91-25 4 5 - 39 48.75 74 92.50 5 6.25 40 50 . 75 93-75 6 7-50 4 i 5 r ■ "5 76 95 - 7 8.75 42 52. .0 77 9625 8 IO. 43 53-75 78 97.50 9 1125 44 55 - 79 98.75 IO 12.50 45 56.25 80 IOO. II 13-75 46 57-50 81 101.25 12 * 5 - 47 58.75 82 102.50 13 16.25 48 60. 83 103.75 h 17.50 49 61.25 84 105. 15 18.75 50 62.50 85 106.25 l6 20. 51 63-75 86 107.50 17 21.25 52 65- 87 108.75 18 22.50 53 66.25 88 no. 19 23.75 54 6750 89 III. 25 20 25 - 55 68.75 90 112.50 21 26.25 56 70. 91 113-75 22 27.50 57 71.25 92 115. 23 28.75 58 72.50 93 116.25 24 30. 59 73-75 94 117.50 25 31.25 60 75 - 95 118.75 26 32.50 6l 76.25 96 120. 27 33-75 62 77-50 97 121.25 28 35 - 63 78.75 98 122.50 29 3625 64 80. 99 123-75 30 37-50 65 81.25 IOO 125- 31 38.75 66 82.50 125 156.25 32 40. 67 83-75 150 187.50 33 41.25 6S 85. 175 218.75 34 42.50 69 86.25 200 250. 35 43-75 70 87.50 225 281.25 At $1.50 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. | No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. I 1.50 36 54. 7 i 106.50 2 3 - 37 55-50 72 108. 3 4.50 38 57 - 73 109.50 4 6. 39 58.50 74 in. 5 7.50 40 60. 75 112.50 6 9 - 4 i 61.50 76 114. 7 10.50 42 63 - 77 115.50 8 12. 43 64.50 78 117. 9 13-50 44 66. 79 118.50 IO 15- 45 67.50 So 120. II 16.50 46 69. 81 121.50 12 18. 47 70.50 82 123. 13 19-50 48 72. 83 124.50 14 21 . 49 73-50 84 126. 15 22.50 50 75 - 85 127.50 l6 23. 51 76.50 86 I29. 17 25-50 52 78. 87 130.5° 18 27. 53 79-50 88 132. 19 28.50 54 81. 89 133-50 20 30. 55 82.50 90 135 - 21 31-50 56 84. 9 i 136.50 22 33 - 57 85.50 92 138. 23 34-50 58 87. 93 139-50 24 36 . 59 88.50 94 141. 25 37-50 60 90. 95 142.50 26 39 - 6l 91.50 96 144. 27 40.50 62 93 - 97 145 - 5 * 28 42. 63 94-50 98 147. 29 43-50 64 96. 99 148.50 30 45 - 65 97-50 IOO 150. 31 46.50 66 99. 125 187.50 32 48. 67 100.50 150 225. 33 49.50 68 102. 175 262.50 34 51 . 69 103.50 220 300. 35 52.50 70 105. 250 337-50 At $1.75 Cents. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols cts. ! No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. No. Dols. Cts. 1 i -75 18 3 i 5 ° ; 35 6l 25 52 91. 69 120.75 86 150.50 2 3-50 19 33 25 36 63 53 92.75 70 122.50 87 152.25 3 5-25 20 35 37 64 75 54 94-50 7 i 124.25 88 154 - 4 7 - 21 36 75 38 66 50 55 96.25 72 126. 89 155-75 5 8-75 22 38 50 39 68 25 56 98. 73 127.75 9 ° 157-50 6 10.50 23 40 25 40 7 ° 57 99-75 74 129.50 9 i 159-25 7 12.25 24 42 4 i 7 i 75 58 IOl . 50 75 131.25 92 l6l. g 14 25 43 75 42 73 50 59 103.25 76 133 - 93 162.75 9 15-75 26 45 50 43 75 25 60 105. 77 134-75 94 164.50 10 17.50 27 47 25 44 77 6l 106.75 78 136.50 96 168. 1 1 19.25 28 49 45 78 75 62 108.50 79 138.25 9 s 171.50 12 21 . 29 50 75 46 80 50 63 110.25 80 140. IOO 175 - 13 22.75 30 52 50 47 82 25 64 1 12 . 81 141.75 125 218.75 14 24.50 31 54 25 48 84 66 113-75 82 143-50 150 262 . 50 15 26.25 32 56 49 85 75 65 115.50 83 145-25 175 306.25 16 28. 33 57 75 50 87 50 67 117.25 84 147. 200 350 . 17 29.75 34 59 50 51 89 25 68 119. 85 I 48-75 225 393-75 RATE OF WAGES. 239 of Wk^, froir* $1 to $31 1W W eek. Days. 50 Cts. 62} Cts. 75 Cts. 87i Cts. Days. 50 Cts. 62 J Cts. | 75 Cts. j 87$ Cts. Dols. Cts. ! Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. j Dols. Cts. | Dols. Cts. 4 . 2 . l \ • 3 • 32 4 i • 372 .461 • 564 .65$ 4 • 4 • 54 . 6! • 74 4 •392 •494 •594 .694 2L ** . 6? • 74 • 9 ! .10I 5 • 41 2 . c 2 .624 • 73 , I • 8| . iofc .12* . 142 54 •434 • 544 .654 .76$ if . 10} • 13 • I 52 .iSi 54 •454 •574 .681 .80 4 • 1 2 2 ■I 5 i .184 .22 54 •474 • 59 i • 7 if .834 1? •I 4 f .18 .214 • 25 « 6 .50 .624 •75 .87$ a •l6$ • 20| • 25 .29 7 • 584 •72J .874 1 .02 *i ■m ■ 23 k .28 • 32 S 8 .664 .834 1 . 1 • i6| 2f . 204 .26 • 314 . 36 * 9 •75 •93 » I . 12$ 1.314 2| .23 .284 • 344 .40 10 • 834 I .04 125 1-454 3 •25 .314 •374 -434 II .914 1.144 i- 37 f i. 6 o 4 3 i .27 •334 • 4°4 -474 12 I . 1.25 1.50 1 75 3 i .29 .364 43 4 •51 18 1.50 x • 87 i 2.25 2.62$ 3 ? • 3 if •39 .464 • 54 $ 24 2. 2 . 50 3 - 3-50 4 • 33 i .41 J .50 ■ 584 26 2.164 2.71 3-25 3-79 4 i • 354 • 44 •53 .62 Days. $1 $1.12$ $1.25 ! $i-374 Days. $1.50 $1.62$ $1.75 $1.87$ Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. 4 • 4 • 44 5i • 5? 4 • 64 • 6 1 • 74 • 7? i . 84 • 94 .io4 .n4 1 2 .124 • 134 .144 .152 i .12$ .14 • 15$ .174 ? .18? .20? •21? .234 t • i64 .18? .20? • 2 3 1 .25 •27 .29 •3i4 ii .20| • 234 .26 .284 i4 -31 •33? .364 •39 ii •25 .28 •3i4 • 344 4 .372 •40$ • 43? •46? 14 .29 • 324 •364 .40 1? • 43? •474 •5i • 54? 2 •334 •374 .414 •45? 2 •50 •54 •584 .62$ 24 •374 .424 •46J •5i4 24 • 561 .6l ■654 .704 2* •44 • 464 •52 •574 24 .62$ • 67? •73 .78 2} •454 • 5!4 •574 •63 2? .68? •744 ,8o? .86 3 •50 •564 .624 .68? 3 •75 .8i? •874 • 93 ? 34 •54 .6l •67? • 744 34 .81 4 .88 • 94 ? 1 . oi 4 3 | •584 • 6 5 4 • 72 ? .8o? 34 .874 • 94 ? 1.02 1 .09I 3 ! .624 • 7 o 4 .78 .86 3 ? • 93 ? 1. 014 1.09I 1 -174 4 .664 •75 • 8 3 4 .914 4 I. 1 .o84 1. 164 1.25 44 .704 •794 .834 •974 44 i.o6? 1 • 15 1 - 23 ? 1 - 32 ? 4 s •75 •844 • 93 ? 1.03 4 \ 1.124 1 .21? 1-314 1.40$ 44 •79 .89 .98? 1.08? 4 1.18J 1.28$ 1.384 1.48? 5 • 834 • 93 ? 1.04 1.144 5 1.25 1-354 i- 45 ? 1.564 54 •874 ■984 1 • °9 4 1.20? 54 i. 3 x 4 1.424 1-534 1 .64 54 91? 1.03 1.144 1.26 54 1.374 1.49 1.604 i- 7 i? 54 ■954 I.07? 1 . 19? 1 - 3 1 4 5 ? 1 - 43 ? i - 55 ? 1.67? 1 ■ 79 ? 1 6 I . 1.124 1.25 1-374 6 150 1 . 624 i -75 1-874 7 1 . 164 1 - 3 i 4 1 - 45 ? 1.604 7 i -75 1.894 2.04 2. IS? 8 1-334 1-50 1 66 4 1-834 8 2. 2.164 2-334 2 50 9 1.50 1.68? 1.874 2.o6? 9 2.25 2 - 43 ? 2.624 2.8i? 10 1.664 1.874 2.08? 2.29 IO 2.50 2.70? 2.91? 3-124 II 1-834 2.06? 2.29 2.52 11 2.75 2.98 3.20? 3 - 43 ? 12 2. 2.25 2.50 2.75 12 3- 3-25 3-50 3-75 18 3- 3-374 3-75 4.12$ 18 4.50 4.874 5-25 5.624 24 4- 4-50 5- 5-50 24 6. 6.50 7- 7-50 26 4-334 4.874 5.42 596 26 6.50 7.04 7-584 1 8.12$ *4° RATE OF WAGES. Days. $2 $2.50 $3 $ 3-50 Days. $6 $7 $8 $9 Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i . Si .io| .12-4 • 144 1 \ •25 .29 • 33 i • 37 1 4 • i6i . 2o| • 25 .29 1 .50 .58! .661 • 75 3 •25 • 3 ii •374 •434 1 •75 • 874 I . 1.12! I • 33 i .41 -4 • 50 ■ 581 I I . i.i6i 1 • 33 i 1.50 ii • 4 ii •52 .62! • 72 f ii 1.25 i -453 1-661 1.874 is .50 • 624 • 75 .87! ii 1.50 1 - 75 2. 2.25 if •581 •73 .87! 1.02 i! i -75 2.04 2 - 33 ! 2.62! 2 .66.1 •831 I . 1. 161 2 2. 2 - 33 i 2.661 3 - 2i •75 • 93 ! 1.124 i- 3 ii 2! 2.25 2.62! 3 '• 3-374 2i •8 3 i 1.04 1.25 1 - 45 ! 2 4 2.5O 2-gii 3 - 33 i 3-75 2 \ • 9 ij i-i 4 l 1-374 1 .60! 2! 2-75 3.203 3 661 4.12! 3 I . 1.25 1.50 i -75 3 3 - 3-50 4 - 4-50 3 i i.o8| 1 35 -i 1.624 1.89I 3 1 3-25 3-79 4 33 ! 4.874 3 k 1 . i6£ 1 .46 1 75 2.04 31 3-50 4 08 ! 4 661 5-25 3 l 1.25 1 • 5^1 1.87! 2. i8J 33 3-75 4-374 5 - 5-62! 4 i- 33 i 1.66I 2. 2-334 4 4 - 4-661 5 - 33 i 6. 4 i 1.414 i -77 2.124 2-473 4 i 4-25 4-953 5-661 6-374 4 s 1.50 1-874 2.25 2.62! 4 ! 4-50 5-25 6. 6-75 4 ? 1-581 1 -973 2.374 2.77 43 4-75 5 54 6 - 33 ! 7-121 5 1.664 2.oSi 2.50 2 gii 5 5 - 5 83! 6 661 7-50 5 i i.8 3 i 2.29 2.75 3.20! 54 5-50 6.41! 7 - 33 i 8.25 6 2. 2.50 3 - 3-50 6 6. 7 - 8. 9 - 7 2 - 33 i 2.914 3-50 4-08! 7 7 - 8.i6i 9 - 33 i 10.50 8 2.664 3 33 i 4 - 4.664 8 8. 9 - 33 i 10 661 12. 9 3 - 3-75 4-50 5-25 9 9 - 10.50 12. 13-50 IO 3 - 33 i 4 -i 6 J 5 - 5 - 83 ! IO IO. H .661 13-33! 15 - II 3-664 4.58! 5-50 6.414 II II. 12.83! 14. 661 16.50 12 4 - . 5 - 6. 7 - 12 12. 14 - l6. 18. 18 6. 7.50 9 - 10.50 18 18. 21 . 24. 27. 24 8. IO. 12. 14. 24 24- 28. 32. 36 . 26 8.664 10.83! 13 - 1 15-16! 26 26. 30334 34 • 661 39 - Days. $4 $4.50 $5 $5.50 Days. $10 $n $12 $13 Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. 4 . 165 .184 .204 -23 i ■ 4 iJ .46 • 50 •54 4 • 334 ■372 .414 • 454 4 • 83! • 9 iJ I. i.o8J 4 •50 • 564 .62! .834 .684 3 1-25 1 -374 1.50 1.62 4 I .664 •75 • gi 4 I 1 -661 2.081 1.834 2. 2.16I U .834 • 93 i 1.04 1.14! ii 2.29 2.50 2.71 ti I . 1 . 125 1.25 1 • 374 ii 2.50 2-75 3 - 3-25 U 1.16J i- 3!4 1-454 1.60! ii 2-913 3-21 3-50 3-79 2 1-334 1.50 1.66I 1 - 83! 2 3-334 3 66} 4 - 4-334 24 1.50 1.684 187I 2.06! 2i 3-75 4-121 4-50 4-874 2i 1.664 1.87! 2.o8i 2.29 2l 4 -i 63 4-584 5 - 5 - 4 i 4 24 1.834 2.064 2.29 2.52 23 4-584 5 04 5-50 5.96 3 2. 2.25 2.50 2.75 3 5 - 5-50 6. 6.50 34 2.164 2 43 ? 2.704 2.98 3 i 5 - 4 i 3 596 6.50 7.04 34 2-334 2.62! 2-914 3 - 20 ! 34 5-834 6 . 4 i 4 7 - 7-581 34 2.50 3.814 3-121 3-434 33 6.25 6.87! 7.50 8.12I 4 2.662 3 - 3-334 3 664 4 6.66} 7-334 8. 8.661 44 2.834 3 - i8i 3 54 i 3-891 4 i 7 -o 8 i 7-79 8.50 9.21 44 1 3 - 3-37 1 3-75 4-121 4 4 7.50 8 25 9 - 9-75 44 3 -i 64 3-564 3 954 4-354 43 7 - 9 i 3 8.71 9.50 10.29 5 3 - 334 3-75 4.16! 4-584 4 - 58 ! 5 8-334 9 i 63 IO. 10.83! 84 3.664 4.12-i 5.04 5 4 9 165 io.oSl II . 11.91I 6 4 - 4-50 5 - 5-50 6 IO. II . 12. 13 - 7 4-664 5-25 5 - 8 3 i 6.41I 7 11.663 12.83! 14. 15-16! 8 5 - 33 i 6. 6.661 7 - 33 i 8 13-334 14.664 l6. 17-334 9 6. 6.75 7-50 8.25 9 15 - 16.50 18. 19.50 IO 6 . 66i 7.50 8-334 9.16I IO i 6.663 18.334 20. 21 .661 II 7-334 8.25 9.16! 10.08I II 18.334 20. i6§ 22. 23-83! 12 8. 9 - IO. I I . 12 20. 22. 24. 26. 18 12. 13-50 15- 16.50 18 30 - 33 36. 39 - 24 l6. 18. 20. 22. 24 40. 44. 48. 1 5 *- 26 17-334 19.50 21.661 23-83! 26 43-334 47-661 1 52. 56.334 RATE OF WAGES. 241 Days. |I4 $15 $16 $17 Days. $18 $19 $20 $21 Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. Dols. Cts. i - 584 .62} -66} •71 1 4 •75 •79 ■83} •87} i 1 . 163 1.25 1-33} i-4i} } 1.50 1.58} 1.66} i-75 1 4 i-75 1.87} 2. 2.122 1 4 2.25 2-37} 2.50 2.62} I 2-33 j 2.50 2.66} 2.83} I 3- 3-16} 3-33} 3-50 1} 2.91$ 3.12} 3-33} 3-54 1} 3 - 75 3 96 4-16} 4-37} 1} 3-50 3-75 4- 4-25 1} 4.50 4-75 5- 525 i? 4.08} 4-37} 4.66} 4.96 1? 5-25 5-54 5-83} 6.12} 2 a. 66} 5- , 5-33* 5.66} 2 6. 6-33} 6.66} 7- 2| 5.25 5.62} 6. 6-375 2} 6-75 7-12} 7-50 7-87} 2 i 5 ■ 83* 6.25 6.66} 7 08} 2} 7.50 7-91} 8-33} 8-75 2 } 6.41} 6.87} 7-334 7-79 2} 8.25 8.71 9.16} 9.62} 3 7- 7.50 8. 8.50 3 9- 9.50 10. 10.50 34 7-58} 8. I2J 8.66} 9.21 3} 9-75 10.29 10.83} 11.37} 3 i 8.16} 8-75 9-33} 9-91} 3} IO.5O 11 .08} 11.66} 12.25 3 * 8.75 9-37} 10. 10.62} 3} II .25 11.87} 12.50 13.12} 4 , 9-33} IO. 10.66} n-33* 4 12. 12.66} 13-33} 14- 4i 9.914 10.62} H-33* 12.04 4} 12.75 13-46 14.16} 14-87} 4 * 10.50 11.25 12. 12-75 4 * 13 50 14-25 15- 15-75 4 ? 11.08} 11.87} 12.66} 13.46 4 ? 14.25 15.04 15-83} 16.62} 5 11.66} 12.50 13-33} 14 16} 5 15- 15-83} 16.66} 17.50 5 * 12.83} 13-75 14.66} 15-58} 5* 16.50 17.41} 18.33} 19.25 6 14. 15- l6. 17- 6 iS. 19. 20. 21. 7 i 6 - 33 i 17.50 18.66} 19.83} 7 21. 22.16} 23-33} 24 50 8 18.66} 20. 21.33} 22.66} 8 24. 25-33* 26.66} 28. 9 21 . 22.50 24. 25.50 9 27. 28.50 30 - 3 1 -5° 10 23-33} 25- 26.66} 28.33} IO 30. 31.66} 33 - 33 } 35- 11 25.66} 27-50 29.33} 31-16} 11 33 - 34 - 83 } 36.66} 38 . 12 28. 30. 32- 34- 12 36 . 38 - 40. 42.00 18 42. 45- 48. 5 i- 18 54- 57- 60. 63. 24 56. 60. 64. 68. 24 72. 76. 80. 84 26 60.66} 65 - 69-33} 73-66} 26 78. 82.33} 86.66} 91. RATE OF BOARD BY THE WEEK. Time. Rate. Rate. Rate. Rate. Rate. Time. Rate. Rate. Rate. Rate. Rate. W. D. $2.00 $2.25 $2.50 $3.00 $ 3 - 5 ° W. D. .$4.00 $4.50 $5.00 $ 5-50 $6.00 I .29 •32 •36 •43 .50 1 •57 .64 • 7 i ■79 .86 2 •57 .64 ■ 7 i .86 I. 2 1. 14 1.29 1-43 i -57 1. 71 3 .86 .96 1.07 1.29 1.50 3 1. 71 i -93 2.14 2.36 2-57 4 1. 14 1 .26 1.43 1. 71 2. 4 2.29 2-57 2.86 3-14 3-43 5 1.43 1 .61 1.79 2.14 2.50 5 2.86 3-21 3-57 3-93 4.29 6 1. 71 1.93 2. 14 2-57 3 - 6 3-48 3-86 4.29 4-71 5.14 1.1 2.29 2-57 2.86 3-43 4- 1 . 1 4-57 5.14 5 - 7 i 6.29 6.86 1.2 2-57 2 . 89 3.21 3-86 4.50 1.2 5-14 5-79 6-43 7.07 7 - 7 i i-3 2.86 3-21 3-57 4.29 5 - 1-3 5 - 7 i 6-43 7.14 7.86 8-57 1.4 3-14 3-54 3-93 4-71 5.50 1.4 6.29 7.07 7.86 8.64 9 43 i -5 3 43 3-86 4.29 5-14 6. i -5 6.86 7 - 7 i 8-57 9-43 10.29 1.6 3 - 7 i 4.18 4.64 5-57 6.50 1.6 7-43 8.36 9.29 10.21 II. 14 2. 4 - 4.50 5 - 6. 7 - 2. 8. 9 - IO. II. 12. 2. 1 4.29 4.82 5-36 6.43 7.50 2.1 8-57 9.64 10.71 11.79 12.86 2.2 4-57 5.14 5-71 6.86 8. 2.2 9.14 10.29 H -43 12.57 13.71 2-3 4.86 5-46 6.07 7.29 8.50 2-3 9 71 10.93 12.14 13.36 14-57 2.4 5-14 5-79 6.43 7 - 7 i 9 - 2.4 10.29 11.67 12.86 14.14 15-43 2-5 5-43 6. 11 6.79 8 . 14 9-50 2-5 10.86 12.21 13-57 14-93 16.29 2.6 5-71 6-43 7-14 8-57 IO. 2.6 11.43 12.86 14.29 15-71 17.14 3- 6. 6-75 7-50 9 - 10.50 3 - 12. 13-50 15 - 16.50 18. 3-i 6.29 7.07 7.86 9-43 II. 3 -i 12-57 14.14 15-71 17 29 18.86 3-2 6.57 7-39 8.21 9.86 11.50 3-2 13-14 14.79 16.43 18.07 19.71 3-3 6.86 7 7 i 8-57 10.29 12. 3-3 13.71 15-43 17.14 18.86 20.57 3-4 7-14 8.04 8.93 10.71 12.50 3-4 14.29 16.07 17.86 19.64 21-43 ' 3-5 7-43 8 36 9.29 II . 14 13 - 3-5 14.86 16.71 18-57 20.43 22.29 3-6 7 7 i 8.68 9.64 11.57 13.50 3.6 15-43 17.36 19.29 21.21 23.14 4 - 8. 9 - 10. 12. 14. 4 - l6. 18. 20. 22. 24. B4 2 ALGEBRA. £ have seen that logarithmic tables may be used as a substitute for many lengthened operations in arithmetic. It is evident that the value of all methods of computation lies in their brev- ity. Algebra must be considered as one of the most important departments of mathematical on account of the extreme rapidity and cer- tainty with which it enables us to determine the most involved and intricate questions. The term algebra is of Arabic origin, and has a reference to the resolution and compo- sition of quantities. In the manner in which it is applied, it embodies a method of performing calculations by means of various signs and abbreviations, which are used instead of words and phrases, so that it may be called the system of symbols. Although it is a science of calculation, yet its operations must not be confounded with those of arithmetic. All calculations in arithmetic refer to some particular individual question, whereas those of algebra refer to a whole class of questions. One great advantage in algebra is, that all the steps of any particular course of reasoning are, by means of symbols, placed at once before the eye, so that the mind, being unimpeded in its operations, proceeds uninterruptedly from one step of reasoning to another, until the solution of the question is at- tained. Symbols are used to represent not only the known, but also the unknown quantities. The present custom is to represent all known quantities by the first letters of the alphabet, as a, b, c, etc and the unknown quantities by the last letters, x. y. z. The symbols used in arithmetic to denote addition, subtrac- tion, etc., belong properly to algebra. Thus the sign + plus denotes that one quantity is to be added to another, and is called the positive or additive sign ; all numbers to which it is prefixed are called positive. The sign — minus denotes that one quantity is to be subtracted from another ; it is called the negative or subtractive sign, and all quantities to which it is prefixed are called negative. If neither + nor — be prefixed to a quantity, then the sign 4- plus is understood. The general sign to denote that one number is to be multi- plied by another is x ; but it often occurs that one letter has to be multiplied by another, and this is represented by placing those letters one after another, generally according to the or- der in which they stand in the alphabet ; thus a multiplied by b is expressed by ab. The multiplication of quantities con- sisting of more than one term, as, for instance, a + b by c d, may be represented by any one of the following methods : a + b x c+d, or a + b c+d, or ( a + b ) ( c+d ). The bar drawn over a + b and c + d, which in the first two examples n.arks them as distinct quantities, is called a vinculum, but brackets or parentheses for the same purpose, as in the last example, are now in more frequent use. When a letter is multiplied by any given number, it s usual to prefix that number to the letter. Thus, twice a, three times b, four times c, six times x, etc., are expressed thus: 2 a, 3 b, 4 or < is called that of inequality, it being placed between two quantities, of which one is greater than Ihe other ; the open part of the symbol is always turned towards the greater quantity : thus, a > b denotes a to be greater than b ; and c < d denotes d to be greater than c. The sign of dif- ference ~, is only used when it is uncertain which of two quantities is the greater ; thus e ~ f denotes the difference between e and /"when it is uncertain which is the greater. • The word therefore, or consequently, often occurring in alge- braical reasoning, the symbol .'. has been chosen to represent it : thus, the sentence “ Therefore a + b is equal to c + d,' is thus expressed in algebra, a + b—c + d. Like quantities are such as consist of the same letter or let- ters, or power of letters : thus, 6 a and 2 a are like quantities, and also 4 abc and 9 abc. Unlike quantities are such as con- sist of different letters: as, 4 a, 5 b, tax 2 , \cd, which are all unlike quantities. The operation of addition in arithmetic consists, as has been shown, simply in joining or adding several quantities together : thus, 4 + 8 + 7 + 6=25. This same process is always used in algebra, whenever like quantities with like signs are required to be added ■ thus, j« + 3«+6a= 11 a\ and — 7 b — 4 b — 6 v = — 17 b. But as :i often happens that like quantities which are to be added together have unlike signs, addition has in algebra a far more extended signification than in arith- metic. Thus, to add 7 .1 + 4 a to 8 a — 3 a, it is evident that, after 70 + 40 + 82 have been added according to the usual method, 3 a must be subtracted. Hence the general rule for the addition of kle quantities with unlike signs is to add first the coefficients of the positive terms, and then to add those of the negative terms ; the less sum must be subtracted from the greater, and to this difference the sign of the greater must be annexed, with the common letter or letters. Thus, let it be required to add 7 2 — 3 and n, are incommensurable quantities, and are also said to be prime to each other. When fractions are required either to be added or to be subtracted, they must necessarily be first reduced to a common denominator, which is effected by multiplying each numerator by every denominator but its own, to produce new numerators, and all the denominators together for the common denominator. The new numerators can then be either added or subtracted according as the case may require, and the new denominator must be left unchanged. Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplying all the numerators together for a new numerator, and their denomi- nators together for a new denominator ; it is then usual to re- duce the resulting fraction to its lowest terms. Division of fractions is effected by multiplying the dividend by the reci- procal of the divisor. The reciprocal of any quantity is unity, or 1, divided by that quantity, or simply that quantity inverted : thus, the reciprocal of a or — is—, and the reciprocal of 1 a a . b . , , . 8 a 2 , 4 a . — is — ; therefore, to divide a fraction, as — — , by — , the divi- b a 4 5 o ^ # # 4 a dend, —— , must be multiplied by the reciprocal of — — , which is — ; therefore, - — x —— = ; this last fraction, divi- 4 a 4 4 a 16 a ded by its greatest common measure, 8 a, is the fraction re- quired, namely, The raising of a quantity to any required power is called involution, and is performed by multiplying the quantity into itself as often as it is indicated by the given power. When the quantity has no index, it is only necessary to place the given power above it, in order merely to indicate the power : thus, the 4th power of a is a\ and the cube or 3d power of a + b is (a + by. When the quantity has an index, that index must be multi, plied by the given power ; thus, the fourth power of a 1 is a *, because 2x4=8. If the quantity required to be raised be a fraction, both the numerator and the denominator must be a 2 . a * multiplied by the given power: thus, the square of p 3 ls ^p When the sign of the quantity is +, then all the powers to which it can be raised must be + ; if — , then all the even powers will be + , and all the odd powers — . Thus x x x = x 2 ; — ax — <2 = + a 2 ; — ax — ax — a ■= — a 8 . A compound quantity, that is, one consisting of more than ( ALGEBRA one term, is raised to any given power by multiplying it into itself the number of times denoted by the power. This is .lone according to the method already described in multiplica- tion. Thus, the square of x + 4 y, is thus found : — Multiply a: + 4y By x + 4 y x 2 + 4 xy 4 xy + l6/* ^ Square = x 2 + 8 xy + 16 y 2 The operations of evolution are the reverse of those of invo- lution, being designed to discover the square root, cube root, etc., of any given quantity. The roots of numerical coeffi- cients are found as in arithmetic : thus, the square root of 49 a 2 , is 7 a , because 7x7 = 49. The index of the given quan- tity must be divided by 2 for the square root, by 3 for the cube root, by 4 for the 4th root, etc. : thus, the cube root of a 0 is a \ The square root of compound quantities may be extracted by a method very similar to that described in arithmetic, and of which an example was there given. The cube root may likewise be extracted by a similar process. Some numbers have no exact root ; for instance, no num- ber multiplied into itself can produce 5. The roots of such quantities are expressed by fractional indices, or by the sign \t, which is called the radical sign, from the Latin radix, a root : thus, the square root of 5, and the cube root of ( a + b) 2 , may be expressed either by ^5, (a + b) 2 , or by 5I, (a + ^)f. The approximate value of such quantities can be ascertained to any required degree of exactness by the common rules for extracting roots : thus, the square root of 2 is 1 and an indefi- nite number of decimals : but as the exact value can never be determined, the name of irrational is given to such quantities, to distinguish them from all numbers whatever, whether whole or fractional, of which the value can be found, and which are therefore termed rational. Irrational numbers are generally called surds, from the Latin surdus, deaf or senseless. When two quantities are equal to each other, the algebra- ical expression denoting their equality is called an equation. Thus, * — 2 — 4 f 3 is an equation, denoting that if 2 be deducted from some unknown quantity represented by x, th« remainder will be equal to 4 + 3, that is, to 7 ; therefore, the value of x in this equation is evidently 7 + 2, or 9. The doctrine of equations constitutes by far the most im- portant part of algebra, it being one of the principal objects ol mathematics to reduce all questions to the form of equations, and then to ascertain the value of the unknown quantities by means of their relations to other quantities of which the value is known. Many problems, which are now quickly and readily deter- mined by being reduced to equations, used formerly to be solved by tedious and intricate arithmetical rules ; and they may still be found in old treatises on arithmetic, arranged under the titles of Double and Single Position, False Position, Allegation, etc. Equations receive different names, accord- ing to the highest power of the unknown quantities contained in them. An equation is said to be simple, or of the f.rst de* gree, when it contains only the first power of the unknown quantity : thus, x x b — 35 a — 2 is a simple equation, the unknown quantity being represented by x, as it generally is in other equations, and the known quantities by the other letters and figures, x 2 + 4 = 8 a, is a quadratic equation, because x, the unknown quantity, is raised to the second power. x 3 — a + 3 b is a cubic equation, the unknown quantity be ing raised to the third power. x* — a — 25 c is a biquadratic equation, because x is raised to the 4th power. If equations contain unknown quantities raised to the 5th, 6th, or higher powers, they are denominated accordingly. The quantities of which an equation is composed, are called its terms ; and the parts that stand on the right and left of the sign =, are called the members or sides of the equation. When it is desired to determine any question that may arise respecting the value of some unknown quantity by means of an equation, two distinct steps or operations are requisite ; the first step consists in translating the question from the collo- quial language of common life into the peculiar analytical language of the science. The second step consists in finding, by given rules, the answer to the question, or in other words, the solution of the equation. Expertness and facility in per- forming the former operation cannot be produced by any set of rules ; in this, as in many other processes, practice is the best teacher. Every new question requires a new process of reasoning ; the conditions of the question must be well con- sidered, and all the operations, whether of addition, subtrac- tion, etc., which are required to be performed on the quanti- ties which it contains, are to be represented by the algebraie signs of +,— , etc. : the whole problem must be written down as if these operations had been already performed, and as if the unknown quantities were discovered, which can be done very briefly by substituting the first letters of the alphabet for the known quantities, and the last letters for the unknown, prefixing to each the signs of addition, multiplication, etc., which may be denoted in the question. The second operation in determining a question may be said to consist in contrivances to get x, or the unknown quantity, to stand alone on one side of the equation, without destroying the equality or balance between the two sides ; because, iu ALGEBRA. 347 such an equation, for instance, as the following, x = 4 + 2, the value of x is at once seen ; if 6 were to be put in the place of x, the question would be said to be fulfilled , because then it would stand thus, 6 = 6; therefore, 6 is the root or solution of the equation -r= 4 + 2. In some questions, the unknown quantity is so much involved with known quantities, that it is Mten a difficult, although always a highly interesting, pro- cess to separate it from them. Many rule: for effecting this are given in most algebraical treatises, but they may all be comprised in one general observation, namely, that any oper- ation, whether of addition, subtraction, etc., maybe performed on one side of an equation, provided only that the very same operation be performed on the other side, so as not to destroy their equality. Thus, in the equation x + 5 = 12, it is evi- dent that, if 5 could be removed from the left to the right side of the equation, x would stand alone, and its value at once be ascertained ; it having been already stated that any operation may be performed on one side of the equation, provided only the same operation be performed on the other, it follows that 5 maybe subtracted from the left side, if subtracted likewise from the right ; therefore, x + 5 — 5 = 12 — 5; but 5—5 be- ing equal to o, the equation would more properly be expressed thus, x — 12 — 5 ; that is to say, the value of x is 7. Again, in the equation x — 10 = 27, add ten to each side of the equation ; then, x — 10 t- 10 = 27 + 10 ; but — 10 + 10 = o ; therefore, x — 27 + 10. When the same quantity is thus sub- tracted from both sides of an equation, or added to both sides, the operation is technically, though perhaps incorrectly, termed, “ transposing quantities from one side of an equation to the other.” The reason why the same operation performed upon both sides of an equation does not alter their equality, is simply because “if equal quantities be added to, or subtracted from, equal quantities, the value of the quantities will still be equal.” To illustrate this, supposing a wine-merchant has 2 casks of wine, each cask containing 36 gallons, it is evident that, if he draws off the same number of gallons from each cask, the quantity of gallons remaining in each cask will still be equal ; so, if he were to replace the same number of gal- lons of wine in each cask, the number of gallons contained in each would still be equal to each other. For the same reason, if the two sides of an equation were either multiplied or divi- ded by the same number, their equality to each other would still remain ; in the equation 3 x = 27, the value of -r may be discovered by dividing both sides of the equation by its coeffi- , jx 27 , 3.r 27 cient, 3 ; thus — = — ; but ■ — - = x, and — ■ = o ; x — q. 3 3 3 3 V In the same way, if the unknown quantity in an equation is required to be divided by some known quantity, each side of the equation may be multiplied by the divisor : thus, in the x equation — = 32, if each member be multiplied by 4, the re- sult will be x = 32 x 4 = 128. This is technically called clearing an equation of fractions. ON SIMPLE EQUATIONS CONTAINING TWO OR MORE UNKNOWN QUANTITIES. it may bo given as a general rule, that when a question arises as to the value of two or more unknown quantities, each of these quantities must be represented by one of the last let- ters of the alphabet, and as many separate equations must be deduced from the question as there are unknown quantities. A group of equations of this kind is called a system of simul- taneous equations. If it be required to solve a system of two simple equations, containing two unknown quantities, the most natural method seems to be to determine first the value of one of the unknown quantities by means of both the equations. Then as “ things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other,” it follows that the two sets of numbers or letters in the two equations, which have been ascertained to be equal to the value of x, will also be equal to each other, and may be re- duced to an equation, which wall contain only one unknown quantity. This process is technically called elimination. Let it, for instance, be required to find the length of two planks of wood : the length of both planks together is 20 feet, and one plank is 8 feet longer than the other plank. This is evi- dently a question involving two unknown quantities, namely, the length of each of the two planks of wood. To translate this question into algebraical language, cal' the longer plank x, and the shorter plank/, then the facts above mentioned may be thus stated : x + y — 20, and x — y — 8. The value of x may be ascertained by means of both the equations, irr the following manner : — The first equation gives x — 20 — / And the second, x = 8 + / The two values of x, thus ascertained, must form a new equa« tion, thus : — 20 — / = 8 + / 20 = 8 4- 2 y So that it is evident from this last equation that 2 / is equal to 12, because 20 — 8 = 12 ; therefore / = 6, and 20 — 6 = 14. The length of both the planks is thus ascertained, the longer being 14 feet in length, and the shorter 6 feet. This problem is not only given as an example of elimina- tion , but also as an illustration of the general theorem, that “ the greater of two numbers is equal to half their sum, plus half their difference ; and that the less number is equal to half the sum, minus half the difference.” Thus the above ques- tion might have been solved in the following manner : — 20 8 , 20 8 , — + - = 14, and =6 22 22 The following is the method of demonstrating this curious theorem algebraically : — Let a and b be any two numbers of which a is the greater, and let their sum be represented by 3 and their difference by d ; Then, a + b = s and a — b — d 2 a = s + d s d and a = - + — 2 2 Also, 2 b — s — d s d and ~ 2 2 m8 ALGEBRA. A quadratic equation literally means a squared equation , the term being derived from the Latin quadratus , squared ; a quadratic equation, therefore, is merely an equation in which the unknown quantity is squared or raised to the second pow- er. Quadratic equations are often called equations of two dimensions, or of the second degree, because all equations are classed according to the index of the highest power of the unknown quantities contained in them. There are two kinds of quadratic equations, namely, pure and adfected. Pure quadratic equations are those in which the first power of the unknown quantity does not appear : there is not the least difficulty in solving such equations, be- cause all that is requisite is to obtain the value of the square according to the rules for solving simple equations, and then, by extracting the square root of both sides of the equation, to | ascertain the value of the unknown quantity. For instance, let it be required to find the value of x in the equation x* + 4 = 29. By deducting 4 from each side of the equation, the value of x 2 is at once seen to be as follows : x* — 29 — 4 = 25 ; the square root of both sides of this equation will evidently give the value of x, thus, . - - 4/25 = 5. Adfected or affected quadratic equations are such as contain not only the square, but also the first power of the unknown quantities. There are two methods of solving quadratic equations; we are indebted to the Hindoos for one of these methods, of which a full account is given in a very curious Hindoo work entitled Bija Ganita. The other method was discovered by the early Italian algebraists. The principle upon which both methods are founded is the following : It is evident that in an adfected equation, as for instance, ax 2 4- b x — d, the first member, ax'* + bx, is not a complete square ; it is, however, necessary for the solution of the equation that the first side should be so modified as to be made a complete square, and that, by corresponding additions, multiplications, etc., the equality of the second side should not be lost ; then, by ex- tracting the square root of each side, the equation will be re- duced to one of the first degree, which may be solved by tbs common process. GYMNASTICS. 249 MNASTICS is a sys- tem of exercises which develop and invigorate the body, particularly the muscular system. If properly directed, gym- nastics will enlarge and strengthen the various mus- cles of the trunk, neck, arms, and legs, and will expand the chest so as to facilitate the play of the lungs, will render the joints supple, and will impart to the person grace, ease, and steadiness of car- riage, combined with strength, elasticity, and quick- ness of movement ; but an injudicious mode of exer- cise will frequently confirm and aggravate those physical imperfections for which a remedy is sought, by developing the muscular system unequally. WALKING, RUNNING, JUMPING, AND LEAP- ING. In Walking, the arms should move freely by the side, the head be kept up, the stomach in, the shoulders back, the feet parallel with the ground, and the body resting neither on the toe nor heel, but on the ball of the foot. On starting, the pupil should raise one foot, keep the knee and instep straight, the toe bent downward. When this foot reaches the ground, the same should be repeated with the other. This should be practised until the pupil walks firmly and gracefully. In Running, the legs should not be raised too high ; the arms should be nearly still, so that no unnecessary opposition be given to the air by useless motions. In swift running the swing of the arms should be from the shoulder to the elbow, the fore-arm being kept nearly horizontal with the chest. Running in a circle is excellent exercise, but the direction should be changed occasionally, so that both sides of the ground may be equally worked : as if the ground be not kept level, the runners will find it difficult to maintain their equilibrium. Jumping. — The first rule is, to fall on the toes, and never on the heels. Bend the knees, that the calves of the legs may touch the thighs. Swing the arms forward when taking a spring ; break the fall with the hands if necessary ; hold the breath, keep the body forward, come to the ground with both feet together, and, in taking the run, let your steps be short, and increase in quickness as you approach the leap. Leaping. — The Long Leap . — Make a trench, which widens gradually from one end to the other, so that the breadth of the leap may be increased daily. Keep the feet close together, and take your spring from the toes of o»e foot, which should be quickly drawn up to the other, and they should descend at the same instant ; throw the arms and body forward, especi- ally in descending. Take a run of about twenty paces. The Deep Leap .— This is performed from the top of a wall, or a flight of steps, increasing the depth according to the pro- gress of the pupil. The body should be bent forward, the feet close together, and the hands ready to touch the ground at the same time with, or rather before the feet. The High Leap .— This leap can best be taken over a light fence that will give way in the event of its being touched by the feet. It may be taken either standing or with a run : for the former, the legs should be kept together, and the feet and knees raised in a straight direction ; for the latter, we recom- mend a short run, and a light tripping step, gradually quick- ened as the object to be leaped over is approached. You should be particularly careful not to alight on your heels, but rather on the toes and balls of the feet. Let a set of apparatus be erected after the pattern wc are about to give, and use be made of it as we shall recommend, and we will guarantee that there shall be fewer accidents in a GYMNASTICS. *50 whole year than may be looked for in any ordinary high fieid- day at football ; nay, more than this — that it shall prove not only a less perilous pastime than any of the regular outdoor sports, but actually a preservative against accidents from other causes. Fig. i. Our 'ip/B rauis will consist of the following : horizontal bar, hanging bar, parallel bars, vaulting-horse, ladder, hanging ropes, and the usual ct ceteras. Of these latter, however, we shall not take notice here ; our attention will be entirely directed to the more advanced exercises. The Horizontal Bar should be set up as follows : If intended as a permanency, two strong posts must be let into the ground or into iron sockets, standing seven feet apart and about eight feet in height ; these are to support the bar, which must be made to shift up and down in grooves cut in the posts, so as to be easily adapted to the height of the performer. This bar should be of straight-grained ash, seven feet between the uprights, an inch and three-quarters in diameter, perfectly round, with a steel core an inch thick running through the centre. This last is a very important point. If there be no steel core, then the bar must be reduced at least one foot in length and increased to two inches diameter ; both of which, especially the latter, as making it clumsy to the grasp of an ordinary hand, will detract much from its prac- tical value. The bar must be so fastened to the uprights that there shall be no unsteadiness or vibration. A wabbly bar is a terrible nuisance, and is apt to throw one out of all calculation just at the critical point of a feat. If for private use, or it be thought desirable to make it port- able, the method of construction figured in our cut (Fig. i) will be found very convenient and serviceable, and, what is more, thoroughly trustworthy. The Hanging Bar must be very carefully constructed. The ropes should be attached securely to a good, firm, unyielding support, about fifteen or eighteen feet from the ground — this will be quite sufficient height — and the bar, which should be about twenty-six inches long byone-and-n-quarterir diameter, with a steel core as before, must be firmly attached to the iooes, so a - to afford a safe hold. Above all things, it must : 10 ' revohc -.n the gi asp. The height from the ground must be tegulated by the stature of the performer. The Parallel Bars are very seldom constructed with any- thing like correctness of shape or proportions. A couple of clumsy rails — one might almost say beams— laid across two pairs of posts at any height from the ground and at any dis- tance apart, are set up, dubbed “ parallel bars,” and are sup- posed to be all that could be desired. But, as might be sup- posed if people only took the trouble to think, parallel bars, to be of any real service, require as nice an adaptation to their purposes as any other mechanical contrivance. The bars or rails, being intended for the grasp of the hands, must be of such size and shape as will afford the best grasp, and their height and distance apart must be adapted to the stature of those for whose use they are intended. The size of the bars is especially important : if they be too large for a fair grasp, not only is the hand likely to slip and a heavy fall to result, but there is great danger to the wrist and thumb of serious sprains or dislocation. Moreover, when a fair grasp is impossible, many of the exercises — most of them, indeed — are also ipso facto impossible, and thus many begin- ners are disgusted at the outset : they are told to begin with such and such exercises, as simple preliminaries to others more advanced ; they find after repeated trials that they cannot even make a commencement, and naturally soon give up the whole thing in despair. For ordinary purposes, that is, for people not of exceptional stature, the most useful dimensions are these : height from the ground, four feet eight inches ; distance apart, eighteen inches, or nineteen at most ; for boys, seventeen or even six- teen will be sufficient. The length should not be less than seven feet, and the bars should be round, and of a diameter of two-and-an-eighth inches. Oval bars are sometimes used, but we prefer 'he round ones, as they feel more natural, most of the other apparatus being of similar form. For the uprights no dimensions need be given : all that is GYMNASTICS. 25s needful is that they should be sufficiently strong. They should be fitted into a stout wooden frame, firmly morticed together. When in use, this frame must be fastened to the floors by screws. If required for a playground, or any place where it is necessary to have them fixed, they may readily be secured by wooden stakes or wedges driven into the ground. A more convenient way is to sink the posts permanently into the ground ; but then they are liable to decay from the damp, and thus to become unsafe. The Vaulting-Horse is of all gymnastic apparatus that which has been hitherto most neglected. There are various lengths for these horses, but the one you will find to be the most generally useful is six feet long and about sixteen inches across the back. It is covered with cow- hide all over and evenly padded, and is generally made with one end a little raised, with a slight bend corresponding to the neck of the animal which is its prototype ; and this gives some form to it, and is useful as a mark where to place the hands. There are two pommels placed about the centre, eighteen inches apart, and movable, so that the horse may be used with- out them if required ; and in this case flush pommels, level with the back of the horse, are inserted into the grooves. The legs must be made to slide up and down after the man- ner of a telescope, so that the horse may be used at heights varying from about three feet six inches to six feet. It is also necessary to have a solid deal board, about three feet square, rising in thickness from a feather-edge to three inches, for taking what is technically termed a “ beat ” off Fig. 3. which is very useful in exercises which require to be performed lengthways on the horse. Of course it is not used as aspring- board, but only to give a firm foundation for the feet in jump- ing, and particularly to mark the place of starting when in- creasing or diminishing the distance from the horse. The ladders, hanging ropes, and so on, we need not de- scribe. There are. however, two more requisites to which we should wish to direct attention. One is the Hand-Rings : two ropes, as if for a hanging bar, but terminating instead each in an iron ring covered with leather, and large enough for the hand to grasp comfortably. These rings are made of various shapes ; but that which we recommend as the most practically useful is the stirrup. One other requisite, indispensable for safety in first essays at many of the feats we shall describe, is the Lungers, so called. This is a strong broad leather belt to buckle round the waist, with an iron ring or eye at each side. To these eyes are strongly attached ropes, one on each side, of sufficient strength to support the weight of the wearer. The figure will indicate the method of using it.” ( Fig. 4.) This is an invaluable safeguard for novices, and enables many to learn quickly — simply by the fearlessness it engen- ders — many a difficult feat which they would otherwise never dream of attempting. We cannot help thinking that a similar appliance, only a little more above the centre of gravity, would prove of im- mense service in learning difficult figures in skating. Ladies, too, might profit by it in their first efforts, as all fear of un- seemly falls would be quite dispelled. So much for the construction of an apparatus ; now for the use to be made of it. We will begin with THE HORIZONTAL RAR. But before we begin it must first be put into good condition. Most likely there will be a little grease on it from previous practice, which it is highly important should be removed be- fore commencing. This is done in the following manner: Take a wet cloth ( without soap or soda, as any kind of alkali will raise the grain of the wood and make it rough ), and rub the bar with it ; then get a few feet of rope — I find thick sash-line the best — give it one turn round the bar, and taking hold of each end, rub it up and down, gradually moving it from one end to the other. The friction will dry the wood remove the grease or dirt, and put on a good surface. The bar being now in good condition, wash your hands per- fectly clean, and you are ready to commence. You will find that there is no resin required, which every gymnast is com- pelled to use if the bar is not kept in good order. The use of resin is bad for various reasons it will dirty your hands, and if you have not practiced much it will cause blisters sooner than otherwise. I have sometimes seen the skin of hard hands torn, and wounds ensue, preventing further practice for soma *5* GYMNASTICS. time. But if you are obliged to use resin, do it judiciously : powder a little, and rub only the tps of the fingers in it ; avoid, above all things, getting it into the palm of the hands, as it will make them stick to the bar, and it is also very likely to cause jerks in swinging, and the grip will not be so certain as when the hands move smoothly round. These details may appear rather tedious, but you will find them useful, as they apply to all apparatus where the wood is handled. Now, there is another thing you must bear in mind, and that is, the way in which you must take hold of the bar. Some say that you should take hold of it as you would a handle, with the thumb underneath ; but we think there is no doubt that the proper way is the same as that in which a mankey holds the branch of a tree — the thumb on the same side as the fingers. If the thumb be underneath, in all ordinary swing- ing exercises it has a tendency to draw the fingers off; although in some few slow movements it may be under, yet, as a rule, it is better above. Now, keeping what has been said in mind, let us try some actual exercises. Jump up at the bar, and hang with the hands, the body, arms, and legs perfectly straight, and the feet close together. Hardly anything looks worse than to see the legs swinging about in all directions when you are performing an exercise ; be careful, therefore, to keep them quite quiet ; every un- necessary movement, you must recollect, is so much wasted force, and so much, therefore, taken from your chance of per- forming the feat. To perform all feats quietly and easily shows the finished gymnast ; and so far from violent exertions being tho test of difficulty, the reverse is generally the case, and the easiest- looking feats are very often the hardest, and vice versa , and, besides, these irregular movements only tend to tire you. Now, having hold of the bar with both hands, draw your- self up until the chin is above the bar ; then lower the body until the arms are quite straight again. Practice this exercise as often as you can without tiring, or until you can perform it six or eight times in succession, which you will not do until you have practiced for some little time. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Beginners must now try a few gentle exercises, such as hanging by each hand alternately, the other close to the side. Then begin to walk along the bar by the hands, taking alter- nate steps with them, making the steps as equal as possible, and keeping, as we said before, the legs hanging quietly down. Go in this manner from one end to the other, then reverse the hands, and back again. Now draw yourself up, with your chin above the bar, as in Fig- 5. and repeat the walk in this position. Next try a few good swings backward and forward at arms’ length : you will find that you will swing farther each time, until you can swing your body almost into a horizontal posi- tion. All these little exercises should be repeated as often as pos sible ; they help to strengthen the muscles, and accustom the hands to the feel of the bar. To Get on the Bar. — Draw yourself up as in the last figure (Fig. 5), then suddenly drop the whole of the right side, raising at the same time the left leg and throwing it over the bar, as in Fig. 6. Now establish a good swing with the right leg, and you will bring your body well over the bar, when a sudden exertion of muscle will bring you sitting in the atti- tude of Fig. 7. This is by no means an easy thing to do at first ; but persevere, and, after a few failures, you will sud- denly find you have succeeded : once accomplished, it will come easy enough. At first you will find it hard matter enough to get your legs up to the bar at all. Beginners mostly try to lift the toes without bending the knees, and, of course, find it beyond their powers. Bring your knees up to your chin, doubling your feet well into your body, and you will find it come easy enough. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. There is another method of getting on to the bar, by bring- ing the leg up through the hands, and with one good swing bringing yourself roundly up. You may try either of these methods, but nothing but con- tinued practice will enable you to master either of them ; but when you do, and can get on to the bar in a respectable man- ner, you may consider you are making some progress. We now proceed to The Leg-Swing. — Being in your original position, as in Fig. 7, throw your right leg as far behind you as possible, at the same time slipping the other leg backward, and catching by the bend of the knee, as in Fig. 8. Then throw the head back with a good swing (keeping the arms straight), and you will thus make one turn backward round the bar. You will find at first you are apt to make a half-turn too much ; but after a little practice you will be able to regulate the first swing so as to go round once, and come up into youl first position with a good balance. GYMNASTICS. *53 Next try two or three turns without stopping ; hut always endeavor to finish above the bar, as at starting. It is bad to stop as in Fig 9, as you are disabled for the next exercise. For the forward swing, reverse the hands, keeping the whole weight of the body on the arms, throw the head well to the front, and with one plunge forward — keeping tight hold with the hands, and the body erect, as in Fig. 10 — you will make one forward revolution round the bar After some practice, you will be able to go round several times without stopping. This exercise is actually easier than the former, but it re- quires more confidence, for the want of which you are apt to keep too close to the bar, and thus you do not get sufficient swing to bring you up again Prastice both these exercises with right and left legs alter- nately. Sitting on the Bar. — Having accomplished the backward leg-swing, we will now proceed to something a little more difficult. You will now get on to the bar as in Fig. 7, with leg over ; now try to balance yourself in this position without holding by your hands ; having succeeded, take hold of the bar with both hands behind you, and pass the hanging leg over the bar into a sitting position, as in Fig. 11. Now practice a few different balances while sitting; that is, with the bar under different parts of the thigh. Fig. 12. Try to sit almost straight, and again with the bar just within the angle of the knee. This must be done without touching «he bar with the hands. We now come to The Sit-Swing. — This is so called from its being a swing performed while sitting on the bar, and we will commence with the backward swing. The “ sit-swing” is somewhat similar to the leg-swing, but, of course, more difficult, as in the latter the weight of the body is mostly on the leg ; but in the present exercise the whole weight is thrown upon the arms, therefore requiring more strength. While sitting on the bar, as in the last figure, but holding with the hands, straighten the arms, and let them support a great part of the weight of the body ; now throw yourself backwards with a good swing, still keeping a firm hold of the bar with both hands. Now, the object of this movement is to go quite round the bar in the swing, and thus make one complete revolution, which is called the “ sit-swing backward;” but. of course no one can expect to accomplish this feat at once. The fiist few times you attempt it, you will most likely find yourself hanging with the weight of the body beneath the bar, and with the momentum of the swing gone. In this case, all you can do is to let your legs pass fhrough your arms, and thus drop on to the ground ; but you must re- peat the movement until you are able to swing quite round. The way to practice this is, to swing about three-quarters round, and then to come back into the sitting posture again. This will give you confidence, and after a time you will feel yourself able to go all the way round, and to come up into your original position. For some time you will find that you will come up in rather an awkward manner, without having swing enough to balance yourself, and therefore you will fall forward again ; in which case you must be prepared to let go with the hands, and to throw yourself off (he bar on to your feet ; or, what is much better, to have some one standing in front, in readiness to catch you as you come off. But you may take comfort, for when you can get thus far the feat is nearly achieved, and after a few more trials you will be rewarded by feeling yourself able to accomplish the " sit-swing.” In the forward sit-swing, the first start is the principal thing, as the impetus gained will be sufficient to bring you up again, in order to get a good start, you must raise the body as far *54 GYMNASTICS. away from the bar as possible, supporting the whole weight on the arms, as in Fig. 13 ; now throw the chest out and the head back, with the legs rather straight, then with a good plunge forward, keeping the arms straight as in Fig. 15, you will go quite round ; that is to say, you will in time, for you must not think of succeeding at first in any of these feats, but perseverance will soon enable you to accomplish them. You will find in practicing this exercise, that some of your strength will be expended in getting on to the bar again after each failure. I will now show you a very good way of getting into the sitting position again, while hanging, as in Fig g. Straighten the body as in Fig. 15, and draw your center of gravity a little above the bar, then, bending the body again slightly, you will roll quite over so as to come into a sitting position again. This movement is called the “ Plymouth.” Hanging by the Legs.— Get on to the bar in a sitting position, and then throw yourself off backward, as for a sit- swing ; but, instead of going round, drop the body and bend your knees, and thus let them catch on the bar, getting a firm grip with them, at the same time letting go your hands as in Fig. 17. A young beginner should practice this on a low bar, so that, when he hangs by the legs, his hands will touch the ground ; and thus, when he is getting tired and cannot raise himself, he may let his legs drop, and come on to his hands on the floor Fig. 17. Pig. 18. safely. He may then get on to the bar again, hanging by the knees as before, and practice swinging backward and forward as high as he can. At first the friction will make the legs a little sore, but the muscles will soon harden with practice. There are a few other leg exercises which may be practiced with advantage, and which will afford variety, and also help to bring all the muscles into play. One of these is shown in Fig. 18, where you hang on the bar with one leg, stretching the other straight out with the toe against the under side of the bar, and the exercise is to bend the body up and down. This should be done with right and left legs alternately. A performance which is also very showy (although wc should not advise any one to attempt it without very good nerve and also strength in the legs), is the standing balance on the bar. This may be practiced on a bar as low as you like, so that you can easily jump off ; but of course it looks better on a bar of ordinary height. While sitting on the bar, lift one foot and gradually bring it on to the bar, as in Fig. ig, and then raise yourself up standing, as in Fig. 20, a feat which, of course requires great Fig. 20. strength in the legs, and a good command of balancing power. Now endeavor to walk forward and backward by shifting the feet ; and if you lose your balance, jump off the bar altogether, without trying to recover it, and get up again. Hanging by the Toes. — This will make a good finish after the standing balance on the bar. To do it artistically, stand first on one foot, then on the other, turn round, let yourself down, and drop quietly and smoothly beneath the bar, hook your toes on to it, and hang down quite straight with your arms folded across your chest. (See Fig. 21.) This, if done without stopping, has a good effect ; but of course you must not expect to accomplish anything in this style for some time, and therefore must be content simply to hang by your hands, and then bring your legs up, and hsok your toes over the bar, tak- ing care, the moment you let go with your hands, to straighten the body and stretch out your arms, so as to save your head if you should chance to slip. Vaulting over the Bar is a very useful exercise, and quite as well performed on the horizontal bar as on the vaulting- horse, if your choice of apparatus should be limited. Try it first on a bar about three feet six inches from the ground, and gradually raise it ; but take care not to overtask your powers by having it too high for you, as very often, when young gymnasts find that they are getting on respectably, they are very apt to be too ambitious, and to attempt heights far beyond their powers. About four feet six inches is a fair height for a person about five feet four or five, to begin with. Learn to clear this clean and in correct style, before you at. tempt anything higher. As vaulting is by no means a difficult feat, to look well It GYMNASTICS. 25S snould be done in good style. To make a clean vault, the body should be kept as straight and as far away from the bar as possible (see Fig. 22), and should be practiced right and left alike. No careful gymnast need ever be afraid of in- jury if he uses his brain as well as his body, and you will find that, if a mishap occurs, it is gen- erally to some one who p iG 22 attempts exercises with- out taking into consid- eration in what different positions he may come off the apparatus ; but all these exercises may be gone through safely if sufficient precautions are taken at first. Mr. Spencer says on this head : “ I am sure I can speak for myself, having often in former times made myself quite a laughingstock at the gymnasium from the careful way in which I have tried new exercises which had any risk attending them. But ' let those laugh who win.’ '* I first put on the ‘ lungers ’ (which you will find repre- sented and described on page 251), with a comrade on each side to hold the ropes, and something soft underneath (such as * mattress, tan bark, or any other suitable material), and hav- ing some one in front to prevent my pitching forward when I same down. “ This is as you might have seen me when trying my first ‘ fall-back,’ or other difficult exercises ; and what was the re- sult ? Why, I tried many times, and fell many times, and should have hurt myself many times had I not been caught. “ But I knew I was perfectly safe, from the precautions taken (I did not mind the look), and this gave me confidence, and left me at liberty to give my whole attention to the feat I was attempting ; and since then I have done that, and many other more difficult feats, numerous times, without the slightest injury.” HANGING BAR. The exercises on this will be much the same as those on the fixed bar. We shall not, therefore, with the limited space at our disposal, do more than recommend it as an agreeable change from the fixed bar. Its use as a flying trapeze is too dangerous for ordinary boys to attempt, and we shall there- fore not introduce it here. THE PARALLEL BARS. You may comment : with the parallel bars, as in the hori- sontal bar, with the s imple movements which any one would naturally perform upc n them ; such as standing between them, and with a spring placing a hand upon each, and thus support- ing the weight of the body. When you have become somewhat used to them in this way, commence swinging backwards and forwards, with the legs straight down, trying to go higher each time. Of course, if you have practiced on the horizontal bar, the preliminary exercises will be mastered at once ; but as it is possible that some may commence on the parallels, I give this short description of these simple movements. The first exercise after you are on the bars should be The Walk. — This is very simple, being performed by jumping up and placing one hand on each bar, with the body hanging suspended between them as before. Now walk along the bar by' taking steps with the arms, making them as evenly and regularly as you can, keeping the head well up, and the body perfectly straight. Walk in this way from one end to the other, and when you can do this easily, walk back in the same way, without turning round. Then let the body sink down as in Fig. 23, and hop from one end to the other backward and forward. This you will find capital practice for the muscles of the arms, although rather tiring at first. When this hopping movement is done with a good swing so as to go forward or backward some considerable distance, it has a very good effect, and is called “ The Grasshopper.” Vaulting Movements are performed by getting up be. tween the bars as for the walk, placing yourself near the centre of the bars. Now swing backwards and forwards until you are able to throw both legs over one side of the bars in front of you, as in Fig. 24. Now with another swing bring them back again, and throw them over behind you on the same side as before. (Fig. 25.) There are several of these movements which may be prac- ticed with great advantage to the muscles. Another is shown in Fig. 26. This is one of many which may be gone through while in GYMNASTICS. * 5 ® this position on the bars, the dotted line showing the serpentine course of the movement. All these exercises should be performed with the body as straight as possible, and when done neatly, with the legs close together, have a very pretty effect, and are very good practice. There are several similar movements, such as those repre- sented in Figs. 27 and 28, which are done by first swinging backwards and forwards, and then throwing the legs over the outside of the bars in front, one on each side ; then bending back a little, and bringing the legs over back again between the bars, and then, without stopping, throwing them over again behind you, one on each side as before. This you should practice until you can repeat it several times without stopping. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. The next exercises are good practice. Stand between the bars, and place the hands on the under side of them, even with the shoulders, then gradually raise the legs until they turn over and bring the body into an inverted position, as in Fig. 29 ; then continue the movement right over, until you are hanging as in the position shown in Fig. 30. You should practice this until you can do it several times without touching the ground with the feet, and you will find it very good prac- tice for the front and back horizon- t a 1 movements, previously shown on the horizontal bar. The Pumping Movement is one of the finest exercises for developing the muscles of the chest. \ ou must Fig. 31. first practice the swing until you can bring yourself up horizontally, as show in Fig. 31 ; then, by bending the arms, drop the body into Fig. 32, and then swing round, your feet describing a semicircle, and come up again into Fig. 33, fin- ishing the movement by swinging backwards again in the same manner into Fig 31, as on commencing the movement. The Vaulting Horse. — There are no simple preliminary exercises on the horse but what may be just as well performed on the parallels ; and, indeed, such is the similarity in some of them, that we have invariably noticed that any gymnast who is good on the one is not likely to be a novice on the other. For this reason we shall endeavor to make as much variety as possible, and shall therefore not describe exercises which may be as well gone through upon the parallels, but only give those which have a distinctive character. Commence by jumping on to the horse, with the hands on# Fig. 32. on each of the pommels, and supporting the whole weight of the body ; the legs hanging straight down as in Fig. 3. Now bring one leg over the body of the horse in between the pommels, as in Fig. 34 1 then bring it back again without touching the horse with the foot, and pass the other leg through in the same manner. Now try and change the legs simultaneously , that is, whil* GYMNASTICS. the one is being brought back, pass the other through forward ; the body, of course, still supported by the arms. The Leg-Spring is the next exercise, and is performed in the following manner : Get on to the horse as in Fig. 3, and then bring both legs up on to the back in a kneeling position, as in Fig. 35 ; then, while the body is thus gathered, give a good spring up, throw- ing up the arms as in Fig. 36, and you will come over to the other side on to your feet on the ground. If you are nervous in attempting this at first, get the assist- ance of some one to hold your hand, and you will accomplish it without much difficulty. The next exercise must be practiced at first with the horse as low as possible, and the jumping-board placed about a foot from the horse. Jumping Through the Hands. — Take a short run, and jump on to the board with both feet down at once, flat-footed. Place your hands one on each pommel, spring up, and pass the legs through the hands, as in Fig. 37, shooting them out in front of you over the horse, so as to come neatly down on the other side. Of course you must measure your distance, so that you may rise high enough while passing over for the back to clear the top of the horse. Another form of this exercise is to jump over the horse with the legs outside the hands, and is per- formed in a similar manner to the last, but is rather more difficult, as you will need a much greater spring to raise your- self sufficiently high to pass clear over ; and you must also take care to let go with the hands at the proper moment, when in the po- sition shown in Fig. 38. If you retain your hold of the pom- mels too long, you will lose command of yourself, and they will have a ten- dency to pull you back and cause you to pitch head first on to the ground ; but when you commence to practice this movement, it is ne- cessary to have some one standing in front, to catch you in case your feet do not quite clear the top of the horse, more especially if it should be at all too high for you. Saddle Vaulting. — Get on to the horse as in Fig. 39, sit- ting across as in a saddle, but behind the pommels ; then, bearing the whole weight upon the arms, throw your legs right up, and giving yourself a kind of twist, de- scribe a semicircle with them, and bring yourself round with the face the other way ; your hands being one upon each pommel, your course will naturally be towards the one which holds the aftermost. The Long Fly is a very fine exercise for the whole of the body, and more especially the lower ex- Vta, 39 . tremities. Fig. 37. You commence practice for this movement by placing the jumping-board about three feet from the largest end of the horse, then with a run, pitch with your hands on to the end, as in Fig. 40. Now move the board a little farther off, and repeat the movement ; and thus continue the exercise, increasing the distance each time, until, you can pitch on to the end from about five or six feet. Now vary this movement by jumping from different dis- tances, and pitching on the hands first, and then bringing up the feet on to the back of the horse, as in Fig. 41. And when you are in this position, pitch with the hands on to the extreme end of the horse, and go over as at “ leapfrog.* Having now sufficiently practiced these preliminaries, place the board about a foot from the end of the horse (having first had the high pommels taken out, and the flush ones substi* tuted). Now fake a run and jump, pitching with your hands on the first pommel, landing yourself astride, as near the middle of the horse as possible ; repeat this exercise, gradually increas- ing the jump, until at last you clear the whole length, as in Fig. 42, coming down safely on the ground in front of the horse. When you can get near the neck and are likely to come rjo-ht over in a few more trials, have some one standing in front to catch you in case you do not quite clear the end, and come instead into a sitting position on the neck of the horse, as in this case the sudden stop is likely to throw you over head forwards in a rather ignominious manner ; but if you practice assiduously, when you feel that you can do it, and make up your mind for it, you are almost certain to clear it. It will, of course, take some time to master this thoroughly ; but it is a fine dashing feat, well worth the trouble of acquir- ing. Only don’t think you are doing it if you are satisfied to pitch short and paddle along on your hands for the rest of tl distance ; you ought to pitch clear over at one movement, 1 258 GYMNASTICS. horses of various lengths are available, they will prove of im- mense service in practicing this exercise. Hanging Rings. — These are very useful for developing the muscles of the arms and shoulders. We have, therefore, found room for a few exercises upon them as a guide to the young gymnast, who will find little difficulty in supplement- ing our instructions with exercises of his own. Fig. 43. Commence by drawing yourself up, as in Fig. 43, holding one ring at arm’s length, and the other close to the body. Draw in the outstretched arm and straighten the other, and repeat this as often as you like, as it is very good preliminary exercise for the trapeze. Now, from this position gradually spread the arms wide apart, suspending the body between them, as in Fig. 44, and then let the body gradually sink down until you hang straight down by the arms again. There are many other strength movements on the hand- rings, but you will soon find them out for yourself ; we will, therefore, pass on to the swinging exercises. Commence swinging simply backward and forward, increas- ing your momentum by drawing yourself up by contracting the arms as you ascend, and when at the highest, lowering your body with a drop, and by this means you will swing higher each time, until you are able to bring your arms and legs Straight and nearly into a horizontal position, as in Fig. 45. shooting them straight out (in order to preserve the momen. turn), and coming back all straight again to the starting point. Fig. 46. Repeat this several times, and you will find it very good work for the muscles. Also swing with the hands close to the groin, and the arm* nearly straight by the side, and supporting the body, as in Fig. 47 ; keeping yourself from pitching your head and shoulders too much forward, at the end of the swing, by bending the arms Also swing in different positions in order to get command of yourself while swinging. I’ractice by drawing the legs over the head when at the end of the swing, as in Fig. 46, passing back in this position to the other end, and then bringing the legs smartly over, and Fig. 48. and projecting the legs, as in Fig. 48, which represents thb bent position which you assume when beginning to descend. Another variety of this swing is shown in Fig 49, where tba> body is kept horizontal throughout. GYMNASTICS. *59 CLIMBING LADDERS, ROPES, POLES, etc., etc. Climbing the rope is a very useful exercise, which should be practiced by every one, as it may often be the means of saving life in case of fire or shipwreck, etc. Climbing ladders, fixed both in vertical and horizontal positions, and at various angles, furnishes a good variety of exercise for the arms, and is very easy to commence with. Fig. 53 shows an exercise on the horizontal ladder, in which you hold by the outside, and progress by moving the hands forward alternately. Fig. 54 represents another movement. Pig. 50. Pig. ji. Fig 54. Pw. ss- We mean climbing by the use of both legs and arms. Fig. 50 shows the way of taking hold of the rope, and Fig. 51 the position when climbing. At a gymnastic festival lately, some of the competitors ascended on a rope in this wav to the height of upwards of one hundred feet. Fic. 5». Fig. 53. Another method is by holding on and raising yourself by Using the hands only, but this is more difficult. Another exercise is by climbing the knotted rope, and also One with short cross-bars fixed at frequent intervals. Climbing the pole, either fixed or hanging, as in Fig. 52, Only varies from the same exercise on the rope by its being rather more difficult to grasp, from being thicker and also tifid. in which you walk along under the ladder, increasing the length of the step by holding the rounds at some distance apart, the intervening ones being passed. Fig. 55 shows one of the movements upon the perpendicular ladder, in which the object is to keep the arms and legs as straight as possible while the steps are taken. Fig. 56 is the oblique ladder, which may be prac- ticed by moving both up and down by the hands. The “giant’s stride '’ is a very good ex- ercise for beginners, and consists of a very strong and firmly fixed upright, about fifteen feet in height, having an iron cap at the top which will revolve easily, and around which ropes are fixed, each having a short cross- bar at the bottom, so that several may ex- ercise at once, each one holding a bar and running round, increasing the speed until the body takes the same angle as the rope. Various evolutions may be gone through in this manner, which will be found very amusing. It is hardly necessary to say that there are to be observed in practicing. One is, never over-tire yourself by practice, as that will do more harm than good. And be careful not to get into a heat without having a wrapper handy to put on when you leave off{ and do not practice after a full meal. Dress must also be suitable, as it is highly important to have all the limbs free and unfettered ; and therefore light and loose garments and gymnastic shoes should be worn. A belt may be used by those who require it, but it is not indispens- able. Fig. 56. some simple rules Jfto GYMNASTICS. (}Y>i]\@0¥idg wi¥SoU¥ gf^di&ic S'PPM^SWg. THE THREE CHAIRS. Even should the young gymnast be without any apparatus, he can train his body in various ways, so that when he obtains apparatus, its work will be half done. For example, he may practice the “ Three Chairs ” exercise, which will strengthen the loins immensely ; that being just the portion of the body that is least exercised in the artificial life of the present day. The young gymnast should take three chairs, and set them in a row, the two endmost chairs facing each other, and the central one set sideways They should be just so far apart that the back of the head and the heels rest on the two end- most chairs, and that the central chair supports the middle of the body. Now curve the body a little upwards, so as to take its weight off the center chair ; take the chair with the right hand, draw it from under you, pass it over you to the other side, and with the left hand replace it under your body. This should be done several times, so as to pass the chair from side to side. The easiest way of learning this really useful exercise is to begin by putting the head and nape of the neck on one chair and allowing the feet to reach nearly to the middle of the other. This will greatly take off from the difficulty ; and as you feel yourself getting stronger, move the chairs gradually apart, so that at last you lie exactly as shown in the illustra- tion. KICKING THE CORK. This is a capital exercise, and has the advantage of being ex- ceedingly amusing. Draw two lines on the ground (like a J. reversed), one at right angles to the other. Flace your right foot with the heel just touching the cross-line of the J_, and the foot pointing along the upright line. Next, put your left foot in front of the right, with the heel just touching its toe, and then place the right foot in advance of left in a similar manner. You will thus make three short steps, each the exact length of your foot. Exactly in front of the advanced foot, stand a common wine cork upright. Now, go back to the cross-line, place your left heel against it as before, and with the right foot try to kick down the cork, as shown in the illustration, without losing the balance of the body or allowing the left foot to touch the ground. At first it will be found utterly impossible to do so, the toe not reaching to within an inch of it ; but a little practice wil enable the young gymnast to perform the feat without very much difficulty. The best plan is to reach forward until you judge that your foot is close to the cork, and then, with a slight sideways kick, strike at the cork, and bring yourself again to the upright position. This exercise is exceedingly valuable for strengthening the legs and giving pliability to the whole body. THE STOOPING STRETCH. This exercise does for the arms what the preceding does for the legs. Take the same lines as before, and stand with both toes on the cross-line. Now throw yourself forward on your hands, and with the right hand make a chalk-mark on the floor as far as you can stretch. Having done this, spring up to the upright position by means of the left arm, taking care not to move the toes from the cross- line. Each competitor at this exercise tries to chalk his mark as far as possible. When this exercise is first attempted, it seems utterly im- possible to reach to any distance, the spring of the left arm being found insufficient to bring the body upright again. After a time, however, when >the muscles of the arms become strengthened, the player finds that he can rapidly extend the length of stretch, until at last he can throw himself nearly flat on the ground, and yet spring up again. In order to strengthen both arms equally, they should be used alternately. One secret in performing this exercise is to chalk the mark and spring back as quickly as possible, as every second of time takes away the strength of the supporting arm. STILTS. There are various forms of stilts. and modes of using them. Some, such as those which are employed by professionals, are strapped to the ankles and have no handles. These should not be tried until the young gymnast is skilled with the handle- stilts, as a fall is really dangerous. Others have long handles, and the feet are received into leathern loops nailed on the stilt ; but by far the best are those which, like the stilts represented in the illustration, are fur- nished merely with two wooden projections on which the feet can rest. The easiest way of getting on the stilts is to stand with the back against the wall, and take the handles of the stilt* ‘"“t** GYMNASTICS. atfi the arms, as shown in the illustration. Then place the right foot on the step of one stilt, raise yourself, with your back still leaning against the wall, and then place the left foot on the step of the other stilt. Now try to walk, raising each stilt alter- nately with the hands, and lifting the foot with it. A very short time will get you into the way of doing this, and in a few days you ought to be able to walk with freedom. Having obtained some degree of proficiency, you should race with other stilt-walkers, ascend and descend steps, planks, or stairs, pirouette on one stilt, holding the other above your head, and then replace the feet without com- ing to the ground, and perform similar feats. Accomplished stilt-walkers can even ascend and descend ladders laid at a considerable slope. The height of the feet from the ground rather diminishes than adds to the difficulty of walk- ing on stilts. If the stilt-walker should feel himself losing his balance, he should at once jump to the ground, and not run the risk of damaging himself by trying to recover his balance. After some little skill has been attained, the young athlete ought to be able to get oa bis stilts without needing the support of the wall, a short run and a spring being quite enough for the purpose. THE WALL-SPRING. A very good preliminary exercise is that which is called the “ Wall-spring.” The young gymnast stands at some little distance from * wall, places his right hand behind his back, and throws himself against the wall, supporting himself by the left hand. He then springs back to the upright position without moving his toes from the spot on which they had been placed. This, like all similar exercises, should be done with both arms alternately, and the gymnast should learn to throw the strength of oil his body, as well as of the an&s„ into the spring 262 RTDI d ^xrmrri I m NlMMxiXIMXlMx l \j\l \l\l\l\l xImm '! ■ iil'Jxl i\ i\IM\l\l\l\ l\l ' 1 \ iiiiiiwilf' liiiiti i iiiiiii » » ■ Vour head and your heart keep boldly up: Your hands and your heels keep down : Your legs keep close to your horse s side ; And your elbows keep close to your own. Chefney's Secret of Riding. LL boys, and most men, ate ambitious of the triumphs of hoisemanship ; and, with many, a knowledge of hotses and dogs stands in the place of a polite education. The child escaped fiom leading-strings, bestrides his fathei's walking- stick, and, with a pack-thread rein, toddles over the carpet on his mimic steed, with as much glee as Q ^ a fox-hunter gallops after the hounds. From riding a cane, the same spirit and feeling makes a gate with string stirrups an acceptable means for a few first lessons in equitation, and rendeis a locking-horse a perfect idol. The trim saddle of the painted steed, the teat reins (made fast by tin tacks), the horse hair mane and tail supported by a wooden crupper — all these are sources of as great a triumph as Alex- ander felt when he subdued Bucephalus ; a deed that history seems proud to tell of, and which painters love to depict, as our artist has. From the rocking-horse the young rider takes another step upwards in the scale of equitation, by mounting a real live donkey, who kicks and shies, and stands stock-still, and rubs against a post or backs into a pond, and by these various tricks gives another morsel of experience to the youth- ful hoiseman. The day of gladness comes to him at last, When the gtand creatuie, which has long been his admiration, stands before him ready to be mounted. Mounting. — When about to mount, stand before the left shoulder of the horse, hold the whip in the left hand with the lash downwards, leave the cuib-iein loose on the neck, and take the snaffle-reins at their center, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, with which draw them up evenly between the fore and thud fingers of the left hand (the middle or longest finger dividing them), until they are sufficiently lightened for you to feel the bearing of the horse’s mouth. Throw the loose ends over the middle joint of the forefinger, so as to drop down on the off-side of the horse’s neck. Then take the center of the curb-reins between the thumb and fore- finger of the right hand, as already described, and allowing them to hang more slackened than the snaffle-reins, separate them with the little finger of the left band, passing the loose ends up the palm, and casting them to the off-side over the ends of the snaffle leins. Take with the tight hand a lock of the mane, and wind it once or twice lound the left thumb, closing the hand so as firmly to grasp the reins and mane. The left hand may now be rested on the neck of the horse near to the withers, and within about six or eight inches of the pommel of the saddle. With the right hand, hold the stirrup until the left foot is placed in it ; the right hand should now be put on the cantle, the body raised until the feet are side by side, and both knees press the saddle ; move the light hand fiom the cantle to the pommel, and thiow the light leg quickly, but not hastily, or with a jeik, acioss the horse, and sink easily (no jeiking or bumping) into the saddle. By turning (he toe of the boot slightly inwaids, so as to strike the right stirrup gently, the movement will cause it to swing partly lound ; by this means the foot obtains possession of it with- out the aid of the hand, which should never be employed when the stirrups aic lost ; after a little practice the stirrups may be diopped even when galloping, and quickly regained by striking both toes simultaneously inwards. Get into the habit of making your horse stand steady dur- ing and immediately after mounting. When an animal has been in caieless hands, he not unfrequently tries to move of! immediately he feels your weight on the stirrup. This is not only an unpleasant but also a dangeious proceeding, especially when a lady is mounting. It may be checked by keeping the RIDING. 263 reins tight, and, if necessary, using the curb-rein. The horse is so docile an animal, though a creature of habit, that it can easily be taught what is required, or cured of its defects, pro- vided only that its master is patient and intelligent. Thus, A. Pommel. C. D's on Saddle. E. Stirrup leathers. B. Hind Arch. D. Saddle-flaps. F. Girths. when mounted, instead of immediately starting off at a trot or or walk, wait a few seconds, and thus teach your horse that he is not to rush away immediately he feels your weight in the saddle. In order to discover the proper length for your stirrups, sit comfortably down on your saddle, keep the body upright, let the legs hang loosely at first, then clasp the horse slightly with them, turn the toe in and rather up ; then the stirrup ought just to support the foot. Then stand up in the stirrups with the legs straight, and see whether the fork will clear the pommel of the saddle : it ought just to do so if the stirrups are the correct length. Having once ascertained what is the correct length for the stirrups, you should measure from the finger-tip to armpit the length from the buckle to the end of the stirrups, and thus you can always on future occasions tell whether any alterations are required before mounting. Being now seated on the horse, which we will suppose is a quiet, well-trained animal, it would be advisable that a groom or some friend should lead the horse for a time, in order that we may get accustomed to the motion of the horse and to sit- ting in the saddle. The seat in the saddle should be obtained by sitting well down, leaning rather backwards than forwards, and grasping the horse with a tolerably firm grip of both legs. There are two seats to be avoided, but which nearly all beginners at first practice : one is leaning forward as if in readiness to go over the horse’s head ; the other is sitting on the saddle as though it were red hot. The very best method of getting “shaken down in the saddle,” as the term is, is to quit the stirrups — that is, take the feet out of them — and trot round and round a circle. This can be easily done by having a rope attached to a head-collar on the horse, and getting this rope held by an 1 attendant. After a few days of this kind of bumping, we learn how to grasp with the legs so that we scarcely move from the saddle, and we do not then adopt the dangerous and unsightly practice of depending mainly on the stirrups for our equilibrium. During the time that we are “ jogging ” in the trot, the reins should be held one in each hand, and so that we “ feel” gently the horse’s mouth : at no time should the reins become slack, but an uniform “feel” should be maintained. A horse soon becomes accustomed to the hand of its rider, and learns to obey the slightest change. Many horses, especially those gifted with tender mouths, will become restive, or will rear, attempt to run away, etc., when their riders either suddenly slacken, then tighten the reins, or in other ways alter their hold upon them. The Trot. — Having passed through the process of being ! shaken down in the saddle, we may then take our stirrups and learn how to sit down in the saddle, keep our stirrups, and yet not to rise in them when the horse trots ; after which we may practice rising to the trot. ’I here is scarcely a more ridiculous exhibition than that of a rider working laboriously to rise to his horse’s trot, using much more exertion than the animal he bestrides, whilst he works his arms and body as though riding were a very painful matter. The very slightest movement of the instep and a spring from the knee is suffi- cient to prevent the bumping produced by a horse’s trot ; and the skill or awkwardness of a rider is never more prominent than when his horse is indulged in a long slashing trot. RIDING. The Canter. — To ‘‘raise a horse into a canter” from a trot, we should slightly pull the left rein, at the same time closing the legs. By a stoady hand on the reins we may in- crease or decrease the speed of the horse, or again reduce his pace to a trot. Nothing but practice and instruction will ever give a rider a good firm seaton ahorse; but at the same time, practice alone may produce a strong seat but a very awkward one, un- less the defects of the seat are pointed out early. Vices and their Treatment. — Having attained a certain amount of skill in sitting on a horse and in handling the reins, the horseman may devote his attention to certain matters which are not unlikely to happen to every equestrian per- former. These may be classed under the head of the vices of the horse, and are principally as follows : running away, shy- ing, rearing, bucking, and refusing to move ; kicking, biting, and stumbling. Running Away. — A runaway horse is a most dangerous animal, and for an unskilled rider to keep such a creature is not advisable. Many so-called runaway horses, however, are merely high-spirited animals whose former riders were unable to manage them. As an example : we possessed for three years a horse which we regularly hunted, and on which we placed a lady, and which had been sold because he was a de- termined runaway. Only once did this horse run away with us, and that was in consequence of the reins breaking. That horses do run away, however, is a fact ; and we will now con- sider the best means of dealing with this vice. A runaway horse is usually one with a very hard mouth, which is unaffected by any amount of pulling applied merely as a dead pull. A horse is stronger than a man, and there- fore to pull against him is useless. A particular kind of “ bit ” is requisite for a runaway horse ; the best that we have found being a powerful “ Pelham.” The reins should be very stout, so as to afford a firm grasp, with no fear of breaking. Stout strong reins also do not slip through the fingers as do those which are thin. We will now suppose that a rider is seated on a horse, and starts for a canter on a nice bit of turf. His horse, probably fresh, bounds off, and the rider soon finds the animal pays no attention to his “ Woa, woa ! ” or to the pull at the reins. A bad rider has at this point come to the end of his expedients, and usually docs nothing more than give a dead pull at the reins until he gets cramp in his arms and fingers, and is unabla to use them effectively, when he is at the mercy of his horse. Some riders vary the “dead pull” by sawing their horses' mouths by alternately pulling the right and left rein. This sometimes, but rarely, has the effect of stopping a horse ; the common result being that the animal throws up its head, changes its feet in the gallop, but still goes on, probably with a temper not improved by the fact of its mouth bleeding in consequence of this ill treatment. As an effectual method for pulling up a runaway horse we have never found any equal to the following : The reins being very strong, and the bit a “ Pelham,” or one which wiil not slip through a horse’s mouth, we gather the reins short up in the left hand, so short that the hand is pressed against the horse’s mane ; then pass the right hand down the right rein until it grasps this rein within a few inches of the bit ; with a firm hold pull this round towards the right knee, taking care that the horse does not snatch the rein out of your hand, as he will try to do if he be an accom- plished runaway. When the horse’s head is thus pulled round he cannot gallop, nor can he do more than twist round. We have by this method the advantage of a lever pulling round the horse’s head with enormous power. Against this plan it has been urged that we are very likely to throw a horse down. Grant this ; and it is perhaps the less of the two evils that we throw a horse down where we like, selecting a soft piece of turf, than that we get dashed to pieces by coming in collision with a carriage or cart, a lamp-post or railing, or slip up on stone pavement, etc. But in answer to this objection we can say that, on an average, once a week the horse we before mentioned tried to run away with us, but we invariably stopped him by this plan, and never, during three years, did we ever throw him down. Two other horses that we rode also on one or two occasions tried to run away, and were instantly stopped by this method ; thus we have practical proof of its efficacy, against the theoretical objection urged against it. To a bad or timid rider, or even to one not capable of deal- ing with it, a runaway horse is a dangerous possession ; un- less, therefore, a rider is well skilled, well nerved, and strong armed, our advice is, never mount a known runaway horse. As, however, every horse may, some time or other, try to run away, the preceding advice should not be neglected, as it may save a fall, a broken arm, leg, or neck. Shying. — Shying is a very common practice of horses, par- ticularly of young horses. It may arise from defective sight, or from mere frolic. To a good rider it is of no consequence, but to a bad horseman a fall may result. After a brief ac- quaintance with an animal, we can tolerably well tell at what ob- jects he usually shies. To overcome this practice we should never be off our guard, but should ever keep a watch on our horse’s ears. When we notice that he suddenly raises his ears, and looks attentively at any object, it is probable that he may shy. To avoid such a result, we should endeavor to distract the animal’s attention by patting his neck and speaking to him, a slight movement of the reins to arouse him, or by let- ting the whip rest on his neck, his attention may be with- drawn from the object that alarms him. A brutal and igno* RIDING. 265 rant horseman usually commences thrashing his horse when it shies, and thus only adds to its fear, and causes it to repeat its vice with double effect. The late Mr. Rarey used to say that a horse never could surprise him. because its ears always told him what it was thinking of doing. There is much truth in this remark, as every one accustomed to horses must know, and those unac- customed to them may learn. Rearing. — Rearing is one of the most dangerous and incur- able of vices ; it may, however, arise from a harsh use of the curb ; but a rearing horse may at any time cause his rider’s death by falling back on him. When a horse rears we should sit quietly on him, and well forward. A rider without a firm seat may lean back, holding on to the reins, and will thus pull the horse over on him. A sharp pair of spurs may be used with advantage on a rearing horse, but the reins must be very delicately handled — the cause of rearing being in many cases due to that abominable habit of bad riders of continually jerk- ing their horse’s mouth, for no other reason, apparently, than that they are themselves bad riders. Buck-jumping. — Bucking is an endeavor to unseat a rider, and consists in a series of bucks in the air, or a sort of rocking motion produced by a succession of jumps. The horse tries to get its head down between its legs, arches its back, and springs several times from the ground. There is no other means left than to sit the horse through its perform- ance, which generally takes place when first mounted, after which it not unusually will travel quietly all day. Refusing to Move. — This is not a very common vice, except with a horse which has been cruelly ill-used. We once found a horse belonging to a friend which possessed this vice, and we cured it by getting two leather straps, like handcuffs ; by these we fastened the horse’s fore legs together so that it could not move, and then sat patiently on its back. In about ten minutes the animal got tired of standing still ; but we de- termined on giving it a lesson, so we kept it hobbled for fully an hour, after which it at once moved on. On every occasion afterwards, either the exhibition of these handcuffs or the at- tempt to put them on, at once was received as a hint, and the horse was ready to start off. Kicking. — A kicking horse is always dangerous ; when, j however, we are on his back, it is well to remember that hej cannot kick with both hind legs whilst his head is held up. I We should, however, be very careful how we allow any one to' approach him ; also when in the stable great caution is req- uisite. The same remarks apply to a biting horse ; it is bet- ter at once to get rid of such a brute, for we are never safe from his vicious habit. Stumbling. — Stumbling may arise from careless riding or from the imperfect form of a horse. An animal which in its walk or trot does not raise its feet much will usually be a stumbler ; and if its fore feet, when they come to the ground, are not placed in advance of the shoulder, the horse is likely to be a dangerous stumbler. Those who wish to become adepts in regard to horses should, when the opportunity offers, study the form and ac- tion of a well-known good horse ; the shape of his shoulders, set on of the head, and, in fact, every peculiarity should be noticed. There is no indicator equal to the eyes and the ears for tell- ing the character of a horse ; the eye of a vicious horse never will look good-tempered, nor can he conceal its vicious look. The ears of a playful horse may, to the inexperienced, seem to indicate vice ; for a horse that is playful, well bred, and fond of its master or groom, will often put back its ears and bite at its manger when its master approaches it ; but this is not vice, and should not be misunderstood for such. Experience in this respect is needed to prevent mistakes. \ The bits in most general use are the Plain Snaffle, the Curb, the Pelham, and the Hanoverian Bit. The Snaffle is used for horses with good mouths, and may, in the hands of a skillful rider, be used even for hard-mouthed, pulling animals. THE SNAFFLE. The Curb is often used with the snaffle. It is more powerful, and will pull up most horses ; it also makes a horse carry his head well, and is a favorite bit with military riders. The Pelham bit is very powerful, and is that which we recommend for a run- >06 RIDING. I away horse. It can be used either as a snaffle or curb, and is a very serviceable bit. THE PELHAM. THE HANOVERIAN. i The Hanoverian bit is more powerful even than the Pel- ham, -but cannot be used as freely or like a snaffle. It is very similar to the curb, the mouth-piece being bigger. When a rider has become sufficiently skilled to sit a horse .veil during its trot and canter, it is not improbable that he will wish to try a leap with it, or he may be desirous of hunting. Should this be the case, the first precaution is to find whether your horse can leap. It is not to be expected that a horse is know how to do anything which he uas not been taught any more than that a man should. Some horses may have reached the age of four or five years, and have never taken a leap ; they don’t know how to do it, and should be taught. If we ride a strange horse at a stile or stout fence, we may very probably find that the animal has been called upon to perform a feat as difficult to him as for a boy to leap with a pole, when he has never before attempted to do so. Remarking upon the number of accidents that annually occur in consequence of fool- hardy conduct with firearms, when some boy points a gun at his friend, and says, “I’ll shoot you ! ” and straightway does so. whilst the boy shrieks, “Oh dear! I didn’t know , Mu „, e and parts ct was loaded!” a veteran sportsman once about the muz * recommended us “ always to treat a gun as a . Gullet. if it were loaded and on full cock , then we 3- Q, 1 e " l jJ pipe shall never have an accident ; ” so we would i Withers, recommend a young horseman always to treat a horse as though he were likely to run away, likely to shy, and were unable to leap a stile safely, until we have personally proved the contrary. We can easily test our horse’s leaping powei by trying him at small safe fences ; but we must bear in mind that many good horses will often refuse a leap at which they are not ridden in a determined manner. A horse is very quick at finding out whether his rider really means to ride at a leap, or is “just a little nervous ” about it ; and as few animals care to exert themselves unnecessarily, the horse is not likely to take a leap unless he believes his rider means it. Many horses which have been badly ridden, or bullied by bad riders, have bad tempers, which show themselves by re- fusing leaps, or refusing other things. A good rider, or even an observant person, will soon discover what irritates his horse, and will avoid any acts which produce this effect. Horses that are usually ridden, vary in age from about four years to seven or eight. Whenever your horse commits any fault, bear in mind that he is not so old as you are, and, in fact, is a mere child in years ; treat him accordingly, try to as- sist his weaker mental powers by your skill, and you will al- ways find him a good and faithful servant ; bully and ill treat him, and he is partially your enemy. When once, by ill treat- ment, you have produced any particular vice in a horse, it is almost impossible to eradicate it. The age of a horse may be known by his teeth, and the fol- lowing will aid the tyro in learning how to discover a horse’* age. When a colt is two years old, its teeth are called “ milch teeth,” the center of which is whitish. At three years old the two center milch teeth are displaced 6. Chest. 7. Girth. 8. Back. 9. Loins. 10. Ilium or Hip. 11. Croup. 1*. Haunch or Quar- ters. 13. Thigh. 14. Hock 15. Shank or Cannon. 16. Fetlock. 17. Pastern. 18. Shoulder-bone oi Scapula. 19. Elbow, so. Kore-arm. si. Knee. ss. Coronet. RIDING. i(y) by two which are called “ permanent teeth,” and are distin- guished by being broader, larger, and in the center upper sur- face having dark cavities. When a horse is four years old there will be four instead of two permanent teeth in the lower jaw, and between four and five years old the tusks begin to appear in males. Up to four years old a male is called “ a colt," after this age “ a horse.” At five years of age the horse’s permanent teeth are com- plete, and the age after this is known by the wearing down of the cavities of the permanent teeth. At six years old the dark cval mark on the center teeth is worn down, whilst the cavities in the other teeth are more filled up. The tusks of the horse are longer than when five years old, but are still sharp, and not much worn. At seven years old the cavities of the second pair of nippers are filled up ; the tusks are blunted by wear, and are longer than formerly. At eight years the horse is sometimes said “ not to have a good tooth in its head,” that is, the corner nippers are filled up, and the age teeth are nearly all alike, the tusks exhibit greater signs of wear and tear, and are very blunt CONCLUDING REMARKS. Be kind and conciliatory to the noble beast that bears you,, and never show the spirit of the coward by acting cruelly or with unnecessary severity, towards a creature so docile, so in- telligent, and so useful as the horse. Let the young horseman remember that this creature is endowed not only with strength for our service, and beauty for our admiration, but with nerves sensitive to pain, and a nature keenly alive to ill-usage. To a kind master, a good-tempered horse will by many signs show his attachment, which will msxmm mbs foenome# bettor INDOOR GARDENING «aa % \\f ¥ \l/ /J^ O articles of home decoration are clieaper or more effective than liv- ing plants, nor is there any means of diversion more within the ca- pacity of all classes of people. It must be admitted, also, that noth- ing is quicker than an indoor plant to resent neglect or other bad treat- ment. In the warmer months of the year almost all kinds of plants that can be cultivated in pots may be successfully grown on window ledges; to give sufficient water and to avoid the baking of the soil by the fierce rays of the sun is almost the only necessary attention. It is in winter, however, when flowers cannot be grown out-of- doors, and when the cheapest at the florist’s seem costly, that plants are most desirable for the house and require most care. All varieties of plants that flourish in greenhouses have also been grown successfully in residences, but the amateur with little or no experience would do well to begin with varieties that require least care and that are least susceptible to the house-enemies of all life, human as well as vegetable. These enemies are foul air, overdried and overheated air, and darkness. Pre- cautions against these, for the sake of plants, will be of great benefit to the inmates of the house ; large house- gardens have often saved more than their cost in reduc- ing the home demand for physicians and medicines. Beginners at indoor culture of plants should start by buying potted stock from florists. The cheapest, most enduring and most floriferous plant is the flowering geranium, which may be obtained in many varieties of color; some kinds are beautiful merely through the variegations of their leaves. For indoor decoration, through foliage alone, the plant that best endures house air is the palm ; this is now to be had in great variety ; email specimens are cheap and may be obtained, even (268) by mail, from any prominent florist. They grow rapidly and confer an air of distinction on their sur- roundings. The india-rubber plant, naturally a vine but trained for indoor use as a bush or single stem, never fails to please ; its leaves are very large, thick and glossy, and they endure dry, hot air well. For a mass of foliage, however, nothing is cheaper or of more rapid growth than the vine best known as the German ivy ; so long as the earth about the roots is not allowed to become dry the shoots will grow several inches a week, and in sunny windows the plant will often bloom, the blossoms being in small yellowish-white clusters. The shoots of this ivy may be trained about picture-frames and over windows and cornices, but they are so brittle that great care must be observed when the plant is taken down to be washed, as will be described hereafter. A stronger and more rapidly growing vine is that of the passion-flower; it will not bloom in the house except in highly favoring circum- stances, but it is a rampant grower. The variety known as Pfordii has a large, light-green leaf; Constance Elliott, with a smaller and very dark leaf, is a stronger variety. The flowering plants most desired indoors are roses, violets and carnations; they are also the most difficult to rear. They require more light and fresher air than can be found in residences in general; they manifest discontent with their surroundings by becoming cov- ered with insects that are not easily disposed of ; never- theless roses, violets and carnations have been success- fully raised in houses that have open fires, loose-jointed windows and sunny exposure. A free-blooming plant that does not deman 1 strong light is the fuchsia, of which there are many beautiful varieties, and all are cheap. Begonias, too, deserve the attention of any amateur; they are quick-growing and of abundant bloom; even while “resting” they are interesting through their foliage, every leaf of which looks as if newly varnished. The bloom is in pauicles, or clusters, INDOOR GARDENING. 209 and the plant roots so readily from cuttings that the stock may be readily increased without cost. The period of bloom of new plants of the begonia or fuchsia is quite long. In a sunny window of any room that is not heated above seventy degrees, that is properly aired several times a day, the Chinese primrose and the Cyclamen will bloom for several successive weeks. The leaves of the primrose seem to resent wetting when the plant is grown indoors. If in the house there is a window that need not be dis- turbed it can be made a thing of beauty by growing two or three plants of climbing asparagus in it and training them on strings ; the foliage is extremely delicate, and well-grown plants can often spare some sprays for table decoration. For this same purpose nothing is more use- ful than ferns, and these grow best in the coolest, least- lighted rooms, from which they can be brought for spe- cial decoration when required. The finer varieties will not endure heat, but any one can transplant and grow the “shield” fern, native and wild in almost all the States, and the leaf, when mature, contains so much silex that it will endure the air of almost any living- room. For many reasons the plants commercially known as “Holland bulbs” are most desirable for indoor culture by amateurs. They are cheaper than any other plants, many of them are extremely fragrant, some are entirely free of the insect enemies, and most of them are so easy of culture that only lack of water can bring failure Their botanical structure is so simple and at the same time so advanced that while the bulb is still dry it con- tains the flower-bud, and so susceptible is this to moist- ure and warmth that many hastily packed bulbs have bloomed in their cases in the depths of a steamship’s hull while en route from Holland to this country. Like most other plants, they detest the hot, dry rooms and stale air in which some human beings exist, but unless killed by thirst they will in their proper time bloom anywhere, whether in darkness or daylight, in heat or in any cold that is not below freezing. Extreme heat will cause their stems to droop, their flowers to fade rapidly and their leaves to elongate and bend, but there will be no diminution in the number of flowers nor in the volume of perfume. Holland bulbs, which are imported in early autumn and remain fit for use until New Year’s Day — perhaps longer, may be purchased and planted by any amateur, and cared for with little or no trouble until they are ready to bloom. In appearance they greatly resemble onions of different sizes. They will grow in any soil, or even in water, yet will repay special treatment accord- ing to suggestions given on following pages. The leader of this class of bulbous plants is the hya- cinth, the florets of which may be had in many shades of any color but green. In most varieties the bulb sends up a single stem which has from twenty-five to fifty florets. In some varieties, and especially the Roman, the bulb sends up several stalks, each display- ing a few small florets, of high perfume. The single varieties are preferable for house culture ; double florets seem to require cooler, moister air. Prices of hyacinths vary according to size of the bulbs and comparative rarity of varieties, but good standard kinds and of average size may be had at ten cents each or a dollar per dozen; unnamed bulbs sell by the dozen at five cents each, and professional florists usually content themselves with hyacinth bulbs costing not more than two cents each by the hundred. Next in value to the hyacinth, for home culture, comes the narcissus family. Here the colors are re- stricted to yellow and wdiite, except that one variety has a tiny circlet of red on the edge of its cup. The narcissi are divided into classes according to shapes of flower and other peculiarities of bloom ; any prominent florist’s autumn catalogue will contain illustrations showing differences of size and form. The flowers differ, also, in quantity and quality of perfume; some are highly scented, while others are entirely devoid of odor. After hyacinths and narcissi the amateur should pay some attention to the tulip, selecting double varieties, unless he has a cool room in which to forward his plants. Tulips are unequaled for brilliancy of color and perfection of form, but the latter, in the single varieties, is quickly marred by heat and by dry air. Insect pests seldom or never appear on the hyacinth and narcissus, but they delight in the tulip, although very rich soil usually prevents their appearance. Were it not for its attractiveness to insects, the crocus would also be a valuable bulb for indoor use. Freesias, scillas and snowdrops are also likely to become covered with insects when grown indoors. All bulb dealers adver- tise the ranunculus and anemone, but not one amateur in a hundred ever succeeded in coaxing flowers from these roots indoors. Aside from Holland bulbs there are two bulbous plants — the “Bermuda” lily and the Lilium longiflorum — that should be planted in autumn and that usually do well indoors. Bulbous plants will root and bloom in any kind of soil except stiff clay ; most of them will do fairly well even in water, but to get the best results the soil should be both light and rich without rankness. If potting soil can be purchased from a florist it will answer the pur- pose, particularly if the florist pays special attention to bulbs. Amateurs who must prepare soil for themselves may try any of several ways, according to the materials available ; the best plan is to mix equal parts, by weight, of leaf-mould or genuine muck, sand and thoroughly rotted manure; if the latter is at all “fresh” it should not be used at all, for bulbs are ruined by any stimula- tion that is not gentle. If leaf-mould or muck cannot be had, use the best garden soil obtainable; well-rotted turf is so desirable, instead, that many amateurs begin a year in advance to prepare it, but it can seldom be had to order. If sand cannot be got use sifted coal ashes to lighten the soil. The soil should be sifted or otherwise handled so as make sure that all worms are excluded. Bulbs will do fairly well in boxes, tin cans or any kind of crockery, but they flourish best when planted in ordinary flower-pots. These should be soaked before they are used ; if they are old. they should be scrubbed, inside and outside, to clear the pores, for no plant does well in a dirty pot. For one ordinary hyacinth or large narcissus bulb the pot should be not less than four IU 270 INDOOR GARDENING. inches in diameter at the top; five inches is a better size. In potting a hyacinth fill the pot with earth, scoop a hole in the center and bury only the bottom half of the bulb; this i; to prevent the bulb opening and sending up several small flower stalks instead of one large one. A narcissus bulb may be entirely cov- ered, or a portion of the blossom-end may remain ex- posed if the pot is small. In a five-inch pot three or four tulips may be planted, close to the side of the pot, with their tops entirely covered. Any lily bulb larger than a hyacinth should have a six-inch pot and be cov- ered to the depth of an inch. After planting, water thoroughly' and set the pots in a dark corner of a cellar, or in a dark room or closet, otherwise the tops will start before the roots and the bloom will be small. For more than a month they will require no attention but a thorough watering about once a week. More satisfactory than potting, to persons who can buy bulbs freely, is to use seed-pans. One of these, made of ordinary pot-clay, but far wider in proportion to depth, and ten inches in diameter, will accommodate half a dozen hyacinths or large narcissi, or a dozen tulips; the cost will be less than that of six pots and the effect much finer. All bulbs planted in a seed-pan should be of the same variety, so that all may be of equal height as well as of the same period of blooming. In ordering hyacinths the novice will do well to leave the selection of varieties to the dealers, specifying that they are for indoor planting. Roman hyacinths should be named if wanted, for they are a class by themselves; they are cheaper as well as smaller than the Dutch hya- cinths proper; they have the special merit of blooming several weeks earlier than other varieties, and of pro- ducing flower-clusters small enough to wear. Three of them may be planted in a five-inch pot. They are sold by color, not by special name; they may be had in yellow, pink, rose, light-blue, and white, the latter being the earliest. Hyacinths grow freely and bloom well in water alone. Glasses made for the purpose should be used; they are in several shapes, the best and most effective in appear- ance being of what is known in the trade as “Tye’s shape” — a low vase with a broad bottom. The glass should be so nearly filled with clear water that the bot- tom of the bulb nearly touches the surface. The glass should be set in a dark, cool place until the roots reach the bottom ; then it may be brought to the light. A hyacinth grown in water will be useless for subsequent planting; potted hyacinths may be used a second year, but their bloom will be smaller. Hyacinths in pots should remain in a dark, cool place until the leaves are well started and the flower-head has been forced so high that the stem may be seen. When brought into rooms they should be kept from the sun and strong light for several days. At first their leaves and buds will appear pallid — almost white — but they rapidly regain their proper color. They should also be placed in saucers or trays, which should never be with- out water while the plants are in bloom. They do not require sunshine. The narcissi should receive the same general treat- ment as hyacinths, except that they may be brought to the light earlier, for as their flowers appear at tips of long stalks they cannot easily bloom before getting above their sheathing of leaves, as hyacinths will do if too soon exposed. Not all the narcissi do well indoors. One of the best varieties for beginners is also one of the cheapest and is of rich fragrance; it is called the campernel, and bears two or more large single yellow flowers on each stalk. By the dozen it costs about two cents per bulb, or one cent by the hundred. Three may be planted in a five- inch pot or a dozen in a ten-inch pan, and each will send up several flower-stalks in succession. The campernel is of the jonquil class, which contains also the single and double jonquil, both yielding small flowers of exquisite perfume ; half a dozen of these may be planted in a single pot. Of “show” varieties, more remarkable for beauty and size than for fragrance, the finest are Emperor, Empress, Golden Spur, Horsfieldii, and Sir Watkin; they cost from ten to twenty cents each, and will de- light any one who plants them. They should have about as much space as hyacinths. Cheap and satis- factory double varieties are Orange Phoenix (white), and Von Sion (yellow); either costs about five cents per bulb. All amateurs should try the water narcissus com- monly' called the “Chinese Lily” ; the bulbs, which are very large and cost about ten cents each, should be set on stones in a pan or dish of water, singly or several together, with bits of stone about them to keep them from moving. Each bulb throws up several stalks of fragrant flowers, and the foliage remains luxuriant and ornamental long after the flowers have faded. Still another section of narcissi — the poly'anthus, or many-flowered — is cheap and interesting. All the narcissi — except the so-called Chinese Lily, which does not bloom a second time — improve with age, the bulbs slowly increasing by division. The flower-stalks of bulbs should be cut away as soon as the bloom fades and water should be given more sparingly; the plants will be ornamental, through their foliage alone, for several weeks, but they can at once be removed to cellar or elsewhere if their places are needed for blooming plants. When the leaves begin to turn yellow water should be almost entirely withheld. In the late spring the leaves and roots will have died; the bulbs should then be taken from the earth and kept in as dry and cool a place as possible until the following autumn. The blooming season of even a small collection of bulbs may be made to extend over almost half a year by successive plantings. If some bulbs are purchased and planted as soon as they reach the market (in late August or early September) some of the white Roman hyacinths may be hurried into bloom at Thanksgiving by bringing them to the light three weeks after plant- ing. Others will rapidly succeed these, after which will bloom the Chinese lilies, followed by other nar- cissi, which will be succeeded by early varieties of the Dutch hyacinths. Successive plantings in mid-October, at Thanksgiving and at Christmas will provide for suc- cession. From a dozen hyacinths or narcissi of various INDOOR GARDENING. 271 kinds, planted at one time, not more than three plants are likely to endeavor to bloom in a single week. Of all the bulbous plants named, tulips are of slowest growth. All house-plants mentioned above, whether bulbous or otherwise (except the primrose), need and deserve an occasional washing to remove dust from their leaves and stems. The best method is to place pot and plant in a bathtub or washtub and sprinkle thoroughly : any method of sprinkling will answer, although the work can be done easiest and best with the rubber bulb sprinkler that is made for the purpose. A sharp watch should be kept for insects, although not many of the plants above-named are subject to them. The most common one is the plant-louse, a light-green bug a little larger than the head of a pin ; it appears first on the youngest, tenderest shoots of soft- wooded plants and vines and multiplies with great rapidity. It may be banished by frequent use of a strong decoction of tobacco — say an ounce to a quart of hot water; this water, when cold, can be applied to the affected parts of small plants with a camel’s-hair brush. Should the plant be large and badly affected, it should be sprinkled with tobacco solution or dipped in it. THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. ( According to the Ancients.) The Pyramids of Egypt. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The Temple of Diana (at Ephesus). The Statue of Jupiter (at Olympia). The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The Colossus at Rhodes. The Pharos (lighthouse) at Alexandria. * 7 * LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING. UY one of the old-fash- ioned to begin upon ; these may be got at a reasonable price, as many have been dis- carded for the modern ones. They are called “ practicers,” or, more familiarly, “bone-shakers.” In learning to ride, it is advisable to have a com- petent teacher, who cannot only show what is wanted, but can also put the beginner in the way of doing it himself ; but as many may be unable, from distance or other causes, to avail themselves of this kind of assistance, the following in- structions are intended for those who are thus thrown upon their own resources. Of course it is necessary to have recourse to a friendly arm, and there may be many cases in which two friends are desirous to learn the bicycle, and can give mutual help. The old-fashioned bicycle is of this construction, that is, of moderate height and the most solid build, and altogether very different from its latest develop- ment, with its enormous driving-wheel and general lightness of make. These machines, with compara- tively little difference in the height of the wheel, are best for beginners, as, being low, the getting on and off is easier and safer, and they are in every way adapted for the purpose ; and it is only when toler- able command of this kind is acquired, that the modern large-wheeled bicycle may be adventured with fair prospect of success. But even with these some discrimination is neces- sary. In choosing a machine on which to begin practicing, we strongly advise the learner to select one of the size suitable to his height, as, if it is too small, his knees will knock against the handles, and if too large, his legs will not be long enough fairly to reach the throw of the crank. We know it is not uncommon to begin with a boy’s machine, and on an inclined plan ; but the benefit of these is very doubtful, unless you are totally without help, and have no one to lend you a helping hand. The best guide in measuring oneself for a bicycle to learn on is, we consider, to stand by its side and see that the saddle is in aline with the hips. The point of the saddle should be about six inches from the upright which supports the handles ; for if the saddle is placed too far back, you decrease your power over the driving-wheel, especially in ascending a hill. When you have secured a good velocipede, well suited to your size, you will find it useful to practice wheeling it slowly along while holding the handles. While thus leading it about, of course you will soon perceive the fact that the first desideratum is to keep the machine perfectly upright, which is done by turning the handles to the right or left when there is any inclination to deviate from the perpendicular. If inclining to the right, turn the wheel in the same direction, and vice versa, as it is only the rapidly advancing motion that keeps it upright, on the prin- ciple of the boy’s hoop, which, the faster it rolls, the better it keeps its perpendicular, and which, when losing its momentum, begins to oscillate, and finally must fall on one side or the other. Now for the — FIRST LESSON. Having become accustomed to the motion of the machine, and well studied its mode of traveling, the next thing is to get LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING. 273 the assistant to hold it steady while you get astride, and then let him slowly wheel it along. Do not attempt at first to put your feet on the treadles, but lei mem hang down, and simply sit quiet on the saddle, and take hold of the handles, while the assistant moves you slowly along, with one hand on your arm and the other on the end of the spring. It is hardly necessary to say that the best place to learn is a large room or gallery, with smooth-boarded floor or flag- stone pavement. Now, directly you are in motion you will feel quite helpless, and experience a sensation of being run away with, and it will seem as if the machine were trying to throw you off ; but all you have to do is to keep the front wheel straight with the back wheel by means of the handles, and the assistant will keep you up and wheel you about for a quarter of an hour or so, taking rest at intervals. When you want to turn, move the handle so as to turn the front wheel in the direction re- quired, but avoid turning too quickly, or you will fall off the reverse way. Observe that in keeping your balance, all is done by the hands guiding the front wheel Do not attempt to sway your body, and so preserve your balance, but sit upright, and if you feel yourself falling to the left, turn the wheel to the left ; that is to say, guide the machine in the direction in which you are falling, and it will bring you up again ; but this must be done the same moment you feel any inclination from the per- pendicular. Do not be violent and turn the wheel too much, or you will overdo it, and cause it to fall the other way. Practice guiding the machine in this way until you feel yourself able to be left to yourself for a short distance, and then let the assistant give you a push, and leaving his hold, let you run by yourself for a few yards before you incline to fall. Should you feel that you are losing your balance, stretch out the foot on the side on which you incline, so that you may pitch upon it, and thus arrest your fall. SECOND LESSON. Having pretty well mastered the balancing and keeping the machine straight, you may now take a further step, and venture to place your feet on the treadles, and you will now find the novel movement of the legs up and down liable to distract your attention from the steering or balancing ; but after a few turns you will get familiarized with the motion, and find this difficulty disappear; and it will seem within the bounds of possibility that you may some time or other begin to travel without assistance. Of course, in this and the former lesson, some will take to it more quickly than others, and the duration of the lessons must depend on the learner himself, and the amount of mechanical aptitude which he may be gifted with. Some we have known to take six times as much teaching as others. THIRD LESSON. Now, naving in the first lesson ridden with the feet hang- ing down, and in the second with them on the treadles, in the third lesson you should be able to go along for a short dis- tance, working the treadles in the usual way. Of course, when we speak of the first and second lessons, we do not mean that after practicing each of them once you will be able, of necessity, to ride at the third attempt ; although we have taught some who seemed to take to it all at once ; but that these are the progressive steps in learning to ride, and you must practice each of them until tolerably proficient. When you are sufficiently familiar with the working of the treadles while held by the assistant, it depends entirely on vourself, and the amount of confidence you may possess, to determine the time at which he may let go his hold of you, and you may begin to go alone ; but of course for some time it will be advisable for him to. walk by your side, to catch you in case of falling. When you have arrived at this stage, you only require practice to make a good rider, and the amount of practice taken is generally a guide to the amount of skill gained. To Get On and Off. — Having now learnt to ride the veloci- pede without assistance, we will now proceed to getting on and off in a respectable manner, in case you have not a step, which all modern machines are now provided with. The proper way is to vault on and off, which is the easiest way of all, when you can do it, but it certainly requires a little courage and skill. At first, it may be, from want of confidence in yourself, you will jump at the machine and knock it over, both you and it coming down. But what is required to be done is, to stand on the left-hand side of the bicycle, and throw your tight leg over the saddle. Stand close to the machine, holding the handles firmly ; then run a few steps with it to get a sufficient momentum, and then, leaning your body well over the han- dles, and throwing as much of your weight as you can upon them, with a slight jump throw your right leg over the saddle. This may sound formidable, but it is in reality no more than most equestrians do every time they mount, as the height of the bicycle to be cleared is little more than that of the horse’s back when the foot is in the stirrup, only the horse is supposed to stand quiet, and therefore you can jump with a kind of swing. You must be very careful that while running by the side you keep the machine perfectly upright, particularly at the mo- ment of jumping. Perhaps at first you will vault on, forget- ting to keep the machine quite perpendicular, and as an in- evitable consequence you will come to the ground again, either on your own side, or, what is worse, you may go right over it, and fall with it on the top of you on the other side. Of course it is much better to have an assistant with you at your first attempts at vaulting, and it is good practice to let him hold the machine steady while you vault on and off as many times as you can manage. You must not forget to put all the weight you can on the handles, and although at first this seems difficult, it is comparatively easy when the knack is acquired. You will not attempt any vaulting until you can manage the machine pretty well when you are on, up to which lima the assistant should help you on and set you straight. *74 LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING. To get on with the help of the treadle is a very neat and useful method, but requires considerably more practice than vaulting. Stand with the left foot on the treadle, and taking a slight spring or “beat” from the ground with the right foot, give the machine a good send forward, of course following it yourself, and with a rise bring the right foot over to the saddle. The secret of this movement is that you put as little weight as you can on the treadle, merely following the movement, which has a tendency to lift you, and keep the greater part of your weight on the handles. You may mount the bicycle in another way, and that is by running by its side, and watching the time when one of the treadles is at its lowest, then place your foot upon it, and as it comes up, the momentum thus gained will be suffi- cient to lift you quite over on to the saddle. In this move- ment also, as in most others, it is much better to have as- sistance at first. To vault off, you have merely to reverse all the move ments just described. Another capital way of alighting from the machine while in motion is to throw the right leg over the handles. You hold the left handle firmly, and raise your right leg over and into the center of the handles, previously raising your right hand to allow the leg to pass under. Then lifting your left hand for the same purpose, you will be able to bring your leg over into a side-sitting posture, and drop on to the ground with the same movement. But at this time pay strict attention to the steering , and take care never to let go one hand until you have a firm hold with the other, or you and the whole affair may come to extreme grief. This we consider one of the easiest methods of getting off, although it looks so difficult. To Ride Side-saddle. — Riding in a side-sitting position is very simple, but you must first learn the foregoing exercises. First vault on the usual way, and work up to a moderate speed, then throw the right leg over the handles as in the act of getting off, but still retain your seat, and continue working with the left leg only. Now from this position you may prac- tice passing the right leg back again into its original position when sitting across the saddle in the usual way. To Rest the Legs. — A very useful position is that of stretching out the legs in front when taking long journeys, as it rests the legs, and also, as sometimes you do not require to work the treadle descending an incline, the weight of the machine and yourself being sufficient to continue the desired momentum. In this position the break is generally used ; but when put- ting it on, mind you do not turn the handles with both hands at once, but turn with one first and then with the other ; as, if the spring should be strong, and you attempt to use both hands in turning it, as a matter of course when you let go to take fresh hold the handles will fly back, to your great an- noyance. To Ride without using the Hands. -This is a very pretty and effective performance, but of course it is rather difficult, and requires much practice before attempting it, as the steering must be done with the feet alone, the arms being generally folded. To accomplish this f at, you must keep your feet firmly on the treadles in the upward as well as the downward movement, taking care not to take them off at all, as you will thereby keep entire command of them, which is absolutely necessary, as in fact they are doing double work, both propelling and also steering the machine. You will, as you become expert in this feat, acquire a kind of clinging hold of the treadles, which you will find very useful, indeed, in ascending a hill when you take to outdoor traveling. Fancy riding of this kind must only be attempted on good surfaces. Description will not assist you much here, but when you attempt it you will soon find out that when riding without using the hands, every stroke of the foot, either right or left, must be of the same force, as, if you press heavier on one treadle than on the other, the machine will have a tendency to go in that direction ; and thus you must be on the watch to counteract it by a little extra pressure on the other treadle, without giving enough to turn the machine in the reverse direction. This is all a matter of nice judgment, but when you can do it a very good effect is produced, giving spectators the idea of your complete mastery of the bicycle. But remember that you must be always ready to seize the handles, and resume command if any interruption to your prog- ress presents itself. To Ride without using Legs or Hands. — As you can now ride without using the hands, let us now proceed to try a performance which, at first sight, will perhaps seem almost impossible, but which is really not much more difficult than going without hands. This is to get the velocipede up to full speed, and then lift your feet off the treadles and place them on each side of the rest, and when your legs are up in this way, you will find that you can let go the handles and fold your arms, and thus actually ride without using either legs or hands. In progressing thus, the simple fact is that you overcome gravity by motion, and the machine cannot fall until the momentum is lost. This should only be attempted by an expert rider, who can get up a speed of twelve to fourteen miles per hour, and on a very good surface and with a good run ; and, in fact, from this position you may lean back, and lie flat down, your body resting on and along the spring. At Rest. — We are now come to the last and best, or, we may say, the most useful feat of all, and this is to stop the bicycle and sit quite still upon it. The best way to commence practicing this is to run into a position where you can hold by a railing or a wall, or perhaps the assistant will stand with his shoulder ready for you to take hold of. Now gradually slacken speed, and when coming nearly to a standstill, turn the front wheel until it makes an angle of 45 deg. with the back wheel, and try all you know to sit perfectly still and upright. Of course this is a question of balancing, and you will soon find the knack of it. When the machine inclines to the left LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING. *75 slightly press the left treadle, and if it evinces a tendency to lean to the right, press the right treadle ; and so on, until, sooner or later, you achieve a correct equilibrium, when you may take out your pocket-book and read or even write letters, &c„ without difficulty. Now, we do not think that there is anything further to be •aid as to learning to ride the bicycle, and we can only express a hope that if you follow the advice and instruction we have been able to give, you will become an expert rider and be able to begin practicing on the “ Modern Bicycle.” Choice of a Machine. — And first, as to the choice of a machine. In this case it is imperative to have the very best you can get, as it is utter folly to risk life and limb by using one of inferior make. In choosing a bicycle, of course the first thing to be con- sidered is the height of wheel, which greatly depends on the length of limb of the rider; as, of course, although two men may be of equal height, one may have a longer leg than the other. A good guide is to sit on the machine and let the toe touch the lower trealle without quite straightening the leg, as of course command must never be lost. Fora rider of average height, say 5 feet 8 inches, a machine of 52 to 54 inches we should consider suitable. But of course any well-known and reliable maker will furnish you with a machine to suit you. f Having selected your " Modern Bicycle,” the first thing you want to accomplish is to be able to mount and dismount. Of eourse, the saddle being nearly as high as your shoulder, it is impossible to vault on, as with the old “ practices ” It is therefore necessary to provide a “step,” which, in all the modern machines, is fitted on the backbone, or connecting- iron, just above the hinder fork on the left side, at a conve nient height. It consists of a small round plate, jagged, to afford a firm grip for the toe when placed upon it. There are two ways of mounting. One is to start the ma- chine and to run by the left side, and put the left toe upon the step while in motion, throwing the right leg over on to the seat ; the other is to stand at the back of the machine, standing on the right leg, with the left toe on the step, and. gently starting, hop with the right leg until you have gained a sufficient impetus to raise yourself on the step, and throw your right leg across the seat. The first is the best plan, as you can run with greater speed, and mount ; in fact, the quicker you go, the easier to get on. In many cases it is the only practicable plan, as, for instance, on remounting on a slight ascent, where it would be most difficult to get up sufficient speed by the hopping plan, which, moreover, does not present a very graceful appearance. Now, in the second way of getting on by the step, you hold the handle with the left hand to guide the machine, placing the other on the seat. You can now run it along easily. Your object in having one hand on the seat is, that if both hands are on the handles, you are over-reached, and it is difficult to keep your balance. Now take a few running steps, and when the right foot is on the ground give a hop with that foot, and at the same time place the left foot on the step, throwing your right leg over on to the seat. Now, the hop is the principal thing to be done, as if, when running beside the bicycle at a good speed, you were merely to place the left foot on the step without giving a good hop with the other, the right leg would be left behind, and you would be merely what is called “ doing the splits.” You will see at once that as the machine is traveling at good speed, you have no time to raise one foot after the other (as in walking up stairs), as when you lift up your foot, you are, as it were, “ in the air,” and nothing but a good long running hop will give time to adjust your toe on the step as it is mov- ing. This is, of course, difficult to describe, and we need not say, requires a certain amount of strength and agility, without which no one can expect to become an expert rider. But, in the high racing machines, no one would think of trying to mount without the assistance of a friendly arm, and a stand or stool of suitable height. Having now mounted the high machine, you will find that the reach of the leg, and the position altogether, is very dif ferent from the seat on the “bone-shaker;” but when you get some command, you will find the easy gliding motion much pleasanter, as well as faster. You are now seated much higher, in fact, almost on the top of the wheel ; and, instead of using the ball of the foot, you must use your toe ; and when the treadle is at the bottom of the throw of the crank, your leg will be almost at its fullest extent, and neatly straight. Now you must pay a little attention to the process of alighting. In getting off by the step, all you have to do is to reach back your left foot until you feel the step, and, resting upon the handles, raise yourself up, and throw the right leg over the seat on to the ground But we consider getting off by the treadle much the prefer able way when you can manage it ; but you must be very careful when first trying not to attempt it until the machine is perfectly at rest. Get some one to hold you up, the bicycle being stationary, and practice getting off in the following manner : First, see that the left hand crank is at the bottom, and with your left foot on that treadle practice swinging your right leg backwards and forwards, in order to get used to the movement Now while in position, throw your right leg with a swing backwards, resting as much as you can of your weight upon the handles, and raise yourself with your right foot into position, continuing your swinging movement until you are off the seat and on the ground. When you are well able to get off in this way, with the bicycle at rest, you may attempt it when slackening speed to stop. As it is, of course, easier to get off the slower you are going, you must come almost to a standstill, just keeping way enough to prevent the machine falling over, as, if you attempt it when going at all quickly, you will have to run by its side after you are off, which is a difficult feat for any but a skillful rider. The great advantage of getting off in this way is that, with practice, you can choose your own time, which is very useful when an obstacle suddenly presents itself, as in turning a cor- ner; and in getting off the other way you are liable to lose time in feeling for the step There are different styles of riding, and of course at first LESSONS IN BICYCLE RIDING *70 you are glad to be able to get along in any way you can ; but when you come to have any command over your machine, and and have time to think about style, you cannot do better than take for your model some graceful rider, whose upright and graceful seat gives an impression of quiet power. Very dif- ferent is the appearance presented by some well-known riders, who, although going at really good speed, present a painful appearance, hanging forwards over the handles as if about to topple over, and favoring the beholders with such a variety of facial contortions. Hints on Training. — It is very difficult to give any rules that will apply to all, as constitutions differ so widely ; but the simple rules of regular diet, rest, and exercise will apply to every one, whether they are going, as the saying is, “ to race for a man’s life,” or merely trying to get themselves into the best frame of body to endure moderate exertion. The daily use of the cold bath, or tepid if necessary, cannot be too strongly insisted upon ; and also early rising and going to rest; and the avoidance of all rich viands, such as pork, veal, duck, salmon, pastry, etc., etc. Beef, mutton, fowls, soles, and fish of similar kind, should form the principal diet. The severity of the rules of professional training has been much relaxed of late years, and many things, such as vegetables, stimulants in great moderation, etc., arc now allowed, which before were rigidly excluded. In training for any special effort, of course it is necessary to have professional assistance ; but with moderate attention to diet and regimen, any one may soon get himself into good condition, and particularly if he becomes an habitual bicycle- rider. 1 SWIMMING. 277 ’ WIMMING is the art of keeping the body afloat and propelling it by means of the body and hands. The swimming of man is artificial, but as the specific gravity of the human body is very little greater than that of water, it can be floated with very little difficulty. Every boy should be taught to swim, and if he reads the following pages and abides by the instructions, he can easily teach himself. The first care of the intending swimmer is, of course, to find a proper piece of water in which to learn his first lessons. The very best water that can be found is that of the sea, on account of its saltness and bitterness, whereby two great advantages are obtained. The first advantage is, that, on account of the salt and other substances which are dissolved in it, the sea-water is so much heavier than fresh that it gives more support to the body, and enables the beginner to float much sooner than he can ex- pect to do in fresh water. The other advantage is, that the taste of the sea-water is so nauseous that the learner takes very good care to keep his lips tightly shut, and so does not commit the common error of opening the mouth, which is fatal to all swimming, and is sure to dishearten a beginner by letting water get down his throat and half-choke him. As to place, there is nothing better than a sloping sandy shore, where the tide is not very strong. In some places the tide runs with such a force, that if the beginner is taken off his legs he will be carried away, or, at least, that he will have great difficulty in regaining his feet. We strongly recommend him to walk over the spot at low water, and see whether there are any stones, sticks, rocks, or holes, and if so, to remove all the movable impediments and mark the position of the others. Take a special care of the holes, for there is nothing so treacherous. A hole of some six or seven inches in depth and a yard in di- ameter looks so insignificant when the water is out that few persons would take any notice of it; but, when a novice is in the water, these few inches may just make the difference between safety and death. On sandy shores the most fertile source of holes is to be found in large stones. They sink rather deeply into the sand and form miniature rocks, round which the water courses as the tides ebb and flow, thus cutting a channel completely round the stone. Even when the stone is removed, the hole will remain unfilled throughout several tides. The next best place for learning to swim is a river with a fine sandy bed, clear water, and no weeds. When such a spot has been found, the next care is to exam- ine the bed of the river and to remove very carefully every- thing that might hurt the feet. If bushes should grow on the banks, look out carefully for broken scraps of boughs, which fall into the stream, become saturated with water, sink to the bottom, and become fixed to one of the points upwards. If human habitations should be near, beware of broken glass and crockery ; fragments of which are generally flung into the river, and will inflict most dangerous wounds if trodden on. *78 SWIMMING. If the bed of the stream should be in the least muddy, look out for mussels, which lie imbedded almost to their sharp edges, that project upwards and cut the feet nearly as badly as broken glass. Failing sea and river, a pond or canal is the only resource, and furnishes the very worst kind of water. The bed of most ponds is studded with all kinds of cutting and piercing objects, which are thrown in by careless boys, and remain where they fell. Then, the bottom is almost invariably muddy, and the water is seldom clean. Still, bad as is a pond, it is better than nothing, and the intending swimmer may console him- self with the reflection that he is doing his duty, and with the prospect of swimming in the sea some time or other. Of course the large public baths possess some of the draw- backs of ponds ; but they have, at all events, the advantage of a regulated depth, a firm bank, and no mud. As the very essence of swimming lies in confidence, it is al- ways better for the learner to feel secure that he can leave the water whenever he likes. Therefore, let him take a light rope of tolerable length, tie one end to some firm object on the bank, and let the rest of the rope lie in the water. “ Manilla ” is the best kind of rope for this purpose, because it is so light that it floats on the surface instead of sinking, as is the case with an ordinary hempen rope. If there is only sand on the shore, the rope can be moored quite firmly by tying it to the middle of a stout stick, burying the stick a foot or so in the sand, and filling up the trench. You may pull till you break the rope, but you will never pull the stick out of its place. If you are very nervous, tie two sticks in the shape of a cross and bury them in like manner. The rope need not be a large one. as it will not have to sustain the whole weight of your body, and it will be found that a cord as thick as an ordinary washing-line will answer every purpose. On the side of a stream or pond, tie the rope to a tree, or hammer a stake in the ground. A stake eighteen inches in length, and as thick as an ordinary broomstick is quite large enough. Hammer it rather more than two-thirds into the ground, and let it lean boldly away from the water’s edge. The best way of fixing the rope to it is by the “ clove hitch." Now, having your rope in your hand, go quietly into the water backwards, keeping your face towards the bank. As soop. as you are fairly in the water, duck completely beneath the surface. Be sure that you really do go fairly under water, for there is nothing more deceptive than the feel of the water to a novice. lie dips his head, as he fancies, at least a foot beneath the surface ; he feels the water in his nose, he hears it in his ears, and thinks he is almost at the bottom, when, in reality, the back of his head is quite dry. The best way of “ducking” easily is to put the left hand on the back of the head, hold to the rope with the right hand, and then duck untd the left hand is well under water. The learner should next accustom himself to the new ele- ment by moving about as much as possible, walking as far as the rope will allow him, and jumping up and down so as to learn by experience the buoyancy of the water. Perhaps the first day may be occupied by this preliminary process, and on the second visit the real business may begin. In swimming, as in most other pursuits, a good beginning is invaluable. Let the learner bestow a little care on the preliminaries, and he will have no bad habits to unteach himself after- wards. It is quue as easy to learn a good style at first as a bad style, although the novice may just at the beginning fancy that he could do better by following his own devices. The first great object is to feel a perfect confidence in the sustaining power of the water, and, according to our ideas, the best method of doing so is by learning to float on the back. Floating on the Back. Take care that the cord is within easy reach, so that it may be grasped in a moment, should the novice become nervous, as he is rather apt to do just at first. Take it in both hands, and lay yourself very gently in the water, arch- ing the spine backwards as much as possible, and keeping the legs and knees perfectly straight and stiff. Now press the head as far back as possibly can be done, and try to force the back of the head between the shoulder- blades. You can practice this attitude at home, by lying on two chairs and seeing whether your attitude corresponds with that which is given in the illustration. When you have thus lain in the water you will find that you are almost entirely upheld by its sustaining power, and that only a very little weight is sustained by the rope. On reflection you will also discern that the only weight which pulls on the rope is that of your hands and arms, which are out of water, and which, therefore, act as dead weight. Indeed, you might just as well lay several iron weights of a pound each upon your body, for the hands and arms are much heavier than we generally fancy. Just break an arm or a leg, and you will find out what heavy articles they are. Now let your arms sink gradually into the water, and you will see that exactly in proportion as they sink, so much weight is taken off the rope ; and if you have only courage to put them entirely under water, and to loose the rope, your body will be supported by the water alone. Swimming on the Back, Head First. There are many modes of swimming on the back, head first] some in which the hands are the moving power, others in which the force is derived from the legs, and some in which the legs and arms are both exerted. To practice one of these methods— viz., that commonly SWIMMING. *79 tailed floating — you should throw your head gently back, as before, bringing your feet to the surface ; let your arms lie in the water close to your sides, using the hands in the same manner as when sculling, with a swift pushing motion of the palms towards the feet, returning edgeways, thumbs first, by bending the arms; and pushing again towards the feet by stiaightening the arms close to the sides. This produces a rery rapid progress through the water, and may be continued for some time. Another method is as follows ; — Throw yourself round on your back without stopping (which may be done with a swing of the body, while swimming in the first described method), and you will retain part of the impetus already acquired. Then throw both hands out of the water, as far as you can reach, in the direction you wish to proceed, entering again edgeways beyond your head, and describe a segment of a circle in the water, having the shoulders for a center. The hands on appearing again on the surface below the hips, should pass immediately through the air for another stroke. This mode is very serviceable when taken with cramp, or symptoms of cramp, as it removes the stress entirely off the muscles of the leg. It may be gracefully varied by using the right and left hands alternately. tor the practice of a third method the hands and arms are to be used as in the last, but the progress should be aided by the lower limbs striking out with vigor, after having been drawn up to the body by the stroke made with the arms. The kick should be made as the hands pass through the air. This is a very quick manner of swimming, and is most com- monly resorted to for relief when swimming in a match. For another method, lie on your back with your arms folded, or with your hands passed over your shoulders beneath your neck, or floating quietly by your side, drawing up your legs towards the chest as high as possible, and then striking them backwards with vigor, which will cause you to make consider- able progress through the water without using the arms at all. When you draw up your feet the movement is against the sur- face, where there is little resistance, but, when you strike them out, the force is applied in a downward direction, where the resistance is greatest. The foregoing method is useful when your arms are tired, or you have something to carry or tow after you, the hands being perfectly free. Steering the course is easily managed by means of the legs. If the left leg is allowed to remain still, and the right leg is used, the body is driven to the left, and vice versa when the left leg is used and the right kept quiet. The young swimmer must remember that when he brings his legs together they must be kept quite straight and the knees stifT. The toes should also be pointed, so as to offer no resistance to the water. Swimming on the back is a most useful branch of the art, as it requires comparatively little exertion and serves to rest the arms when they are tired with the ordinary mode of swim- ming. All swimmers who have to traverse a considerable dis- tance always turn occasionally on the back. They even in this position allow the arms to lie by the sides until they are completely rested, while at the same time the body is gently sent through the water by the legs. JUt swimming on the back be perfectly learned, and prac- ticed continually, so that the young swimmer may always feel secure of himself when he is in that position. The feet should be kept about twelve or fourteen inches below the surface of the water, as, if they are kept too high, the stroke is apt to drive the upper part of the head and eyes under the water. It must always be remarked that it is impossible to arch the spine too much, or to press the head too far between the shoulders. Swimming’ on the Chest. We now come to swimming on the chest, which is the mode adopted by most persons, and which, together with swimming on the back, will enable the learner to perform almost any aquatic feat. In order to begin with confidence, walk into the water until it is almost as high as the chest, and then turn towards the land, so that every movement may carry you from the deeper to the shallower water. Next place your hands in front of the chest, the fingers stiff and pressed together, and the thumb held tightly against the forefinger. Do not press the palms together, as too many hooks enjoin, but hold the hands with the thumbs together, the palms downwards and the backs up- wards. Now lean gently forward in the water, pushing your hands out before you until the arms are quite straight, and just before your feet leave the bottom give a little push forwards. You will now propel yourself a foot or two towards the land. Try how long you can float, and then gently drop the feet to the ground. Be careful to keep the head well back and the spine arched. Repeat this seven or eight times, until you have gained con- fidence that the water will support you for a few seconds. The accompanying illustration shows the proper attitude. Now go back to the spot w hence you started, and try to make a stroke. Lay yourself on the water as before, but when the feet leave the bottom draw them up close to the body, and then kick them out quickly. Wien they have reached their full extent, press them together firmly, keeping them quite straight and the toes pointed. This movement will drive you onwards for a short distance, and when you feel that you are likely to sink, drop the feet as before. Start again and make another stroke, and so on until the water is too shallow. At first you will hardly gain more than an inch or two at each stroke ; but after a little practice you will gain mors 2&G SWIMMING. and more until you can advance three or four feet without put- ting tile legs to the ground. It is a good plan to start always from the same spot, and to try in how few strokes you can reach the land. There is a great interest in having some definite object in view, and one gets quite excited in trying to reduce the number of strokes. The action of the legs may be seen in the illustration. The next point is the movement of the arms. In reality the arms are more valuable in swimming than the legs, and for this simple reason : any one who has the use of his limbs at all is obliged to use his legs daily, and that to a considerable extent. However sedentary he may be, he must walk up and down stairs twice at least in the day. He must walk from one room to another. He must get into and out of his carriage, and walk a few paces to his office. And in all these little walks his legs have to carry the weight of his body, which, to set it at the least figure, weighs from seventy to ninety pounds. The Side-Stroke. There is no stroke that enables the swimmer to last so long as this does, and for this reason : instead of employing both arms and legs simultaneously in the same manner, the side- stroke employs them simultaneously but in different manners; so that when the swimmer is tired of exercising one side he can just turn over and proceed with the other, the change of action resting the limbs almost as much as actual repose would do. The side-stroke is thus managed : the swimmer lies on his right side, stretching his right arm out as far as he can reach, keeping the fingers of the right hand quite straight and the hand itself held edgewise, so as to cut the water like a shark’s fin. The left hand is placed across the chest, with the back against the right breast, and the swimmer is then ready to begin. He commences by making the usual stroke with his legs, and the right leg, being undermost, doing the greater share of the work. Before the impetus gained by the stroke is quite expended, the right arm is brought round with a broad sweep, until the palm of the hand almost touches the right thigh. At the same moment, the left hand makes a similar sweep, but is carried backwards as far as it can go. The reader will see that the hands act directly upon th* water like the blades of a pair of oars, and do not waste any of their power by oblique action. In ordinary swimming we seldom use the left arm, but allow it to hang quietly in the water, so that it may be perfectly ready for work when wanted. Then, after some little time, we turn round, swim on the other side, and give the left arm its fair share of labor. There is a modification of swimming on the side, which is sometimes called Thrusting, and sometimes the Indian Stroke, because the North American Indians generally em ploy it. DROWNING. 281 I. — Preliminary Rules. N cases of apparent death, either from drowning or other suffocation, send immediately for medi- cal assistance, blankets, and dry clothing, but proceed to treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air, with the face downward, whether on shore or afloat ; exposing the face, neck, and chest to the wind, except in severe weather, and removing all tight clothing from the neck and chest, especially the braces. The points to be aimed at are : first and immediately, the restoration of breathing ; and secondly, after breathing is re- stored, the promotion of warmth and circulation. The efforts to restore breathing must be commenced imme- diately and energetically and persevered in for one or two hours, or until a medical man has pronounced that life is ex- tinct. Efforts to promote warmth and circulation , beyond removing the wet clothes and drying the skin, must not be made until the first appearance of natural breathing. For if circulation of the blood be induced before breathing has recommenced, the restoration to life will be endangered. II.— Treatment to Restore Breathing, According r o Dr. Marshall Hall’s Method. 1. — To clear the throat. Place the patient on the floor or ground with the face down- wards, and one of the arms under the forehead, in which position all fluids will more readily escape by the mouth, and the tongue itself will fall forward, leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. Assist this operation by wiping and cleansing the mouth. If satisfactory breathing commences, use the- treatment de- scribed be^ow to promote warmth. If there be only slight breathing, or no breathing, or if the breathing fail, then — 2. — To excite breathing. Turn the patient well and instantly on the side, supporting the head, and excite the nostrils with snuff, hartshorn, and smelling salts ; or tickle the throat with a feather, &c., if they are at hand. Rub the chest and face warm, and dash cold water, or cold and hot water alternately, on them. If there be no success, lose not a moment, but instantly— 3. — To imitate breathing. Replace the patient oft the face, raising and supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress. Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond and then briskly on the face, back again ; repeating these measures cautiously, efficiently, and perseveringly about fifteen times in the minute, or once every four or five seconds, occa- sionally varying the side. By placing the patient on the chest, the weight of the body forces the air out ; when turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and air enters the chest. On each occasion that the body is replaced on the face, make uivform out efficient pressure with brisk movement, on the back between and below the shoulder blades or bones on each side, removing the pressure immediately before turning the body on the side. During the whole of the operations let one person attend solely to the movements of the head, and of the arm placed under it. The result is respiration or natural breathing ; and, if not too late, life. Whilst the above operations are being proceeded with, dry the hands and feet ; and as soon as dry clothing or blankets can be procured, strip the body, and cover or gradually re- clothe it, but taking care not to interfere with the efforts to restore breathing. DROWNING. *8* III. — Treatment to Restore Breathing, According to Dr. Silvester’s Method. Instead of these proceedings, or should these efforts not prove successful in the course of from two to five minutes, proceed to imitate breathing by Dr. Silvester’s method, as follows : — I. — Patient’s position. Place the patient on the back of a fiat surface, inclined a little upwards from the feet ; raise and support the head and shoulders on a small firm cushion, or folded article of dress placed under the shoulder blades. 2. — To effect a free entrance of air into the windpipe. Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, draw forward the patient’s tongue, and keep it projecting beyond the lips ; an elastic band over the tongue and under the chin will answer this pur- pose, or a piece of string or tape may be tied round them, or by raising the lower jaw, the teeth may be made to retain the tongue in that position. Remove all tight clothing from about the neck and chest, especially the braces. 3. — To imitate the movements of breathing. Standing at the patient’s head, grasp the arms just above the elbows, and draw the arms gently and steadily upwards above the head, and keep them stretched upwards for two seconds. ( By this means air is drawn into the lungs.') Then turn down the patient’s arms and press them gently and firmly for two seconds against the sides of the chest. ( By this means air is pressed out of the lungs. Pressure on the breast-bone will aid this.) Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and per- sevcringly, about fifteen times in a minute, until a sponta- neous effort to respire is perceived ; immediately upon which cease to imitate the movements of breathing, and proceed to induce circulation and warmth. Should a warm bath be procurable, the body may be placed in it up to the neck, continuing to imitate the movements of breathing. Raise the body in twenty seconds in a sitting position, and dash cold water against the chest and face, and pass ammonia under the nose. The patient should not be kept in the warm bath longer than five or six minutes. 4. — To excite inspiration. During the employment of the aoove method excite the nostrils with snuff or smelling salts, or tickle the throat with a feather. Rub the chest and face briskly, and dash cold and hot water alternately on them. The above directions are chiefly Dr. II. R. Silvester’s method of restoring the apparently dead or drowned, and have been approved by the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society. IV. — Treatment after Natural Breathing has beea Restored. 1 — To promote warmth and circulation. Wrap the patient in dry blankets, commence rubbing the limbs upwards, with firm grasping pressure and energy, using handkerchiefs, flannels, &c. (By this measure the blood is propelled along the veins towards the heart.) The friction must be continued under the blanket or over the dry clothing. 1. Promote the warmth of the body by the application of hot flannels, bottles, or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. Warm clothing may generally be obtained from bystanders. 2. If the patient has been carried to a house after respira- tion has been restored, be careful to let the air play freely about the room. 3. On the restoration of life, when the power of swallowing has returned, a teaspoonful of warm water, small quantities of wine, warm brandy and water, or coffee, should be admin- istered. The patient should be kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. During reaction, large mustard plasters to the chest below the shoulders will greatly relieve the dis- tressed breathing. V.— General Observations. The above treatment should be continued for soma hours, as it is an erroneous opinion that persons are irrecoverable be- cause life does not soon make its appearance, persons having been restored after persevering for many hours. VI. — Appearances which Generally Indicate Death from Drowning. Breathing and the heart’s action cease entirely ; the eyelids are generally half closed ; the pupils dilated ; the jaws clenched ; the fingers semi-contracted ; the tongue approaches to the under edges of the lips, and these, as well as the nos- trils, are covered with a frothy mucus. Coldness and pallor of surface increase. VII. — Cautions. 1. Prevent unnecessary crowding of persons round the body ; especially if in an apartment. 2. Avoid rough usage, and do not allow the body to remain on the back unless the tongue is secured. 3. Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet. 4. On no account place the body in a warm bath, unless under medical direction, and even then it should only be em- ployed as a momentary excitant ROWING. *83 HE immense and in- creasing importance which the art of Rowing is assuming in this coun- try has induced the pub- lisher to include the sub- ject in the Manual. The publisher feels himself justified i n recommending the present volume to the attention of Youths whose proclivities take the form of Rowing or Sailing. ROWING. We suppose that every American man or boy who takes to rowing or sailing for amusement wishes to go fast ; now, every fast boat is more or less liable to be upset, even with the best and most skillful management ; and when a boat is upset, while he who can swim laughs at the adventure, he who cannot is not only himself in danger, but endangers others who feel obliged to risk their own lives in order to save his. There- fore, let every one learn to swim before he attempts either to row or sail in a fast boat ; he will then be able to enjoy the amusement, and his friends on shore will feel at ease, and not wish to deter him. Having acquired this art, he may safely proceed in learning to row, and with it to learn the general management of a rowing-boat. Boys at school, and men at college, can often row very well without being watermen— that is to say, without understanding how the boat, the oars, the rudder, etc., ought to be fitted, or how to steer or manage • boat in difficulties, or how to row except in a boat and with an oar fitted exactly as it ought to be ; but let the begtnnei not follow this example — let him determine to learn how to detect and correct any fault in the fittings of a boat, and how to row under difficulties. Of course any one can row better in a properly-fitted boat than in one that is not so, but gram, bling at the boat and fittings is the sign of a greenhorn ; a good waterman should be able to row anywhere and anyhow — with a mopstick across a tenpenny nail, if necessary, and at the same time should know how to make the best of a good boat and oars when he has got them. These arts are only to be acquired by rowing in all sorts of boats, by listening to what watermen or experienced oarsmen have to say on the subject, by always looking out to pick up something new, and to learn something every day ; and, first, let the beginner learn the names and use of every part of a boat, and of its fittings. There are several methods of fitting the oars and boat, ac- cording to the purpose required : we will begin with fresh, water boats and the style of rowing adapted for them, inas much as seamen hate rowing, and without exception row badly. The boats now used in fresh water are either ouhiggert or gigs ; wherries, funnies, skiffs, etc., being almost super' seded. The onhigger is so called from having an iron frame or outrigger on each side of the boat to carry the rowlock, and so enable a longer-handled oar to be used. They were first brought into notice by the Claspers from Newcastle, in Eng- land, and have now superseded all other boats for racing pur. poses. The gig is a broader and higher boat, and has a straight gunwale, a stern nearly upright, and a transom, or flat piece, to the stern. A funny is a long sculling boat, sharp at each end ; a skiff is a stronger, shorter, heavier, and wider boat, used to carry people or goods without risk of upsetting ; a shallop is a still larger boat, used for pleasure parties, etc. , a punt is a strongly-built boat, with a flat bottom and square ends, used for fishing, and is usually propelled by pushing on the ground with a punt-pole. Four-oars, six-oars (seldom used! 284 ROWING. and eight-oars are now always outriggers when used for racing, gigs for ordinary pulling. An outrigger wager sculler’s boat is 30 feet long, 16 inches wide, and weighs about 40 pounds ; a pair-oar wager-boat is 36 feet long, 20 inches wide ; an eight- oar from 56 feet to 66 feet long, and 2 feet 3 inches wide We proceed to give the technical names of the parts of a boat : — I. The bows, or front part of the boat ; the stem , after part, or hind part of the boat ; the rest of the boat is called the midships. Under the bottom of the boat, projecting about an inch, is a long piece of wood called a keel ; where the keel turns up forward, it is called the stem ; the upright piece of wood fitting into the keel abaft is called the stem-post, and to this the rudder is hung. In square-sterned boats there is, besides, the transom. The sides of the boat are made of planks nailed together, and called strokes ; the lowest strakes next the keel are called the garboards. The strakes are strengthened and the boat is kept in shape by pieces of wood crossing the boat in the inside, like ribs, called timbers or lands. The square holes are called rowlocks, and consist of the thole, against which the oar is pulled ; the stopper, or after thole, forming the other side of the rowlock ; and the leather filling, forming the bottom of the rowlock. The seats across the boat are called thwarts; the pieces of wood fasten- ing them to the sides of the boat are knees; the piece of board against which the feet rest, the stretcher ; the boards for standing on at the bottom of the boat amidships are bot- tom boards or burdens ; the boards in the bow, the bow-sheets ; tho.e in the stern, the stern-sheets ; the space between the steei er’s thwart and the thwart of the stroke-oar is the state- room, and in large boats has seats on each side for sitters. Fitted to the top of the rudder is a cross-piece of wood or brass called the yoke, attached to which are ropes called yoke- lines, for the steerer’s hands. In eight-oars it is usual to have the yoke-lines attached to the side of the boat, and passing through pulleys in the yoke, in order to give more power to the steerer. The rope by which the boat is made fast is called the painter, or sometimes the headfast. Wager-boats are built of white fir or mahogany, gigs usually of white fir, but sometimes of oak. Fir is perhaps lighter, but oak lasts much longer. Sea-going boats are usually built of elm ; and the timbers of ash. When the rower rows with an oar in each hand, the oars are called sculls, and are shorter ; when he uses only one oar, it is called an oar, and is about 13 feet 5 inches long. Sculls and oars are usually of white pine, and consist of the han- dle and the loom, within the rowlock, the part outside of the rowlock consisting of the shank or small, and the blade, and are fitted either with boxing or filling, and a button, or with leather and a stop. The sculls usually overlap about four inches ; the handle of the oar should just clear the ether side of the boat. The oars in a boat are numbered from the bow, No. 1 being the bow, No. 2 the next, and so on to No. 8, or stroke in an eight-oar. The stroke-oar is always on the port, larboard , or left side of the boat, and the oars on that side are called the stroke or larboard oars ; the oars on the right side of the boat, the bow or starboard oars. It should be recollected that pair-oar rowing is the founda- tion of all rowing ; in a four, and still more easily in an eight. defects, especially shirking, may pass undetected, but not easily in a pair-oar. Let the beginner, therefore, get some ex- perienced friend or a waterman to give the first lessons in a steady and not too light boat ; if he can get some one to row stroke whilst the friend or waterman steers and instructs, so much the better ; if not, let the friend or waterman pull the bow oar so as to see his pupil at his work. The mat must be firmly tied to the thwart, and this every man should learn to do for himself, as the men at the boat-house never do it prop- erly. Flannel mats with strings are much the best. Let the pupil then seat himself on the thwart nearly on the after edge of it, bending his knees a little, and opening them about a foot, and placing his feet firmly against the stretcher, with heels close together and toes turned out straight before him; if the strap is used, the outside foot, or that nearest the mid- dle of the boat, will be passed under it ; but for the first few lessons, the strap should not be used, as a man ought to be able to row without it. The stretcher must of course be ad- justed to the proper length. The pupil will then take hold of the oar with the button just inside the thole, and grasp the oar with the outside hand close to the end, but not capping it, and thumb above the oar, the inside hand about three inches from the other, just where the square loom begins, thumb un- der the oar. Let him then sit upright, straighten his back, flatten and drop his shoulders, keeping them perfectly square, and hold his head a very little forward, elbows close to his sides, sitting very nearly as he would be directed to sit by a drill sergeant or dancing-master, the only exception being that the knees are open and the head a little forward, and that he holds the oar. Let him then stretch forward as far as the stopper will allow the oar to go, which is about as far as he can reach, still keeping his back straight, his shoulders square, though of course a little raised, his arms extended, his outside wrist flat with the arm, his inside wrist bent convexly. And here let the pupil understand clearly that all the motions are to be made by swinging evenly backwards and forwards on his seat as on a hinge ; the back is never to be bent, and though the shoulders must necessarily be raised a little in reaching forward, in going back they should be dropped as low as they can be brought. There is a common notion that rowing rounds the back and shoulders, and bad rowing does so, but a good oar has his shoulders and back as flat as any drill sergeant would wish them to be ; when his shoulders are humped or his back rounded, it is a sign that he is tired out and done. If the rower raises one shoulder higher than the other, or does not swing evenly backwards and forwards, he makes the boat roll, and prevents the other men from rowing properly. Let the pupil then resume the upright post; ion, stretch forward a little, and dip the oar into the water, taking care that the blade is upright, and the button against the thole ; let him then pull a short stroke, keeping the blade upright and leaning back a little, the first stroke or two without any pressure, afterwards pressing on the oar. taking care to ha^e the chest well bent forward towards the loom, so as to strike the water and feel resistance at once. Let the pupil continue to make short strokes like this until he can keep his oar upright and recover himself after each stroke, keeping the button against the thole, and when he cun do thu ROWING. 285 pretty well, let him begin to feather , or bring the oar out of the water in a horizontal or flat position ; this is done by dropping the wrists sharply at the end of the stroke, and, though difficult at first, is very soon acquired. There are different styles of feathering: the Harvard men feather high ; Yale men almost graze the surface of the water, which certainly looks well, but cannot be done if there is any sea or rough water. In about an hour any one who takes pains ought to have mastered these points, and that ought to suffice for one day ; and at the end of each quarter of an hour, the pupil should change sides and work with the other oar. If this is not done at the very beginning, he is likely to contract a habit of rowing on one side only, and will never learn to row on the other side : a deficiency which will cause great incon- venience to himself and others in future time. On the following day, the pupil should be taught to stretch out and pull his stroke through, and to keep time, the instruc- tor pulling a very long, slow, and steady stroke ; the pupil shou.a then be taught to back water , which is exactly the re- verse of pulling, as the oar is then pushed through the water so as to proDel the boat stern foremost, or to assist in turning the boat round ; he should also be taught to r/i?y>his oar neatly and quickly ; and this is done by letting go with the outside hand, and lifting the oar sharply up out of the rowlock with the inside hand, letting the blade float astern. The beginner would do well to go out in a safe boat with a friend, and practice backing and shipping till he can do both quickly and neatly at the word of command ; and in about three lessons of an hour each the pupil ought to become a passable oar. Thi: system of pair-oared tuition is immeasurably superior to and quicker than the ordinary plan pursued at schools and colleges, of putting seven raw hands into an eight-oar with a tolerable stroke and a good coxswain, and trying to teach them all at once. The unhappy wretches have no idea of what they ought to do, and cannot understand the directions of their coxswain, who sits raving and storming at them, and at the end of the lesson they return stiff, sore, tired and disgusted, having learnt very little, and probably begun to contract faults which they may never get rid of. Let the first rowing of every man be carefully attended to, and all faults checked at once before they grow into habits. For all further tuition we refer to the following extract from " The Principles of Rowing and Steering,” by studying which the beginner, or even the advanced oar, may learn what to do and what to avoid : — “ The requisites for a perfect stroke are : — “ I. Taking the whole reach forward, and falling back gradually a little past the perpendicular, preserving the shoulders throughout square, and the chest developed at the end. '* 2. Catching the water and beginning the stroke with a full tension on the arms at the instant of contact. “3. A horizontal and dashing pull through the water im- mediately the blade is covered, without deepening in the space subsequently traversed. “ 4. Rapid recovery after feathering by an elastic motion of the body from the hips, the arms being thrown forward per- fectly straight simultaneously with the body, and the forward motion of each ceasing at the same time. “ 5. Lastly, equability in all actions, preserving full strength without harsh, jerking, isolated, and uncompensated movements in any single part of the frame.” “ Faults in Rolling. — The above laws are sinned against when the rower — “ t. Does not straighten both arms before him. “ 2. Keeps two convex wrists instead of the outside wrist flat. “ 3. Contrives to put his hands forward by a subsequent motion after the shoulders have attained their reach, which is getting the body forward without the arms. “ 4. Extends the arms without a cforresponding bend on the part of the shoulders, which is getting the arms forward with- out the body. “ 5. Catches the water with unstraightened arms or arm, and a slackened tension as its consequence : thus time may be kept but not stroke ; keeping stroke always implying uniformity of work. “ 6. Hangs before dipping downward to begin the stroke. “ 7 Does not cover the blade up to the shoulder. “ 8. Rows round and deep in the middle, with hands high and blade still sunken after the first contact. “ 9. Curves his back forward or aft. “ 10. Keeps one shoulder higher than the other. “ 11. Jerks. “ 12. Doubles forwaid and bends over theoarat the feather, bringing the body up to the handle, and not the handle up to the body. “ 13. Strikes the water at an obtuse angle, or rows the first part in the air. “ 14. Cuts short the end, prematurely slacking the arms. “ 15. Shivers out the feather, commencing it too soon and bringing the blade into a plane with the water while work may yet be done: thus the oar may leave the water in perfect time, but stroke is not kept. This and No. 5 are the most subtle faults in rowing, and involve the science of shirking. “ 16. Rolls backward, with an inclination towards the inside or outside of the boat. “ 17. Turns his elbows at the feather instead of bringing them sharp past the flanks. “ 18. Keeps the head depressed between the shoulders instead of erect. “ 19. Looks out of the boat instead of straight before him. (This almost inevitably rolls the boat.) “ 20. Throws up water instead of turning it well aft off the lower angle of the blade. A wave thus created is extremely annoying to the oar farther aft ; there should be no wave travel- ing astern, but an eddy containing two small circling swirls." Nos. 17 and iS perhaps only affect the appearance, but all the other requisites and faults go to the essentials of rowing. As soon as the pupil has become totally skillful in the management of his oar he will be put into a four or eight oar, and will have to practice what he has learnt, and we will ven- ture to give him two hints: — 1st. To pay particular attention to keeping time. 2d. To take particular care not to put his oar in the water before he has finished going forward ; of the two it is better to make the first part of the stroke in the air, though that, of course, is not right ; but putting the oar in th« SLOWING. i water too soon will inevitably splash the men who are forward, and of all the faults which annoy the other men, splashing and not keeping time are the worst. One misfortune which will probably happen once or twice to every learner is catching a crab , by letting the oar turn in the water the wrong way before taking it out ; the water then pens the oar down, and the handle bears the rower backwards off his seat. The moment he feels this likely to happen he must sharply ship his oar, and if he is quick he may escape the annoyance and danger of being knocked backwards. It will be at least a month before the beginner is able to handle his oar with ease and comfort to himself and satisfaction to others ; and during this time, as at all times, he ought to pay attention to the instructions of the captain and coxswain, and take their scolding and remarks willingly and good-humoredly. Above all things let him not take it into his head that he is right and the others wrong ; in the first place, it is very unlikely ; and in the next place, how- ever right he may be, until he is captain, and able to enforce his own ideas, he must row as the others row. Eight inferior oars rowing together, and in the same way, would inevitably beat the best eight oars in America if each of them persisted in rowing in his own way. Another most important thing to a beginner is, never row a single stroke carelessly or badly ; if you are tired, row easily, but in good form and style. In fact, form and style must be taught and learnt in paddling — i. e. rowing easily — and that is the time for it ; but there is never a time for rowing badly, and every stroke badly rowed is positively injurious. Sculling is practiced on exactly the same principles as rowing with oars, except that, both sculls being managed by one man, he has but one hand for each. The sculler must, of course, sit exactly in the middle of the boat, and he must keep his back flatter and his shoulders lower, if possible, than when rowing; the strength which can be put into the last part of the stroke depending entirely upon the drop of the shoulders. The great difficulty in sculling, especially since the light outriggers have been introduced, is in the steering, as the sculler must look behind him at least every third stroke ; and to turn the head without turning the body or rocking the boat requires long practice. In pair-oar rowing the bow-oar steers and directs, whilst the stroke-oar merely pulls steadily and follows the directions of the bow-oar. The bow-oar, being forward, has of course most power over the boat ; but it often happens that the best steerer is the strongest oar, and will therefore pull stroke and steer at the same time — of course, at a disadvantage. The great secret in ordinary pair-oar rowing is to let one man steer and direct, the other merely following the directions and not slacking or pulling harder without orders, or without saying what he is going to do Nothing is more provoking to the steerer and more likely to lead to accidents, and at the same time there is nothing more common, than for his companion to pull harder or easier without orders, and exactly when the steerer wishes it not to be done. When there is a side-wind the bow of the boat tends to turn towards the direction from which the win-d is blowing; this tendency must, of course, be counteracted by the rower whose oar is on that side, and he is then said to have the labor. In fours and eights there is always a steersman or coxswain, and his art is at least as difficult to learn as the art of rowing, lie should sit upright on his thwart, but well forward on it, putting his knees forward and his shins tucked under his thighs, with his feet as far beneath him as they can be brought, so as to be able to throw all his strength and weight upon the lines when required. He should take a turn with each line round the palm of the hand, and let the end come out between his forefinger and thumb, where it must be tightly nipped. His hands are to be well in front and against the ribs, the little fingers resting on the thighs ; the lines are always to be kept on the stretch, so that any necessary pull may be instantly given. The steerer will find himself obliged to bend forward at each stroke ; but let him only yield to the motion and not bob violently, a process which cannot do any good, disturbs his own view, and tends to shake the boat. If any man be- lieves in the efficacy of bobbing, let him get into a boat by himself and try to make her advance by bobbing. As soon as the steerer has had a little practice, and knows how much effect a pull on the yoke-lines produces, he ought to turn all his attention to steering straight, an art which is of immense importance, but which is usually neglected or left to chance. Let any one place himself where he can see an ordinary eight- oar coming towards him, and he will then see the zigzag de- vious course that in nine cases out of ten she will take. To prevent this, the steerer should early learn alwavs to steer for some object right in the course, the farther off it is the better; and let him then keep, or try to keep, the boat’s stem steadily pointed at that object. He will find this not so easy, but will attain the art by dint of practice, but not if he learns to lounge about and steer carelessly. When that object is no longer in the course, let him take another, and so on, recollecting that every touch of either yoke-line stops the boat, and that a zig- zag is longer than a straight line. One thing which puzzles young steerers much is steering in a strong side-wind ; the boat is then constantly being driven bodily to leeward, and, in order to keep a straight line, the stem must not point at any object in the course, but must constantly point to windward. of the course, and the boat must take a kind of crab-like mo- tion, the proper angle for which must be found by tria . The steerer has also to instruct the crew ; and to learn how to do that, he should carefully observe good rowing whenever he sees it, and read a good work on the subject. In instruct- ing, he should not bully individuals : many faults are incurable, and many men will not try to alter. If a man has been told three times of a fault, and shows no symptoms of amendment, it is useless to annoy him further, and he must either be turned out of the boat, or allowed to go on in his own way. When a man has improved or corrected a fault, let him be immediately praised and complimented. All general unmeaning exclama- tions in which steersmen are wont to indulge, probably from not knowing what really ought to be said, are totally useless. In training a crew, it is an excellent plan for the stroke or best oar in the boat himself to take the yoke-lines occasionally, and see what the men are doing. If the river is narrow, the men can best be seen by running along the bank. A fast sculler will make about thirty-six strokes a minntej with oars, forty strokes a minute may be taken* ROWING. 2?7 We now come to the two painful subjects connected with rowing, the mere mention of which causes a shudder in every old oarsman : blisters on the hands, and raws on the stem : — Every man suffers at first from blisters, and the harder he pulls, the worse they are ; but after a time his hands get hard and horny, and no ordinary exertion will leave a mark. The blisters are often burst during the rowing : they are then usually painful, and all that can be done is to grin and bear it, avoiding the contact of water, which smarts at the time and retards the cure. If they get too bad, two or three days’ rest will usually set matters right ; if not, you are in bad health, and should go to the doctor. If the blister does not burst, let it remain as a protection for two days ; at the end of that time the new skin will be formed underneath, and the blister should be pricked to let out the water which keeps the new skin soft and incomplete. Raws will come at all times, but wriggling on the seat is a very frequent cause ; the steadier a man sits, the less likely are raws. Of course any folds in the cushion or trowsers are to be carefully avoided, as very likely to raise a raw. If the skin is fairly rubbed off, the place should be covered with goldbeater’s-skin, and a day’s rest will then almost invariably effect a cure. W* will add a few words as to sea-going boats. The sides of the rowlocks are in them formed by two movable pegs called tholes ; there is no button or stop on the oars ; the oars are often of ash ; there is no difference between oars and sculls, and the term sculling is applied to propelling a boat by work- ing an oar through a notch in the stern of the boat. Small rowing-boats in the sea, from nine to thirteen feet long, are called punts ; the oars, instead of rowlocks, often work on a single pin or thole , which passes through a block of hard wood called a cleat, nailed to the oar. Cleat-oars, of course, cannot be feathered, but are convenient for going alongside a vessel, and in other ways, as they may be let go without being lost. Those who use cleat-oars for the first time should recollect to put the oar on or abaft the thole so as to pull upon the thole, not from it, which would soon tear off the cleat. The fittings of sea-going boats are usually very bad ; the thwarts are too high and too near the rowlocks, the oars are badly balanced, and there is no stretcher. If there is much sea, it is not possible to pull a long stroke or to feather quickly. This, and the general defects in the fittings, render the rowing of sailors almost always very bad, and utterly unfit for imitation ; but the good oarsman should always row as well as the boat will admit : the back may always be kept fiat, the shoulders down, and the stroke pufled through* / MERCANTILE LAW. 28S Sdrqiiii^t^ktioi) of S^tkte^ of ©ede^ed HEN a person dies, leav- ing no valid will behind him, his estate is distrib- uted among his heirs by what is known as opera- tion of law. This is reg- ulated by the statute of the State in which the deceased resided at the time of his death. The distribution must be made by an administrator duly appointed by law. The administrator is ap- pointed by the court having jurisdiction in such cases on being satisfied that the person proposed is legally qualified. The appointment must be made with the consent of the person appointed. It is the generally accepted rule that any one is legally com- petent to be an administrator who is competent to make a contract. Certain classes of persons are dis- qualified by statute, as in the State of New York, for instance, drunkards, gamblers, spendthrifts, etc. The relatives of the deceased are considered as en- titled to the appointment to administer the estate, and the order of precedence is regulated by statute. The husband is to be granted administration on the wife’s personal estate, and administration on the husband’s estate is to be granted to the widow and the next of kin in the following order if they or any of them will accept : 1. To the widow. 2. To the children. 3. To the father. 4. To the brothers. 5. To the sisters. 6. To the grandchildren. 7. To any other of the next of kin who would be entitled to a share in the distribution of the estate. The guardians of minors who are entitled may ad- minister for them. In case none of the relatives or guardians will accept, the administration will be given to the creditors of the deceased. The creditor who applies first, if legally competent, is to be preferred. If no creditor applies, any person who is legally qualified may be appointed. In the City of New York the public administrator may administer the estate after the next of kin. In the State of New York the Surrogate may select, among the next of kin, any one in equal degree, and appomt him sole administrator to the exclusion of the others. In case there are several persons of the same degree of kindred to the intestate, entitled to administration, they are preferred in the following order : 1. Males to females. 2. Relatives of the whole blood to those of the half blood. 3. Unmarried to married women ; and should there be several persons equally entitled, the Surro- MERCANTILE LAW. 289 gate may grant letters to one or more of them, as his judgment may suggest. If letters of administration should be unduly granted they may be revoked. Administration may likewise be granted on certain conditions, for a certain limited time, or for a special purpose. The powers and duties of an administrator differ from those of an executor only inasmuch as he must distribute and dispose of the estate according to the direction of the law, as he has no will to follow. First. The administrator must give bonds with sureties for the faithful execution of his trust. Second. He must make an inventory of the goods and chattels of the intestate, in accordance with the requirements of the law. Third. Two copies of this inventory shall be made, one of which will be lodged with the judge of the court, and the other will be kept by the admin- istrator. The latter will be obliged to account for the property mentioned in the inventory. Fourth. Having completed the inventory, the ad- ministrator must then collect the outstanding debts of the intestate, and also pay the debts of the same. The order of payment is regulated by local sta- tutes. Having liquidated all the debts of the intestate, the administrator will divide the remainder of the assets among the surviving relatives of the deceased. In so doing, he will act under the direction of the court. S^erjdy. By Agency is meant the substitution of one per- son by and for another, the former to transact busi- ness for the latter. An Agency may be established by implication — an express agreement with a person that he is to become the agent of another, not being necessary — or verbally , or by writing. A verbal creation of agency suffices to authorize the agent to make a contract even in cases where such contract must be in writing. Agency is of three kinds : special, general, and professional. A special agency is an authority ex- ercised for a special purpose. If a special agent exceed the limits of his authority, his principal is not bound by his acts. A general agency authorizes the transaction of all business of a particular kind, or growing out of a particular employment. The principal will be bound by the acts of a general agent though the latter act contrary to private instructions, provided he keep, at the same time, within the general limits of his authority. Professional agents are those licensed by the proper authority to transact certain kinds of busi- ness for a compensation. The following are among this class of agents : 1. Attorneys. 2. Brokers. 3. Factors. 4. Auctioneers. 5. Masters of Ships. In regard to the subject of an agency, the general rule is that whatever a man may do in his own right, he may also transact through another. Tilings of a personal nature, implying personal confidence on the part of the person possessing them, cannot be delegated. Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, aliens, belligerents, and persons incapable of making legal contracts, cannot act as principals in the appoint^ ment of agents. Infants and married women may, however, become principals in certain cases. Agency may be terminated in two ways : (1) by the act of the principal or agent ; (2) by operation of law. In the latter case, the termination of the agency is effected by lapse of time, by completion of the subject matter of the agency, by the extinc- tion of the subject matter, or by the insanity, bankruptcy, or death of either party. Sfbitfatior\. Arbitration is an investigation and determination of subjects of difference between persons involved in dispute, by unofficial persons chosen by the par- ties in question. The general rule is that any person capable of making a valid contract concerning the subject in dispute may be a party to an arbitration. Any matter which the parties may adjust by agreement, or which may be made the subject of a suit at law, may be determined by arbitration. Crimes cannot be made the subject matter of an arbitration. This matter is regulated by statute in the different States. Questions may be submitted for arbitration in the following ways : 290 MERCANTILE LAW. 1. By parol. 2. By writing. 3. Under the statute , which must be done if the parties are desirous of availing themselves of its provisions. 4. By rule of court , which occurs when an action is pending in court and the parties agree to take it before arbitrators, in accordance with an order of the court. 3. By deposit of notes. A person may be selected as arbitrator, notwith- standing his natural incapacity or legal disability to make contracts. The arbitrators must fix the time and place of hearing, and give due notice of the same to the par- ties. They must be sworn, if the statute requires an oath, unless such oath is weighed by the parties themselves. In the matter of hearing evidence the statute of the State must be followed. The arbitrators may adjourn from time to time, provided the time does not extend beyond the period appointed for the delivery of the award. In arbitrations the parties are entitled to the aid of counsel , the same as they would be in court. After a fair submission and a legal award, the matter submitted cannot be litigated on, any more than if it had been settled by a judgment. An award may be impeached where it has been procured by corruption, fraud, or other undue means ; by misconduct, corruption or irregularity on the part of the arbitrators, when the arbitrators acknowledge they have made a mistake in their de- cision ; where the arbitrators have exceeded their powers ; where pertinent and material evidence was rejected, etc. If either party revokes the submission, he will be liable for an action for breach of contract, and the payment of damages by the other party. The defendant in an action may be arrested for the following causes, when the action is to recover damages : 1. Personal injury. 2. Injury to property, including wrongful taking, detention, or conversion of property. 3. Breach of promise to marry. 4- Fraud or deceit. 5. Misconduct or neglect in office, or in profes sional employment. 6. In an action to recover a chattel where said chattel or a part thereof has been removed, con- cealed, or disposed of, so that it cannot be found or be taken by the Sheriff, and with intent that it should not be found or taken by the Sheriff, or with the intent of depriving the plaintiff of the benefit thereof. 7. In an action upon contract, express or implied, other than a promise to marry, where the defendant has been guilty of fraud in contracting or incurring the liability. 8. In an action upon contract, either express or implied, other than a promise to marry, where de- fendant has, since the making of the contract, or in contemplation of the same, removed or disposed of his property with the intent of defrauding his cred- itors, or where he is about to remove or dispose of the same with like intent. 9. In case of action to recover for money re- ceived, or to recover property or damages for the conversion or misapplication of the same, where the money was received, or« where the property was embezzled, or fraudulently misapplied by a public official, or by an attorney, solicitor, or counselor, or by an officer or agent of a corporation or banking association in the course of his employment, or by a factor, agent, broker, or any person in a fiduciary capacity. 10. In an action wherein the judgment demanded requires the performance of an act, the neglect or the refusal to perform which would be punishable by the court as contempt, or where the defendant, not being a resident of the State, or being a resident, is about to depart from the State, by reason ot which departure there is a danger that a judgment or an order requiring the performance of the said act will be rendered ineffectual. Females are liable to arrest only in the cases mentioned in the preceding subdivision, or in cases of willful injury to person, character, or pro- perty. A debtor may be arrested in this State only when it can be proved that he employed fraud in con- tracting the debt, or that he concealed or put his property out of his hands with the intent of defeat- ing his creditors. The defendant, when arrested, may give baiL MERCANTILE LAW. 3Qt Sttkdl\nqei|t. An attachment may be issued, when it is a ques- tion of recovering a sum of money, for damages, in the following cases : 1. For breach of contract, whether express or implied, other than a contract to marry. 2. For wrongful conversion of personal property, or for any injury to personal property, in conse- quence of fraud, negligence, or any other act. The plaintiff must prove that a cause of action exists under one of the above heads before he is en- titled to a warrant of attachment. In case of an action to recover damages, his affidavit must show that he is entitled to recover a sum therein stated over and above any or all counter claims against him. In addition, he must show that the defendant is either a foreign corporation or a non-resident of this State, or in case he is an individual person and resides in the State, that he has departed therefrom with the intention of defrauding his creditors, or avoiding being served with a summons, or that he keeps himself concealed within the State with like intent. If the defendant is a natural person or a domestic corporation, the affidavit must show that he or it has removed his or its property from the State with the intention of defrauding his or its creditors, or that he has assigned, disposed of, or secreted his property, or that he is about to do so with like intent. The plaintiff must also give a bond or undertaking to the amount of two hundred and fifty dollars before the attachment issues. Salary or wages may be attached provided the conditions already mentioned exist for so doing. In the ab- sence of said conditions, and after unsatisfied judg- ment and execution, wages may be taken by supple- mentary proceedings. The earnings of the debtor for his personal services for sixty days previous to the institution of said supplementary proceedings, where such earnings appear to be necessary for the support of a family wholly or in part supported by his labor, cannot be reached. Cl)cittel A mortgage of goods and chattels will be void to creditors of the mortgagee, if the following con- ditions are not complied with : 1. The immediate delivery of the property accom- panying the mortgage, followed by actual and con- tinued claim of possession. 2. The filing of the mortgage, or a true copy thereof, as required by law, in the clerk’s or regis- ter’s office of the town, city or county where the mortgagor resides, and where the property lies at the time the instrument was executed. The mort- gage must be filed where the mortgagee resides, if he is a resident of the State; if not, it must be filed in the city or town where the property is located at the time of the execution of the mortgage. It must be filed in the Register’s Office in the cities of New York and Brooklyn. Cfoivtfkdt^. The conditions of a contract, as applying to individuals, are: i. Age; 2. Rationality; and 3, as to Corporations, the possession of general or special statutory powers. Persons under age are incompetent to make con- tracts, except under certain limitations. Generally such persons are incapable of making binding con- tracts. As to rationality, the general principle of law is that all persons not rendered incompetent by per- sonal disability, or by considerations of public policy, are capable of making a contract. Corporations have powers to make contracts strictly within the limits prescribed by their char- ters, or by special or general statute. The following classes of contracts are void, unless they shall be in writing and'subscribed by the party to be charged thereby : r. Every agreement that by its terms is not to be performed within one year from the making thereof. 2. Every special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another person. 3. Every agreement, promise or undertaking; made upon consideration of marriage, except mutual promises to marry. 4. Every contract for the leasing of a longer period than one year, or for the sale of any lands, or any interest in lands, shall be void, unless the con- tract, or some note or memorandum thereof, express- ing the consideration, be in writing and subscribed by the party by whom the lease or sale is made. Every contract for the sale of any goods, chattel^ or things in action shall be void, unless. MERCANTILE LAW. *91 T. A note or memorandum of such contract be made in writing, and be subscribed by the parties to be charged thereby ; or, 2. Unless the buyer shall accept and receive part of such goods, or the evidences, or some of them, of such things in action ; or, 3. Unless the buyer shall, at the time, pay some part of the purchase money. dcrfpofktior^. Corporations are bodies created by law, which consist of individuals united under a common name, whose members succeed each other, so that the body continues the same, notwithstanding the change of the individuals who compose it. Three or more persons so desiring may form a corporation. The persons desiring to form a corporation must make and acknowledge the same before an officer empowered to take the acknowledgment of deeds a certificate in writing, in accordance with the direc- tions required by law. A duplicate of this certificate must be filed in the office of the Secretary of State. The stockholders of the incorporated company are individually liable to the company’s creditors to the amount of the stock held by them respectively, until all the capital stock shall have been paid in, and until a certificate stating the amount of the capital fixed and paid in shall be filed in the office of the County Clerk, in accordance with the requirements of the law. The stockholders are jointly and seve- rally individually liable to the laborers or servants of the corporation for work performed for the same. Corporations are liable for contracts made by the duly authorized agent within the scope of his authority, as well as for trespasses or torts committed by such agents under authority of such corpora- tions. Corporations are liable for negligence or breach of duty the same as individuals. Corporations are liable to pay taxes in the same manner as individual owners of property. Corporations are likewise subject to visitation, which consists of an authority to inspect the actions and regulate the behavior of the members who share in the franchise. ©e^der\t ai\d ©i^tributioij of fW* When a person dies intestate, his personal estate remaining after the payment of his debts, and where a will has been left, the surplus remaining after the payment of debts and legacies, if not bequeathed, shall be distributed to the widow, children, or next of kin of the deceased in the following manner : 1. One third part thereof to the widow, and all the residue in equal portions among the children, and such persons as may legally represent such children, if any of them shall have died before the deceased. 2. If there be no children, and no legal repre- sentative of them, then one moiety of the whole surplus, after the payment of debts, shall be allotted to the widow, and the other moiety shall be distri- buted to the next of kin of the deceased. 3. If the deceased shall leave a widow, and no descendant, parent, brother or sister, nephew 01 niece, the widow shall be entitled to the whole sur- plus ; but if there be a brother or sister, nephew or niece, and no descendant or parent, the widow shall be entitled to a moiety of the surplus and to the whole of the residue, where it does not exceed two thousand dollars ; if the residue exceed that sum, she shall receive, in addition to the moiety, two thousand dollars ; and the remainder shall be dis- tributed to the brothers and sisters and their repre- sentatives. 4. If there be no widow, then the whole surplus shall be distributed equally to and among the chil- dren and such as legally represent them. 5. In case there be no widow and no children, and no representatives of a child, then the whole surplus shall be distributed to the next of kin, in equal de- gree to the deceased, and their legal representatives. 6. If the deceased shall leave no children, and no representatives of them, and no father, and shall leave a widow and a mother, the moiety not dis- tributed to the widow shall be distributed in equal shares to the mother, and brothers and sisters, or the representatives of such brothers and sisters ; and, if there be no widow, the whole surplus shall be distributed in like manner to the mother, and to the brothers and sisters, or the representatives of such brothers and sisters. MERCANTILE LAW. 293 7. If the deceased leave a father, and no child or descendant, the father shall take a moiety, if there be a widow, and the whole if there be no widow. 8. If the deceased leave a mother, and no child, descendant, father, brother, sister, or representative of a brother or sister, the mother, if there be a widow, shall take a moiety, and the whole if there be no widow. 9. Where the descendants, or next of kin of the deceased entitled to share in his estate, shall be all in equal degree to the deceased, their shares shall be equal. 10. When such descendants, or next of kin, are of unequal degrees of kindred, the surplus shall be apportioned among those entitled thereto, ac- cording to their respective stocks ; so that those who take in their own right shall receive equal shares, and those who take by representation shall receive the shares to which the parent whom they represent, if living, would have been entitled. 11. No representation shall be admitted among collaterals after brothers’ and sisters’ children. 12. Relatives of the half blood shall take equally with those of the whole blood in the same degree ; and the representatives of such relatives shall take in the same manner as the representatives of the whole blood. 13. Descendants and next of kin of the deceased, begotten before his death, but born thereafter, shall take in the same manner as if they had been born in the lifetime of the deceased, and had survived him. The above provisions apply to the personal es- tates of married women who die intestate, leaving descendants ; and the husband of any deceased named woman may demand, recover, and enjoy me same distributive share in her personal estate mat she, if a widow, would be entitled to in his per- onal estate, but no more. The real property of every person dying intestate shall descend as follows : 1. To his lineal descendants. 2. To his father. 3. To his mother. 4. To his collateral relatives. In case the inheritance comes to the intestate on the part of the mother, the father does not take if the mother be living ; and in such a case, if she be dead, the father only takes a life interest, unless all the brothers and sisters of the deceased, and their descendants, be dead, or unless the deceased had no brothers or sisters, in which cases the father is en- titled to take the fee. In case there is no father or mother, and the in- heritance came to the deceased on the part of the mother, it will descend to the collateral relatives of the mother in preference to those of the father. In case the inheritance came to the deceased cn the part of neither father nor mother, it will descend to the collateral relatives of both in equal shares. Relatives of the half blood inherit equally with those of the whole blood in the same degree. The descendants and relatives of the intestate, begotten before his death, but bom thereafter, in- herit in the same manner as if they had been born in the lifetime of the intestate. The mother of an illegitimate child, dying with- out any descendants, takes the inheritance. Besides the provisions in favor of the widow and the minor children from the personal estate of her husband, it is provided that she may tarry in the house of her husband forty days after his death, whether her dower be sooner assigned or not, with out being liable to rent for the same, and meantime she shall have her reasonable sustenance off the estate of her husband. This sustenance shall be provided out of the personal property of her husband, and through the executor or administrator, should one be appointed prior to the expiration of the forty days, and shall be given according to the circum- stances and station in life of the family, to the widow and children dependent on her. In pro- viding this sustenance, the executor or administrator must exercise judgment and discretion, as he should in paying funeral expenses. Iqtcre^t kqd l/^ui'y. Interest is a ?noderate profit for the use of money. In the different States the rate of interest is estab- lished by statute. In New York State six per cent, is the legal rate of interest. Any excess over this, whether received directly or indirectly, will ren- der the contract void, and is a misdemeanor, pun- ishable by a fine not exceeding $1,000, or by im- prisonment not exceeding six months, or both. An excess of interest above the legal rate may be re- covered by an action at law, if brought in one year from the time of payment. #94 MERCANTILE LAW. Corporations cannot set up the defence of usury. In case promissory notes and bills of exchange do not specify the payment of interest, interest is not allowable until maturity. But from the moment they fall due, they bear interest, whether it be so specified or not. As a rule, compound interest is not allowable, but a contract is not usurious or void because of a stipu- J ition for the payment of compound interest. The rourts, however, will not enforce its payment, when J le agreement is made before any interest has ac- crued. If a debt already due has an accumulation cf interest not paid, the parties may agree to have the principal and interest added together, and draw interest. Interest is not allowable upon unliquidated de- mands for board and lodging, where price or time of payment is not agreed upon between the parties. A lender, whether banker or broker, can charge a reasonable amount for his services in addition to the interest, without being liable for usury. Interest in advance is allowed under certain limi- tations. , L(cii\dloi‘ lication was made, and shall also make oath that he does not know and does not believe that the inven- tion has been in public use or on sale in this coun- try for more than two years prior to his application, and that he has never abandoned the invention, then the patent or publication cited will not bar the grant of a patent to the applicant, except upon inter - ference. When an application is rejected on reference to an expired or unexpired domestic patent which shows or describes, but does not claim, the rejected inven- tion, or to a foreign patent, or to a printed publica- tion, or to facts within the personal knowledge of an employ^ of the office, set forth in an affidavit of such employ^, or on the ground of public use or sale, or upon a mode or capability of operation attributed to a reference, or because the alleged invention is held to be inoperative, or frivolous, or injurious to public health or morals, affidavits or depositions supporting or traversing these references or objections may be received ; but they will be received in no other cases, without special permis- sion of the Commissioner. If an applicant neglect to prosecute his applica- tion for two years after the date when the last official notice of any action by the office was mailed to him, the application will be held to be abandoned. DESIGNS. Patents for designs are granted for the term of three and one-half years, or for seven years, or for fourteen years, as the applicant may, in his applica- tion, elect. When the design can be sufficiently represented by drawings or photographs; a model will not be required. Whenever a photograph or an engraving is em- ployed to illustrate the design it must be mounted upon Bristol-board, 10 by 15 inches in size, and properly signed and witnessed. The applicant will be required to furnish ten extra copies of such photograph or engraving (not mounted), of a size not exceeding 7^ inches by n. REISSUES. A reissue is granted to the original patentee, his legal representatives, or the assignees of the entire interest, when, by reason of a defective or insuffici- ent specification, or by reason of the patentee claim* MERCANTILE LAW. 30a ing as his invention or discovery more than he had a right to claim as new, the original patent is inoperative or invalid, provided the error has arisen from inadvertence, accident, or mistake, and without any fraudulent or deceptive intention. INTERFERENCES. An interference is a proceeding instituted for the purpose of determining the question of priority of invention between two or more parties claiming sub- stantially the same patentable invention. The fact that one of the parties has already obtained a patent will not prevent an interference ; for, although the Commissioner has no power to cancel a patent, he may grant a patent for the same invention to another person who proves to be the prior inventor. Interferences will be declared in certain cases, when all the parties claim substantially the same patentable invention. APPEALS. Every applicant for a patent or the reissue of a patent, any of the claims of whose application have been twice rejected upon grounds involving the mer- its of the invention, such as lack of novelty or utility, abandonment, public use, or want of identity of invention, either in amended or in reissue applica- tions, may appeal from the decision of the primary examiner to the board of examiners-in chief, having once paid a fee of ten dollars. The appeal must be made in writing, signed by the party, or his duly authorized agent or attorney, setting forth the points of the decision upon which the appeal is taken and duly filed. HEARINGS AND INTERVIEWS. Hearings will be had by the Commissioner at 10 o’clock a.m., and by the board of examiners-in-chief and the examiner of interferences at 1 o’clock p.m., on the day appointed, unless some other hour be specially designated. DATE, DURATION, AND FORM OF PATENTS. Every patent will bear date as of a day not later than six months from the time at which the applica- tion was passed and allowed and notice thereof was mailed to the applicant or his agent, if within that period the final fee be paid to the Commissioner of Patents, or if it be paid to the treasurer, or any ol the assistant treasurers or designated depositaries of the United States, and the certificate promptly for- warded to the Commissioner of Patents ; and if the final fee be not paid within that period, the patent will be withheld. A patent will not be antedated. Every patent will contain a short title of the invention or discovery, indicating its nature and object, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs and assigns, for the term of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to make, use, and vend the invention or discovery throughout the United States and Terri- tories thereof. EXTENSIONS. No patent granted since March 2, 1861, can be extended, except by act of Congress. CAVEATS. A caveat, under the patent law, is a notice given to the office of the caveator’s claim as inventor, in order to prevent the grant of a patent to another for the same alleged invention upon an application filed during the life of the caveat without notice to the caveator. Any citizen of the United States who has made a new invention or discovery and desires further time to mature the same, may, on payment of a fee of ten dollars, file in the patent office a caveat setting forth the object and the distinguishing characteristics of the invention, ana praying protection of his right until he shall have matured his invention. Such caveat shall be filed in the confidential archives of the office and preserved in secrecy, and shall be operative for the term of one year from the filing thereof ASSIGNMENTS. Every patent or any interest therein shall be assignable in law by an instrument in writing ; and the patentee or his assigns or legal representatives may, in like manner, grant and convey an exclusive right under his patent to the whole or any specified part of the United States. OFFICE FEES. Nearly all the fees payable to the patent office are positively required by law to be paid in advance— MERCANTILE LAW. 303 that is, upon making application for any action by the office for which a fee is payable. For the sake of uniformity and convenience, the remaining fees will be required to be paid in the same manner. The following is the schedule of fees : — On filing every application for a design patent $10 00 On issuing a design patent for three years and six months no further charge. On issuing a design patent for seven years. 5 00 On issuing a design patent for fourteen years 20 00 On filing every caveat 10 00 On filing every application for a patent for an invention or discovery 15 00 On issuing each original patent for an inven- tion or discovery 20 00 On filing a disclaimer 10 00 On filing every application for a reissue. ... 30 00 On filing every application for a division of a reissue 30 00 On filing every application for an extension. 50 00 On the grant of every extension. 50 00 On filing an appeal from a primary examiner to the examiners-in-chief 10 00 On filing an appeal to the Commissioner from the examiners-in-chief 20 00 Tor certified copies of patents or other in- struments, except cop.es of printed patents sold by the office, for every 100 words. . . 10 For certified copies of printed patents sold by the office, 10 cents for every 100 words, less the price actually paid for such copies without certification. For certified copies of drawings, the reason- able cost of making them. For recording an assignment of 300 words or less 1 00 For recording an assignment of more than 300 and not more than 1.000 words 2 00 For recording every assignment of more than 1,000 words 3 00 For uncertified copies of the specifications and accompanying drawings of all patents which are in print : — Single copies 25 Twenty copies or more, whether of one or several patents, per copy 10 For uncertified copies of the specifications and drawings of patents not in print, the reasonable cost of making the same. For copies of matter in any foreign language, per 100 words $0 20 For translations, per 100 words 50 For assistance to attorneys in examination of records, one hour or less 5a Each additional hour 50 For assistance to attorneys in examination of patents and other works in the Scientific Library, one hour or less 1 00 Each additional hour 1 00 No person will be allowed to make copies or trac- ings from the files or records of the office. Such copies will be furnished, when ordered, at the rates already sp ecified. The money required for office fees may be paid to the Commissioner, or to the treasurer, or any of the assistant treasurers of the United States, or to any of the designated depositaries, national banks, or receivers of public money, designated by the secre- tary of the treasury for that purpose, who shall give the depositor a receipt or certificate of deposit therefor, which shall be transmitted to the patent office. When this cannot be done without much inconvenience, the money may be remitted by mail, and in every such case the letter should state the exact amount inclosed. Letters containing money may be registered. Post-office money-orders now afford a safe and convenient mode of transmitting fees. All such orders shcald be made payable to the “ Commissioner of Patents.” All money sent by mail, either to or from the patent office, will be at the risk of the sender. REPAYMENT OF MONEY. Money paid by actual mistake, such as a payment in excess, or when not required by law, or by neglect or misinformation on the part of the office, will be refunded. PUBLICATIONS. The “ Official Gazette,” a weekly publication which has been issued since 1872, takes the place of the old “ Patent-Office Report.” It contains the claims of all patents issued, including reissues, with portions of the drawings selected to illustrate the claims, and also lists of design patents, together with decisions of the courts and of the Commissioner and other special matters of interest to inventors. J°4 FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS. GENERAL FORM OF AGREEMENT. This Agreement, made the first day of May , one thousand eight hundred and eighty-l wo, between John Doe, of the city of Hartford, in the county of Hartford , and State of Connecticut , of the first part, and Richard Roe, of the village of Windsor , in said county and State , of the second part — Witnesseth, that the said John Doe, in consideration of the coven- ants on the part of the party of the second part, hereinafter contained, doth covenant and agree to and with the said Richard Roe, that [ here insert the agreement on the part of John Doe] And the said Richard Roe, in consideration of the covenants on the part of the party of the first part, doth covenant and agree to and with the said John Doe, that [here insert the agreement on the part of Rich- ard Roe ] . In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and year first above written. Sealed and delivered, ] in presence of j JOHN DOE. [l.s.1 John Smith, [ RICHARD ROE. [l.s ] Thos. Brown. J [When required this clause may he inserted :\ And it is further agreed, between the parties hereto, that the party that shall fail to perform this agreement on his part, will pay to the other the full sum of fifty dollars, as liquidated, fixed, and settled damages. AGREEMENT FOR THE PURCHASE OF A HOUSE AND LOT. Memorandum of an agreement made this 15th day of November, in the year 1882, between John Smith, Jeweler, of the city of New York, and Henry Brown, Merchant, of the same city, witnesseth— That the said John Smith agrees to sell, and the said Henry Brown agrees to pur- chase, for the price or consideration of dollars, the house and lot known and distinguished as number ninety-nine, in - — - street, in the said city of New York. The possession of the property is to be deliv- ered on the first day of May next, when twenty-five per cent, of the purchase-money is to be paid in cash, and a bond and mortgage on the premises, bearing seven per cent interest, payable in five years (such interest payable quarterly), is to be executed for the balance of the pur- chase-money, at which time also a deed of conveyance in fee simple, containing the usual full covenants and warranty is to be delivered, executed by the said John Smith and wife, and the title made satisfac- tory to the said Henry Brown ; it being understood that this agreement shall be binding upon the heirs, executors, administrators, and assigns of the respective parties ; and also that the said premises are now insured for dollars, and, in case the said house should be burnt before the said first day of May next, that the said John Smith shall hold the said insurance in trust, and will then transfer the same to said Henry Brown with the said deed. In Witness, &c [as in General Form ]. AGREEMENT FOR THE GALE OF REAL ESTATE. Articles of agreement made and entered into this day of between A. B. of . of the one part, and C. D. of , of the other part, as follows : The said A. B doth hereby agree with the said C. D. to sell him the lot of ground [here describe it], for the sum of ; and that he, the said A B., shall and will, on the day of next, on receiving from the said C. D. the said sum, at his own cost and expense, execute a proper conveyance for the conveying and assuring the fee simple of the said premises to the said C. D., free from all encumbrances, which conveyance shall contain a general warranty and the usual full cove- nants. And the said C. D. agrees with the said A. B that he, the said C. D., shall and will, on the said day of next, and on execution of such conveyance, pay unto the said A B. the sum of aforesaid. And it is further agreed between the parties aforesaid, as follows: The said A. B shall have and retain the possession of the property, and receive and be entitled to the rents and profits thereof, until the said day of next ; when, and upon delivery of the conveyance, the possession is to be delivered to the said C. D. And it is understood that the stipulations aforesaid are to apply to and to bind the heirs, executors, and administrators of the respective parties. And in case of failure, the parties bind themselves each unto the other in the sum of , which they hereby consent to fix and liquidate the amount of damages to be paid by the failing party for his non-performance. In witness, &c. [as in General Form], AGREEMENT FOR BUILDING A HOUSE. Memorandum.— That on this day of , it isagrecd between A. B and C. D ,of , in manner following, viz. : the said C. D. , for the considerations hereinafter mentioned, doth for himself, his heirs, executors, and administrators, covenant with the said A. B , his executors, administrators, and assigns, that he the said C. D. or his assigns shall and will, within the space of next after the date hereof, in a good and workmanlike manner, and at his own proper charge and expense, at .well and substantially erect, build, and finish, one house, or messuage, according to the draught, scheme, and explana- tion hereunto annexed, with such stone, brick, timber, and other materials, as the said A. B. or his assigns shall find and provide for the same In consideration whereof, the said A. B. doth for himself, his executors, and administrators, covenant with the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, well and truly to pay unto the said C D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, the sum ol of lawful money of in manner following, viz. i part FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS. 3oo. New York, April 19, 1880. Three months afterdate, I promise to pay John Thompson, or order, one thousand dollars, for value received. JAMES FOWLER. A NOTE, OR DUE BILL, PAYABLE ON DEMAND. $100. Cincinnati, O., April 14, 1880. On demand I promise to pay Charles Jones, or order, one hundred dollars, for value received. HENRY WARING, 120 State-street. A NOTE BEARING INTEREST. $100. New Orleans, La., May 1, 1882. Six months after date, I promise to pay George Robinson, or order, one hundred dollars, with interest, for value received. PHILIP REDMOND. A NOTE PAYABLE BY INSTALMENTS. $3000. Philadelphia, Pa., April 20, 1882. For value received, I promise to pay Smith & Brown, or order, three thousand dollars, in the manner following, viz. : one thousand dollars in one year, one thousand dollars in two years, and one thousand dol- lars in three years, with interest on all said sums, payable semi- annually, without defalcation or discount. HUGH FAULKNER, 120 Chestnut-st. SEALED NOTE. $ 5000. Cleveland, O., May 8, 1882. For value received, I promise to pay Smith & Edgar, or order, five thousand dollars, in three years from the date hereof, with interest, payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. And incase of default of niy payment of the interest or principal aforesaid with punctuality, I hereby empower any attorney-at-law, to be appointed by said Smith & Edgar, or their assigns, to appear in any court which said Smith & Edgar, or their assigns, may select, and commence and prose- cute a suit against me on said note, to confess judgment for all and every part of the interest or principal on said note, in the payment of which I may be delinquent. Witness my hand and seal, this 8th day of June, A. D. 1882. JOHN DREW, [seal.] Attest, Georgs White. DUE BILL, PAYABLE IN GOODS. Due John Jones, or bearer, fifty dollars in merchandise, for value received, payable on demand. THOMAS BOLAND. New York, May 3, 1882. ORDER FOR GOODS. Mr. J. Tongue. New York, April 16, 1882. Please pay John Jones, or order, one hundred dollars in merchandise and charge the same to account of HENRY WALFORD. BILL OF EXCHANGE. $1000. Hartford, Conn , April 20, 1882. Thirty days after sight, pay to the order of Messrs. John Smith A Co. one thousand dollars, and charge the same to account of RICHARD JAY. To Messrs. Wilson & Rivers, New York. A SET OF BILLS OF EXCHANGE. No. 188.— Ex. £ 300 . New York, Aprii 26, i88«. Three days after sight of this, my first of exchange (second and third unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds ster- ling, value received, and charge the same to account of JOHN SMITH. No. 188. — Ex. ^300. New York, April 26, 1882. Three days after sight of this, my second of exchange (first and third unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds ster- ling, value received, and charge the same to account of JOHN SMITH. No. 188. — Ex. ^300. New York, April 8, 1082. Three days after sight of this, my third of exchange (first and sec ond unpaid), pay to Charles Walker, or order, three hundred pounds sterling, value received, and charge the same to account of JOHN SMITH. MONEY ORDER. Mr. Henry Denhis: New York, May 20, 1882. Please pay Charles Robinson, or order, one hundred dollars, and charge the same to account of JOSEPH DOYLE. NOTICE OF NON-PAYMENT. TO BE GIVEN TO THE DRAWER AND ENDORSERS. New York, Feb. 26, 1882. Please to take notice, that a certain bill of exchange, dated , lot $1000, drawn by , on and accepted by , of and by you endorsed, was this day protested for non-payment, and the holders look to you for the payment thereof. You's, &c., To Mr. A. B. J. T., Notary Pub.ic. RECEIPT IN FULL OF ALL DEMANDS. $500. New York, March 28, 1882. Received of John Smith five hundred dollars, in full of all demand* against him. WM. JONES. RECEIPT ON ACCOUNT. $ IOO- New York, March 28, 1882. Received of John Smith one hundred dollars, to apply on account. WM. JONES. RECEIPT FOR MONEY PAID FOR ANOTHER. $joo. New York, March 28, 1882. Received of J. G. Wells one hundred dollars, in full of all demands against John Smith. WM. JONES. GENERAL FORM OF ASSIGNMENT. TO BK WRITTEN OR ENDORSED ON THE BACK OF ANY INSTRUMENT. Know all men by these presents, that I, the within-named A. B., In consideration of one hundred dollars to me paid by C. D., have assigned FORMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS. 3i3 to the said C. D., and his assigns, all my interest in the within written Instrument, and every clause, article, or thing therein contained ; and 1 do hereby constitute the said C. D., my attorney, in my name, but to his own use, and at his own risk and cost, to take all legal measures which may be proper for the complete recovery and enjoyment of the assigned premises, with power of substitution. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this tenth day of May, one thousand eight hundred and sixty. Executed and delivered I . „ r i in the presence of j A- l SEAL -J ASSIGNMENT OF A LEASE. Know all men by these presents, that I, the within-named A. B., the lessee, for and in consideration of the sum of one thousand dollars, to me in hand paid by C. D. ,of,&c., at and before the sealing and delivery hereof (the receipt whereof I do hereby acknowledge), have granted, assigned, and set over, and by these presents do grant, assign, and set over, unto the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns the within indenture of lease, and all that messuage, &c., thereby demised, with the appurtenances ; and also all my estate, right, title, term of years yet to come, claim, and demand whatsoever, of, in, to, or out of the same. To have and to hold the said messuage, &c., unto the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, for the residue of the term within mentioned, under the yearly rent and covenants within reserved and contained, on my part and behalf to be done, kept, and performed. In testimony, &c. far in General Form 0/ Assignment ]. ASSIGNMENT OF A MORTGAGE. Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B. , the mortgagee within named, for and in consideration of the sum of sixteen hundred dollars, to me paid by C. D., of, &c.,at and before the sealing and delivery hereof (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, bargained, sold, assigned, and set over, and by these presents do grant, bargain, sell, assign, and set over, unto the said C. D., his heirs, exec- utors, administrators, and assigns, the within deed of mortgage, and ail my right and title to that messuage, &c., therein mentioned and described, together with the original debt for which the said mortgage was given, and all evidence thereof, and all the rights and appurtenances thereunto belonging. To have and to hold all and singular the premises hereby granted and assigned, or mentioned, or intended so to be, unto the said C. D , his heirs and assigns, forever ; subject, nevertheless, to the right and equity of redemption of the within named E. F.,his heirs and assigns (if any they have), in the same. In testimony, &c. [rzr in General Form 0/ Assignment ]. ASSIGNMENT OF A PATENT. Whereas, letters patent, bearing date day of , in the year , were granted and issued by the government of the United States, under the seal thereof, to A. B., of the town of , in the county of , in the State of , for [here state the nature of the invention in general terms, as in the patent], a more particular and full descrip- tion whereof is annexed to the said letters patent in a schedule ; by which letters patent the full and exclusive right and liberty of making and using the said invention, and of vending the same to others to be used, was granted to the said A. B., his heirs, executors, and adminis- trators, or assigns, for the term of fourteen years from the said date : Now know all men by these presents, that I, the said A. B , for and in consideration of the sum of dollars, to me in hand paid (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, assigned, and set over, and by these presents do grant, assign, and set over, unto C. D., of the town of , in the county of , and State of , his executors, administrators, and assigns, forever, the said letters patent, and all my right, title, and interest, in and to the said invention, so granted unto me : To have and to hold the said letters patent and invention, with all benefit, profit, and advantage thereof, unto the said C. D., his executors, administrators, and assigns, in as full, ample, and beneficial a manner, to all intents and purposes, as I, the said A. R., by virtue of the said letters patent, may or might have or hold the same, if this assignment had not been made, for and during all the rest and resi- due of the said term of fourteen years. la testimony. &c., [as in General Form 0/ Assignment .] ASSIGNMENT OF A POLICY OF INSURANCE. Know all men by these presents, that 1 , the within-named A. B., fot and in consideration of the sum of , to me paid by C. D., of, &c. (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), have granted, sold, assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these presents I do abso- lutely grant, sell, assign, transfer, and set over to him, the said C. D., all my right, property, interest, claim, and demand in and to the within policy of insurance, which have already arisen, or which may hereafter arise thereon, with full power to use my name so far as may be neces- sary to enable him fully to avail himself of the interest herein assigned, or hereby intended to be assigned. The conveyance herein made, and the powers hereby given, are for myself and my legal representatives to said C. D. and his legal representatives. In testimony, &c. [as in General Fortn of Assignment}. ASSIGNMENT OF DEMAND FOR WAGES OR DEBT. In consideration of $100 to me in hand paid by M. D., of the city of , the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, I, L. C., of the same place, have sold, and by these presents do sell, assign, transfer, and set over, unto the said M. D., a certain debt due from N. E., amounting ta the sum of $150, for work, labor, and services, by me performed for the said N. E. (or for goods sold and delivered to the said N. E), with full power to sue for, collect, and discharge, or sell and assign the same in my name or otherwise, but at his own cost and charges ; and I do hereby covenant that the said sum of $150 is justly due as aforesaid, and that I have not done and will not do any act to hinder or prevent the collection of the same by the said M. D. Witness my hand, this April 10th, 1863. L. C. ASSIGNMENT OF ACCOUNT ENDORSED THEREON. In consideration of $1, value received, I hereby sell and assign to M. D. the within account which is justly due from the within named N. E., and I hereby authorize the said M. D. to collect the same. L. C. Troy, April 10th, 1863. BOND TO A CORPORATION. Know all men by these presents, that I, A. B. , of, &c., am held and firmly bound unto the Insurance Company, in the sum of one thousand dollars, lawful money of the United States, to be paid to the said Insurance Company or assigns ; for which payment, wed and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors, and adminis- trators, firmly by these presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated the day of , one thousand eight hundred and . The condition of the above obligation is such, that if the above bounden A. B., his heirs, executors, or administrators, shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid unto the above named Insurance Company, or assigns, the just and full sum, &c. [oj in Common Bond]. COMMON CHATTEL MORTGAGE. This Indenture, made the day of, &c., between A. B.. of, &C., of the first part, and C. D., of, &c., of the second part, witnesseth: That the said party of the first part, in consideration of the sum of dollars, to him duly paid, hath sold, and by these presents doth grant and convey, to the said party of the second part, and his assigns, the following described goods, chattels, and property [ here describe them , or refer to thetn thus , “ as in the schedule annexed ”], now in my pos- session, at the of aforesaid ; together with the appurte- nances, and all the estate, title, and interest of the said party of the first part therein. This grant is intended as a security for ‘he payment of one hundred and fifty dollars, with interest, on or before the expiration of one year from the date hereof ; and the additional sum of one hun- dred and sixty dollars, with interest, on the — - ■ — day of , r8 — 1 which payments, if duly made, will render this conveyance void. Iu witness, &e. [as in Bill of Sale and Chattel Mortgage ]. 5*4 GOVERNMENT BONDS. OVERNMENT Bonds are quoted and dealt in at the Stock Exchange, but the principal trans- actions take place in the offices of the large dealers, with whom parties desiring to invest in or dispose of bonds may transact their business either in person or through a broker. The dealers are ordinarily pre- pared to buy and sell either large or small amounts at the current quotations. This mode of dealing greatly facilitates transac- tions in Government bonds, and adds to their desir- ability and convenience for investment ; as it enables the investor to purchase the bonds for immediate delivery, or to convert them into money at once, and also to ascertain, before he buys or sells, just what price he must pay or will receive, instead of taking the chances of an order to buy or sell at the market prices, or at a fixed limit at the Stock Exchange. The difference between the prices at which the dealer is prepared to buy or sell the more active bonds, on a steady market, is usually one-eighth of one per cent., with occasionally wider varia- tions. All the different issues of Government bonds now outstanding are in registered form, except the Fours and Four-and-a-halfs, which are both coupon and registered. Coupon bonds, at times, sell higher than regis- tered bonds of the same issue ; the difference in price in their favor occurring, for the most part, when United States bonds are in demand in Euro- pean markets, and for the reason that registered bonds are not taken for the English and German markets, except to a very limited extent. When bonds are not being sent abroad, and the demand is for home investment exclusively, the price of the registered bonds approximates more nearly or becomes equal to, or a little higher than, that of the coupon bonds. Registered bonds rarely sell more than one-eighth of one per cent, higher than coupon bonds, for the reason that the latter can always be converted into the former at the bare cost of forwarding them to the Treasury Department for that purpose. The Currency Sixes derive their name from the fact that the interest on them is made payable in “United States Treasury notes or any other money or currency which the United States have, or shall declare lawful money and a legal tender.” All the other issues of bonds derive the names by GOVERNMENT BONDS. 3 J i which they are known from the rates of interest which they bear, or which they bore when originally issued. All the issues of United States bonds now out- standing, except the Currency Sixes, are payable in coin, either by the express terms of the Acts under which they are issued, or by the pledge of the faith of the United States in the “ Public Credit Act ” of March 18, 1869. The Currency Sixes having fixed periods to run of from thirteen to seventeen years, with no option on the part of the Government to call them in be- fore maturity, are, for this reason, desirable for long investment for Savings Banks, estates, trust funds and banking purposes. The Three-and-a-half-per-cent. bonds, continued from Sixes of 1881, and known as “Continued Sixes,” are now being called in from time to time, and will probably all be paid off from the surplus revenue, within the next two years. The Three-and-a-half-per-cent. bonds, continued from Fives of 1881, and known as “Continued Fives,” are pretty certain to remain undisturbed for several years, unless the holders are offered in the meantime, by new legislation, the advantage of ex- changing them for bonds having a definite time to run, as an equivalent for a somewhat lower rate of interest. The Four-and-a-half-per-cents have still nine years to run ; but the Four-per-cents, having twenty- five years to run, must be considered as the most desirable for permanent investment of any of the issues now outstanding, unless the avoidance of the high premium is desired, in which case the Contin- ued Fives will be most suitable. COUPON BONDS. Coupon bonds, being payable to bearer, pass by delivery without assignment, and are therefore more convenient for sale and delivery than registered bonds, which must be assigned by the party in whose name they are registered. The interest cou- pons being also payable to the bearer upon presen- tation at any Sub-Treasury of the United States, the holder of coupon bonds may collect his interest without the necessity of personal identification. The difficulty of holding coupon bonds with safety by parties not provided with burglar proof safes or vaults of their own, has t»een. to a considerable ex- tent, removed by the establishment of “ Safe Deposit Companies,” who undertake, for a moderate com- pensation, the custody of securities, under the most favorable conditions for securing absolute safety. Coupon bonds may be converted into registered bonds of the same issue, at the Treasury Depart- ment in Washington, but there is no provision of law for converting registered bonds into coupon bonds. Coupon bonds forwarded to the Treasury Depart- ment for conversion into registered bonds should be addressed to “ The Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C. except in case they are for- warded by a National Bank, or for account of a National Bank, to secure deposits or circulation ; in which case, if they are to secure deposits, they should be sent to “The Treasurer of the U. S.;” or, if they are to secure circulation, to “ The Comp- troller of the Currency.” REGISTERED BONDS. Registered bonds are issued without interest cou- pons, and are filled up in the name of the registered owner, payable to him or his assigns. They are reg- istered on the books of the Treasury Department ir» the name of the party to whom they are filled up, and are not available to any other person until prop- erly assigned or transferred by the registered owner. If registered bonds are lost or stolen, payment may be stopped by notifying the Treasury Depart- ment at Washington, as detailed in Chapter VI. For this reason, registered bonds afford greater security in case of loss, theft or destruction than coupon bonds, and are therefore preferable for long or permanent investment, and for investors who have not the proper facilities for the safe keeping of coupon bonds. ASSIGNMENT. Registered bonds are transferable on the books ot the Treasury Department at Washington, when for warded there with a proper assignment filled up and executed in accordance with a form printed on the back of the bonds. When a transfer is made, the old bond is cancelled and a new one issued in the name of the party to whom it has been trans- ferred. As the interest on registered bonds, as it becomes due. is sent bv check to the owner, at his Dost-offic* GOVERNMENT BONDS. I address, this address should be given with each order. An executor, administrator, trustee, guardian, or attorney cannot assign bonds to himself, unless he is specially authorized to do so by a court possessing jurisdiction of the matter. Registered bonds forwarded to the Treasury De- partment for transfer should be addressed to “ The Register of the Treasury, Washington, D. C.,” ex- cept in case they are forwarded by a National Bank or for account of a National Bank, to secure de- posits or circulation, when the instructions contained in the succeeding chapter should be followed. QUOTATIONS. All Government Bonds are dealt in and quoted flat — that is to say, the quoted market price is for the bond as it stands at the time, including the ac- crued interest, except that after the closing of the transfer books the registered bonds are quoted ex- interest — that is to say, the interest then coming due belongs to the holder of the bond at the time of the closing of the books, and does not go with the bond to the purchaser. In comparing the prices of the coupon and regis- tered bonds during the period in which the transfer books remain closed, it should be remembered that during that time the quoted price of the coupon bonds includes the accrued interest falling due on the first of the ensuing month, while that of the reg- istered bonds does not. If the market value of the registered and coupon bonds at the time is the same, the difference in the quoted prices of the two will be equal to the value of the interest included in the one and not in the other. For example : If, in the month of December, when the books are closed pre- paratory to the payment of the interest due January ist, the coupon Four-per-cents are quoted at 118, the equivalent for the registered bonds of the same issue would be 117, the three months’ interest being equal to one per cent. RATES OF INTEREST AND DENOM- INATIONS. The interest on the different issues of Govern- ment bonds now in circulation is payable as follows — viz.: quarterly. Currency Sixes 6 percent., semi-annually, January i and July i Continued Sixes of 1881..3X “ “ .“ “ January 1 and Juiy 1 j February 1 and May 1 I August 1 and Nov. 1 r and June 1 and Dec. 1 J January 1 and April 1 ' Juiy 1 and October 1 Continued Fives of 1881.3)$ “ Four-and-a-half-per-cts.4)$ “ Four-per-cents 4 “ ,, j March ' Sept. The only coupon bonds are in the Four- and the Four-and-a-half-per-cent loans. They are in de- nominations of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000. There are registered bonds of all issues. They are in denominations of $50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000, except that of the Currency Sixes there are none of a less denomination than $1,000. Of the funded loans, viz., the Five-per-cents (continued at 3! per cent.), the Four-and-a-half-per- cents, and the Four-per-cents, there are, in addition to the above, registered bonds of the denomination of $20,000 and $50,000. It is not generally advisable to have bonds regis- tered in higher denominations than $10,000, as they will not bring as good a price in the market in case of sale. The highest denomination which is a good delivery at the New York Stock Exchange is $10,000 CALLED BONDS. Bonds concerning which the Government has ex- ercised its option of redemption, and given notice that they will cease to bear interest after a certain I date, are designated as u called bonds.” DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. I*/ WPBPWPW IlllllllllM llllllll ^ctiona^ TE^ y 'y 'jj' \av y \Yr \ ^ ^ \ / ■'V' ''j' 'A' > i' Xv' ABANDONMENT. The relinquishing to the under- writers, under an insurance, of ail the property saved from a wreck, in order to entitle the insured to claim for a total loss. Abate. To break down, destroy, or remove ; as, for instance, to abate (remove or put an end to) a nuisance. Abduction. The unlawful taking or detention o: a "woman (having property in possession or expectancy) against her will, with the intention of procuring her marriage or de- filement. Also the unlawful taking of an unmarried girl , un- der the age of sixteen years, out of the possession, and against the will of, the father, or other person having the lawful care of her, although done without force or corrupt motives. The former Is a felony, and the latter a misdemeanor. Abettor. A person who encourages or excites another to commit an offence punishable by law. Abeyance. The fee simple of lands is in abeyance when there is no person in being in whom it can vest, so that it is in a state of expectancy or waiting until a proper person shall appear, or the right thereto is determined. The same applies to dignities or offices. Abjuration (oath of)- An oath disclaiming any right in the pre- tender to the British throne, and also the jurisdiction and authority of the pope or any other foreign prince within this realm. Abortion. The offence of procuring the miscarriage ot a woman quick with child. Abstract of Title. An epitome of the deeds and documents consti- tuting the evidence of title to an estate. A cceptar.ce. The act by which a person on whom a bill of exchange i3 drawn undertakes to pay it at maturity. The bill of exchange itself is sometimes called, in common parlance, an acceptance. Accessory. A person concerned in a felonious offence, although not the actual perpetrator, nor present at its performance. He may be accessory either before or after the fact. Accommodation Bill. A bill of exchange accepted without value, for the purpose of raising money thereon by discount. Account Stated. An account closed or balanced. Acknowledgment by a Married Woman. A ceremony gone through bv a married woman to enable her to convey her interest in land, and which has been substituted for the old process of a fine. Action. The method of demanding the enforcement of a legal right, and procuring redress for a civil injury in the courts of common Act of Parliament. See Statutes. Act* of Bankruptcy are numerous — such as keeping out of the way to avoid a creditor, etc. Addition. The title, degree, profession, or business, and also the place of abode of a person. Adjudication. In England, the act of giving judgment, as, for in- stance, when a bankruptcy judge finds a party bankrupt, it is called the Adjudication. In Scotland it is applied to the law whereby a creditor attaches the property of his debtor, and has different significations according to the nature of the property attached. Administrator. He that has the goods of a person dying without a will committed to his care, for the purpose of legal distribution. The nearest of kin is entitled to administration. Admiralty (Court of), has cognizance of all civil (but not now, as It had formerly, of criminal) matters, arising on the high seas, or on those parts of the coast which are not within the limits of an English county, — Aiso of prize cases. Crimina. matters are triable before the ordinary assize courts of the nearest English county. Ad Valorem. Stamp duties, the amount of which is regulated ac- cording to ‘he value of the property, etc., are so termed. Advowson. The right of presentation to an ecclesiastical benefice. He who possesses this right is styled the patron. Advov/sons are of three kinds, presentative, collative, or donative. Affidavit. A written statement upon oath. It must be sworn before a person authorized to administer oaths ; who that is, depends upon what the affidavit relates to. The same officer is not usually empow. ered to administer oaths in all the courts. Affinity. Relation by marriage between the husband or wife and the blood relations of either ; but not between the husband and wife themselves. Affirmation. A solemn declaration in lieu of an oath. A Fortiori. By so much stronger reason. Agent. A person appointed to do an act for another. The het when performed is, in law, the act of the principal ; the maxim being “ qui facit peralium facit per se.” Agistment. Where cattle are taken in to pasture; from agiser, t. e„ levant and couchant. Alderman. Literally, an elder man. In London the aldermen are magistrates chosen for life. Alibi. Elsewhere. A defence by which it is proved that the accused was not at the place where the offence was committed at the time of its commiMioo. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. Allen. One born In a foreign country out of the allegiance of the queen. To Aliene. To convey or dispose of property to another. Alimony. An allowance made by a husband to his wife when living apart from her. Aliunde. Elsewhere, besides, &c. Allegations. The pleadings in the Ecclesiastical Courts are so lermed. Allegiance. The obedience which every subject owes to his prince or liege lord. Allocation. An allowance made on an account in the Exchequer. Allocatur. The certificate by which a taxing master certifies the amount at which he has taxed a bill of costs. Allodial (contradistinguished from feudal), is where lands are held free, i. e. without being subject to any fine, rent, or service. Amicus Curiae. A counsel (or by-stander), who informs the judge on a point of law, on which he is doubtful or mistaken. Ancestor. The law distinguishes between ancestor and prede- cessor ; the former is applied to individuals, the latter to corporations. Ancient Demesne. A tenure of lands partaking of the properties both of copyhold and freehold. Apparator. A messenger that serves the process of the Ecclesiasti- cal Court. Appeal. The removal of a cause from an inferior into a superior court, for the purpose of impeaching the judgment of the inferior court. Appearance to Action. The first formal step by a defendant in an action or suit. It is a notice that he intends to defend. Appellant. The person appealing to a superior from the decision of an inferior court. Appanage. The portion of the younger children of continental princes. Appointment. A formal execution of some power or authority ; as, for instance, a power to dispose of property amongst a certain class, as children or grandchildren. Appraiser. A person who values personal chattels. Appropriation. The appropriation of a payment means the ap- plying of it to the discharge of a particular debt, where the creditor to whom it is made has more than one debt due from the same debtor. Approver. A person guilty of an indictable offence, who, to obtain pardon for himself, makes a full confession, and is admitted to give evidence against his accomplices. Arbitration. An extrajudicial method of settling matters in differ- ence by referring them to the arbitrament or determination of persons appointed by the disputants, and termed arbitrators. Arches Court. A court of appeal from all inferior Ecclesiastical Courts within the province of Canterbury, England. Arraignment. A term of criminal procedure. A prisoner, after hav- ing had the indictment read over to him, is commanded to state wheth- er or not he is guilty. This proceeding is termed the arrraignment. Arrest. A legal seizure, capture, or taking of a man’s person which is effected by corporeal touching, or something equivalent thereto. In civil cases a man can only be arrested under legal process. The officer cannot break open a man’s outer door for the purpose of arresting him ; nor can arrest on a civil process be effected on a Sunday, except after an escape. Arrest of Judgment. Where the court stays a judgment, after a ver- dict, on some question of law. Arson. Felonious houseburning. Articled Clerk. A student bound by deed to serve an attorney pre- paratory to his own admission to practice. Articles of the Peace. A complaint against a person to compel him to find sureties to keep the peace. Assault and Battery. An attempt or offer, with force and violence, todoa corporal hurt to another is an assault ; an injury actually done vO the person of another in an angry, revengeful, or insolent manner, be it ever so small, is a battery. Assets. Property, whether real or personal, in the hands of an exec- utor, &c., for the purpose of satisfying debts. Assignee. A person to whom any real or personal property is trans- ferred by the act of law, as an executor, an assignee of a bankrupt, &c., or by the act of party, as a purchaser of a lease. Assignment. A transfer of any kind of property from one person t* another. Assumpsit. A verbal or parol promise expressed or implied, spring- ing out of a simple contract. The law always implies a promise to do that which a party is legally bound to perform. An action of assump- sit or promise is the remedy for breach of a parol as distinguished from a written contract. Assurance. The securing the payment of a sum of money or other benefit on the happening of a certain event, as, for instance, the death of a person. This is the term now usually applied to life contingencies, as contradistinguished from fires, losses at sea, &c.,as to which the term insurance is still used. Attachment. A process of the Courts of Law and Equity for com- pelling by arrest the performance of an act, which a party is already in contempt for not performing. Also an ancient remedy open to credi- tors in London, and some other cities, to attach the money or goods of their debtor in the hands of a third party within the city. Attorney. A person appointed by another by letter or power of at- torney to do anything for him in his absence. Attorney-at-Law. An officer of the superior courts of law, legally authorized to transact the business of other persons — termed his clients — in those courts. Attornment. An acknowledgment by one person that he holds lands, or is the tenant, of another, thereby creating between them the relation of landlord and tenant. Autre Droit. When a person holds an estate not in his own right, but in right of another. Autre Vie. For the life of another. Average. A contribution to a general loss. When, for the safety of a ship in distress, any destruction of property is incurred, all persons having goods on board contribute ratably to the loss ; this is called average. Award. The judgment or decision of an arbitrator. Backing a Warrant. The indorsing by a justice of the peace of th« county where a warrant (which has been granted by the justice of the peace of another county) is about to be executed , and is a necessary act to be done before a person can be apprehended in a county different to that in which the warrant was issued. Bail. The sureties for the reappearance of a person released from custody. Bail-Bond. A document under seal, by which a person becomes bail. Bailee. An individual intrusted with the custody of goods ; for in- tance, a carrier. Bailiff. There are various kinds of bailiffs ; the most common being those appointed by the sheriff, commonly called sheriff’s officer. Bailment. A delivery of a thing in trust for some special object of purpose. Bailor. The person who makes a bailment, or delivers goods to a bailee. Banc, or Banco (sittings in). The sittings of the judges of the su- perior Courts of Common Law. Banker. A person who holds the money of another, and disposes of it as the other from time to time directs. Bank Note. A promise by a banker to pay a specified sum to the holder. Bankrupt. A trader who is indebted in a certain amount, and ha* committed an act of bankruptcy. See Acts of Bankruptcy. Bargain and Sale. A form of conveyance ; but rarely now used. Baron and Feme. The old legal style of husband and wife. Barratry . Any act of the master or crew of a ship whith is of a crim inal or fraudulent nature, tending to the prejudice of the owners. Barristers. A body of men qualified by admission in one of the Inns of Court to plead as advocates ; such admission is termed, being “ called to the bar.” Base Fee. A freehold estate of inheritance, liable to be determined on the happening of a certain event. Battel. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by the law, by which the innocence or guilt of a party was decided. Battery. See Assault and Battery. Bencher. A Senior of the Inns of Court. Benefice. An ccdesiaatical living. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 31& Benefit of Clergy. Certain privileges formerly enjoyed by the elergy alone ; afterwards a privilege claimed by all criminals who could read, but now abolished. Bequest. A testamentary disposition of personal estate. Bigamy. The criminal offence of a married man or woman pretend- ,ng to marry again, his wife or her husband (as the case may be) being still alive. Bill. The term applied to an intended statute when passing through Congress, prior to its becoming law. Bill in Chancery. A printed statement of the plaintiff’s case in the form of a petition to the Lord Chancellor, praying for redress. It is the first step in a suit. Bill of Exceptions. A mode of appealing from the decision of a judge on a point of law. Bill of Exchange. A written order for payment of money by one person (called the drawer) upon another (termed the drawee). When the drawee has undertaken to pay the bill, which he does by writing his name across it, he is termed the acceptor. Bills of exchange are ne- gotiable, i. e. they confer on the holder the right of suing upon it, which he could not do in the case of a mere ordinary contract, for the want of that privity which the law in ordinary cases requires between the parties to a contract. The law as to bills of exchange is governed by the law Merchant. See Law Merchant. Bill of Lading. A memorandum or receipt signed by the master of a ship, acknowledging the shipment of goods, which are usually made deliverable to the consignee, or his order. One part of the bill of lading is sent to the consignee by post. By indorsing the bill of lading the property in the goods is passed to the indorsee, and so from hand to hand. The bill of lading, properly indorsed, forms, in fact, the title to the goods, and without the production of which the captain would not deliver the goods. Bill of Sale. An assignment of goods and chattels, by writing ; gen- enerally, but not necessarily, under hand and seal. Bona Fide. With good faith. Bond. A written obligation, under seal. If for the payment of a sum of money upon or after the death of a person, it is then termed a post-obit bond. The person making a bond is called the obligor, and he to whom it is given, the obligee. Borough. A town having now, or having formerly had, corporate rights. Borough-English. A tenure by which the youngest son inherits from the father. Bottomry. The borrowing of money by the master on the bottom or hull of a ship ; to be paid with interest, if the ship return in safety, but otherwise to be lost or forfeited. Breach of Covenant. The doing of an act which a party has cove- nanted not to do, or the neglecting to do that which he has covenanted to perform. Breach of the Peace. An act by which the public repose is dis- turbed, and the safety of the community, more or less, endangered. Breach of Promise. The doing, or abstaining from doing, something contrary to an undertaking or contract. Breach of Trust. A neglect of duty by a trustee, or person standing in a fiduciary relation, in violation of his trust. Bribery. The giving or receiving any reward for corrupt pur- poses. Brief. An abridgment of a client’s case, for the instruction of coun- sel on a trial, or hearing in court. Broker. An agent employed to buy or sell goods; a sort of middle- man between vendor and purchaser. He is not, like a factor, intrusted with the possession of the articles he vends. Brokerage. The commission paid to a broker. Burgage Tenure. A tenure whereby houses or lands are held in cer- tain ancient boroughs. Burgesses includes all the inhabitants of a borough. Burglary. The offence of entering a dwelling-house, in the night, with intent to commit felony. Bursar. The treasurer of a college. In Scotland it is nearly syn- onymous with sizar in the English universities. By-Law. A private law made by those duly authorized by charter, custom, or prescription ; but such by-law must be consonant to tie pub- lic laws laws and statutes, and for the common benefit. Canon Law. A collection of ecclesiastical constitutions, definitions, and rules, derived from the ancient councils, the writings of the fath- ers, ordinances of popes, etc. At the Reformation it was enacted that a review should be had of the Canon Law ; but that, until such review, the existing law should continue in force, except as far as the same should be repugnant to the law of the land or the Royal Prerogatives— this still remains the state of the law, such review never having been made. The canons of 1603, having been made by the clergy, and con- firmed by the king, James I., alone, but not by Parliament, do not bind the laity. Capias. A writ authorizing the arrest of a defendant in a suit. It is issued, either after judgment, or when it is satisfactorily shown that the defendant is about to leave the realm before trial. Capias ad Satisfaciendum, or Ca-sa. The writ of capias when is- sued after judgment : so termed, because the defendant is taken to satisfy the plaintiff’s demands. Caption. The act of arresting a man. See Arrest. Carrier. A person whose business it is to carry goods, for the proper delivery and safety of which he is legally responsible. Casus Omissus. Where anything is omitted, or not provided against by a statute, &c. Caveat. A proceeding to prevent an act being done, such as the granting of administration, without notice to the party entering the caveat. Caveat Emptor. Let the purchaser beware. It signifies that a ven- dor is not bound to answer for the goodness of his wares, unless he expressly warrants them. Certiorari. A writ for the removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court. This writ always lies, unless where expressly taken away by statute, and herein it differs from an appeal, which can never be had unless expressly given. Cestui que Trust. He who is the real and beneficial owner of prop- erty held in trust. Cestui que Vie. The person for whose life lands are held. See Tenant pur autre vie. Challenge. An exception taken by a prisoner against one or more jurors, who, when challenged, are set aside, if the challenge be al- lowed, and new ones put in their places. Chambers. A lawyer’s apartments. Champerty. The offence of unlawfully maintaining a suit in con- sideration of a bargain for a part of the thing in dispute, or some profit out of it. Chancellor. An officer of the highest dignity and authority in various departments. Chance Medley. The accidental killing of any one, without malice prepense. Chancery. The highest court of judicature next to the Parliament, and of very ancient institution. The Court of Chancery is called a Court of Equity, because it was instituted for the purpose of proceed- ing by the rules of equity and conscience, and of moderating the rigor of the common law ; equity being the correction of that wherein the law, by reason of its universality, is deficient. — Yet the Court of Chan- cery is not intended to act in opposition to, but in assistance of, the common law, supplying its deficiencies, not contradicting its rules ; no judgment of law being reversible by a degree In Chancery. Charter. A royal grant or privilege, granted to corporations, com- panies, etc. Charter-Party. An instrument between merchants and owners o* masters of ships, containing the particulars of the contract for the hire of the ship. It is in fact a mercantile lease of the ship. Chattels. There are two kinds, chattels real and chattels personal ; the former are leasehold property, and the latter personal goods of chattels, as furniture or money. Chose. A thing. Chose-en-action is a tiling of which a man has not the possession, and which he can only claim by action, as, for in. stance, a debt owing to him by another. Church Rates. Rates assessed by the parishioners, in vestry assem. bled, for the repair of the parish church. It is now definitely settled that, if the majority vote against the rate, it may be resisted with im- punity. Churchwardens. Officers annually chosen to superintend the churcn, churchyard, and such things as belong thereto. 5*0 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. Citation. The first step in an ecclesiastical cause, analogous to the writ of summons in an action. Civil Law. The Roman Jaw is comprised in the institutes, code, and digest of the Emperor Justinian. Clerk. The strict definition of the word “ clerk ” is a person in holy- orders, but it is now generally applied to any person whose chief occu- pation is writing. Client. Anciently, a Roman citizen, taken under the protection of tome great man, who was styled his patron. The term is now applied to a party who employs a solicitor or counsel in any legal proceeding. Close. An enclosed piece of ground. Code. A collection or system of laws, as the Code Napoleon. Codicil. A supplement to a will. See Will. Cognovit Actionem. An instrument by which a defendant ac- knowledges the plaintiff’s cause and suffers judgment to be entered •gainst him without trial. Collateral Descent. That which descends from a side branch of a family ; as from an uncle or a nephew. Collative. An advowson vested in the bishop. He cannot present to himself, but he confers the benefice on his nominee by collation. Commendam. A beneficed clergyman, when promoted to a bishop- ric, vacates his benefice by the promotion, but the crown might for- merly, by special grant, have given him power to retain his benefice, and when this was done, he was said to hold it in commendam. Grants in commendam are now abolished. Commission. The warrant, or letters-patent, authorizing any in- quiry judicial or otherwise ; as the commission of the judges, the com- mission of the peace, etc. Commitment. The sending a person who has been guilty of any crime to prison, by warrant or order. Committee. Persons to whom the consideration of any matter is re- ferred ; as a Committee of the House of Congress. Common (Rights of). These are of four sorts : viz., pasture, pis- cary, estovers, and turbary. Common of pasture is the right of feeding one’s cattle on the land of another ; piscary, that of fishing in waters belonging to another ; estovers, the right of taking wood from another’s estate, for household use and implements in husbandry ; and turbary, the right of digging turf upon another’s ground. Common Law. The law of England is composed of Acts of Parlia- ment or statutes, and the custom of the realm. The latter consisting of those rules or maxims, which have obtained by common consent an im- memorial usage. The former are designated the lex scripta, or stat- ute law ; the latter the lex non scripta, or common law. This term is also applied to the superior courts of Westminster, which are called Courts of Common Law, as distinguished from the Court of Chancery, which is a Court of Equity. Commonalty. In London one of the component parts of the Livery Companies, which consist of the master, wardens, and commonalty. Commutation of Tithes. The term applied to the conversion of the tithes in England into a fixed rent charge. Complainant. One who complains of the act of another in a court of justice, more commonly called plaintiff. Compounding Offences. Entering into an agreement not to proser cute an offender, for any consideration received or to be received, con- stitutes a crime, for which the offender may be indicted. Compounding with Creditors. An agreement by which creditors take a portion of their claims in discharge of the whole. Conditions of Sale. The terms upon which a vendor undertakes to •ell to a purchaser. Confirmation. A deed by which a voidable estate in land is made perfect. Cong£ d’£lire. The license of the crown to a dean and chapter to choose a bishop ; a mere form to be gone through, as they can only ac- cept or reject the candidate nominated by the crown. Conjugal Rights. Those rights of husband and wife which spring out of their relationship. Consanguinity. Relationship by blood, in contradistinction to affin- ty, which is a relationship by marriage. Conservator. A standing arbitrator, appointed to compose and ad- just differences that may arise between parties, etc. Consideration. The price or motive of a contract, without which a simple contract is void, la technical language, it may be defined m “ some detriment to the plaintiff sustained for the sake or at the instance of the defendant, or some benefit to the defendant moving from the plaintiff.” Consignee. A person to whom goods are delivered either as pur- chaser, or more generally for sale on commission. Consignor. Tf'e person by whose act or directions goods are deliv- ered to the consignee. Consignment. The act of making over, or deli vering, goods to an- other. Conspiracy. A combination of two or more persons to carry into effect an unlawful purpose. Constructive Trust. A trust founded in what the law deems to be the presumed, as contradistinguished from the expressed, intention of its creator. Consul. An officer appointed by government to reside abroad and watch over the interests of our countrymen, who may happen to reside in or be passing through the place where the consul is located. Contempt. A disobedience to the rules, orders, or process of a court, which has power to punish such offence, which it does by imprison- ment. Contingent Remainders. Estates which cannot become vested until the happening of some uncertain event. Contract. A covenant or agreement betweeD two or more persons with a lawful consideration. Contribution. Where one surety or joint contractor has been obliged to satisfy the whole demand, he may obtain contribution from his fellow- surety or contractor. Contributory. One liable to contribute to the liquidation of the lia- bilities of a joiot-stock company, under the Winding-up Acts. Conveyance. A deed which passes or conveys land from one person to another. Conveyancers. Persons who devote themselves to the preparation of formal documents concerning property. Convict. He that is found guilty of an offence by the verdict of a jury. Coparceners. Such as have equal shares in the inheritance of their ancestors ; as, where a man -lies intestate, having two daughters, his heiresses, they take his freehold lands as coparceners. Copyhold. Land held by a copy of the court rolls of a manor. Copyright. The exclusive right which the law allows an author d printing and publishing his own original work for a prescribed period, viz., the term of his natural life, and seven years afterwards; and if such seven years expire before forty-two years from the time of the first publication, then for such forty-two years. Coram non Judice. When a judge in a court of law exceeds his jurisdiction in a cause, it is said to be coram non judice. Coroner. An c .icer whose duty it is to inquire into the cause by which any person came to a sudden or violent death, which must be done, before him and the jury assembled for the purpose, upon view of the body. Costs. The expenses incurred in the prosecution or defence of legal proceedings, of which there are two kinds, those between party and party, and those between attorney and client. Counsel. See “ Barrister at Law,” who Is usually termed counsel or counsellor. Count, in common-law pleadings, is a section of a declaration. County Court. Local courts established throughout the country. Court Baron. A court incident to every manor, held by the steward, in which surrenders and admittances of the manor lands are passed, and other matters relating thereto transacted. Court Christian. The Ecclesiastical Courts are so called, as distin- guished from the civil courts. Covenant. An agreement under seal. Coverture. The state of a married woman as being under the protec- tion and influence of her husband or baron. She is called a feme covert. Crassa Negligentia. Gross neglect. Crim. Con., or Criminal Conversation. Illicit conversation with a married woman, for which the party is liable to an action for damages. Cross-examination. The interrogation of a witness by or on behalf of the party against whom the evidence is given. Curia Advisare Vult. When the court takes time to consider ita DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. $21 Cursltors. Officers of the Court of Chancery who make out all orig- inal writs. Curtesy of England. An estate which a husband has for his life in his wife’s fee simple, or fee tail estates after her death. The wife must have been actually seised of such estates, and have had issue born alive. Custodia Legis. In the custody of the law. Custom. A law, not written, established by long use, and the con- sent ot our ancestors : if it be universal, it is common law ; if particular, it is then properly custom. Customs. Duties levied on commodities exported and imported. Custos Rotulorum. The officer who has the custody of the rolls or records of a county. Cy prds (as near to). An equitable doctrine applied in certain cases, where the court cannot adhere strictly to th terms of an instrument, but carries it into effect cy prds, or as near to the ob ject as it can. Damages. The amount of money awarded by a jury, to be paid by a defendant to a plaintiff, as a compensation for the injury of which the latter complains. Damnum absque injuria. Any act done by one which may cause loss to another without doing him a legal injury. De bene esse. To do a thing de bene esse is to accept or allow it for the present as good, until it comes to be more fully examined, and then to stand or fall according to its merits. Debenture. A written instrument of the nature of a bond or bill for a certain sum of money. De bonis non. When an administrator dies, the right does not de- scend to his own representative, but a fresh grant of administration must be obtained of the goods remaining unadministered, and which is called an administration de bonis non. Declaration, in an action at law, signifies the plaintiff’s statement of bis cause of action. Declaration of Trust. A written or verbal expression or statement by which a person acknowledges himself to be a trustee for another. If relating to lands, it must be in writing. Decree. The judgment of a Court of Equity. De die in diem. From day to day. Deed. A writing sealed and delivered by the parties to it. De facto. A thing actually done or existing. Default (Judgment by). If a defendant omits to appear or plead to an action, within the time allowed, the plaintiff can sign' judgment by default. Defaulter. A person who neglects to perform an act required to be done. Defeasance. A collateral deed made at the same time with some other deed, and containing certain conditions which may defeat or ren- der null and void the provisions of such other deed. Defendant. The party against whom an action or suit is brought. Del credere. The additional commission paid to a factor who guar- antees the payment of the purchase-money of goods sold by him. Demesne. Lands which formerly the lord kept in his own hands, being next to his mansion. Demise. A word used in conveyances of estates for terms of years. Demurrage. A compensation or allowance for detaining a ship be- yond the usual or specified lime. Demurrer. A mode of raising a point of law, upon the facts stated in the pleadings, assuming them to be true. Denizen. An alien who, on obtaining letters patent, was enabled to purchase and devise land. Deodand, was anything, as a horse or a carriage, which by accident caused the death of a human being, and thereby became forfeited. Deposition. The testimony of a witness taken down in writing and signed by him. Descent. One of the modes of acquiring a title to real property. De son tort of his own wrong. A term applied to a party who as- sumes to act as the executor of a deceased party without auy legal au- thority. Detainer. A writ whereby a person may be detained in custody. Detinue. The form of action to recover possession of goods and thattels wrongfully withheld. Devise. The giving away of lands or other real estate by will. Disability. A legal incapacity to do an act. Disclaimer. A renunciation by an executor or trustee of the office imposed upon him, also a mode of defence in equity, etc. Discovert. A term applied to a w idow or unmarried woman. Disfranchise. To take away from certain places or persons any privilege, freedom, or liberty. Disseisin. A wrongful invasion of the possession of another, and turning him out from Ae occupation of his lands, either by force ot surprise. Distress. The distraining or taking the effects of a tenant, in order to satisfy the rent due to his landlord. Distringas (on Stock). A writ which stops the transfer of stock by the party in whose name it stands, and can be obtained at the instance of any party beneficially interested in the stock. Divorce. The legal separation of husband and wife. In England there are two kinds of divorce, the one absolute, the other what is now called a Judicial Separation. See the recent Statute 20 & 21 Vic. cap. 85, which takes away the jurisdiction, in matrimonial matters, from the Ec- clesiastical Courts, and vests the same in a New Court, which consists of the “ Judge Ordinary,” and the Full Court, the latter only having power to grant an absolute divorce. By this Act a judicial separation (which does not enable the parties to marry again) may be obtained by husband or wife , lor (1.) Adultery, (2.) Cruelty, or (3.) Desertion with out cause for two years. As to an Absolute Divorce, a difference takes place if it be the wife, instead of the husband, applying for it ; thus, a husband can obtain an absolute divorce against his wife on the ground of adultery, but an absolute divorce by a wife against her husband can only be obtained if the husband has been guilty of (1) incestuous adul- tery, or (2) of bigamy with adultery, or (3) of rape, or sodomy, or besti- ality, or (4) ot adultery coupled with cruelty, or (5) of adultery coupled with desertion, without reasonable cause, for two years. Doctors of Civil Law. A degree (D. C. L.), granted by our Univer- sities of Oxford and Cambridge to such of its members as are learned in the civil law. Doctors Commons. A college of civilians in London, near St. Paul s Cathedral, where also the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts are held out oy the recent statute abolishing the probate and matrimonial jurisdiction ot the ecclesiastical courts, power is given to the doctors to dissolve this co'lege. Doli Capax. Capable of committing a crime. Doli fncapax. Incapable of committing a crime. Domicile. The domicile of a person is where he has his permanent home. There are three sorts of domiciles— by birth, by choice, and by operation of iaw. Domitae Naturae, tame by nature. A term applied to animals of a naturaliy tame disposition, as sheep, etc. Donatio Mortis Causa. A gift of chattels made by a person in a dying state, to become absolute only in the event of his death. Donative. A benefic'- "iven by the patron direct to the clerk by deed, withe t either presentation to, or induction by, the bishop. Doomsday-Book. An ancient work compiled in the time of Wil- liam the Conqueror consisting of two volumes, which contains the de- tails oi a great survey v "he kingdom. These volumes are now pre. served in the Exchequer Dower. A widow is eruu.ed, at the death of her husband, to a life- interest in a third part 01 Ihc estates ot inheritance of which her hus. band was seised, and did not dispose of by deed or will. Drawer. See Bill 01 Exchange. Duces Tecum. A clause added to a subpoena requiring the wit ness to bring with him, and produce at the trial, certain documents in his possession. Durante Bene Placito. During pleasure. Durante Minore A5tate. During minority. Durante Viduitf.tc. During widowhood. Durante Vita. During life. Duress. Anything done under compulsion and through unavoidable necessity. Easement. A convenience which one has in or over the lands of another, as a way or a water course. Easter Term. One of the four law terms, commencing on the 15th April and ending the 8th May in each year. Ecclesiastical Courts. Arches Court. The jurisdiction of thess DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. courts is now confined to church matters, they having been shorn of that which constituted nine-tenths of their business, viz. the jurisdic- tion in testamentary and matrimonial matters. Effluxion of Time. The expiration of a term in its natural course as contradistinguished to its determination by act of the parties. Ejectment. An action at law to recover the possession of lands. Elegit. A writ of execution under which all the debtor’s lands may be seized or extended, and held by the judgment creditor until his judgment is satisfied. Embezzlement. The act of appropriating that which is received in trust for another, which is a criminal offence. Emblements. The growing crops which are annually produced by the labor of the cultivator. They are deemed personal property, and pass ac such to the executors, and not to the heir. Enfeoff (to). The act of conveying an estate of freehold by deed of feoffment. Enfranchisement. The admittance of a person into a society or body-politic. Enfranchisement of copyholds is a conversion A copy- holds into freehold tenure. Engrossing. A style of writing, not now generally used for deeds, but still used for the probates of wills. Enrolment. The registering of deeds as required by certain stat- utes ; as, for instance, deeds conveying lands to charitable uses. Entail. That inheritance whereof a man is seized to him and the heirs of his body. Tail-General is where lands and tenements are given to one, and the heirs of his body generally. Tenant in tail-special is where the gift is restrained to certain heirs of the donee’s body as male or female. There is no such thing as a perpetual entail by the law of England. The way in which property is tied up in families is by re- peated settlements. If in any one generation the usual settlement (which of course is the act of the parties and not of the law) should not be executed, the entailed property would be free. The property settled by the nation on Marlborough and Wellington were, by special Act of Parliament, vested in their heirs for ever, thus in fact creating what the common law would not permit, a perpetual entail. Equitable Estate. The beneficial interest of a cestui que trust, the legal ownership being in a trustee. Equitable Mortgage. The most familiar instance is the deposit (either with or without a memorandum, although it is better to have one) of the title deeds of an estate by way of security, which consti- tutes an equitable mortgage without the execution of any formal mort- gage deed. Equity of Redemption. The right which equity gives to a mort- gager of redeeming his estate after the appointed time for payment has passed, and which right can only be barred by a foreclosure. Error. A writ of error is a commission to judges of a superior court, by which they are authorized to examine the record, upon which a judgment was given in an inferior court, and to affirm, reverse, or vary the same, according to law. Escheat. Is where lands, for want of heirs, or from forfeiture, es- cheat or fall back to the sovereign or lord of the fee as the original grantor. Escrow. A deed delivered to a 3d person conditionally until some- thing is done by the grantor. Until the condition has been performed the deed has no legal effect. Estate. The interest which a person has in lands, or other prop- erty. Estoppel. Where a man is precluded in lav/ from alleging or deny- ing a fact in consequence of his own previous act, allegation, or denial to the contrary. Estreat. Where a recognizance becomes forfeited by any of its conditions being broken, it is estreated ; that is, extracted from the record. and sent up to the Exchequer, whence a process will issue to re- cover the penalty. Evidence. Proof, either written or unwritten, of the facts in issue in any legal proceeding. Exchange of Lands. A mutual grant of lands ; the one in consider- ation of the other. Excise. A tax or impost charge by government on certain commo- dities. Excommunication. A punishment inflicted by the sentence of an Ecclesiastical Court debarring the offender from the sacraments, etc. Execution. The act of putting the sentence of the law into force. Executor. One appointed by a person’s last will to administer hi? personal estate. Executor de son tort. A stranger who takes upon himself to act as executor without any authority. Exhibits. Documents, etc., produced in evidence, and marked for the purpose of identification. Exigent. A writ used in the process of outlawry. Ex-officio. Anything done by virtue of an office. An information filed by the Attorney-general, by virtue of his office, is called an Ex- officio Information. Ex-parte. A statement is called Ex-parte where only one of the parties gives an account of a transaction, in which two or more are concerned. Ex-post-facto. An ex-post-facto law, is a law made purposely to restrain or punish an offence already committed. Extra-judicial. Any act done by a judge beyond his authority, or any opinion expressed by him not strictly pertinent to the matter in issue before him. Extra-parochial. Places which are out of the bounds or limits of a parish ; and, therefore, exempt from parish rates and duties. Eyre (Justices in). The word eyre, or eire, is French, and is derived from the Latin iter, a journey. Thus, the term Justices in Eyre sig- nifies the itinerant court of justices, or those who journey from place to place t o hold assizes. Factor. An agent intrusted with the possession of goods for sale belonging to his principal. A broker, on the other hand, has not the custody of the goods of his principal. See Broker. Faculty. A privilege or dispensation granted by an Ecclesiastical Court in certain cases. False pretenses. The criminal offence of obtaining any chattel, money, or valuable security by means of a false pretence ; it is punish- able by transportation, fine, or imprisonment. False return. An incorrect account, given by a sheriff, of his do. ings under a writ of execution, for which he is liable to an action. Falsi crimen. A fraudulent concealment of the truth. Fealty. The duty due to a lord from his tenant, pursuant to the oath taken at his admittance. Fee-simple. That estate or interest in lands which a person holds to him and his heirs for ever. During his life he possesses over it a per- fectly free and unrestrained power of disposition, and, on his death without having alienated it by deed or will, it descends to his heirs, both lineal and collateral, male and female, according to an established order of descent. Felo-de-se. One who commits self-murder. Felony. Formerly defined as comprising “ all capital crimes below treason.” It may now more accurately bf defined as comprising all crimes occasioning a forfeiture of lands or goods, or both. Feme-covert. A married woman. See Coverture. Feme-sole. An unmarried woman. Feoffment. A mode of conveyance of lands in fee, accompanied by certain solemnities. It is rarely, if ever, now used. Ferae naturae. Animals that are of a wild nature, such as foxes, hares, wild fowl, etc., in opposition to tame and domesticated ani- mals. Fiat. An order or warrant for a thing to be done or executed. Fieri Facias. A writ of execution, by which the sheriff is com- manded to levy the debt and damages of the goods and chattels of the defendant. Finding. A finder of goods may appropriate them to his own use it he really believes when he takes them that the owner cannot be found ; bat if a jury should say that the finder appropriated the goods, not having (or that he could reasonably be supposed not to have had) such belief at the time of appropriation, it amounts to a theft, and can be punished criminally. Finding a Bill. The grand jury either find cr ignore the bills against prisoners ; if they find a true bill, the case goes into court, and is tried. Fire bote. The wood which a tenant of lands is legally entitled to take for the purpose of making his fires. If he takes too much he c oat uiks waste, and is liable to an action. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 3 23 Fire nolicy. An instrument by which an insurane ccompany guar- antees to a person, who has insured his property, the payment of a sum of money if it is injured or destroyed by fire. First-fruits and tenths. Certain revenues arising to the Crown from ecclesiastical livings ; which now form the fund called Queen Anne’s Bounty, for the augmentation of poor livings. Fixtures. This term is generally used to denote those personal chattels which though annexed to the freehold of demised premises, a tenant is nevertheless entitled to remove. They consist of trade fix- tures, and of those put up for the ornament or convenience of the premises. Foreclosure. The barring the equity of redemption on mortgages. Foreign Bill of Exchange. A bill drawn by a person abroad and accepted in the United States, or vice versa. Forfeiting recognizances. When a person who has entered into recognizances, fails to comply with their conditions, the same are for- feited or estreated. Forfeiture. A punishment consequent upon the commission of cer- tain crimal offences or illegal acts. Forgery. The crime of counterfeiting a signature, seal, or mark ; or the fraudulent alteration of a writing to the prejudice of another. Franchise. A royal privilege to which a subject is entitled— as a fair, a market, a free warren, a park. Fraud. A dishonest and illegal artifice by which undue advantage is taken of another, or by which the interests of that other are unjustly prejudiced. Fraud strikes at the root of every transaction, and vitiates every contract, whether by record, deed, or otherwise. Free Bench. Is that estate or interest to which a woman is by vir- tue of a special custom, entitled for life in the one third part of the copyholds of her husband of which he died possessed, and is analogous to “ dower ” in freeholds. Freehold. Lands held in fee-simple, fee-tail, or at least for life. Freight. The remuneration due to the owner of a ship for the con- veyance of goods or merchandise, on which he has a lien for the freight. Funded Deot. The public debt of this country, consisting of an im- mense sum which, from time to time, has been lent to government by individuals, and which they or their assigns receive interest for, out of the taxes. Further assurance. The name given to a covenant in a conveyance whereby the grantor undertakes to do any further act which may be re- quired for perfecting the grantee’s estate. Future estates. Estates not in possession, but in expectancy, as a remainder. Garnishee. The party in whose hands money, due to a defendant, is attached. General issue. A form of plea in common law actions; so called because the issue that it tenders goes to the whole cause of action. Gift. A voluntary conveyance or gift of lands or goods. If of the former, it is liable to be defeated in the life-time of the grantor, by his conveying the same lands to a purchaser, for a valuable consideration, even though with notice of the prior gift. Glebe. The name given to lands annexed to an ecclesiastical bene- fice. Grace, days of. The name given to the days of indulgence allowed to the acceptor of a bill of exchange after it becomes due The number of such days varies in different countries. In some, as in France, they are abolished altogether. In England three days are allowed, so that a bill at a month drawn on the ist of one month, will become due on the 4th of the next. Grand Jury. The jury to whom all bills of indictment are referred in the first instance. It is the duty of this jury to interrogate the wit- nesses for the prosecution, and ascertain whether or not a prima facie case is made out against the prisoner ; if so, they find a true bill, and he takes his trial, if not, they ignore the bill, and he is discharged. Grant. A mode of conveyance, formerly applicable only to incor- poreal hereditaments, reversions, etc. ; but its significance has been ex- tended by a recent statute, and it is now the instrument most usually employed in the conveyance of land. Guaranty. An engagement to be responsible for the debts or duties of a third person. Habeas Corpus. A Writ of Right for those who are grieved by i! legal imprisonment. The Habeas Corpus Act is next in importance to Magna Charta ; for, so long as this statute remains, no subject of Eng- land can long be detained in prison, except under legal process. Habendum. One of the formal parts of a deed ; its office is to limit or define the estate granted. It is so called because it begins with the words “ to have,” Heir. The legal representative of his ancestor, with respect to the real property of such ancestor. He takes all the real property, not otherwise disposed of by the ancestor in his life-time or by his will. Heir apparent is one whose right of inheritance is certain, and which nothing can defeat, provided he outlives his ancestor ; as the eldest son or issue. Heir presumptive is one who would inherit, provided his ancestor were 10 die at that particular time, but whose right of inheritance might be defeated by some nearer heir being after- wards bom ; as a brother or nephew, whose presumptive succession may be destroyed by the birth of a child. Heir looms. Such personal chattels as go to the heir along with the inheritance, and not to the executor of the deceased. Hereditaments. All things which may be inherited, that is, which would descend to the heir, if not disposed of by deed or will. Heredita- ments are of two kinds, corporeal and incorporeal. Hcriot. The best beast, or in some cases the best chattel — such as a piece of plate — which falls to the lord of a manor on the death of a ten- ant. It is regulated by custom, and in some manors it does not ap- ply at all. Heritable (and Movable) Rights. These terms are used in the Scotch law to denote what in England is meant by real and personal property : real property in England answering nearly to the heritable rights in Scotland, and personal property to the movable rights. Highway rate. A sum of money levied upon persons who are liable to pay poor rates, for the necessary reparation of highways. Homicide. The crime of killing any human being ; of which there are three kinds— -justifiable, excusable , and felonious. House bote. The necessary quantity of wood which a tenant may lawfully take for the reparation and support of the demised premises. Hue and Cry. The old common law process of pursuing felons “with horn and voice.” Also, the name of a paper now circulated amongst the police containing the names and descriptions of felons. Hypothecate. A term used for pawning a ship and goods, or either, for necessaries, which a master of a ship may do when in distress at sea. Ignore. When the grand jury reject a bill of indictment, they are said to ignore it, from the Latin word ignoramus. Illegal condition. A condition annexed to anything which is illegal, immoral, impossible, or otherwise contrary to law. Immoral contracts. Contracts infringing the rules of morality which, for reasons of public policy, are void at law. Impanelling. Writing in a parchment schedule the names of the jury by the sheriff. Incorporeal Hereditaments. Hereditaments of a non-tangible nature, and consisting of rights or benefits issuing out of corporal or tangible things— as a rant, an advowson, etc. Incumbent. The present possessor of an ecclesiastical benefice. Incumbrance. A charge or lien upon property, as a mortgage. Indemnity. A written instrument whereby one undertakes to free another from responsibilitv Indenture. A deed, or writing, formerly cut or indented; now the name usually given to deeds, although indenting is no longer essential. Indictment. A written accusation, of one or more persons, ofacrime or misdemeanor, preferred to, and presented on oath, by a grand jury. Indorsement. Anything written on the back of a deed or other in- strument ; such as a bill of exchange. Induction. The act of giving to a clergyman the possession of his church. In esse. This term is used to express anything that has a real being, in contradistinction to the term in posse , which implies a thing that i 9 not, but may be. Infant. Every person is by the law styled an infant till he has attained the age of twenty-one years. Inheritance. An estate in lands or tenements to a man and hit hates. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 5*4 Inhibition. A writ which issues from a higher Ecclesiastical Court to an Inferior one from an appeal. Injunction. A prohibitory writ granted by the Court of Chancery forbidding certain acts to be done under pain of contempt. It may bc gTantcd in urgent cases ex parte , but notice is sometimes required to be given. Inland Bills. Bills of exchange are so called, when the drawer and acceptor both reside in the same country. Inquest. A meeting of jurors, who are summoned to take into con- sideration certain matters, which may appear in evidence before them, and to bring in their verdict accordingly. Inquiry (writ of). A writ directed to the sheriff, commanding him to summon a jury and assess the damages in an action ; as, for instance, when the defendant has suffered judgment by default. Insolvency. The state of a person who is unable to pay his debts. I nstitution. Is the ceremony by which a bishop commits the cure of souls to a clerk on his presentation to a church living. insurance. A security or indemnification against the risk of loss from the happening of certain events. The usual kinds are fire and marine. Interesse termini. The interest possessed by a lessee in a lease, after the granting thereof, but before he has entered upon the land de- mised. Interpleader. When two or more persons claim the same thing of a third, the latter may call upon them to interplead, i. e. to try the right to it between themselves ; he, the third person, retaining possession of the thing in the meantime as a kind of stake-holder. Interrogatories. Written questions, to which the parties interro- gated are to give written answers on oath. Intestate. A person dying without a will, or, having made a will, without appointing an executor thereof. Inuendoe. That part of the declaration, in actions of libel and slander, which explains the meaning, or points the application, of the libellous or slanderous matter complained of. In Ventre sa Mere. A child not yet born, but of which the mother is pregnant. I. O. U. A written acknowledgment of a debt. This instrument is regarded in a court of law as evidence of an account stated. It is not a promissory note, and does not require a stamp. Issue. The disputed point or question to which the parties in an ac- tion have by pleadings narrowed their several allegations, and are hence said to Join Issue. If it be an issue of fact, it is tried by a jury, if of law, by the court — Issue is also the legal term for children or remoter de- scendants. Jactitation of Marriage. When one party boasts or falsely declares that he or she is married to another, whereby a common reputation of their marriage may ensue. Jeofail. An oversight in pleading or other law proceeding. It is de- rived from the French j'ai faille. Joinder in Action. The coupling or joining two parties in one suit or action. Joint-Tenants. Persons who hold lands, etc., jointly by one title. On the death of one the survivor takes the whole. Jointure. A settlement of lands or tenements on a woman, to take effect after her husband’s death in lieu of dower. Judgment. Th sentence of the law pronounced by the court upon the matter contained in the record. Jurat. The clause written at the foot of an affidavit, stating when, and before whom, it was sworn. Jurist. A civil lawyer. Jury. A certain number of men sworn to deliver a verdict upon such evidence of facts as shall be delivered to them, touching the matter in question. Jury list. The list kept by the sheriff of persons liable to serve on juries. Jus. A law, a right. Jus accrescendi. The term expressive of the right of survivorship among joint tenants. Jus ad rem. Signifies an inchoate or imperfect right to a thing, in contradistinction to Jus in re , which signifies the complete and perfect right in a thing. jus commune. The common law. jus gentium. The law of nations. Justifying Bail. Is the actof proving to the satisfaction of the court that the persons proposed as bail are sufficient for the purpose. Kin, or Kindred. A relation cither of consanguinity or affinity. Landlord. A proprietor of lands occupied by another, which latter party is termed the tenant. Lapse. A forf iture of the right of presentation to a church by the neglect of the patron to present. The word is also applied where a tes- tamentary gift fails by the death of its object in the life-time of the testator. Larceny. The wrongful and unlawful taking and carrying away by one person of the personal goods of another, with the felonious inten- tion of converting them to his own use. Law. This word signifies generally an inflexible rule of action. The law of England is composed of written laws or statutes, and unwritten laws, or the customs of the realm. The latter is also termed the Com mon Law. Law Merchant. Part of the unwritten or Common Law, consisting of particular customs, that have gradually grown into the force of law and are recognized as such by the courts ; such as the law relating to Bills of Exchange, etc. Law of Nations. A system of rules or principles deduced from the law of nature, and intended for the regulation of the mutual intercourse of nations. Leading Cases. Cases decided by the superior courts, which have settled and determined important points of law. Leading Question. A question put or framed in such a form as to suggest the answer sought to be obtained. Such a question is not allowed to be put to a witness, except on cross-examination. Lease. A conveyance or demise of lands or tenements for life, or years, or at will, but always for a less term than the party conveying has in the premises. Lease and Release. The form of conveyance, until recently com monly used for conveying land ; but a lease, commonly called a lease for a year, is no longer necessary ; the release alone being now as effectual as a lease and release were formerly. Leasehold. Lands held on lease, which (however long the term) are considered as chattels real, and go to the next of kin, and not to the heir on the death of the owner intestate. Legacy. A gift, or bequest of money, goods or other personal prop erty by will. The person to whom it is given is styled the legatee ; and, if the gift is of the residue, after payment of debts and legacies, he is then styled the residuary legatee. Le Roi (or La Reine) le vent. (The King or Queen wills it.) The form of the royal assent to public Bills in Parliament. Lessor and Lessee. The person who grants a lease is called the lessor, the party to whom it is granted, the lessee, and the person to whom either of them assigns, the assignee. Letters of Administration. The instrument granted by the Probate Court under which administrators derive their title to administer the goods and chattels of an estate. Letters (or Power) of Attorney. A writing, under seal, empower ing another person to do any act instead of the person granting the let- ter. It may be either general or special ; the attorney represents his principal in the matters prescribed by the letter until it be revoked. Letters of License. An instrument whereby creditors grant to their debtor time for the payment of his debts, and bind themselves not to molest him until that time has expired. Levant and Couchant. The law term for cattle that have been sc long in the grounds of another, that they have lain down and risen again to feed. Levari facias. A Writ of Execution, now superseded in practice except in the case of outlawry. Levy. The seizing of goods or chattels by a sheriff under an execu tion is called a levy. Lex loci contractus. The law of the place or country where the contract was made. Lex mercatoria. The mercantile law. Lex non scripta. The unwritten or common law. Lex scripta. The written law. Lex terrae. The law of the land. Libel. A malicious defamation, expressed either in printing or writ- ing, or by signs, pictures, etc., tending either to blacken the memory of DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 325 one who is dead, or the reputation of one who is alive, and thereby ex- posing him to public hatred, contempt, or ridicule. Lien. A qualified right which a person has in or to a thing in his possession, arising from a claim upon the owner. Liens are of two kinds, particular or general. Limited liability. The limitation of the liability of shareholders in a company to the amount unpaid upon their shares, introduced by re- cent Acts, and applicable to all companies registered thereunder: such companies are bound to use the word “ Limited ” in their title after the word “ Company.” Lineal Descent. That which goes from father to son, from son to grandson, and so on. Liquidated Damages, are damages the amount of which are fixed or ascertained. Liquidator. A person duly appointed to wind up the affairs of an in- solvent company, under the winding up acts. Lis pendens. A pending suit or action. Livery of seisin. A delivery of possession of lands by the alienor to the alienee. In former times when the feoffments were used, l:very of seisin was indispensably necessary to complete a gift or alienation of lands. Locus in quo. The place where anything is alleged to be done in pleadings, etc. Locus poenitentiae — a place of penitence. The position of a party who may recede from a contract or bargain which he is about to enter into or make. Lords Spiritual. The two archbishops and twenty-four bishops of England, with one Irish archbishop and three bishops — in all thirty. Lords Temporal. The lay peers of the realm, whose number may be increased at the will of the sovereign. Lucri causa. For the cause or purpose of gain. Lunatic. One who has had understanding, but, by grief, disease, or other accident, has lost the use of his reason generally, though he may have lucid intervals. Magna Charta. The great charterof English liberties, granted by, or rather extorted from. King John, at Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, on the 19th June, 1215, and afterwards confirmed by Henry III. Maihem or Mayhem. The violently depriving another of the use of such of his members as may render him less able, in fighting, either to defend himself or to annoy his adversary. Mainprise. The surrendering a person into friendly custody, upon giving security that he shall be forthcoming at the time and place re- quired. The writ of mainprise is obsolete. Majority. The being of full age. Mala fides. Bad faith. Mala in se. Wrong in themselves. Malice prepense. Malice aforethought ; i. c. deliberate, predeter- mined malice. Malus animus. A bad or malicious intent. Mandamus. A writ commandinsj the completion or restitution of some right, or the performance cf a duty. Manor. A territorial domain, held partly by the lord and partly by his tenants; it must have continued from time immemorial, and have annexed to it a Court Baron, with at least two suitors. Manslaughter, The unlawful killing of another, but without malice. Manumission. The making a bondman free. Market overt. Selling goods in market overt, or open, has in many cases a different legal effect to a mere private sale. In London a sale in an open shop is a sale in market overt ; for every day, except Sunday, is a market there. Marksman. A deponent in an affidavit who cannot write, but makes his mark. Marque and Reprisal (Letters of.l Commissions granted to in- dividuals to fit out privateers in time of war ; not used in the late war, and abandoned by all the great powers at the Congress of Paris, 1856. Master of the Rolls. An assistant of the Lord Chancellor, whohears and decides the cases assigned to him, at his own Court in the Roils yard. He holds his office by patent for life Maturity. Bills, or notes, when due, are said to be at their maturity. Maxims in Law. Certain proverbial axioms, which form part of the 1 genera) custom or common law of the land. As, “ No man is bound to criminate himself.” — “ Conditions against law are void." — “ It is fraud to conceal fraud,” etc., etc. Medietas Linguae. A jury whereof one half are foreigners, and the other natives ; and is used to try a cause in which either party is a foreigner, and requires that mode of trial. Merger. The sinking of a smaller estate into a greater, whereby the former is utterly extinguished and destroyed. It takes place when two estates meet together, without any intermediate estate between them, to both of which estates the same individual is entitled in one and the same right — as where a tenant for life afterwards acquires the fee- simple. Mesne-Process. Commonly used to describe the first process in an action, as where a party used to be arrested on mesne-process, as dis- tinguished from an arrest on a final judgment. Misdemeanor. An indictable offense, which, though criminal, does not amount to felony. Misprision. A neglect, oversight, or contempt ; as, for example, mis- prision of treason is a negligence in not revealing treason. Mittimus. A writ for removing of records from one court to another. Modus. A composition in lieu of tithes. Moot point. An obscure point of law not definitely settled ; and therefore open for discussion. Mortgage. A conveyance of lands by way of security, for the repay- ment of a sum of money borrowed, or owing. Mortmain. Lands held by corporations are said to be held in mort- main. Motion. An occasional application to the court, to obtain some rule or order in the progress of a cause. Municipal Law. That which pertains solely to the citizens of a particular state, city, or province. Muniments. Deeds, evidences, and writings in general. Murder. Unlawfully killing any person, with malice aforethought, either express or implied by law. Mutiny Act. An Act annually passed to punish mutiny and deser. tion, and for the better regulation of the army. Naturalization. The making a foreigner a lawful subject of the state. Ne exeat regno. A writ to restrain a person from leaving the kingdom. Negative Pregnant. A form of denial which implies or carries with it an affirmative. Negotiable Instruments. Those instruments which confer on the holders the legal right to sue for the money or property thereby se- cured, and which by delivery pass such money or property from man to man— as bills of exchange, bills of lading. Ncmine Contradicente (Nem. con.). Words used to signify the unanimous consent of the members of Parliament, or other public body, to a vote or resolution. Next friend. The party in whose name an infant or feme-covert brings an action or suit. Nil debet. A common plea to an action of debt when the money is not owing. Nil dicit. When judgment is had against a defendant by default. Nisi prius. A term applied to those courts in which civil causes are tried before a judge and jury. Nolle Prosequi. An acknowledgment by the plaintiff that he will not further prosecute his suit, as to the whole or a part of the cause of J action. Nomine Poenae. A penalty agreed to be paid on the non-perform. ! ance of some specified act. Non assumpsit. He has not promised. A plea by which a defend-l" J ant denies his liability in an action of assumpsit. Non compos mentis. Of unsound mind. Non concessit. He did not grant. Non constat. It is not clear or evident. Non est factum. A plea by which a defendant denies that the deed mentioned in the declaration is his deed. Non est inventus. The sheriff’s return to a writ, when the defend ant is not to be found in his county or bailiwick. Nonleasauce. The omitting to do what ought to be done. $20 DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. Non pros. When the plaintiff neglects to take any step within the prescribed time, the defendant may move for a judgment against him, which is called judgment of non pros. Nonsuit. A renunciation of a suit by a plaintiff, after which he may 6 till commence another action for the same cause, which he could not do if a verdict goes against him. Notary-Public. A person whose business it is to note and protest bills of exchange, and who also attests deeds and writings, to make them authentic in another country. Nudum pactum. An agreement without consideration, which, when not under seal, is void in law. Nuisance. Anything which unlawfully annoys or does damage to .-nother. Nuisances may be either public or private. Nuncupative Will. An oral will before a sufficient number of wit- nesses, and afterwards reduced to writing— now abolished, except as to soldiers and sailors. Nunc pro tunc. Literally, now for then: and is often so used in legal proceedings. Oath. An appeal to God as a witness of the truth of what is affirmed or denied in evidence, in the presence of a judge, magistrate, or other officer authorized to administer oaths. Obiter dictum. A casual remark or opinion of a judge, not neces- sary to or forming part of his judgment on the matter before him. Obligee. An individual for whose benefit an obligation is entered snto. Obligor. He who enters into a bond or obligation. Official Assignees. Officers of the Court of Bankruptcy, one of whom is allotted to each Bankrupt’s Estate. He acts with the assign- ees appointed by the creditors in the administration of the estate ; but his especial duty is to keep the assets of the estate, and receive and pay all money on account of it. Onus probandi. The burden of proof. It is a legal principle that the issue in an action must be proved by the party who states an affirm- ative •, not by the party who states a negative. The burden of proof, therefore, is on the former party. Ostensible partner. A person whose name appears to the world as a partner in a firm. Although such a person may not have \ny interest in the partnership, he is liable for its debts and engagements. Ouster. The turning of a person out of possession of property. Outlawry. The act or process by which a person is excluded from, or deprived of, the benefit of the laws, attended with a forfeiture of his goods to the Crown. Overt Act. An open act, capable of being manifested by legal proof. Oyer and Terminer. A commission directed to the judges and others, by virtue whereof they have power to hear ana determine treasons, felonies, etc. O Yes. A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye! The term Is used by a public crier to enjoin silence and attention. Panel. A schedule or slip of parchment, containing the names of such jurors as have been returned by the sheriff to serve on trials. Paraphernalia. Things to which a wife is entitled over and above her dower, consisting of wearing apparel and ornaments suitable to her rank and station in life. The husband may (with the exception of his wife's wearing apparel) dispose of them in his lifetime, but not by will. On his death they belong to the wife absolutely. Parol. Word of mouth, verbal Particeps cri minis. A participator in a crime. Partition. The dividing of lands held by joint tenants, coparceners, 01 tenants in common, into two distinct portions. Patent ambiguity, A matter of doubt appearing upon the face of an instrument. Pawn. A delivery of goods and chattels, to be retained until a debt is discharged. Peculiar. A particular parish or church having a special jurisdic- tion within itself, as exempt from the bishop’s court. Penance. An ecclesiastical punishment, varied according to the nature of the offense, in which the penitent is supposed to make satis- faction to the church for the scandal he has given by his evil example. Peppercorn Rent. A nominal rent. Perjury. The offense committed by a person who, having been sworn to tell the truth in a matter pending in a court of justice, willfully and deliberately takes a false oath. Perpetuity. A rule that land cannot be limited beyond a life 01 lives in being and twenty-one years afterwards, and the period of ges- tation, if it actually exists, is commonly called the rule against per- petuities. Personal Estate, or Personalty. Movable things, whether alive or dead, as distinguished from land, or immovables, which are termed real estate. Petitioning creditor. A creditor who petitions the Court of Bank- ruptcy to make his debtor a bankrupt. Pin Money. An allowance set apart by the husband for the personal expenses of a wife, i. e., for her dress and pocket money. Piscary. The right or privilege of fishing. Plaint. Process by which actions are commenced in the County Court. Plaintiff. The complainant in an action or suit. Plea. The defendant’s answer to the plaintiff’s declaration. Pleader. A lawyer, who draws the pleadings in actions. Pleadings. The mutual allegations or statements which are made by the plaintiff and defendant in an action. Plene administravit. A plea by an executor or administrator that he has fully administered. Plough Bote. The wood which a tenant is entitled to take for the necessary reparation of his ploughs, carts, etc. Posse Corr.itatus. The power of the county. This includes the aid and attendance of all men, except ecclesiastics and inferior persons, above the age of fifteen, within the county , wl ch force may be used in cases of riot or rebellion, or where any resistance is made to the exe- cution of justice. Postea. The verdict of the jury drawn up in due form, and entered on the back of the record. Pound breach. The indictable offense of breaking open a pound for the purpose of taking cattle therefrom. Praecipe. An abstract of a writ left with the officer at the time of issuing it. Praamium Pudicitiae. A bond or consideration given to a previously virtuous woman, by the person who has seduced her. Pre-emption. The right of first buying. Prescription. A title acquired by use and time, and allowed by law. Presentment. The notice taken by a grand jury or inquest of any offense, etc., from their own knowledge or observation. Primogeniture. The right of the eldest son to inherit his ancestor’s estate, to the exclusion of the younger son, where the ancestor has died intestate. Privilege. An exemption from the general rules of law. It is of two kinds— real, attaching to any place, or personal, attaching to persons, as ambassadors, etc. Probate. The copy of a will made out on parchment with a certifi- cate of its having been proved. Process. A general term applied to formal judicial proceedings. Procheim Amy. Next friend (which see). Prohibition. A writ issuing out of the superior courts directing the judge of an inferior court not to proceed fu her in a suit. Promissory Note. A written promise by which one person engagei or promises to pay a certain sum of money to another. Pro Rata. In proportion. Protest. On bills of exchange. A protest means the solemn decla- ration of a public notary of the dishonor of a bill. Provisional Assignee. An officer of the Insolvent Debtor’s Court, in whom the estate of an insolvent vests. Proviso. A condition inserted in a deed, on the performance whereof the validity of the deed frequently depends. Puisne. Younger, junior. The judges and barons of the superioi courts, except the chiefs, are called puisne judges and puisne barons. Quamdiu se bene gesserit. A clause expressing that the party to whom an office is granted shall hold the same so long as he properly conducts himseli. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 3*1 Quantum Meruit. So much as he has deserved. Quantum Valebat. So much as it is worth. Quarantine, signifies 40 days. It is applied to the period which per- sons coming from infected countries are obliged to wait on board ship before they are allowed to land. But in law it more strictly applies to the similar period during which a widow, entitled to dower, is per- mitted to remain in her husband's capital mansion after his death, whilst she awaits the assignment of her dower. Quare impedit. The form of action now adopted to try a disputed itle to an advowson. Quarto die post. The fourth day after the term. Quash. To annul or cancel. Quasi Contract. An implied contract. Queen’s Bench. The supreme Court of Common Law in the king- dom, consisting of a chief justice and four puisne judges. In this Court the sovereign used formerly to sit in person ; hence its title. Queen's Counsel. The appointment of Queen’s Counsel does not confer any emolument from the Crown, but is regarded as a mark of distinction. The Queen’s Counsel wearsdk gowns (the other barristers wearing stuff ones) and are entitled to precedence in Court. Queen's Evidence. An accomplice in the commission of a crime, who gives evidence in the hope of receiving a pardon for himself. Quid pro quo. Giving one thing for another, being the mutual con- sideration in contracts. Quietus. Freed or acquitted A term used principally in proceed- ings on the revenue side of the Exchequer. Qui tarn. Actions brought by common informers, and vulgarly called “ qui tam ” actions ; because in the form in which they are con- ceived, the prosecutor declares that he prosecutes “as well for our sovereign lord the king as for himself tam pro Domino Rege quam pro seipso. Quit rent. A small rent payable by the tenants of manors, and which entitle them to be quit and free of all other services. Quo Minus. A common writ formerly issued against a defendant on the plea side of the Court of Exchequer, founded upon a presumption or fiction of law that the plaintiff was the less able to pay the Crown on account of the defendant being his debtor. It was the writ which gave the Court jurisdiction in matters not relating to the Revenue, but now the Court of Exchequer has coordinate jurisdiction with the other supe- rior courts, without the necessity of any longer resorting to a fiction for the purpose of founding it. Quo warranto. An ancient writ still in use, directed against any person or corporation, who usurp any office, franchise, or liberty, call- ing upon them to show by what authority they support their claim. Rack rent. A rent of the full annual value of the land, out of which It issues. Rape. The carnal knowledge of a female, who is above the age of ten years, against her will ; or of a girl under the age of ten years, although with her permission. Readers. The lecturers appointod by the Inns of Court are so termed. Real estate, or Realty, is the term applied to land, in contradis- tinction to personalty. Rebutter. The answer of the defendant to the surrejoinder of the plaintiff. Recaption. The taking a second distress during the pendency of a replevin on a former distress. Recital. The formal statement of some matter of fact in any deed or writing. It usually commences with the formal word “ Whereas.” Recognizance. An obligation of record which a man enters into, with condition to do some particular act ; as, to appear at the assizes, to keep the peace, to pay a debt, or the like. Record. An authentic testimony, in writing, contained in rolls of parchment, and preserved in a court of record. Rector. He who has the spiritual care or charge of a parish. Recusant. Used in old statutes for one who separates from the church as established by law. Red Book. An ancient record in the Exchequer, in which arc reg- istered those who held lands per baroniam in the time of Henry II. Redendum. The clause in a lease by which the rent is reserved. It Huall? begins with the words “ yielding and paying.” Re-entry, proviso for. A stipulation in a lease that, on non-payment of rent or non-performance of the covenants, the leasor may reenter. Reference. The submitting of any cause or matter to arbitration. Refresher. A further fee to counsel, where the cause goes over from one term or sitting to another. Register . A book wherein things are registered for preservation. Registrars. Officers having custody of a Registry, such as the reg istrars of births, marriages, and deaths. Rejoinder. The answer of a defendant in an action to the plaintiff’s replication. Release. A form of conveyance. Also, an acquittance under seal of a debt or other obligation. Remainder. A vested or contingent estate or interest in land, lim- ited to take effect and come into possession on the determination of a prior estate created at the same time. Remanet. A term used when a cause set down for trial at a partic- ular assize or sittings is postponed. Rent. The annual return made by the tenant to his landlord, which may be either money, labor, or provisions. Replevin. An action to try the validity of a distress. The things distrained are re-delivered to the tenant on security or pledges given by him to try the right. Replication . The plaintiff’s answer to the defendant’s plea or an- swer. Representative Peers. The peers elected from their own bodies to represent Scotland and Ireland in the House of Lords, being 16 for the former, and 28 for the latter. Reprieve. A suspension of the execution of sentence of death on a criminal. Rescue. A resistance against lawful authority, as, for instance, the violently taking away a man who is under legal arrest. Residuary devisee. The person to whom a testator devises the re- mainder of his lands, not otherwise disposed of. Residuary legatee. A legatee to whom is bequeathed the residue or remainder of a testator’s personal estate, after payment of all legacies, claims, and demands. Residue, or Residuary Estate. The portion of a testator’s estate not specifically disposed of. Res integra. An entire thing. Rest. A pause in an account between a debtor and creditor, in striking periodical balances. Retainer. A fee given to counsel to secure his services. It may be either general or special The former secures the services of the coun- sel to the party giving it in all matters ; the latter only in one cause or matter. The fee in the former cause is 5 guineas, in the latter 1 guinea. Return of a Writ. The certificate of the sheriff made to the court of what he has done towards the execution of any writ directed to mm. Reversal. The making a judgment void, in consequence of some error in the same. Reversion. The residue of an estate left in the grantor, and return, ing to him or his heirs, after the grant is determined. Rider. A kind of schedule or writing, annexed to a document, which cannot well be incorporated in the body of it. Roll. A schedule or sheet of parchment, on which legal proceedings are entered. Rule. An order made by the court at the instance of one of the par- ties in an action. It may either be a rule absolute, or merely a rule nisi or to show cause. Rules of Court. The rules framed by the judges for regulating the practice of the different Courts of Law. Sacrilege. A desecration of anything that Is holy. Salvage. An allowance made for saving ships or goods from ene- mies, or wreck, or loss at sea. Scandal. Rumor calculated to injure one’s reputation. Schedule. A list or inventory of things. Scienter. Knowingly. Scire Facias. A judicial writ founded on matter of record, and is used for various purposes, as, for instance, to enforce against a share- holder a judgment against a Toint Stock Company which it is unable to satisfy. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 52? Scrivener. One intrusted with other men’s monies to put out for them, and for which he charges a commission, or bonus. Security for Costs. When the plaintiff lesidesoutof the jurisdiction of the Court, the defendant may require him to give security for costs. Secus. Otherwise. Se Defendendo. A plea for a party charged with the death of another person, who alleges that he was driven to do what he did in his own defense. Seisin. Possession of a freehold estate. Seisin in deed is when ac- tual possession is obtained. Seisin in law is a right to lands of which actual possession has not been obtained. Separate estate. Real or personal property settled upon a married woman, and which she may dispose of as if she were a single woman. Sequestration, is used in several cases; but most frequently as sig- nifying an execution for debt against a benefited clergyman, in which case the debt is satisfied out of ihc tithes and other profits of the bene- fice. In Scotland a Sequestration is nearly equivalent to our term “ Bankruptcy." Set-ofi. \ mode of defense, whereby a defendant sets up a demand of his own to counterbalance the plaintiff’s claim either wholly or in part. Similiter. A set form of words in an action by which one party sig- nifies his acceptance of the issue tendered by his opponent. Simony. The corrupt presentation of any one to an ecclesiastical benefice, for money, gift, or reward. Simple Contract. An agreement entered into verbally or by writing not under seal. Slander. The malicious defamation of a man by word of mouth, analogous to libel, which is slander by writing. Socage. The tenure by which most freehold lands in England are held which consists in the performance of some certain and determi- nate service, usually of a nominal nature, as distinguished from the old feudal services, which were generally at the will of the lord. Son assault demesne. A plea in an action for an assault that the defendant did the act complained of in his own defense. Special Case. A mode of raising a point of law for the opinion of the court on an agreed written statement of the facts. Special Jury, is a jury composed of individuals above the rank of ordinary freeholders Either parly in an action may apply for, and obtain, a special jury. Special pleading. When the pleadings in an action are not in the ordinary form, but are of a more complex character, they are termed special pleadings. Specific performance. A remedy in equity, to compel the perform- ance of a contract according to its terms, instead of proceeding at law to recover damages merely. Statutes. The written laws of the kingdom (see Common Law) are of two kinds, public or private ; the former applies to all statutes which affect the public generally, and of which the judges take cogni- zance without being specially pleaded. The latter relates to the private rights of individual bodies, as, for instance, the various acts for the Management of Railway and other Companies are private acts. Stirpes. Taking property by representation is called succession per stirpes, as contradistinguished from per capita, which signifies taking it by one’s own right. Stoppage in transitu. Goods sold on credit to a person, since be- come insolvent or bankrupt, may be seized by the vendor at any time before their actual and complete delivery to the vendee. This seizure is called stoppage in transitu ; it is often a nice and difficult question to determine when the transit has ended and the purchaser’s possession begun Subornation of perjury. The offense of procuring another to take a false oath. Subpoena. A writ used for the purpose of compelling witnesses to attend and give evidence. Sufferance, a tenant at, is a person who acquired the possession of lands by right, and holds over after his right is determined. Suit. Proceedings in Equity are usually termed suits, as distinguished from the proceedings at common law, which are termed actions. Summons, writ of. The process used for the commencement of all actions in the courts of law. Supersedeas. A command to stay some ordinary proceedings at law. on good cause shown. Surrejoinder. An answer to the rejoinder of the defendant in ao tion. Syngraph. A deed or bond under hand and seal of all the parties. Tail, or Fee-tail. See Entail. Tenancy. The holding of property under tenure Tenant. One who holds lands of another as a tenant for life, fot years, in tail, etc ; it is a word extensively used in legal phraseology. Tender. A legal tender is an unconditional offer to pay a debt, which, if refused, may be afterwards pleaded in bar to an action. Tenement. Property held by a tenant; it comprises lands, houses, and every species of real property which may be holden. Tenure. The system of holding lands in subordination to some su- periors. Termer. A tenant who holds lands for a fixed and ascertained pe- riod of time. Testamentary Guardian. A person appointed by a father in his will to be the guardian of his child. Testator or Testatrix. The maker of a will. Teste. The clause at the bottom of a writ beginning with the word “ witness ” is so called. Theft bote. When a party, who has been robbed, and knowing the felon, takes his goods again or receives other amends upon agreement not to prosecute. Tithes. The tenth part of the increase yearly arising from the profits of lands, etc. Tithes are in this country now commuted into a fixed rent charge, which ischarged upon the land, and not upon the per- son. Tithing. A portion of a hundred. Tithing-man was formerly an officer of some importance ; in the present day, however, he is a mere constable. Title. The evidence of the right which a person has to the posses- sion of property. Traverse. A plea which denies the truth of some part of the plain tiff’s declaration in an action. Treasure Trove. Any money, etc., found nidden under the earth, the owner thereof being unknown. Trespass. Any wrong or damage which is done by one man to another, whether it relates to his person or property, but it usually sig- nifies a wrongful entry on another's premises. Trial. The formal method of examining and adjudicating upon a question of fact in a court of law. Trover. The form of action used to try a disputed question of prop- erty in goods or chattels, in which the plaintiff can only recover theii estimated value, and not the goods or chattels themselves. True bill. The words indorsed upon an indictment by a grand jury, when satisfied that the charge against the offender is made out. Trust. A trust exists where a party, called the cestuique-trust, has a right in equity to the beneficial enjoyment of property, the legal owner- ship of which is vested in another, who is hence called a trustee. Umpire. A third person chosen to decide a matter in dispute left to arbitration, in case the arbitrators should not agree. Under-lease. A lease granted by one who is himself only a lessee of the premises under-let. Under-lessee. The person to whom an under-lease is granted. Unliquidated damages. Damages not fixed or ascertained, and which require therefore to be estimated by a jury. Use. A right to the beneficial enjoyment of land nominally vested in another. Usury. The extortion of unlawful gain ; the taking more for the use of money than is allowed by law ; but the usury laws in this country are now abolished, any rate of interest therefore may now be lawfully taken. Value received. The words usually, but unnecessarily, appearing in bills of exchange and promissory notes. Venditioni exponas. A writ directed to the sheriff, commanding him to sell goods which he has taken possession of under a writ of fieri facias, and which remain in his hands unsold. Vendor and Vendee. A vendor is the person who sells and a vendee the person who buys, anything. DICTIONARY OF LAW TERMS. 329 Venue. The county in which an action at iaw is intended to be tried. Verdict. A verdict is the unanimous judgment or opinion of the jury on the issue of fact submitted to them. Vi et Armis (with force and arms). Words used in indictments, to express the charge of a forcible and violent committing of any crime or trespass. Viva voce. By word of mouth. Voir dire. An examination of a witness to test his competency is termed an “ examination in the voir dire.” Voluntary Conveyance, or Settlement. A conveyance or settle- ment made without any valuable consideration. Voucher. A receipt or discharge. Waifs. Stolen goods which the thief has thrown away or left be- hind him. Ward. An infant under the guidance and protection of a guardian. Ward if Court. An infant with reference to whose property a suit has been instituted in Chancery. A ward ought not to marry without leave of the court. Any person marrying a ward without such leave is guilty of a contempt of court, and can he punished by imprisonment. Warrant. An authority or precept from a justice, commanding the •ppreheasfca of an offender, or a search to be made So r itolea good*, Warrant of Attorney. An authority given by any one to an attor- ney-at-law, to appear and plead for him ; or to suffer judgment to pasa against him, by confessing the action. Warranty, as applied to goods and chattels, may be either expressed or implied ; the implied warranty only extends to the title of the vendor. If that proves deficient, the purchaser may demand satisfaction from the seller. Watercourse, right of. A right to an uninterrupted flow of water. Way, right of. The right of going over another man’s ground. Will. A will is the legal written declaration of a man’s intentionsof what he wills to be performed after his death with reference to the disposition of his property. It must be in writing signed by the testa- tor and attested by two witnesses, who must not only be present and see the testator sign, but must themselves subscribe the will as wit- nesses in the presence of the testator and of each other. Without ihese formalities the will is invalid. A codicil is a kind of addendum or sup- plement to a will. Its execution and attestation must be attended with the same formalities as the will itself. Will, estate at. An estate in lands held at the will of the landlord and tenant, and determinable at the pleasure of either party. Such* holding is very rare now, the law generally C0Q»C ffl e» iwfeswd h»14> tag* irywwaaaswt feats ysa? psss. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 23 ° A CALENDAR For ascertaining Any Day of the Week for any given time within Two Hundred Years from the introduction of the New Style, I752T to 1952 inclusive. YEARS 1753 TO 195 * § •— 1 M C I 28 Feb. 1 3* Mar. u a < ? r > >> a 3 s ! 30 June 31 July bil p < CO 30 Sept. 0 O CO 30 Nov. 1 3 1 Dec. 1 1761 1801 I7C7 1807 1778 1818 1789 1829 x 795 1835 I846 *857 * 9°3 1863 * 9*4 1874 x 9*5 1885 x 93 x I89I 1942 4 7 7 3 5 1 3 6 2 4 7 2 1762 X802 1773 l8l3 *779 1819 x 79 ° 1830 l 34 X 847 1858 1909 1869 * 9*5 1875 1926 1886 x 937 1897 x 943 S 1 1 4 6 2 4 7 3 5 X 3 '757 1803 1763 l8l4 *774 1825 x 7«5 1831 1791 1842 1853 1859 1910 1870 1921 l88l 1927 1887 1938 1898 *949 6 2 2 5 7 3 5 I 4 6 2 4 1754 1805 1765 l8ll * 77 * 1822 1782 1833 x 793 1839 1799 1850 1901 1861 * 9 ° 7 1867 1918 1878 1929 I889 *935 1895 1946 2 5 5 1 3 6 1 4 7 2 5 7 1755 1806 I766 1817 1777 i 8?3 1783 1834 x 794 1845 l800 I85I 1902 1862 * 9*3 >873 1919 I879 1930 1890 x 94 x x 947 3 6 6 2 4 7 2 5 X 3 6 1 1758 1809 ■ 769 l8l5 *775 1826 I786 1837 1797 1343 *854 * 9 ° 5 1865 1911 1871 1922 l882 *933 1893 *939 1899 1950 7 3 3 6 I 4 6 2 5 7 3 5 *753 x8 10 *759 1821 * 77 ° 1827 I78I I838 1787 1849 1798 1855 1866 1906 1877 1917 » 1883 x 9 2 3 1894 x 934 X900 x 945 1951 X 4 4 7 * 2 s 7 3 6 I 4 6 29 1764 179a I804 I832 i860 1888 1928 7 3 4 7 2 5 7 3 6 I 4 6 1768 x 79 6 I808 I836 1864 1892 1904 1932 5 X 2 5 7 3 5 I 4 6 2 4 i 7 7 2 •• l 8 l 2 X84O 1868 1896 1908 x 936 3 6 7 3 5 1 3 6 2 4 7 2 1776 l 8 l 6 1844 1872 .. 1912 1940 1 4 5 I 3 6 1 4 7 2 5 7 1780 X820 I848 1876 1916 1944 6 2 3 6 1 4 6 2 5 7 3 5 1756 1784 1824 1852 1880 1920 1948 4 7 1 4 6 2 4 7 3 5 1 3 «/ 5 o 1788 X828 1856 1884 •• * 9*4 I 9 S 3 2 5 ll 2 4 7 2 s X 3 6 x | ci uvo cvoo ©> >**S >, >>*S «* ^ >1 >>"ul rt' Jo l-3||l S^-S-Sl! s ^l-S-sf 1 S-st-S-g S^t-g-S t C 3T3 3 S C jg-O 3-0 3 J C IJ-O 3-0 3 S c jg'C ^ 3 2 C ig v O — ^ r" ' r* s. Q ^ r* * - *-* O r~ * r* v o 1— -r ^ O 45 10 V. >.45 w' rt H o*d t. 43 b rt 4> T> M rt . ^ { 8 * 5 Vs •2 0 2 a. lSuu=t?g p.c bo g' s^sS^I^ ^ U'* . rt ° Z ' V ^2 ^ a; * •5 2 £ oj ^ dx: i* 8 « a I ■S 3 « fe C T 3 > 1 cn af cT cT Sj Jj* gc h— « bi) O -* Sh fe=”s^ h’~J2.t2«S o j. ° 2 Si 3 ||| e-fc-Ss c £ 2cc-g a ilc I e es *£S* -■ > c8 *j «i J QO °* bX 0 £ 2 o ~ f:it - 5 -Sal MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 33* A TABLE OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. Name. SAXONS AND DANES. Accession. Died. Age. Reigned, Ethelwulf . Son of Egbert 837 858 — J 9 Son of Ethelwulf 858 | 860 ^ Ethelbert Second son of Ethelwulf 858 f 866 8 Third son of Ethelwulf 866 871 Fourth son of Ethelwulf 871 Son of Alfred Eldest son of Edward Brother of Athelstan 946 6 Brother of Edmund 946 Son of Edmund 958 Second son of Edmund 958 Son of Edgar Half-brother of Edward Eldest son of Ethelred 28 1 By conquest and election 18 Son of Canute IOTA •tetri Son of Ethelred II 64 Brother-in-law of Edward T o6(? THE HOUSE OF NORMANDY. Obtained the Crown by conquest 1066 Youngest son of William I Stephen -j Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois, by Adela, fourth daughter 1 of William I f “35 ”54 49 •9 THE HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET. Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet,by Matilda, only daughter of Henry I. TT 54 1189 56 Eldest surviving son of Henry* II 7 *. . . 2189 Sixth and youngest son of Henry II Eldest son'of John T-irr-T 67 Eldest surviving son of Edward I Eldest son of Edward II 65 •377 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III 46 Only sou of Henry V. (Died 1471) Dep. 1461 THE HOUSE OF YORK. f His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, fifth son of Ed- I Edward IV { ward III.; and his grandmother, Anne, was great-grand- > I46I 1483 4* 23 1 daughter of Lionel, third son of Edward 111 ) Eldest soil of Edward IV Younger brother of Edward IV 1483 1485 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. l Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor .by Katharine, widow ) Henry VII 1 of Henry V.; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was great- > 1485 I5°9 52 *4 1 granddaughter of John of Gaunt ) Henry VIII Only surviving son of Henry VII 38 •547 6 >553 1603 69 45 THE HOUSE OF STUART. James I j Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV and 1 Margaret, daughter of Henry VII f I603 i625 58 29 Charles I Only surviving son of James I 48 24 1 Commonwealth declared May 19 1 Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector 1658 Res. 1659 . THE HOUSE OF STUART— RESTORED. Charles II 54 t* •685 (Interregnum, Dec. n, 1688— Feb. 13, 1689) Dec. 1701 68 William III 1 Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of 1 l and •< Charles I > i68cK 1702 5 1 x 3 Mary II ( Eldest daughter of James II ) 1 1694 3 2 6 1714 49 THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. George I j Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, 1 daughter of James I . I 17X4 X727 67 * George II I760 77 33 George III 1820 82 60 George IV 183O 68 10 William IV 72 7 Victoria. 1837 WHOM GOD PRESERVE. 12 MISCELLAtTEOTTS TABLES. SOVEREIGNS OF SCOTLAND FROM A.D. 1057 TO THE UNION OF THE CROWNS. Names. Malcolm ( Ceanmohr ) Donald (Bane) Duncan Donald (Bane) rest .. Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm (Maiden) . . . William (The Lion),. Alexander II Began to keign. 1057, Apr. 1092, Nov. *094, May. 1095, Nov. 1097, Sept. 1107, Jan. 8 1124, Apr. 27 1153, May 24 1165, Dec. 9 1214, Dec. 4 Names. Alexander III Margaret John (Balliol) Robert I. (Bruce)... David II Robert II. (Stewart) Robert III J ames I ames II James III Began to reign. 1249, July 8 .... 1286, Mar. 19 , . . ..1292, Nov. 17 .... 1306, Mar. 27 ... .1329, June 7 .. ..1371, Feb. 22 1390, Apr. 12 1406, Apr. 4 1437, Feb. 20 1460, Aug. 3 Names. Began to reign. James IV 1488, June 11 James V 1513, Sept. 9 Mary 1542, Dec. 16 Francis and Mary 1558, Apr. 24 Mary 1560, Dec. 5 Henry and Mary 1565, July 29 Mary 1567, Feb. 10 James VI 1567, July 29 (Ascended the throne of England as James I., March 24th, 1603.) WELSH SOVEREIGNS OR PRINCES— A.D. 840 to A.D. 1282. Roderic the Great 840 Anarawd, son of Roderic 877 Howel Dda, the Good 943 Jefan and Jago 948 Howel ap Jefan, the Bad 972 Cadwallon, his brother 984 Meredith ap Owen ao Howel Dha 985 tdwal ap Meyric ap Edwal Voel 992 Llewelyn ap Sitsylht 1015 Iago ap Idwal ap Meyric 1023 Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsylht. Killed 1039 Bleddyn 1063 Trahaern ap Caradoc 1073 Griffith ap Cynan 1079 Owain Gwynedd 1136 David ap Owain Gwynedd 1169 Llewelyn the Great 1194 David ap Llewelyn 1240 Llewelyn ap Griffith, last Prince, 1246 ; slain 1282 Edward of Carnarvon, afterwards King Edward II. of England j born 1284 Created Prince of Wales 1301 FRENCH DYNASTIES AND SOVEREIGNS. The Merovingians. Clovis, “ The Hairy,” King of the Salic Franks 428 Childeric III., last of the race 737 The Carlovingians. Pdpin, “ The Short,” son of Charles Martel 752 Charlemagne, The Great, Emperor of the West 768 Louis V., "The Indolent,” last of the race 986 The Capets. Hugh Capet, “ The Great,” 987 Louis IX., “ St. Louis” 1226 Charles IV., “ The Handsome ” 1322 The House of Valois. Philip VI. de Valois, “ The Fortunate ” 1328 Henry III., last of the race 1574 The House of Bourbon. Henry IV., “ The Great,” King ot Navarre 1589 Louis XIII., “ The Just ” 1610 Louis XIV., “ The Great,” Dieudonnd 1643 Louis XV., “ The Well-beloved ” 1715 Louis XVI. (guillotined January 21, 1793) 1774 Louis XVII. (never reigned) 1793 The First Republic. The National Convention first sat September 21, 1792 The Directory nominated November 1, 1795 The Consulate. Bonaparte, Cambacdrfes, and Lebrun December 24, Bonaparte, Consul for 10 years May 6, Bonaparte, Consul for Life August 2, The Empire. Napoleon I. decreed Emperor May 18, Napoleon II. (never reigned) died July 22, The Restoration. Louis XVIII. re-entered Paris May 3, Charles X. (deposed July 30, 1830, died November 6, 1836) Heir-expectant, Henry, Comte de Chambord September 29, The House of Orleans. Louis Philippe, King of the French (Abdicated February 24, 1848, died August 26, 1850.) Heir-expectant, Comte de Paris, born August 24, The Second Republic. Provisional Government formed February 22, Louis Napoleon elected President December 10. The Second Empire. Napoleon III. elected Emperor November 27 (Deposed September 4, 1870, died January 9, 1873.) Third Republic. Committee of Public Defence September 4, L. A. Thiers elected President August 31 Marshal MacMahon elected President May 24, Jules Grivy elected President January 30, 1799 1802 1802 1804 1832 1814 1824 1820 1830 1838 184s 1848 1852 1870 1871 1873 1874 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Declaration of Independence July 4, 1776 General Washington first President 1789 and 1793 fohn Adams 1797 Thomas Jefferson 1801 and 1805 James Madison 1809 and 1813 James Monroe 1817 and 1821 John Quincy Adams 1825 General Andrew Jackson 1829 and 1833 Martin Van buren 1837 General William Henry Harrison (died April 4) 1841 John Tyler (elected as Vice-President) 1841 Grover Cleveland, 1885 ; Population in 1776, including slaves, 2,614,300. James Knox Polk 1845 General Zachary Taylor (died July 9, 1850) 1844 Millard Fillmore (elected as Vice-President) 1850 General Franklin Pierce 1853 James Buchanan 1857 Abraham Lincoln (assassinated April 14, 1865) 1861 and 1865 Andrew Johnson (elected as Vice-President) 1865 General Ulysses S. Grant 1869 and 1873 Rutherford B. Hayes 1873 James A. Garfield 18S1 Chester A. Arthur 1881 Benjamin Harrison, 1S89. Population in 1890, all free, 62,622,25a THE NEW LAW OF PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION. JThe Presidential succession is fixed by chapter 4 of the acts of the Forty-ninth Congress, first session. In case of the removal, death, resignation or inability of both the President or Vice-Presi- dent, then the Secretary of State shall act as President until the disability of the President or Vice-President is removed or a Presi- ’dent is elected. If there be no Secretary of State, then the Secre- tary of the Treasury will act; and the remainder of the order of succession is; The Secretary of War, Attorney -General, Postmas- ter-General, Secretary of the Navy and Secretary of the Interior. The acting President must, upon taking office, convene Congress, if not at the time in session, in extraordinary session, giving twenty days’ notice. This act applies only to such Cabinet offi- cers as shall havo been appointed by the ad vice and consent of the Senate, and are eligible under the Constitution to the 1 ’residency. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 333 PASSPORT REGULATIONS. Passports are issued only to citizens of the United States, upon application, supported by proof of citi- zenship. Citizenship is acquired by birth, by nat- uralization and by annexation of territory. An alien woman who marries a citizen of the United States thereby becomes a citizen. Minor children resident in the United States become citizens by the naturaliza- tion of their father. When the applicant is a native citizen of the United States he must transmit his own affidavit of this fact, stating' his age and place of birth, with the certiflcate of one other citizen of the United States to whom he is personally known, stating that the declaration made by the applicant is true. The affidavit must be at- tested by a notary public, under his signature and seal of office. When there is no notary in the place the affidavit may be made before a justice of the peace or other officer authorized to administer oaths ; but if he has no seal, his official act must be authenticated by certiflcate of a court of record. A person born abroad who claims that his father was a native citizen of the United States must state in his affidavit that his father was born in the United States, has resided therein and was a citizen of the same at the time of the applicant’s birth. This affi- davit must be supported by that of one other citizen acquainted with the facts. NATURALIZED CITIZENS. If the applicant be a naturalized citizen, his certifi- cate of naturalization must be transmitted for inspec- tion (it will be returned with the passport), and he must state in his affidavit that he is the identical per- son described in the certificate presented. Passports cannot be issued to aliens who have only declared their intention to become citizens. Military service does not of itself confer citizenship. A person of alien birth, who has been honorably dis- charged from military service in the United States, but who has not been naturalized, should not transmit his discharge paper in application for a passport, but should apply to the proper court for admission to citi- zenship, and transmit the certificate of naturalization so obtained. The signature to the application and oath of allegiance should conform in orthography to the applicant’s name as written in the naturalization paper, which the department follows. Every applicant is required to state his occupation and the place of his permanent legal residence, and to declare that he goes abroad for temporary sojourn and intends to return to the United States with the purpose of residing and performing the duties of citizenship therein. The wife or widow of a naturalized citizen must transmit the naturalization certificate of the husband, stating in her affidavit that she is the wife or widow of the person described therein. The children of a nat- uralized citizen, claiming citizenship through the father, must transmit the certificate of naturalization of the father, stating in their affidavits that they are children of the person described therein and were minors at the time of such naturalization. The oath of allegiance to the United States will be required in all cases. APPLICATIONS. The application should be accompanied by a descrip- tion of the person, stating the following particulars — viz. : Age : years. Stature : feet, inches (English measure). Forehead : . Eyes : . Nose : . Mouth : . Chin : . Hair : . Complexion : . Face : . If the applicant is to be accompanied by his wife, minor children or servants, it will be sufficient to state the names and ages of such persons and their relation- ship to the applicant, when a single passport for the whole will suffice. For any other person in the party a separate passport will be required. A woman’s pass- port may include her minor children and servants. FEE REQUIRED. By act of Congress approved March 23, 1888, a fee of one dollar is required to be collected for every citizen’s passport. That amount in currency or postal note should accompany each application. Orders should be payable to the Disbursing Clerk of the Department of State. Drafts or checks are inconvenient and unde- sirable. A passport is good for two years from its date and no longer. A new one may be obtained by stating the date and number of the old one, paying the fee of one dollar and furnishing satisfactory evidence that the applicant is at the time within the United States. The oath of allegiance must also be transmitted when the former passport was issued prior to 1861. Citizens of the United States desiring to obtain pass- ports while in a foreign country must apply to the chief diplomatic representative of the United States in that country, or, in the absence of a diplomatic repre- sentative, then to the consul-general, if there be one, or, in the absence of both the officers last named, to a consul. Passports cannot be lawfully issued by State authorities, or by judicial or municipal functionaries of the United States. (Revised Statutes, § 4075.) To persons wishing to obtain passports for them- selves blank forms of application will be furnished by this department on request, stating whether the ap- plicant be a native or a naturalized citizen, or claims citizenship through the naturalization of husband or parent. Forms are not furnished except as samples, to those who make a business of procuring passports. Applications for forms should state whether for native or naturalized citizens or persons claiming citi- zenship through naturalization of parent — the form being different in each case. Communications should be addressed to the Depart- ment of State, endorsed “ Passport Division,” and each communication should give the post-office address ot the person to whom the answer is to be directed. Pro- fessional titles will not be inserted in passports. Department of State, Wajsiun'uton, D. C., 1892, 334 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. NATURALIZATION LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES. The conditions under and the manner in which an alien may be admitted to become a citizen of the United States are prescribed by Sections 2165-74 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. DECLARATION OF INTENTION. The alien must declare upon oath before a circuit or district court of the United States, or a district or su- preme court of the Territories, or a court of record of any of the States having- common law jurisdiction, and a seal and clerk, two years at least prior to his admis- sion, that it is, bona fide, his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince or State, and particularly to the one of which he may be at the time a citizen or subject. OATH ON APPLICATION FOR ADMISSION. He must, at the time of his application to be admit- ted, declare on oath, before some one of the courts above specified, that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he absolutely and entirely re- nounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity to every foreign prince, potentate, State or sovereignty, and particularly, by name, to the prince, potentate, State or sovereignty of which he was before a citizen or sub- ject, which proceedings must be recorded by the clerk of the court. CONDITIONS FOR CITIZENSHIP. If it shall appear to the satisfaction of the court to which the alien has applied that he has resided contin- uously within the United States for at least five years, and within the State or Territory where such court is at the time held one year at least ; and that during that time “ he has behaved as a man of good moral charac- ter, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same,” he will be admitted to citi- zenship. TITLES OF NOBILITY. If the applicant has borne any hereditary title or order of nobility, he must make an express renuncia- tion of the same at the time of his application. SOLDIERS. Any alien of the age of twenty-one years and up- ward, who has been in the armies of the United States and has been honorably discharged therefrom, may be- come a citizen on his petition, without any previous declaration of intention, provided that he has resided in the United States at least one year previous to his application, and is of good moral character. (It is ju- dicially decided that residence of one year in a particu- lar State is not requisite.) MINORS. Any alien under the age of twenty-one yeare who has resided in the United States three years next pre- ceding his arriving at that age, and who has contin- ued to reside therein to the time he may make appli- cation to be admitted a citizen thereof, may, after he arrives at the age of twenty-one years, and after he has resided five years within the United States, includ- ing the three years of his minority, be admitted a citi- zen ; but he must make a declaration on oath and prove to the satisfaction of the court that for two years next preceding it has been his bona fide inten- tion to become a citizen. CHILDREN OF NATURALIZED CITIZENS. The children of persons who have been duly natu- ralized, being under the age of twenty-one years at the time of the naturalization of their parents, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be considered as citi- zens thereof. CITIZENS’ CHILDREN WHO ARE BORN ABROAD. The children of persons who now are or have been citizens of the United States are, though born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, con- sidered as citizens thereof. CHINESE. The naturalization of Chinamen is expressly prohib- ited by Section 14, Chapter 126, Laws of 1882. PROTECTION ABROAD TO NATURALIZED CITIZENS. Section 2000 of the Revised Statutes of the United States declares that “ all naturalized citizens of the United States while in foreign countries are entitled to and shall receive from this government the same protection of persons and property which is accorded to native-born citizens.” THE RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE. The right to vote comes from the State, and is a State gift. Naturalization is a federal right, and is a gift of the Union, not of any one State. In nearly one-half the Union aliens (who have declared inten- tions) vote and have the right to vote equally with naturalized or native-born citizens. In the other half only actual citizens may vote. The federal naturali- zation laws apply to the whole Union alike, and pro- vide that no alien may be naturalized until after five years’ residence. Even after five years’ residence and due naturalization he is not entitled to vote unless the laws of the State confer the privilege upon him, and he may vote in one State (Minnesota) four months after landing, if he has immediately declared his inten- tion, under United States law, to become a citizen, MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 3i5 POPULATION OF THE SHOWING THE GROWTH OF UNITED STATES BY STATES OF 1870, 1880 AND 1890. THE COUNTRY SINCE THE END OF THE AT THE CENSUSES RECONSTRUCTION PERIOD. ST AT ES AND TERRITORIES. 1870. 1880. 1890. Alabama 996,992 1,262,505 1,513,017 Arizona 9,658 40,440 59,620 Arkansas 484,471 802,525 1,128,179 California 560,247 864,694 1,208,130 Colorado 39,864 194,327 419,198 Connecticut 537,454 622,700 746,258 Dakota 14,181 135, 177 Delaware 125,015 146,608 168,493 District of Columbia . . 131,700 177,624 230,392 Florida 187,748 269,493 391,422 Georgia 1,184,109 1,542,180 1,837,353 Idaho 14,999 32,610 84,385 Illinois 2,539,891 3,077,871 3,826,351 Indiana 1,680,637 1,978,301 2,192,404 Iowa 1,194,020 1,624,615 1,911,896 Kansas 364,399 996,096 1,427,096 Kentucky 1,321,011 1,648,690 1,858,635 Louisiana 726,915 939,946 1,118,587 Maine 626,915 648,936 661,086 Maryland 780,894 934,943 1,042,390 Massachusetts 1,457,351 1,783,085 2,238,943 Michigan 1,184,050 1,636,937 2,093,889 Minnesota 439,706 780,773 1,301,826 Mississippi 827,922 1,131,597 1,289,600 Missouri 1,721,295 2,168,380 2,679,184 Montana 20,595 39,159 132,159 Nebraska 122,993 452,402 1,058,910 Nevada 42,491 62,266 45,761 New Hampshire 318,300 346,991 376,530 New Jersey 906,096 1,131,116 1,444,933 New Mexico 91,874 119,565 153,593 New York 4,382,759 5,082,871 5,997,853 North Carolina 1,071,361 1,399,750 1,617,947 North Dakota 182,719 Ohio 2,665,260 3,198,062 3,672,316 Oklahoma 61,834 Oregon 90,923 174,768 313' 767 Pennsylvania 3,521,951 4,282,891 5,258,014 Rhode Island 217,353 276,531 345,506 South Carolina 705,606 995,577 1,151,149 South Dakota 328,808 Tennessee 1,258,520 1,542,359 1,767,518 Texas 818,579 1,591,749 2,235,523 Utah 86,786 143,963 207,905 Vermont 330,551 332,286 332,422 Virginia 1,225,163 1,512,565 1,655,980 Washington 23,955 75,116 349,390 West Virginia 442,014 618,457 762,704 Wisconsin 1,054,670 1,315,497 1,686,880 Wyoming 9,118 20,789 60,705 Total 38,558,371 50,155,783 62,622,250 The inhabitants of Alaska and the Indian Territory are not included in the above. Total population ol the United States in 1890, 62,830,361. 336 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 'population of cities of the united states. FIFTY PRINCIPAL CITIES IN 1890 IN THE ORDER OF census op 1890. New York City j Jggjg Chicago, 111 lj 099^850 Philadelphia, Pa 1,046,964 Brooklyn, N. Y j St. Louis, Mo 451,770 Boston, Mass 448,477 Baltimore, Md 434,439 San Francisco, Cal 298,997 Cincinnati, 0 296,908 Cleveland, 0 261,353 Buffalo, N. Y 255,664 New Orleans, La 242,039 Pittsburg, Pa 238,617 Washington, IX C 230,392 Detroit, Mich 205,876 Milwaukee, Wis 204,468 Newark, N. J Minneapolis, Minn. Jersey City, N. J.. . Louisville, Ky Omaha, Neb Rochester, N. Y... . St. Paul, Minn Providence, R. I. . . Kansas City, Mo. . . Denver, Col Indianapolis, Ind.. Allegheny, Pa Albany, N. Y Columbus, O Syracuse, N. Y Worcester, Mass... Toledo, O 181,830 164,738 163,003 161,129 140,452 133,896 133,156 132,146 119,668 106,713 105,430 105,287 94,923 88,150 88,143 84,655 81,434 THEIR RANK. Richmond, Va New Haven, Conn.. Paterson, N. J Lowell, Mass Nashville, Tenn Scranton, Pa Fall River, Mass Cambridge, Mass... Atlanta, Ga Memphis, Tenn Wilmington, Del... Dayton, O Troy, N. Y Grand Rapids, Mich Reading, Pa Camden, N. J Trenton, N. J 81,388 81,298 78,347 77,696 76,168 75,215 74,398 70,028 65,533 64,495 61,431 61,220 60,956 60,278 58,661 58,313 57,458 * Municipal census of October, 1890. f Federal census of June, 1890. 1 Municipal census of November, 1890. POPULATION OF ALL OTHER CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES HAVING 15,000 POPULATION AND OVER. Akron, O 27,601 Allentown, Pa 25,228 Altoona, Pa 30,337 Amsterdam, N. Y 17,336 Auburn, N. Y 25,858 Augusta, Ga 33,300 Aurora, 111 19,688 Bangor, Me 19,103 Bay City, Mich 27,839 Bayonne, N. J 19,033 Belleville, 111 15,361 Binghamton, N. Y 35,005 Birmingham, Ala 26,178 Bloomington, 111 20,048 Bridgeport, Conn 48,866 Brockton, Mass 27,294 Burlington, la 22,565 Canton, 0 26,189 Cedar Rapids, la 18,020 Charleston, S. C 54,955 Chattanooga, Tenn 29,100 Chelsea, Mass 27,909 Chester, Pa 20,226 Cohoes, N. Y 22,509 Columbia, S. C 15,353 Columbus, Ga 17,303 Concord, N. II 17,004 Council Bluffs, la 21,474 Covington, Ky 37,371 Dallas, Tex 38,067 Danbury, Conn .6,552 Davenport, la 26,872 Decatur, 111 16,841 Des Moines, la 50,093 Dubuque, la 30,311 Duluth, Minn 33,115 Eau Claire, Wis 17,415 Elgin, 111 17,823 Elizabeth City, N. J 37,764 Elmira, N. Y 29,708 Erie, Pa 40,634 Evansville, Ind 50,756 Findlay, 0 18,553 Fitchburg, Mass 22,037 Fort Wayne, Ind 35,393 Fort Worth, Tex 23,076 Galesburg. Ill 15,264 Galveston, Tex 29,084 Gloucester, Mass 24,651 Hamilton, 0 17,565 Harrisburg, Pa 39,385 Hartford, Conn 53,230 Haverhill, Mass 27,412 Hoboken, N. J 43,648 Holyoke, Mass 35,637 Houston, Tex 27,557 Jackson, Mich 20,798 Jacksonville, Fla 17,201 Jamestown, N. Y 16,038 Johnstown, Pa 21,805 Joliet, 111 23,264 Kalamazoo, Mich 17,853 Kansas City, Kan 38,316 Key West, Fla 18,080 Kingston, N. Y 21,261 Knoxville, Tenn 22,535 La Crosse, Wis 25,090 Lafayette, Ind... 16,243 Lancaster, Pa 32,011 Lawrence, Mass 44,654 Leavenworth, Kan 19,768 Lewiston, Me 21,701 Lexington, Ky 21.567 Lima, 0 15,987 Lincoln, Neb 55,154 Lincoln, R. 1 20,355 Little Rock, Ark 25,874 Lockport, N. Y 16,038 Long Island City, N.Y 30,506 Los Angeles, Cal 50,395 Lynchburg, Va 19,709 Lynn, Mass 55,727 McKeesport, Pa 20,741 Macon, Ga 22,746 Malden, Mass 23,031 Manchester, N. H 44,126 Meriden, Conn 21,652 Mobile, Ala 31,076 Montgomery, Ala 21,883 Muskegon, Mich 22,702 Nashua, N. H 19,311 New Albany, Ind 21,659 New Bedford, Mass 40,733 New Brighton, N. Y 16,423 New Britain, Conn 19,007 New Brunswick, N. J 18,603 Newburg, N. Y 23,087 Newport, Ky 24,918 Newport, R. 1 19,457 Newton, Mass 24,379 Norfolk, Va 34,871 Norristown, Pa 19,791 North Adams, Mass 16,074 Norwalk, Conn 17,747 Norwich, Conn.. 16,156 Oakland, Cal 48,682 Orange, N. J 18,844 Oshkosh, W r is 22,836 Oswego, N. Y 21,842 Pawtucket, R. 1 27,633 Peoria, 111 41,024 Petersburg, Va 22,680 Pittsfield, Mass 17,281 Portland, Me 36,425 Portland, Ore 46,385 Poughkeepsie, N. Y 22,206 Pueblo, Col 24,558 Quincy, 111 31,494 Quincy, Mass 16,723 Racine, W T is 21,014 Richmond, Ind 16,608 Roanoke, Va 16,159 Rockford, 111 23,584 Sacramento, Cal 26,386 Saginaw, Mich 46,322 St. Joseph, Mo 52,324 Salem, Mass 30,801 Salt Lake City, Utah 44,843 San Antonio, Tex 37,673 San Diego, Cal 16,159 Sandusky, 0 18,471 San Jose, Cal 18,060 Savannah, Ga 43,189 Schenectady, N.Y 19,902 Seattle, Wash 42,837 Sheboygan, Wis 16,359 Shenandoah, Pa 15,944 Sioux City, la 37,806 Somerville, Mass 40,152 South Bend, Ind 21,819 Spokane Falls, Wash 19,922 Springfield, 111 24,963 Springfield, Mass 44,179 Springfield, Mo 21,850 Springfield, 0 31,895 Stamford, Conn 15,700 Tacoma, Wash 36,006 Taunton, Mass 25,448 Terre Haute, Ind 80,217 Topeka. Kan 31,007 Utica, N. Y 44,007 Waltham, Mass 18,707 Warwick, R. 1 17,761 Waterbury. Conn 28,646 Wheeling, W. Va 35,013 Wichita, Kan 23,853 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 337 POPULATION OF ALL OTHER CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES HAVING 15,000 POPULATION AND OVER .—(Continued.) Wilkesbarre, Pa 37,718 I Winona, Minn 18,208 | York, Pa 20,793 Williamsport, Pa 27,132 Woonsocket, R. 1 20,030 Youngstown, 0 32,22n Wilmington, N. C 20,056 I Yonkers, N. Y 32,033 I Zanesville, 0 21,00 c) NOTE BY THE CENSUS OFFICE. In defining what constitutes a city, in each case the Census Office has consistently maintained the policy of including only such population as lives within the charter limits, because no other defined limits exist. In many cases, however, this does not give to the city all the population which naturally belongs to it. There may be populous suburbs, which are to all intents and purposes parts of the city, whose inhabitants transact business within the city, who are served by the same post-office, etc., but who, living without the charter limits, are not included in the city’s population. Of this our greatest city, New York, Is a forcible example. Within a radius of fifteen miles of City Hall on Manhattan Island the people are in effect citizens of New York, so far as their business and social interests go, although politically they live in different cities, counties and States. This body of population, the commercial metropolis of the country, contains a population considerably in excess of 3,000,000, or two-thirds that of London, which is, similarly, a congeries of municipalities. LARGEST CITIES OF THE EARTH. POPULATION ACCORDING TO THE LATEST OFFICIAL CENSUSES. Cities. Census Year. Population. Cities. Census Year. Population. London 1891 4,231,431 2,344,550 Buffalo 1890 254,457 250.000 246,154 242,297 241,995 240,582 238,473 236,412 229,796 227,064 222,420 221,805 221,665 221,141 216,650 216,361 215,779 211,984 210.000 209.136 206,185 205,669 204,105 202,325 200,000 199,991 198,261 198.136 193,580 191,453 190,597 188,272 187,910 186,510 186,345 182,310 181,578 181,220 179,850 175,332 171,416 170,763 170,216 165,499 164,738 163,987 161,528 161,005 160,531 160,000 Paris 1886 Seoul, Corea estimated. New York (municipal) 1890 1,710,715 Stockholm 1890 Canton " . . ' estimated. 1,600,000 Lisbon 1870 Berlin 1890 1,579,244 1,389,684 New Orleans 1890 Tokio, Japan 1890 Bordeaux 1886 Vienna. . .' 1890 1,364,548 Pittsburg 1890 Chicago 1890 1,098,576 Santiago, Chili 1885 Philadelphia 1890 ,044,894 Washington 1890 St. Petersburg 1890 956,226 Alexandria 1882 Constantinople 1885 873,565 Benares 1891 Brooklyn (municipal) 1890 853,945 840,130 Bucharest 1876 Calcutta. 1891 Bristol, England 1891 Bombay 1891 804,470 753,469 565,714 Hong Kong 1891 Moscow 1885 Montreal. ~ 1891 Glasgow 1891 Bradford, England 1891 Buenos Ayres 1891 546,986 Antwerp 7 1889 Naples . . .' 1890 530,872 517,951 Nottingham, England 1891 Liverpool 1891 Teheran, Persia .7 estimated. Buda-Pesth 1890 506,384 505,343 500,000 4S8,999 Rotterdam 1890 Manchester 1891 Genoa 1890 Peking, China estimated. Detroit 1890 Melbourne 1891 Milwaukee 1890 Osaka, Japan 1890 476,271 Magdeburg 1890 Madrid 1887 472,228 Damascus estimated. Brussels 1889 469,317 Hull, England 1891 St. Louis 1890 460,357 Havana 1888 Madras 1891 449,950 Salford, England 1891 Boston 1890 446,507 443,426 Delhi 1891 Warsaw 1890 Florence 1890 Baltimore 1890 435,151 429,171 Penang 1881 Birmingham 1891 Lille 1886 Rome 1890 423,217 Mandelay 1891 Amsterdam 1890 417,539 Smyrna 1885 Milan 1890 41k 551 Newcastle 1891 Lyons 1880 401,930 Cawnpore 1891 Hyderabad, India 1891 392,730 Newark, U. S 1890 Sydney 1891 386,400 Toronto 1891 Marseilles 1884 376,143 Frankfort 1890 Cairo 1882 368,108 Riga, Russia 1885 Leeds 1891 367,506 Kharkoff, Russia 1885 Rio de Janeiro 1885 357,333 355.000 353.273 348,317 335,174 339,535 334,243 323,938 330,808 312,387 304.000 297,990 296,309 281.273 279,792 276,085 272,590 273,481 270,643 267,416 261,546 261,261 255,896 254,709 Valencia 1886 Shanghai estimated. Kieff, Russia 1887 Leipzig 1890 1890 Hanover 1890 Munich Minneapolis 1890 Breslau 1890 Jersey City 1890 Mexico 1890 Konigsburg 1890 Sheffield 1891 Louisville 1890 Hamburg 1890 The Hague 1890 Turin 1890 Manila estimated. Copenhagen 1890 Patna loojooo 159,255 158,344 158,019 155,640 150.656 147,617 143,182 142.657 142,051 139,659 139,526 138,327 125,830 121,985 Prague 1889 Portsmouth, England 1891 San Francisco 1890 1890 1890 Trieste 7 1890 Cincinnati Venice 1890 Cologne Dundee 1891 Kioto, Japan 1890 1890 Ghent 1889 Dresden. .' Toulouse 1886 Lucknow 1891 Seville 1887 Barcelona 1887 Liege 1889 1891 Odessa 1887 1890 Leicester, England Palermo Stuttgart 1890 1890 Cleveland 1890 Omaha Edinburgh 1891 Rochester, U. S 1890 Belfast 1891 Bremen 1890 Dublin 1891 Yokohama 1890 <38 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO ENGLISH. Metres into yards. Kilometres to miles and yards. Litres into galls, and quarts. Hectolitres into quarts and bushels. Kilogrammes into cwts., qrs., lbs., oz. Hectares into acres, r., p. z 1.094 I 0 1094 I O 0.880 I O 2.751 I 0 0 2 3 * 1 2 1 35 2 2.187 2 X 427 2 O 1.761 2 O 5-502 2 0 0 4 614 2 4 3 31 3 3.281 3 I 1521 3 O 2.641 3 I 0.254 3 0 0 6 9* 3 7 z 26 4 4.374 4 2 855 4 O 3-521 4 z 3-005 4 0 0 8 13 4 9 3 22 s 5.468 5 3 188 5 0.402 5 I 5. 756 5 0 0 11 0# 5 12 1 17 6 6.562 6 3 1282 6 I 1.282 6 2 0.507 6 0 0 13 314 6 14 3 12 7 7.655 7 4 615 7 I 2.163 7 2 3.258 7 0 0 15 7 7 *7 z 8 8 8.749 8 4 1709 8 I 3-043 8 2 6.010 8 0 0 17 10X 8 19 3 3 9 9.843 9 5 1043 9 I 3923 9 3 0.761 9 0 0 19 1314 9 22 0 38 IO 10.936 10 6 376 IO 2 0.804 IO 3 3-512 10 0 0 22 0 % 10 24 2 34 20 21.873 20 12 753 20 4 1.608 20 6 7.024 20 0 1 16 i!4 20 49 1 28 30 32.809 30 18 1129 3° 6 2.412 3° 10 2.536 30 0 2 10 214 30 74 0 21 40 43-745 40 24 1505 40 8 3-215 40 13 6.048 40 0 3 4 3 40 98 3 15 50 54.682 50 31 122 50 II 0.019 5 ° 17 1.560 50 0 3 26 3 % 50 123 2 9 60 65.618 60 37 498 60 >3 0.823 60 20 5.072 60 1 0 20 414 60 148 z 3 70 76-554 70 43 874 70 15 1.627 70 24 0.585 70 1 1 14 SH 70 172 3 37 80 87.401 80 49 1251 80 17 2.431 80 27 4.097 80 1 2 8 6 80 197 2 38 9 ° 98.427 90 55 1627 90 19 3-235 9 ° 3° 7.609 90 1 3 2 6i^ 90 222 1 24 IOO 109.363 100 62 243 IOO 22 0.039 IOO 34 3.121 IOO 1 3 24 7 IOO 247 0 l8 200 218.727 200 124 487 200 44 0.077 200 68 6.242 200 3 3 20 15 200 494 0 37 3 °° 328.090 300 186 730 300 66 0.116 300 103 1.362 300 5 3 >7 6 300 741 z 15 400 437-453 400 248 973 400 88 0.155 400 137 4.483 400 7 3 13 14 400 988 I 33 500 546.8l6 500 310 1217 500 no 0.193 500 I 7 I 7.604 500 9 3 IO 5 500 1235 2 II ■ — - FOREIGN WEIGHTS FRANCE. I. Measure of Length. i MyriamMre = ioooo Metres. i Kilometre = 1000 Metres. i Decametre = 10 Metres. i Mitre = The 10,000,000 part of the quarter of the merid- ian of the earth. 1 Decimetre = i-ioth of a metre. 1 Centimetre = i-iooth of a mitre. 1 Milimfetre... .... = i-ioooth of a metre. II. Measure of Surface. 1 Hectare = too Ares. 1 Are = 100 Square metres. 1 Centiare = 1 Square metre. III. Measure of Solidity. 1 Stere = 1 Cubic metre. 1 Decistere = i-ioth of a stere. IV. Measure of Capacity. 1 Kilolitre... = 1 Cubic metre. 1 Hectolitre = 10 Decalitres. 1 Decalitre = 10 Litres. 1 Litre.. = 1 Cubic decimetre. 1 Decilitre = z-ioth of a litre. V. Measure of Weight. 1 Millia = 1000 Kilogrammes, and is the weight of a ton of sea water. 1 Quintal = 100 Kilogrammes. 1 Kilogramme = Weight of a cubic decimetre of water, at the temperature of 4 0 above melting ice, or about 40° Fahrenheit. 1 Hectogramme = too Grammes. 1 Decagramme = 10 Grammes. 1 Gramme = 11000th of akilogramme. 1 Decigramme = i-ioth of a gramme. These measures may be compared with the English measures by means of the following table : 1 Mitre = 39.38 English inches, nearly. i Are = 3.9 English perches, nearly. 1 Stere = 35.32 English cubic feet. 1 Litre = 1.76 English pints. 1 Gramme = 15.44 English grains. EELGIUM. The metrical system is used here ; but the kilogramme is termed a livre ; the litre, alitron ; and the mitre, an aune. NETHERLANDS. Here, also, the metrical system has been adopted • but Flemish names ire employed instead of those used in France. AND MEASURES. LOMBARDO- VENETIAN KINGDOM. The metrical system, with Italian names substituted for most of the original terms, is used officially ; but the old measures are also used. See Venice. AUSTRIA. The ell = 30.6 inches. The joch = 1 acre 1.75 rood. The metzen = 1-7 bushel. The eimer = 12.4 gallons. The pfund = 1-2 pound. Gold and silver are weighed by the mark of Vienna, which = 4333 grains. BASLE. 100 pounds = 108.6 pounds avoirdupois. The ohm = 10.7 gallons. The sack = 3.6 bushels. The large and small ells = 46.4 and 21.4 inches respectively. BAVARIA. The long and short ells = 24 and 23.3 inches respectively. The schaff of 8 metzen = 5.6 bushels. The muid of 48 mass = 15 gallons. 100 pounds heavy and light weight = 108.3 and 104.2 pounds avoirdupois respectively. The mark of Augsburg = 3643 grains. BREMEN. The foot or half-ell = 11.4 inches. The ohm = 31.5 gallons. The last = jo. 2 quarters. 100 pounds = 109.9 pounds avoirdupois. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. The centner, or 100 pounds Dutch weight = 108.9 pounds avoirdu- pois. The leager of 15 ankers = 126.5 gallons. The muid of schepels = 3 bushels. The ell of 27 Rhynland inches = 27.8 inches. CHINA. The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards, nearly. The shing = 1 pint. 10 ho = 1 shing ; 10 shing = 1 tow ; 10 tow = 1 hwuh, or 120 catties. The catty = 1.33 pound avoirdupois. 16 taels = 1 catty; 100 catties = 1 pecul. Liquids are sold by weight ; but the English gallon is used in trading with foreigners. DENMARK. The foot = 12.3 inches. 100 ells = 68.6 yards. The viertel = 1.7 gallon. 100 tonnen = 47.8 quarters. Thepound = 1.1 pound avoirdu- pois. The pound for gold and siver weighs 7266 grains. EAST INDIES. Bengal. — The Factory maund = 74.66 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar maunds - 11 Factory maunds. 16 chittacks = 1 seer; 40 seers = 1 maund. The guz of 2 cubits = 1 yard. Bombay. — The maund = 28 poundsavoirdupois. 40 seers = 1 maund; 20 maunds = 1 candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels. Madras.— The maund = 25 pounds avoirdupois. 4opollams = 1 vi ; 8 vis = i maund, mauns = 1 candy. The covid = 18.6 inches. Tha gars of 80 parahs = 16.875 quarters, and wejgbs 8400 pounds avoirdu* pots. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 339 EGYPT. The Turkish pike = 27 inches. The ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie = 6 quarters. The cantar = 100 pounds avoirdupois. 216 drams or 144 meti cals = 1 rottole ; 100 rottoli or 36 okes = 1 cantar. FRANKFORT ON THE MAINE. The ell = 21.2 inches. The foot = 11.2 inches. The matter = 3 bushels, nearly. The viertel = 1.6 gallon, nearly. The pound, light and heavy weight, = 1.03 and 1.1 pound avoirdupois. The Zoll-cent- ner = no. 2 pounds avoirdupois. The Cologne mark, used for gold and silver, weighs 3609 grains. GENEVA. The ell = 45 inches. The acre = 1 acre 1.1 rood. The coupe, or sack = 2.1 bushels. The setier = 10 gallons. The heavy pound = 1.2 pound avoirdupois ; the light pound i-6tb less. The mark weighs 3785 grains. GENOA. The braccio of 2.5 palmi = 22.9 inches. Th« mina = 3.3 bushels. The barile = 16.3 gallons. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. 1.5 pound = 1 rottole. The pound sottile, for gold and silver, weighs 4891.5 grains. GREECE. The Venetian measures of length are used, the braccio being called a piche. ioo kila = n. 4 quarters. The cantaro of 40 okes = 1 12 pounds avoirdupois. HAMBURG. The foot = 11. 3 inches, nearly. 100 ells = 62.6 yards. The scheffel = 1 acre 6 perches. The last = 1.09 last. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The pound = 1.06 pound avoirdupois. For the Cologne mark, see Frank- fort. 2 marks <= 1 pound troy. LUBECK. The ell = 22.9 inches. The last = 11 quarters. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The pound = 1.07 pound avoirdupois, nearly. MALTA. The palme = 10.25 inches: 3.5 palmi = 1 yard ; 8 palmi = 1 canna. The salma = 7.8 bushels. The caffiso = 4.5 gallons. The barile = 9.33 gallons. 64 rottoli = 1 hundredweight. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirdupois. MAURITIUS. Besides the English weights and measures, those of France before the late alteration are used. The aune = 1.3 yard. The velte = 1.7 gallon. The poid de marc = 1.08 pound avoirdupois. NAPLES. The canna = 83.2 inches. The moggia = 3 roods 12 perches. The tomolo = 1.4 bushel. The barile = 9.1 gallons. The cantaro grosso and piccolo = 196.5 and 106 pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The pound used in weighing gold and silver contains 4950 grains. PORTUGAL. The covado = 25.8 inches. The almude = 3.6 gallons. The pound e= 1. 01 pound avoirdupois. PRUSSIA. The ell = 26.5 inches. The morgen = 2 roods 21 perches. The scheffel = 1.5 bushel. The eimer = 15. 1 gallons. The pound = 1.03 pound avoirdupois. The mark of Cologne is used for gold and silver. ROME. The cannaof 8 palmi =r 2.2 yards. The canna of to palma = 88 inches, nearly. The rubbio = 8.1 bushels. The boccale = 0.4 gallon. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. RUSSIA. The arshine = 28 inches. The foot = 13.75 inches. The dessetnia — * acres 2.8 roods. The tschetwert = 5.7 bushels. The wedro = 2.7 gallons. The pound = 0.9 pound avoirdupois. The pood - 36 pounds avoirdupois. St. GALLEN. "The ells for silks and woolens = 31.5 and 24.25 inches, respectively. The mutt 01 4 viertels = 2.09 bushels. Theeimer = n.25gallons. The pound, light and heavy weight = 1.03 and 1.3 pound avoirdupois, re- spectively. SAXONY. The foot = 11. 1 inches. The acre = 1 acre 1.5 rood, nearly. The eimer at Dresden, - 14.9 gallons; at Leipsic = 16.8 gallons. The wispe j. at Dresden = 69.9 bushels; at Leipsic = 01.7 bushels. The peuad >1.(1 pound avotittupoia. SICILY. The canna = 76.5 inches. The salma = 7.6 bushels. The barrel a 8 gallons, nearly. The pound of 12 ounces = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirduoois SMYRNA. The pike = 27 inches. The kihow =11.3 gallons. The rottolo =» 1.2 pound avoirdupois. SOUTH AMERICA. The Spanish and Portuguese measures are most generally employed. The use of the English measures prevails in some parts. SPAIN. The vara, or ell = 33.3 inches. The fanegada = 1 acre 21 perches. The arroba = 3.5 gallons. The fanega = 1.5 bushel. The pound = t. 01 pound avoirdupois. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. The ell = 23.3 inches. The tunneland = 1 acre 1 rood, nearly. The tunnu = 0.6 quarter. Thekann -- 0.6 gallon. The pound — o.gpound avoirdupois. TURKEY. The pike = 26.25 inches. The killow = 0.9 bushel. The almud =* 1. 1 gallon. The oke = 2.8 pounds avoirdupois. The rottolo = 13 pound avoirdupois. TUSCANY. The braccio — 23 inches, nearly. Thesaccata = 1 acre 0.9 rood. The sacche = 2 bushels. The fiasche = 4 pints. The pound = 12 ounces avoirdupois. VENICE. Besides the metrical system, the following measures are used: The braccio, for woolens = 26.6 inches ; for silks = 24.8 inches. The stajs = 2.2 bushels. The secchia = 2.4 gallons. The pound sottile = o.» pound avoirdupois, nearly ; grosso = 1.05 pound avoirdupois. REDUCTION OF FRENCH, PARIS, ENGLISH, AND RHENISH MEASURES OF LENGTH, USED BY SCIENTIFIC WRITERS, TO THE SCALE OF EACH. TOISES, REDUCED TO ENGLISH AND RHENISH LENGTHS. TOISES. METRES. ENGLISH FEET. RHENISH FEET. X 1.94904 6*39459 6.21002 2 3.89807 I2.78918 12. 42004 3 5.84711 19.18377 18.63006 4 7 * 79 6 *5 25*57837 24.84008 5 9 * 745*8 31.97296 3I.05OIO 6 11.69422 38.36755 37.26012 7 X3. 64326 44.76214 43 470*4 8 15*592*9 5 * **5673 49.680x6 9 17 * 54*33 57 * 55*32 55-890*7 IO x 9 * 49°37 63.94592 62.IOOI9 IOO 194.90366 639.45916 62I.OO194 1000 * 949 *° 3 6 59 6394 * 59 * 6 o 62XO.9194I METRES, REDUCED TO PARIS, ENGLISH, AND RHENISH LENGTHS. METRES. TOISES. ft. PARIS. in. lines. ENGLISH. feet & inches. RHENISH FT X 0.5*307 3 0 xi. 296 3 3*3708 3.18620 2 I.02615 6 z 10.592 6 6.7416 6.37240 3 1.53922 9 2 9.888 9 10. 1124 9.55860 4 2.05230 12 3 9**84 *3 1.4832 X 2 . 74480 5 2.56537 *5 4 8.48O l6 4-8539 I5.93IOO 6 3*07844 18 5 7.776 *9 8.2247 19.11720 7 3*59*52 21 6 7.072 22 **•5955 22 . 3O34O 8 4 ■ 10459 24 7 6.368 26 2.9663 25.48960 9 4.61767 27 8 5-664 29 6.337* 28.67580 XO 5- *3074 3 ° 9 4.960 32 9.7079 31.86200 IOO 5 ** 3047 * 3<>7 IO I .600 328 I.O79O 318.62OOO 1000 513.07407 3078 5 4 .000 3280 IO.79OO 3186.19996 34<> MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. A TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF BODIES. BAROMETER, 30 INCHES ; FAHRENHEIT’S THERMOMETER, 60°. (From the Works of Drs. Thompson, Young- and Ure.) Platinum 22.069 Gold 19.360 Quicksilver 13.568 Lead 11.352 Silver 10.474 Copper 8.878 Brass 8.396 Steel 7.833 Iron (cast) 7.645 Tin 7.320 Glass (crystal) 3.150 Granite 3.000 Marble (Parian) 2.838 Flint 2.570 Brick 2.000 Nitre 1.900 Ivory 1.825 Brimstone 1.810 Coal 1.250 Boxwood 1.030 Sea Water 1.026 Common Water 1.000 Oak (English) 760 Walnut 671 Cedar 613 Elm 600 Willow 585 Fir 550 Poplar 383 Cork 240 Note. — T he several sorts of wood are supposed to be dry. Washington, D C 12 00 m. Athens, Greece 6 43 p. m. Auckland, New Zealand 4 51 a. m. Augusta, Me 12 29 p. m. Austin, Texas 1037 a.m. Batavia, Java 12 15 a. m. Bombay, India iooop. m. Boston, Mass 12 24 p. m. Berlin, Prussia 601 p.m. Calcutta, India n 01 p. m. Canton, China 12 41 a. m. Charleston, S. C \ 11 49 a. m. Chicago, 111 11 18 a. m. Constantinople, Turkey 704 p.m. Copenhagen, Denmark 558 p.m. VARIATIONS IN TIME. Denver, Col 10 07 a. m. Dublin, Ireland 443 p.m. Gibraltar, Spam 451p.m. Glasgow, Scotland 4 51 p. m. Halifax, Nova Scotia 12 54 p. m. Harrisburg, Pa 1201 p.m. Lima, Peru 12 00 m London, England 5 07 p. m. Madrid, Spam 453 p.m. Mecca, Arabia 7 49 p. m. Mexico, Mexico 10 27 a. m. New Orleans, La 1108 a. m. New York, N. Y 12 12 p. m. Olympia, Washington Ter 8 57 a. m. Omaha, Neb 1044 a.m. Paris, France 54* p. m. Pekin, China 1254 a.m. Philadelphia, Pa 12 13 p. m. Pittsburg, Pa 11 48 a. m. Rio Janeiro, Brazil 216 p.m. Rome, Italy 558 p.m. St. Louis, Mo 11 07 a. m. St. Petersburg, Russia 7 09 p. m. Salt Lake City, Utah 940 a.m. San Francisco, Cal 858 a.m. Tallahassee, Fla 1130a.m. Toronto, Canada n 51 a. m. Valparaiso, Chili 1221p.m. Ycddo, Japan 2 27 a. m. THE ENGLISH MILE COMPARED WITH OTHER EUROPEAN MEASURES. ENGLISH STATUTE MILE. ENGLISH GEOG. MILE. FRENCH KILO- METRE. GERMAN GEOG. MILE. RUSSIAN VERST. AUSTRIAN MILE. DUTCH URE. NOR- WEGIAN MILE. SWEDISH MILE. DANISH MILE. SWISS STUNDE. English Statute Mile I OOO 1 • *53 I.609 O.217 I.508 0.212 O.289 0. 142 0. 151 O.213 0-335 English Geographical Mile... 1153 I. OOO >855 O.250 1.738 0.245 0-333 0. 164 0. 169 O.246 0.386 Kilometre. 0.621 0.540 I .OOO 0.135 0-937 O. I32 O 180 O.088 0.094 °. 1 33 0.208 German Geographical Mile 4.610 4.000 7.420 I. OOO 6 953 0.978 1-333 0.657 0.694 0.985 1-543 Russian Verst. O.663 °-575 I .067 O.I44 1.000 O. 141 O. 192 0,094 0. 100 O. 142 0.222 Austrian Mile 4-7*4 4.089 7.586 1.022 7. 112 I. OOO 1.363 0.672 0.710 1.006 1-578 Dutch Ure X 458 3.000 5-565 0.750 5.215 0.734 I. OOO 0.493 0.520 0.738 1-157 Norwegian Mile 7.021 6.091 1 1 . 29O i- 5 2 3 IO.589 1.489 2.035 I. OOO 1 °57 J-499 2.350 Swedish Mile 6.644 5-764 IO.692 1. 441 JO. 019 1.409 x .921 0.948 I. OOO 1-419 2.224 Danish Mile 4.682 4.062 7-536 I .Ol6 7.078 0.994 1-354 0.667 0.705 I. OOO 1-567 Swiss Stunde 2.987 2.592 4.808 O.648 4.505 0.634 O.864 0-425 0.449 0.638 I. OOO LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. A TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF MILES IN A DEGREE OF LONGITUDE AT EACH DEGREE OF LATITUDE. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES. LAT. MILES i° 60 n° 58.9 21° 56.0 3 i° 51-4 4 i° 45-3 5 «° 37-8 6i° 29 I 7 i° 19.5 81° 9-4 2 60 12 58-7 22 55-6 3 « 5°-9 42 44.6 52 36.9 62 28.2 73 18 5 82 8.4 3 59-9 13 58.5 23 55-2 33 50-3 43 43-9 53 36.1 63 27.2 73 T 5 83 l' 3 4 59-9 14 58.2 24 54-8 34 49-7 44 43.2 54 35 3 64 26.3 74 16.5 84 6.3 5 59 8 *5 58 O 25 54-4 35 49 -' 45 42.4 55 34 4 65 * 5-4 75 15 5 85 5-2 6 59 7 16 57-7 26 53-9 36 48.5 46 41-7 56 33-6 66 24.4 76 * 4-5 86 4-2 7 59-6 T 7 57-4 27 53-5 37 47-9 47 40.9 57 32.7 67 » 3-4 77 13-5 3.1 8 59-4 1 iS 57.1 28 53 -o 3 « 47-3 48 40.1 58 3'-8 68 22.5 78 12-5 88 2.1 9 59 3 1 T 9 56.7 29 52.5 39 46.6 49 39-4 59 3°-9 69 2 i -5 79 11. 4 89 x.o 10 59 -i 20 s 6 -4 30 52.0 40 46.O 5 ° 38.6 60 30.0 7 ° 20.5 80 10.4 90 0.0 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 341 MISCELLANEOUS ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. MEASURES OF LENGTH. In. Ft. Ys. Pis. Ch. Fs. Foot 12 Yard 36 3 Rod, pole or perch 198 1614 5K Cham 792 66 22 4 Furlong 660 220 40 10 Mile 5,280 1,760 320 80 8 PARTICULAR MEASURES OF LENGTH. 4 inches 1 hand. A degree 69% miles=60 nautical A cubit 18 inches. knots or geographical miles. A fathom 6 feet. A league 3 miles. SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE. In. Ft. Yds. Pis. E. Square foot 144 1 Square yard 9 1 Rod, pole or perch 30,'f 1 Rood 40 1 Acre 160 4 A square mile contains 610 acres. APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHTS AND MEASURES BY WHICH MEDI- CINES ARE COMPOUNDED. 20 Grains =1 Scruple T) — 20 grs. 3 Scruples ■=• 1 Drachm 3 — 60 grs. 8 Drachms — 1 Ounce ? — ■ 480 grs. 12 Ounces = 1 Pound Hi — 5760 grs. Drugs are purchased by Avoirdupois Weight. FLUID MEASURE. Marked. 60 Minims rib =1 Fluid Drachm f3 8 Drachms — 1 Ounce f~ 20 Ounces =1 Pint 6 8 Pints — 1 Gallon gal. PARTICULAR WEIGHTS. A Stone, Horseman’s weight — 14 lbs. A Firkin of Butter — 56 lbs. A Barrel of Raisins — ■ 112 lbs. A Sack— Potatoes, 168 lbs. ; Coals, 224 lbs. ; Flour, 280 lbs. MEASURES OF TIME. 60 Seconds =1 Minute. 60 Minutes — 1 Hour. 24 Hours — 1 Day. 7 Days — 1 Week. 12 Calendar Months =1 Year. 365 Days =1 Common Year. 366 Days = 1 Leap Year. ANGULAR MEASURE. 60 Seconds =1 Minute. 60 Minutes — 1 Degree. 30 Degrees =1 Sign. 90 Degrees =1 Quadrant. 4 Quadrants, or 360 c — 1 Circumference, orG’t Circle. CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 1728 Cubic Inches = 1 Cubic Foot. 27 Cubic Feet =1 Cubic Yard. 42 Cubic Feet of Timber =1 Shipping Ton. 128 Cubic Feet =1 Cord of Wood. LIQUID MEASURE. Gal. Qt. Pt. Four Gills, one Pint 1 Quart (57.75 cu. in.) 1 2 Gallon 14 8 Barrel (a unit of measure) 31 % DRY MEASURE. 2 Pints (67.2 cu. in.) ♦— 1 Quart. 8 Quarts (537.6 cu. in.) — = 1 Peck. 4 Pecks (2150.4 cu. in.) =1 Bushel. MEASURES OF WEIGHT— AVOIRDUPOIS. 16 Ounces = 1 Pound = 7000 Grains. 25 Pounds = 1 Quarter (qr.) 4 Quarters =1 Hundredweight (cwt.) 20 Cwt = 1 Ton. This weight Is used in almost all commercial transactions and common dealings. At the coal mines 2240 lbs. are a ton. TROY WEIGHT. 31 Grains — 1 Carat. 24 Grains =1 Pennyweight. 20 Pennyweights = 1 Ounce 480 Grains, 12 Ounces — 1 Pound 5760 Graina FRENCH METRICAL SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The Metrical System is based upon the length of the fourth part of a terrestrial meridian. The ten-millionth part of this arc was chosen as the unit of measures of length, and called Metre. The cube of the tenth part of the metre was adopted as the unit of capacity, and denominated Litre. The weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density Millimetre. . Centimetre. Decimetre. . MfeTRE D&amfetre . was called Kilogramme . of which the thousandth part, or Gramme, was adopted as the unit of weight. The multiples of these proceeding in decimal progression are distinguished by the employment of the pre- fixes drca , hecto , kilo, and myna, from the Greek, and the subdivisions by deci , centi, and milli , from the Latin : — Miles. 0.0000006 0.0000062 0.0000621 0.0006214 0.0062138 0.0621382 0.6213824 6.213824a Measures Inches. of Length (unit Metre). Feet. Yards. Fathoms. 0.03937 .. 0.003281 0.00x0936 0.0005468 0 - 3937 i .. 0.032809 •• 0.0109363 • 0.0054682 3.93708 .. 0.328000 .. .. 3.280989 0.1093633 0.0546816 39-37079 1.0936331 0.5468165 393.70790 .. 32.809892 10.9363306 5.4681653 3937-07000 .. 328.089917 109.3633056 54 6816528 39370.79000 .. 3280.899167 J093. 6330556 . 546.8165278 393707.90000 .. 32808.991667 10936.3305556 . 5468.1652778 EQUAL TO Millilitre, or cubic centimetre . Centilitre, 10 cubic do Decilitre, 100 cubic do Litre, or cubic Decimetre Decalitre, or Centist£re Cubic, or Measures or Capacity (unit Litre). Milligramme . Centigramme- Decigramme . Gramme Decagramme. . EQUAL TO equal to Centiare, or square metre Are, or 100 square metres Cubic Inches . Cubic Feet. Pints. Gallons. Bushels. 0.06x03 0.000035 0.00176 0.0002201 . . 0.0000275 0.61027 0.000353 0.0x761 0.0022010 .. 0.0002751 6.10271 0.003532 0.17608 0.0220097 .. 0.0027512 61.02705 0 - 0353*7 1.76077 0 2200967 .. 0.0275121 610.27052 0.353166 *7.60773 2 . 2009668 .. 0.2751208 6102.70515 3.531658 *76.07734 22.0096677 .. 2.7512085 61027.05x52 35.316581 * 7 < 5 °- 7734 * 220.0966767 .. 27.5120846 610270.51519 353.165807 *7607.734*4 2200.9667675 .. 275.1208459 Measures of Weight (unit Gramme). Grains . Troy Oz. A voirdupois lb. Cwt. = 1 12 lb. Tons = 20 cwt. °- OI 543 0.000032 0.0000022 . 0.0000000 .. 0.0000000 0.1543a 0.000322 0.0000220 . 0.0000002 .. 0.0000000 *•34323 0.003215 0.0002205 . 0.0000020 0.0000001 ‘ 5-43235 O.O32I5X 0.0022046 0.0000197 .. 0.0000010 *54-32349 0.321507 0.0220462 . 0.0001968 .. 0.0000098 1543.23488 3.215073 0.2204621 0.0019684 .. 0.0000984 *5432-34880 32.15072 7 2.20462X3 0.0196841 .. 0.0009842 * 54323 - 488 oo 321.507267 22.O462I26 0.1908412 .. 0.0098421 Square, or Measures of Surface (unit Are). So. Feet . So. Yards. So. Perches . Sff. Poods. Sq. Acres. 10.764299 x. 196033 0-0395383 0.0009885 0.0002471 1076.429934 119. 603326 3.9538290 .. 0.0988457 0.0247114 107643.993419 x i960. 332602 395.3828959 9.8845724 2.47x1431 342 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES. SHOWING THE AREA OF EACH IN SQUARE MILES, AND THE DATE OF ADMISSION OF NEW STATES INTO THE UNION, AND THE DATES OF ORGANIZATION OF TERRITORIES STILL REMAINING. From the Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office with Corrections. The areas are from the Census report of 1890. The Thirteen Original States. New Hampshire Massachusetts . . Rhode Island. . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania ... Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina. South Carolina. . Georgia Ratified the Constitution. June 21, 1788 Feb. 6, 1788 May 29, 1790 Jan. 9, 1788 July 26. 1788 Dec. 18, 1787 Dec. 12, 1787 Dec. 7, 1787 April 28, 1788 June 25, 1788 Nov. 21, 1789 May 23, 1788 Jan. 2, 1788 Area of the Original States, in Square Miles. 9,005 8,315 1,250 4,990 49,170 7,815 45,215 2,050 12,210 42,450 52,250 30,570 59,475 States Admitted. Kentucky . Vermont . . Tennessee . Ohio Louisiana. Indiana . . . Mississippi Illinois Alabama. . Maine Missouri .. Arkansas. . Michigan. . Florida Iowa Texas Admission into the Union. Area of Admit- ted States and Territories, in Square Miles. States Admitted. Admission into the Union. Area of Admit- ted States and Territories, in Square Miles. June 1, 1792 40,400 Wisconsin May 29, 1848 56,040 March 4, 1791 9,565 California Sept. 9, 1850 158,360 June 1, 1796 42,050 Minnesota May 11, 1858 83,365 Nov. 29, 1802 41,060 Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 96,030 April 30, 1812 48,720 Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 82,080 Dec. 11, 1816 36,350 West Virginia June 19, 1863 24,780 Dec. 10, 1817 46,810 Nevada Oct. 31, 1864 110,700 Dec. 3, 1818 56,650 Nebraska March 1, 1867 76,855 Dec. 14, 1819 52,250 Colorado Aug. 1, 1876 103,925 March 15, 1820 33,040 North Dakota Nov. 3, 1889 70,195 Aug. 10, 1821 69,415 South Dakota Nov. 3, 1889 76,850 .Tune 15, 1836 53,850 Montana Nov. 8, 1889 145,310 Jan. 26, 1837 58,915 Washington Nov. 11, 1889 66,880 March 3, 1845 58,680 Idaho July 3, 1890 July 11, 1890 84,290 Dec. 28, 1846 Dec. 29, 1845 56,025 265,780 Wyoming 97,576 Territories. Organized. Territories. Organized. New Mexico Utah September 9, 1850. September 9, 1850. February 24, 1863. June 30, 1834. District of Columbia | Alaska July 16, 1790. March 3, 1791. July 27, 1868. May 2, 1890. Arizona Ind ian * Oklahoma * The Indian Territory has as yet no organized Territorial government. UNITED STATES MONEY. United States money is the legal currency of the United States. Its denominations are shown in the following TABLE. 10 cents are 1 dime, marked d. 10 dimes “ 1 dollar, “ $. The Coins of the United States are of gold, silver, nickel, and bronze, as follows: Gold— Double-eagle, value $20; eagle, value $10; half-eagle, value $5; and the three- dollar, quarter-eagle and dollar gold pieces. Silver: Dollar, half-dollar, quarter-dollar and dime. The Trade Dollar is no longer coined. Nickel : Five-cent and three- cont pieces. Bronze : The cent. The two-cent piece is no longer coined. The weight of the gold dollar is 25.8 grains, and of the other gold coins in proportion. The weight of the silver half-dollar is 12 1-2 grams (metric system) or 192.9 grains nearly, and of the smaller silver coins in proportion. The weight of the dollar is 412 1-2 grains and of the nickel five cents, 77.16 grains. The gold coins of the United States are nine parts pure gold and one part silver and copper ; of the silver, nine parts pure metal and one of copper ; of the nickel coin-metal twenty-five per cent, is nickel and seventy-five per cent, copper; of the bronze coin-metal five parts are zinc and tin and ninety-five parts copper. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 343 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. Name. George Washington . . John Adams Thomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy Adams. . Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William H. Harrison. John Tyler James K. Polk Zachary Taylor Millard Fillmore Franklin Pierce James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses S. Grant Rutherford B. Hayes. James A. Garfield Chester A. Arthur Grover Cleveland Benjamin Harrison. . . Birthplace. Westmoreland Co., Va.. Quincy, Mass Shad well, Va Port Conway, Va Westmoreland Co., Va.. Quincy, Mass Union County, N. C Kinderhook, N. Y. Berkeley, Va Green way, Va Mecklenburg Co., N. C.. Orange County, Va Summerhill, N. Y Hillsboro, N. H Cove Gap, Pa Larue County, Ky Raleigh, N. C Point Pleasant, O Delaware, O Cuyahoga County, O Fairfield, Vt Caldwell, N. J North Bend, O | Year. Residence. Inaugurated. Year. Age. 1732 Virginia 1789 57 1735 Massachusetts. 1797 62 1743 Virginia 1801 58 1751 Virginia 1809 58 1758 Virginia 1817 59 1767 Massachusetts 1825 58 1767 Tennessee 1829 62 1782 New York 1837 55 1773 Ohio 1841 68 1790 Virginia 1841 51 1795 Tennessee 1845 50 1784 Louisiana 1849 65 1800 New York 1850 50 1804 N. Hampshire. 1853 49 1791 Pennsylvania . 1857 66 1809 Hlinois 1861 52 1808 Tennessee 1S65 57 1822 D. C 1869 47 1822 Ohio 1877 54 1831 Ohio 1881 49 1830 New York 1881 51 1837 New York 1885 48 1833 Indiana 1889 55 Poli- tics. Fed. . Fed. . Rep.* Rep. . Rep. . Fed. . Dem. Dem. Whig Dem. Dem. Whig Whig Dem. Dem. Rep.. Rep. . Rep. . Rep. . Rep. . Rep. . Dem. Rep. . Place of Death. ca 9 ro 17,260 4,368 14,837 18,175 2 ',4'5 26,862 '8,493 10,874 29,002 14,100 8,400 5l095 21,149 13,781 28,156 io,994 15,284 16,8X4 11,852 XI,426 Ecuador 22,350 Russian America 17,900 3,l66 India 6,578 3,022 3 ’ 57 l England Wales 9, '77 12,236 3,93* Canary Island Italy /. Piedmont 15,744 PRINCIPAL RIVERS. River. Mouth. Course. Elbe . . . Nile Ohi Po Length in English Miles. 3,9°o 2,300 75 o 1,760 1,140 400 670 1,900 600 1.550 2,625 1,630 2,340 2.500 545 4.000 2.000 3,000 2.550 1,188 1,480 1.500 2,130 410 410 810 460 170 425 950 200 620 550 215 1,000 640 2,035 2,990 2,900 DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN LAKES. Name. Length. Miles. Width. Miles. Depth. Feet. Elevation Ab’ve the Sea. Feet. Ontario 180 40 500 23’ Erie 270 80 200 565) Huron 250 IOO 900 618 Michigan 400 50 unknown. 618 Superior 480 lOQ 900 64I DISTANCES SOUND MAY BE HEARD. / Human voice 150 yard* Rifle 5.3oo “ Military band 5.*°° ** Cannon. 3fcooo MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 349 REDUCTION OF THE SCALE OF THE ENG- LISH BAROMETER TO FRENCH MILLI- METRES. Barometer, English. Barometer, English. Barometer, English. Inch. loths Millim’tr’s Inch, ioths Millim’tres. Inch, ioths Millim’tres *4 o 609.59 27 4 695-95 20 O 703.82 I 612.13 5 698 . 49 X 706.O7 2 614.67 6 7OI .03 2 7 ° 8-33 3 6l7.2I 7 7 ° 3 -57 3 7 IO -59 4 619.75 8 7O6.II 4 712.84 5 622.29 9 708.65 5 7*5 *° 6 624.83 28 O 7 ** *9 6 7*7-36 7 627-37 I 7 * 3-73 7 719.61 8 629.9I 2 7 l 6.27 8 721.83 9 632-45 3 7l8.8l 9 724.12 *5 ° 634.99 4 7 2 * 35 IO 726 38 X 637 53 5 723.89 XI 728.63 2 64O . 07 6 726.43 27 0 730.89 3 642.6I 7 728.97 I 733 *5 4 645.15 8 73 *- 5 * 2 735 40 S 647.69 9 734 -°5 3 737.66 6 650.23 29 0 736.59 4 739 - 9 * 7 652.77 1 739-13 5 742.17 8 655.31 2 741.67 6 744-42 9 657.85 3 744-21 7 746 . 68 *6 o 660.39 4 746.75 8 748.94 X 662.93 5 749-29 9 75 * *9 2 665.47 6 75**83 TO 753-45 3 668 . ox 7 754-37 II 755 - 7 ° 4 670.55 8 756 . 9 * 28 O 757 96 5 673.09 9 759-45 I 760 . 22 6 675.63 30 O 761 99 2 762.47 7 678.17 X 764-53 3 764.73 8 680.71 2 767.07 4 766.98 9 683.25 3 769.61 5 769.24 37 o 685.79 4 772.15 6 77* -49 z 688.33 5 774-69 7 773 75 3 690.87 6 777 *3 8 776.01 3 693-41 7 779-77 9 778.26 TEMPERATURES OF IMPORTANT PLACES IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD. Name of Place. Latitude. Mean Summer Temper- ature. Mean Winter Temper- ature. Annual Temper- ature. O / O O O London N. 5* 3° 63 39 % 5 1 Dublin 53 23 60 40 5° Edinburgh 55 57 57 38 47 Paris lS 4« 5° 64 38 5 1 Vienna 48 12 69 32 5* Berlin 52 3* 64 31 43 Copenhagen 4 * 55 4 1 62 3 1 46 Stockholm 59 21 6c 26 43 St. Petersburg it 59 56 61 18 39 Moscow 55 45 64 15 40 Naples ...0 52 75 48 62 Rome 4* 54 74 47 6i Madrid 44 40 25 76 43 59 Constantinople U 4' 0 7* 4 1 5 6 lerusalem 3 1 47 74 50 62 Calcutta u 22 33 80 72 82 Bombay 44 18 56 83 77 81 Pekin 39 54 75 28 53 Canton 23 8 82 .54 69 Hobart Town s. 42 53 63 42 52 Auckland 36 5* 67 5* 59 Cairo N. 3° 2 85 58 72 Cape of Good Hope. . . . s. 34 II 74 58 66 New York N. 40 49 71 30 5 X New Orleans 44 29 57 82 55 69 Rio Janeiro s. 22 54 79 68 73 Quebec N. 46 49 68 *4 4* Toronto 4 * 43 40 65 25 45 Melbourne S. 37 42 65 48 57 Sydney 33 5* 74 55 65 Jamaica N. 18 O 8t 76 78 Warsaw 52 *3 63 % 24 * 44 POPULATION OF THE EARTH BY CONTINENTS. (From Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for January, 1891.) Continental Divisions. Area in Square Miles. Inhabitants. Continental Divisions. Area In Square Miles. Inhabitants. Number. Per Sq. Mile. Number. Per Sq. Mile. Africa America, North America, South Asia 11.514.000 6.446.000 6.867.000 14.710.000 127.000. 000 89.250.000 36.420.000 850.000. 000 11.0 13.8 5.3 57.7 Australasia Europe Polar Regions 3.288.000 3.555.000 4,888,800 4,T30,000 380,200,000 300,000 1.4 106.9 0.7 Total 51,338,800 1,487,900,000 39.0 The above estimate was made by George Ernest Raven- stein, P.R.G.S., the geographer and statistician, and is for 1890. An estimate of population of the earth made by Drs. Wagner and Supan, editors of “ BevOlkerung derErde” (Perthes, Gotha, 1891), is as follows: Europe, 357,379,000; Asia, 825,9.54.000; Africa, 163,953,000: America, 121,713,000; Australia, 3,230,000; Oceanic Islands, 7,420,000; polar re- gions, 80,400. Total, 1,479,729,400. The estimate of area of the continents and islands by the same authorities is 52,821,684. Ravenstein’s estimate of the earth’s fertile region, in square miles, is 23,269,200: steppe, 13,901,000; desert, 4,180,000; polar regions, 4,888,800. The population of the earth at the death of the Emperor Augustus, estimated by Bodio, was 54,000,000. The popu- lation of Europe hardly exceeded 50,000,000 before the fif- teenth century. — Mulhall. The area and cubic contents of the earth, according to the data of Clark, given above, are: Surface, 196,971,984 square miles; cubic contents, 259,944,035,515 cubic miles. Murray (Challenger expedition) states the greatest depth of the Atlantic Ocean at 27,366 feet ; Pacific Ocean, 30,000 feet; Indian Ocean, 18,582 feet; Southern Ocean, 25,200 feet; Arctic Ocean, 9,000 feet. The Atlantic Ocean has an area, in square miles, of 24.536,000; Pacific Ocean, 50,309,000; Indian Ocean, 17,084,000; Arctic Ocean, 4,781,000; Southern Ocean, 30,592,000. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. DURATION OF LIFE. The following Table has been Constructed by Dr. Farr, F. R. S. Number of Persona Alfrrt ag Com- mencement of Year. 1 -s3 v i No. Male. Female. Total Deaths each Year. 0 1,000,000 511,745 488,255 149*493 I 850,507 428,026 422,481 53,680 i s 796,827 400,505 396,322 28,238 3 768,589 386,290 382,299 18,456 4 750,133 377,°77 373,056 13,315 5 736,818 37° ,358 366,460 9,899 6 726,919 3 6 5,325 361,594 7,768 7 719,151 361,372 357,779 6,559 8 712,592 358,062 354,530 5,458 9 707,134 355.328 351,806 4,625 10 702,509 353.031 349,478 4,028 11 698,481 351,048 347,433 3,637 12 694,844 3497 272 345,572 3.431 >3 691.413 347.6o6 343,807 3,382 14 688,031 345,969 342,062 3,468 15 684,563 3447290 340,273 3-669 16 680,894 342,509 338,385 3,957 >7 676,937 340,581 336,356 4*317 18 672,620 338,469 334,iSi 4,720 19 667,900 336,149 33i,75i 5*150 20 662,750 333,6o8 329,142 5,583 21 657,167 330,844 326,323 5,668 22 651,499 328,043 323,456 5.748 23 645,751 325,207 320,544 5,820 24 639,931 322,339 317,592 5,886 25 634,045 3 X 9,44 2 314,603 5,950 26 628,095 316,516 3H,579 6,009 27 622,086 313,562 308,524 6,065 28 616,021 310,581 305*44 0 6,121 29 609,900 3077572 302,328 6,176 3° 603,724 304,534 299,T90 6,231 31 597,493 301,466 296,027 6,287 32 591,206 208,^66 292,840 6,343 33 584,863 295,232 289,631 6,404 34 578,459 292,061 286,398 6,466 35 571,993 288.850 283,143 6,533 36 565,460 285,596 279,864 6,601 Number of Persons Alive at Com. mencement of Year. V SS No. Male. Female. Total Deaths each Year. 3 i 558,859 282,296 276,563 6,678 38 552,181 278,944 273.237 6,756 39 545,425 275,538 269,887 6,841 40 538,584 272,073 266,511 6,931 4i 531,653 268,544 263,109 7*027 42 524,626 264,948 259,678 7.127 43 517.499 261,280 256,219 7,236 44 510,263 257,534 252,729 7,348 45 502,915 253,7°8 249*207 7,467 46 495,448 249,796 245,652 7*592 47 487,856 245,795 242,C>6l 7,722 48 480,134 241,700 238,434 7.857 49 472,277 237,508 234,769 7,997 50 464,280 233,216 231,064 8,141 1 51 456,139 228,821 227,318 8,414 52 447*725 224,195 223,530 8,590 53 439*135 219,437 219,698 8,761 54 430*374 214*552 215,822 9,259 55 421,115 209,539 211,576 9,583 56 411,532 204,395 207,137 9,909 57 401,623 199,114 202,509 10,245 l 58 391,378 193,686 197,692 io,593 59 380,785 188,102 192,683 10,958 1 60 369,827 182,350 187,477 11.338 61c 358,489 176,421 182,068 n.737 1 62 346,752 170,303 176,449 12,149 63 334,603 163,989 170,614 12,572 64 322,031 157*474 164 57 13,002 65 309,029 150.754 158,275 13,430 66 295-599 143,833 151,766 13,846 67 281,753 I36,7l8 145*035 14*244 68 267,509 ' 29,421 138,088 14,607 69 252,902 121,963 230,939 14,925 7° 237,977 114*370 123,607 15.184 7> 222,793 106,675 Il6,Il8 15.369 72 207,424 98,919 i° 8,5°5 15,468 Number of Persons alive at Com. mencement of year. No. 191.956 176,487 161,124 145.' ~~ 121,199 116,880 i°3.i54 90.133 77.919 66,599 56,241 46,889 38,565 31,265 24.967 19,621 I5,l62 11,509 8,576 6,266 4,485 3,142 Male. 91,149 83,416 75,777 68,294 61,026 54,036 47,381 41,115 35,283 29,922 25,C>60 20,711 2,153 1,440 940 598 370 223 131 74 41 16,877 >3,549 10,709 8,3=5 6,360 Female. 100,807 93.071 Total Deaths each Year. 85,347 77,694 70,173 62,844 55,773 49,018 42,636 36,677 31,181 26,178! 4,770 3,5io 2,531 1,787 1,234 833 548 352 220 >34 21,688 17,716 >4,258 11,296 8,802 6,739' 5,066 3,735 2,698 1,908 >5,469 15,363 15,136 14,789 14,319 13,726 13,021 12,214 11,320 10,358 9.352 8,324 7.3°° 6,298 5-346 4,459 3,653 2,933 2,310 1,781 1,343 989 1,320 713 892 500 588 .342 378 228 236 147 144 QO 85 57 49 33 27 19 15 IO 8 6 4 3 2 2 I X Note. — The rate of mortality of males of all ages is i in 39.91, and of females, 1 in 41.85. EXPECTATION OF LIFE AT THE FOLLOWING AGES. Calculated in Years and Hundredths. By Dr. Farr, F. R. S. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. Age. Male. Female. O 39-91 41-85 20 39.48 40.29 40 26.06 27-34 | 60 13-53 14-34 80 4-93 5-26 I 46.65 47-32 21 38.80 39-63 41 25 39 26.69 6l 12.96 13-75 8l 4.66 4.98 2 48-83 49.40 22 38.13 38.98 42 24.73 26.03 62 12.41 13-17 82 4.41 4 - 7 i 3 49 - 6 i 50.20 23 37-46 38.33 43 24.07 25-38 63 II.87 12.60 83 4.17 4-45 4 49 81 50-43 24 36.79 37.68 44 23-41 24.72 64 H -34 12.05 84 3-95 4.21 5 49-71 50.33 25 36.12 37.04 45 22.76 24 06 6.5 N 00 j 0 II . 51 85 3-73 3-98 6 49-39 50.00 26 35-44 36.39 46 22.11 23.40 66 10.32 IO.98 86 3-53 3-76 7 48.92 49-53 27 34-77 35-75 47 21.46 22.74 67 9.83 10.47 87 3-34 3-56 8 48.37 48.98 28 34.10 35 -io 48 20.82 22.08 68 9.36 9-97 88 3 16 3-36 9 47-74 48.35 29 33-43 34.46 49 20.17 21 .42 69 8.90 9.48 89 3.00 3 -i 8 10 47 -°5 47.67 30 32.76 33,81 50 19-54 20.75 70 8.45 9.02 90 2.84 3.01 11 46.31 46.95 31 3209 33- >7 5 i 18.90 20.09 71 8.03 8-57 91 2.69 2.85 12 45-54 46.20 32 3 1 - 4 2 32-53 52 18.28 19.42 72 7.62 8.13 92 2-55 2.70 >3 44.76 45-44 33 30.74 31-88 53 17.67 18.75 73 7.22 7-71 93 2.41 2-55 M 43-97 44.66 34 30.07 31-23 54 I7.06 18.08 74 6.85 7 - 3 ' 94 2.29 2.42 15 43 - 18 43-90 35 29.40 30 59 55 16.45 T 7-43 75 6.49 6-93 95 2.17 3.29 16 42.40 43 14 36 28.73 29.94 56 15.86 16.79 76 6.15 6.56 96 2.06 a. 17 >z 41.64 42.40 37 28.06 20.29 57 15 26 16. 17 77 5.82 6 21 97 1.95 2.06 18 40.90 41.67 38 27.39 28.64 58 I4.68 15-55 78 5.51 5-88 98 1.85 *•8® 19 40.17 40.97 39 26.72 27.99 59 14.10 14.94 79 5-21 5-56 99 100 1.76 t .68 1.86 1.76 The mean lifetime of boys at birth is 39.91 years, and of girls, 41.85. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 351 iMERICA was known to the an- I ^ 2 ' cient Northmen as early as the tenth century, but its true discovery dates from the voyage of Colum- bus, in 1492. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, having en- listed the assistance of Isa- bella of Spain, sailed from the port of Palos, on the third day of August, 1492, on his voyage of discovery, with a fleet of three ves- sels, and a crew of one hundred and twenty men, and landed on the island of San Salvador on the twelfth of October of that year. 1493. — Having returned to Spain, where he gave an account of his discoveries to their majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus sailed on the twenty-fifth of September, 1493, on his second voyage, in which he discovered more of the W est India Islands. 1497. — Sebastian Cabot, who claims with Colum- bus to have been the first discoverer of the Western Continent, was a son of John Cabot, a Venetian, and a native of Bristol. He sailed in the spring of 1497, in search of the northwest passage to India, and dis- covered land, which he called Prima Vista, or New- foundland, after which he sailed along the coast of America as far as Chesapeake Bay, and then re- turned to England. 1498. — On the thirteenth day of May, 1498, Co- lumbus set out on his third voyage from the Bay of St. Lucas, and, after sighting some new islands, on the first of August he discovered the continent, but imagining it to be an island, he termed it Isla Santa. 1499. — Americus Vespucius, or Vespucci, from whom the Western Continent derives its name, was a native of Florence, and made four voyages to the New World from 1499 to 1503. After returning to Spain he was appointed by King Ferdinand to draw sea charts descriptive of the New World, from which circumstance the continent became known as America. 1512. — Ponce de Leon, a native of Spain, dis- covered Florida on Easter Sunday ( Pascua Florida, in Spanish), April 6, 1512. 1513. — On September 29, 1513, Balboa, a Span- iard, crossed the Isthmus of Darien and discovered the Pacific Ocean. He took possession of all the lands it might touch in the name of the Spanish crown. 1524. — Francis I., of France, ambitious of the glory of Charles V., supplied Verazzano, a noble Florentine, with four vessels to prosecute discoveries in America. After a severe voyage he came upon a coast supposed to be North Carolina. Sailing north he entered a spacious bay receiving a noble river— the Hudson — and following the coast he reached Martha’s Vineyard and Boston. Proceeding further, first west and then north, he skirted Nova Scotia, 35* A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. i discovered Cape Breton Island, and finally reached the land discovered by the Cabots, Newfoundland and Labrador. 1535. — Jacques Cartier, the discoverer of Canada, sailed from the port of St. Malo, France, and as- cended the river St. Lawrence in 1535, as far as the site of the present city of Montreal. 1538. — The career of Hernando de Soto is one of the most adventurous episodes in the history of American discovery. He accompanied Pizarro to America, and distinguished himself in the severe battle that took place between his chief and Alma- gro. Having returned to Spain, he was created Captain-General of Cuba and Florida, and sailed in command of a brilliant armament from San Lucar de Barrameda, April 6th, 1538, to undertake the conquest of Florida. He arrived at Cuba on the 1st of May, sailed from Havana May 12, 1539, arrived at Espiritu Santo, Florida, on the 25th, and took formal possession of the country in the name of the Spanish Emperor. After being harassed by the Indians, he continued his route to the dominions of the caique Tuscaloosa, which comprised part of Alabama and Mississippi. Here he fought a dis- astrous battle on the site of the city of Mobile, and on the 1st of April, 1541, he came in sight of the Mississippi River, which he crossed. In the spring of 1542 De Soto returned to the Mississippi, where, after untold trials and disappointments, he suc- cumbed to fever and fatigue. His body was sunk in the river, lest the Indians should desecrate it. 1542. — Cabrillo made the first voyage along the Pacific coast, sailing as far north as the boundaries of Oregon. 1562. — Admiral Coligni, one of the Huguenot lead- ers in France, conceived the design of establishing a trans-atlantic settlement for the purpose of afford- ing an asylum to his Protestant brethren, and fitted out two vessels in 1562, which he placed under command of John Ribault, of Dieppe, a seaman of experience. The discoverers landed in Carolina, but the settlement did not prove successful. 1564. — In 1564 Coligni fitted out three vessels, which he placed under the command of Laudonniere, an officer who had accompanied Ribault, which at- tempt, however, was no more successful than the first. In 1565 Ribault was sent with several ships to supersede Laudonniere, bringing with him large supplies, which induced the colonists to remain. 1565. — Melendez, a Spanish explorer, landed in Florida in 1565, and laid the foundations of a col- ony. It was named St. Augustine, and is the oldest town in the United States. 1576. — Frobisher, an English navigator, tried to find a northwest passage, entered Baffin Bay, and twice endeavored to found a colony in Labrador, but was unsuccessful. 1578. — Sir Francis Drake, a famous English cap- tain, from 1578 to ’80 sailed through the Straits of Magellan and along the Pacific coast as far as Ore- gon, wintered in San Francisco harbor, and circum- navigated the globe. 1582. — In 1582 New Mexico was explored and named by the Spaniard Espejo, who founded Santa F6, the second oldest city in the United States. 1584. — Sir Walter Raleigh is distinguished for having projected and established permanent British settlements in America. In April, 1584, he fitted out two ships, fully equipped and provisioned, under the command of Captain Philip AmaLs and Arthur Barlow. Having arrived on the American coast, they entered into trade with the natives, and after a hasty examination of the country, returned to Eng- land, where they arrived in September. The coun- try which they discovered was named Virginia, by order of Queen Elizabeth, in allusion to her unmar- ried state of life. Sir Walter soon fitted out another fleet for America, under the command of Sir Rich- ard Grenville, Mr. Ralph Lane having been appoint- ed Chief Governor of the colony. The Governor returned to England for supplies shortly afterward. Raleigh dispatched another colony under John White, who was appointed Governor. Governor White returned to England, and when he came back, three years later, he found that the entire colony had perished. It is asserted by Camden that tobacco was now for the first time introduced into England, and the potato into Ireland, from America. 1605. — De Monts, a native of France, received a grant of all the land lying between the fortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. The tract was termed Acadia. With Champlain, he founded Port Royal, the first permanent French possession in America. 1606. — James I. of England granted the London Company a colony in Virginia in 1606. The expedi- tion reached America in 1607, and, ascending the James River, chose for their colony a spot which ‘hey called Jamestown. The colonists and their A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 353 posterity were declared English subjects, though they were invested with no political rights. The colonists suffered many severe hardships, and were saved from destruction mainly through the energy and sagacity of Captain John Smith, who had been installed as president. This was the first perma- nent English settlement in America. 1608. — The first permanent French settlement in Canada was established by Samuel de Champlain, who founded the city of Quebec in 1608. In the following year he discovered the beautiful lake which bears his name. He has been justly termed “ The Father of New France,” as the French possessions in America were named. 1609-10. — In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Dutch and English directed their atten- tion to the discovery of a northwest passage to In- dia. After the failure of several navigators in this endeavor, it was resumed by Henry Hudson, a navi- gator in the Dutch service. Not succeeding, he proceeded to explore the American coast, and sailed u> the river that now bears his name. In 1610 he was sent by a Dutch company on another voyage, when he explored the great bay to which his name is attached. In virtue of Hudson’s voyage, the Dutch claimed the country from the Delaware River to Cape Cod, and in 1610 several stations were formed on the island of Manhattan, the name then given to New York. In 1613, a settlement was founded. The country was called New Netherlands, and a cluster of cottages, where New York now stands, was named New Amsterdam. 1619. — The “ first legislative body that ever as- sembled in America” was called at Jamestown by Governor Yeardly, July 30, 1619. Its laws were ratified by the company in England, but possessed no binding force unless subsequently ratified by the colonial assembly. These privileges were in 1621 embodied in a written constitution, “ the first of its kind in America.” 1619. — Slavery was introduced into the United States in 1619, by the captain of a Dutch trading vessel, who bought twenty negroes which he sold to the tobacco planters. Their labor being found prof- itable, a traffic in slaves soon sprung up. 1620. — After various abortive attempts to colonize New England, a tide of population poured into it from an unexpected quarter. The “ Pilgrim Fa- thers ” — Puritans who had fled from England to Holland to escape the persecution of the established church — sailed for America in September, 1620, and arrived on the 9th of November, in view of Cape Cod. They settled on a spot which they named New Plymouth. After suffering untold privations, which reduced their numbers in the spring of 1621 to fifty or sixty persons, they persevered, and in the spring of 1624 they counted one hundred and eighty. Their numbers were increased in 1629, and in 1630, fifteen hundred settlers having arrived from England in the latter year. They soon became involved in war with the Indians, which checked the progress of the colony, but the natives were finally subdued and dis- persed. In 1692, Plymouth was united with Massachu- setts Bay Colony, under the name of Massachusetts. 1622. — On the 2 2d of March, 1622, occurred the In- dian Massacre of Virginia, when over three hundred men, women and children fell victims in a single day. 1630. — The first house erected in Boston, under Governor Winthrop, in July, 1630. Connecticut was settled at Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield, in 1633-6. 1633. — Sir George Calvert, Secretary of State under James I., obtained from King Charles I. a large grant of land in America, which was named Maryland, in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. Sir George, now created Lord Baltimore, died before the completion of the charter, and the establishment of the colony devolved accordingly on his son Cecil. The first emigrants, consisting of about two hundred persons, arrived in 1633. The colonists acted justly toward the natives, and the Maryland government was distinguished for proclaiming religious toleration to all. The Protestants having obtained a majority, deprived Catholics of their rights, and declared them outside the protection of the law. In 1691, Lord Baltimore was deprived of his proprietary rights, and Maryland became a royal province. In 1715, under the fourth Lord Baltimore, the government was recovered and religious toleration was restored. 1636. — Rhode Island was settled at Providence in 1636, by Roger Williams, who stamped upon the colonies the idea of religious toleration. In 1647, a set of laws guaranteeing freedom of worship were enacted — “ the first legal declaration of liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America.’ 1638. — The first permanent settlement in Dela- ware was made in 1638 by the Swedes, on a tract 554 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. lying near Wilmington. The settlement was subse- quently conquered by the Dutch, and later still yielded to the English power. 1643. — I n 3 took place the Union of the Col- onies, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven and Con- necticut, for the purpose of common defense against the Indians, and the encroachment of the French and Dutch settlers. 1646. — In 1646 Peter Stuyvesant was appointed Governor of the New Netherlands, which colony continued to thrive under his just and humane rule till its conquest by the English in 1664. 1660. — In 1660, the British Parliament enforced the Navigation Act, whereby the commerce of the colony of Virginia should be carried on in English vessels, and their tobacco shipped to England. 1663. — In 1663 Charles II. granted a vast tract of land south of Virginia to Lord Clarendon and other noblemen, which was termed Carolina in honor of the king. Two settlements were established, Albemarle Colony and Carteret Colony (1670). The two colonies separated in 1729. 1664. — In August, 1664, Sir Robert Nichols, who had been sent out by Charles II. to effect the con- quest of the Dutch possessions in America, arrived before New Amsterdam, having landed a portion of his troops on Long Island. The Governor, Peter Stuyvesant, was unable to offer any effective resist- ance, and the colony passed into the possession of the English. 1673. — The Jesuit Missionaries were the explorers of the Mississippi Valley. Father Marquette, in 1673, floated in a birch-bark canoe down the Wis- consin to the Mississippi, which he descended to the mouth of the Arkansas. La Salle, another Jesuit missionary, in 1682, made his way to the Gulf of Mexico, and named the coun- try bordering on the gulf Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. 1682. — The first settlement in Pennsylvania was established by William Penn, an English Quaker, in 1682. In the following year he purchased land of the Swedes, and laid out on it the city of Philadel- phia. He entered into a friendly treaty with the Indians, and the colony flourished apace. After his death, in 1718, his heirs ruled the colony until 1779, when their claims were bought out by the State for the sum of half a million dollars. 1689-1697. — King William’s War. — In conse- quence of the war between England and France, in Europe, hostilities between their colonies broke out in America. The savage tribes took part on both sides. The war lasted eight years, during which time several horrible massacres and barbarities took place. 1692. — In 1692, the mania known as the Salem witchcraft broke out, and not till forty-five people had been tortured and twenty hung.was it abated. 1702. — Queen Anne’s War. — In this year, Eng- land having declared war against France and Spain, the colonies took up the contest. Hostilities con- tinued for eleven years, during which period sev- eral fruitless expeditions and horrible massacres took place. Peace was ratified by the treaty of Utrecht. 1733. — Georgia Founded. — The last of the thir- teen colonies was planned in 1732, and settled the following year by James Oglethorpe, an English offi- cer, who received a tract of land from George II., which he termed Georgia, in honor of the donor. Georgia became a royal colony in 1752. 1744. — King George’s War. — France and Eng- land being once more at war, the colonies entered into hostilities also. The war lasted four years and was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1754-1763. — During this period the French and Indian war raged, having originated in the English and French laying claim to the territory west of the Alleghany Mountains. Peace was signed at Paris in 1763, whereby the English acquired all the terri- tory stretching from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 1765. — The Stamp Act, which ordered that stamps purchased from the British Government should be placed on all legal documents, pamphlets, newspapers, etc., was passed in 1765. Resistance to the measure was threatened on all sides. Depu- ties from nine of the colonies assembled at New York and drew up a Declaration of Rights and a petition to the King and Parliament. The Act was repealed in 1766, but the right to tax the colonies was still asserted. 1768. — In this year the “ Mutiny Act ” was passed, whereby soldiers were quartered on the inhabitants of the colonies, without the consent of the latter. 1770. — On March 5, 1770, occurred the “Boston Massacre.” This was a fight between the soldiers sent by General Gage to quell the incipient resist- ance of the Bostonians to the “ Mutiny Act,” and A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 355 the citizens. Two of the latter were killed and three wounded. 1773. — On December 16, 1773, the climax of re- sistance to the principle of taxation without repre- sentation was reached by the colonists, who, dis- guised as Indians, boarded the vessels in Boston harbor and cast three hundred and forty-two chests of tea into the water. 1774. — The first Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, September 5, 1775. All the colonies, with the exception of Georgia, sent delegates thither. The Congress, by its resolutions, virtually raised the standard of rebellion, and arrayed the colonies against the mother country. 1775. — The battle of Lexington, the first of the Revolution, was fought on April 19, of this year. Seven Americans were killed. The British were as- sailed on all sides by the surrounding inhabitants, and before their retreat to Boston was completed they had lost three hundred men. 1775. — Bunker Hill, the first regular battle of the Revolution, was fought June 17, 1775, and resulted in a victory for the Americans, though they were forced to retire in the end, owing to the exhaustion of their ammunition. On this day General Warrenfell. 1775. — Capture of Ticonderoga, May 10, by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. By this surprise large stores of cannon and ammunition fell into the hands of the Americans. 1775. — On the 10th of May, 1775, the second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. It voted to raise twenty thousand men, and on the 15 th of June unanimously elected George Washington com- mander-in-chief. 1775. — Invasion of Canada. — In September, 1775, Canada was invaded by the American forces under General Schuyler. General Schuyler, being taken ill, left the command in the hands of General Mont- gomery, who prosecuted the enterprise. He laid seige to Quebec, and on the morning of the 31st of December, endeavored to carry it by assault. He fell at the first fire. The assault was unsuccessful, and the Americans soon after retreated from Canada. 1776. — Evacuation of Boston. — The evacuation of Boston by the British troops, under General Howe, took place on the 17th of March, 1776. On the following day Washington entered the city amid general rejoicing. 1776. — June 28. Attack on Fort Moultrie by an English fleet. The fleet was driven off in a badly shattered condition. Great rejoicing among the colonists, as this was their first encounter with tbe English navy. 1776. — Declaration of Independence. — On July 4th, 1776, the report of the committee appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independence was adopted. This Declaration was signed by each of the mem- bers of Congress, and by it the thirteen colonies cast off their allegiance to Great Britain and declared themselves an independent people. 1776. — Battle of Long Island. — On the 27th of August, the British Army, thirty thousand strong, under the command of Howe and Clinton, engaged the Americans, who numbered about nine thousand men, commanded by General Putnam, in Brooklyn, L. I. The Americans were defeated with a loss of two thousand men. 1776. — November 16. — Fort Washington captured by the Hessians, after a stubborn defense. 1776. — Battle of Trenton. — After the battle of Long Island, Washington retreated into New Jersey, to prevent the British from capturing Philadelphia. On Dec. 25, it being Christmas night, Washington surmised that the Hessians were not expecting an at- tack, and falling upon them in the midst of a plunging storm, surprised them in the height of their revelry, slew their leader, Rail, killed a thousand of their number, and effected his retreat back to camp with a loss of four men, two killed and two frozen. This de- feat of the enemy produced a marked effect through- out the colony. 1777. — January 3. Battle of Princeton. — In this battle Washington inflicted a serious defeat on the British troops. The Americans suffered severely also, losing one General, two Colonels, one Major and three Captains, killed. In this battle Colonel Monroe, who afterward became President of the United States, bore a conspicuous part. 1777. — Battle of Brandywine. — On September 11 the Americans, who had taken up a position at Chad’s Ford, on the Brandywine, were attacked si- multaneously in front and rear by the British, and after performing prodigies of valor, were defeated Philadelphia, in consequence, fell into the hands 0/ the enemy. 1777 . — Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4. 1777. — Battles of Saratoga. — On September 15, 350 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and October 7, of this year, were fought the battles of Saratoga between the forces of Generals Gates and Burgoyne. The latter was defeated on the 17th, and forced to capitulate, surrendering an army of nearly six thousand men, together with a splendid train of brass artillery, and all the arms and baggage of the troops. In consequence of this defeat, the British were unable to hold possession of the forts on the lakes, and retreated to Isle-aux-Noix and St. J ohn’s. 1778. — February 6, treaty with France signed at Paris. The chief articles of the treaty were, that if Britain, in consequence of the alliance, should be- gin hostilities against France, both countries should mutually assist each other, that the independence of America should be maintained, that if France should conquer any of the British West India Islands they should be deemed her property, that the contracting parties should not lay down their arms till the inde- pendence of America was formally acknowledged, and that neither of them should conclude peace without the consent of the other. 1778. — Battle of Monmouth, June 28. 1778. — The Wyoming Massacre. — On the 1st of July, 1778, a band of fifteen hundred men, composed of Indians and Tories, under the command of Colonel John Butler, burst into the settlement of Wyoming in the Susquehanna Valley. The able- bodied men being for the most part in the field with the patriot army, there remained none save the old men and boys to make a defense. They were quickly defeated, and, with the women and children, were tomahawked or burned in the flames, after enduring the most savage tortures. The entire settlement was destroyed, and those who escaped the hatchet and the flames forced to fly into the depths of the wilderness. 1779. — Capture of Stony Point.— About midnight on the 15th of July, General Wayne, with a force of only eight hundred men, performed one of the most brilliant exploits of the war, in the capture of Stony Point. After encountering unexpected difficulties, General Wayne surprised the garrison and compelled them to surrender. The military stores in the fort were considerable. 1 779. — On the 2 2d of August General Sullivan led an expedition into the Genesee Country, and on the 29th fought a battle, near the present town of Elmira, with the Indians and their Tory allies, defeated them, and then laid waste their towns and orchards, so that they might have no inducement again to settle so near the States. 1779. — September 23d, capture of the Serapis by the Bon Homme Richard, under Captain Paul Jones, off the north-east coast of England. 1780. — Surrender of Charleston, May 12, to Gen- eral Clinton, after a siege of forty days. 1780. — Battle of Camden. — Aug. 16, General Gates having been appointed to take command of the troops of the South, marched to meet Cornwal- lis near Camden. The armies encountered one another unexpectedly ; the American troops were demoralized, defeated, and dispersed through the woods, marshes, and brushwood. By this disastrous defeat, South Carolina and Georgia were again laid prostrate at the feet of the royal army, and the hope of maintaining their independence seemed once more to vanish. 1780. — Arnold’s Treason. — General Arnold, whose services at Quebec and Saratoga, were so con- spicuous, having deemed himself unjustly treated, entered into a plot with the British Major Andre to hand over West Point to the enemy. Andre ascended the Hudson, and went ashore on the night of Sept. 21st, but was captured at Tarrytown on his return, condemned as a spy, and hanged. 1781. — Battle of Cowpens. — General Tarleton having attacked General Morgan’s forces, Jan. 17, at Cowpens, suffered a crushing defeat. Cornwallis set out on the news reaching him to punish the victors and retake the prisoners, but Morgan had meantime effected a retreat into Virginia, and after a close pursuit gained the fords of the Dan. 1781. — Battle of Guilford House, March 15. 1781. — Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept 8. 1781. — On the 4th of January, 1781, General Arnold, the traitor, who had been dispatched by Sir Henry Clinton to prosecute the war in that quarter, landed at Westover, 25 miles below Rich- mond, with 1,600 men and marched directly toward the city. He burned and destroyed all the property in his line of march, and acted with mingled hate and brutality, Cornwallis soon after took his place, and, after having destroyed ten million dollars worth of property, took up his position at Yorktown. 1781. — August 30, the combined American and French armies entered Philadelphia. 1781. — Surrender of Yorktown. — On the 28th of September, 1781, the combined American and A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 357 French forces, twelve thousand strong, laid siege to Yorktown. The French fleet in the harbor co-oper- ated with the land forces. After a vain attempt to escape, Cornwallis capitulated to the allied forces on the 19th of October. Exclusive of seamen, nearly 7,000 men surrendered. Seventy-five brass and sixty-nine iron cannons, with a large amount of ammunition and military stores, fell into the hands of the allies ; while one frigate, two ships of twenty guns, a number of transports and other vessels, with about 1,500 seamen, surrendered to the French Ad- miral, Count de Grasse. This virtually ended the war. 1783. — Peace Declared. — On Sept. 3d, 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, acknowledging the independence of the United States. 1783. — Savannah evacuated by the British, July ”, T 7 83- 1783. — On November 25, 1783, the British evacu- ated New York, and an American detachment under General Knox took possession of the town. 1787. — Adoption of the Constitution. — A stronger national government than that which existed being needed and desired, a Convention was called in Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1787, to revise the Articles of Confederation. Washington was chosen Presi- dent. After much deliberation an entirely new Constitution was adopted. During the year 1788, nine States, the number required to make it binding, had ratified the Constitution, and the same year the government was organized under the new instru- ment, and in 1789 it went into operation. 1789. — April 30. — Washington inaugurated first President of the United States. He took the oath to uphold the Constitution of the United States on the balcony of the old Federal Hall, in the city of New York, which was then the temporary capital. 1794. — Whiskey Rebellion in Western Pennsyl- vania. — The lax imposed on whiskey to restore the nation’s shattered finances, provoked considerable opposition, and in Pennsylvania the rioters had to be subdued by the militia. No blood was shed, however. 1795. — Jay’s treaty with England ratified by the Senate June 24, 1795, after prolonged opposition. 1795. — Treaty with Spain, whereby the United States secured free navigation of the Mississippi, and the boundary of Florida was fixed. 1795. — Treaty with Algiers by which American captives were released and the Mediterranean com- merce was made free to American vessels. 1796. — Tennessee, the sixteenth State, was ad- mitted into the Union June 1st, 1796. Two years previously it had been granted distinct territorial government. 1797. — On the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams was inaugurated second President of the United States. He was opposed by Thomas Jefferson, whom he defeated by two electoral votes. 1799. — Death of Washington. — On the 14th of December, 1799, George Washington died at Mount ( Vernon, his home, in Virginia, after a brief illness. 1800. — The capitol was removed to Washington in this year. i8or. — Inauguration of Jefferson. — Thomas Jeff- erson was inaugurated third President of the United States March 4th, 1801. He was the chief author of the Declaration of Independence and the em- bodiment of the principles of Democracy. 1801. — War Against Tripoli. — The Bashaw of Tripoli, who had been accustomed to receive annual tribute from the United States for immunity from his piratical cruisers, declared war against the United States in this year. The United States dispatched a fleet thither in 1803, which bombarded the city of Tripoli, and compelled a treaty of peace in 1805. 1802. — Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union November 29, 1802. It was first ex- plored by the French, under La Salle, in the year 1680. 1803. — The Louisiana Purchase. — Louisiana Territory, embracing all the region west of the Mis- sissippi, and covering an area of over a million of square miles, was purchased from France, under Na- poleon, on the 30th April, 1803, for the sum of $15,- 000,000. 1804. — Death of Alexander Hamilton, who fell in a duel with Aaron Burr, at Weehawken, New Jersey, July 1 1, 1804. 1807. — Robert Fulton’s steamboat, the Clermont made her memorable trip from New York to Albany, on September 14, 1807. This was the first steam vessel ever launched. 1807. — The American frigate Chesapeake was fired into by the British frigate Leopard off the coast of Virginia, June 22, 1807. This act was perpetrated in sustainment of a pretension of the English to the right of searching American vessels and impressing British subjects found therein into the English ser- vice. The immediate result of this outrage was an A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 558 embargo laid on American ships by Congress and the suspension of all intercourse with England. 1809. — James Madison was inaugurated fourth President of the United States, March 4, 1809. 1 81 1. — Battle of Tippecanoe. — The battle of Tippecanoe was fought November 7, 1811, between General Harrison and a confederacy of the Indian tribes under Tecumseh, a famous chief. The Indi- ans had been instigated to this war by British emis- saries. The Indians were defeated and dispersed. 1812. — Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was re- ceived into the Union April 8, 1812. The territory was so named in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. 1812. — War with Great Britain. — The British Government continued to seize American vessels and impress our seamen. On the 19th of June, 1812, the United States declared war against Great Britain. On the 1 6th of May previous the Ameri- can frigate President having hailed the British sloop Little Belt was fired upon by the latter. A fight ensued, in which the British sloop was disabled. All hope of a peaceful termination of the difficulty was thereby rendered impossible. 1812. — Canada was invaded by General Hull July 12, 1812. On the approach of the British and In- dians he retreated to Detroit, which, with the whole of Michigan, he, in a most cowardly manner, sur- rendered to the enemy, August 16, with all its gar- rison and stores. 1812. — The battle of Queenstown Heights was fought October 13, 1812. The English were dis- lodged and their general, Brock, killed, but not being sustained by the American militia, who refused to cross over from their State, the Americans on the Canada side were compelled to surrender, after a heroic struggle. 1812. — August 19, 1812, the British frigate Guer- riere was captured, after a hard fight, by the United States frigate Constitution (Old Ironsides) off the coast of Massachusetts, Captain Hull commanding. 1812. — October 13, capture of the English brig Frolic, off the coast of North Carolina, by the American sloop of war Wasp. 1813. — September 10, 1813, was made memorable . by Captain Perry’s brilliant victory over the British [on Lake Erie. The American flotilla consisted of 'nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns; that of the enemy six vessels and sixty-three guns. Perry’s fa- mous message after the battle was ; “We have met the enemy and they are ours.” 1813. — The American frigate Chesapeake captured by the British ship Shannon, June 1, 1813. 1813. — Battle of the Thames, October 5. This battle was fought between the forces of General Harrison and the British under Proctor, and their Indian allies under the famous chief Tecumseh. The enemy were defeated, Tecumseh being among the slain. This victory, in connection with Perry’s triumphs on Lake Erie, virtually decided the issue of the war. 1814. — Massacre of Fort Mimms. — This deed was perpetrated by the Creek Indians, August 30, 1814, who broke in upon the garrison and slew all, including women and children. General Jackson was sent with a force against the Indians, and fall- ing on them at Horseshoe Bend, slew six hundred of their number and compelled them to make peace. 1814. — Battle of Chippewa, July 5, gained by the Americans under General Scott. 1814. — Battle of Lundy’s Lane, July 25. This battle resulted in a victory for the Americans. 1814. — Battle of Lake Champlain, September n, 1814. The American squadron, under the command of Commodore McDonough, almost wholly destroyed the British fleet in this conflict. Simultaneous with this signal victory, the American forces, numbering only fifteen- hundred men, repelled the advance of General Prevost, the British commander in Platts- burg, at the head of twelve thousand veterans, who had served under Wellington. 1814. — Washington captured by the British, Au- gust 24, 1814. The Capitol was burned, and the Congressional Library, together with several public and private buildings, shared the same fate. 1814. — Treaty of peace with England, December 24, 1814. The treaty was signed at Ghent. 1815. — Battle of New Orleans. Though a treaty of peace had been signed on the 24th of December, at Ghent, the intelligence had not yet arrived in America. On the 8th of January, General Packen- ham, with an army of twelve thousand veteran troops, sustained by a powerful fleet, marched to the attack of New Orleans. General Jackson, with a force of scarce half that number, mostly raw re- cruits, inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the invaders. General Packenham was slain, and while the British lost over two thousand of their number, A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 359 the American loss was but seven killed and six wounded. 1815. — In May, 1815, Decatur was sent with a squadron to chastise the Algerines, who had renewed their piratical practices during our war with Eng- land. He obtained the liberation of all the Ameri- can prisoners held by the Barbary States, with com- plete indemnity for all losses inflicted. 1816. — Indiana, the nineteenth State, was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816. 1817. — James Munroe inaugurated fifth President of the United States, March 4, 1817. 1817. — Mississippi, the twentieth State, was re- ceived into the Union December ro, 1817. The State derived its title from the great river of that name. 1818. — Illinois, the twenty-first State, was ad- mitted to the Union December 3, 1818. It derives its name from its greatest river, which signifies “ The River of Men.” 1819. — Alabama, the twenty-second State, was admitted to the Union, December 14, 1819. It derives its name from the Indian phrase, signifying “ Here we rest.” 1819. — Florida ceded by Spain to the United States, February 22, 1819. The treaty was not signed by the King of Spain until October 20, 1820, and the United States did not enter into full pos- session until July 17, 1821. 1820. — The Missouri Compromise passed March 3, 1820. This was the settlement of the difficulty that arose regarding the question of slavery, on the proposal of admitting Missouri into the Union. Through the efforts of Henry Clay, it was admitted as a slave State, under the compromise that slavery should be prohibited in all the other territories west of the Mississippi, and north of the southern bound- ary of Missouri. 1820. — Maine, the twenty-third State, was ad- mitted to the Union, March 15, 1820. 1821. — Missouri, the twenty-fourth State, was ad- mitted to the Union, August 10, 182K It derives its name from its principal river, which signifies “ Muddy water.” 1824. — Lafayette’s visit as “ the Nation’s guest,’’ August 15, 1824. He was received with the most joyous welcome in all the States. 1825. — John Quincy Adams inaugurated sixth President of the United States, March 4, 1825, Four candidates being in the field, and none of them obtaining a majority of votes, the election went to the House of Representatives. 1826. — Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, ex- Presidents, died July 4, 1826. 1829. — Andrew Jackson inaugurated seventh President of the United States, March 4, 1829. He was distinguished for his honesty, tenacity of purpose, and his thorough American spirit. 1832. — Nullification Ordinance, passed by South Carolina threatening secession from the Union, in the event of force being employed to collect the revenue at Charleston. A settlement was effected by the acceptance of Henry Clay’s “ Compromise Bill. ” 1832. — Black Hawk War. 1835. — The Florida War. A war with the Semi- nole Indians broke out this year. It arose from a refusal of the Indian chief Osceola, to move west of the Mississippi, in accordance with a treaty. He plotted a wholesale massacre of the whites, In which Major Dade and one hundred men were slain. The Indians retreated to the everglades of Florida, where they were pursued and defeated by Taylor, at the Battle of Okechobee, December 25, 1837. 1835. — Great fire in New York, Dec. 16, 1835 Six hundred stores burned. Loss $18,000,000. 1836. — Arkansas, the twenty-fifth State, was ad- mitted to the Union, June 15, 1836. Its name is derived from an extinct Indian tribe. 1837. — Michigan, the twenty-sixth State, was received into the Union, January 26, 1837. The name is Indian, signifying “ Great Lake.” 1837. — Martin Van Buren, the eighth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1837. During his term of office a terrible financial crisis prevailed throughout the country. In two months alone in the city of New York the losses amounted* to $100,000,000. 184T. — Wm. H. Harrison inaugurated the ninth President of the United States, March 4, 1841. One month after, April 4, he died. 1841. — John Tyler, the Vice-President, inaugu- rated tenth President of the United States, in ac- cordance with the Constitution of the United States, April 6, 1841. 1842. — Ashburton treaty, by which the North- east boundary between Maine and New Brunswick was settled. The commissioners on each side were Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster. 360 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1842. — Dorr’s Rebellion, a difficulty which arose from the endeavor to secure a more liberal Constitu- tion in Rhode Island. This was secured in 1843. 1844. — Anti-Rent Rebellion in the State of New York. The occupants of the old “patroon” estates refused to comply with the feudal customs of the Patroon landlords, and resisted and killed the officers sent to serve warrants on them. The disturbances had to be quelled by the militia, and the allodial was substituted for the feudal tenure. 1845. — Florida, the twenty-seventh State, was ad- mitted to the Union, March 3d, 1845. 1845. — James K. Polk, inaugurated eleventh Pres- ident of the United States, March 4, 1845. 1845. — Joe Smith, the Mormon Prophet, killed, and the Mormons driven away from Nauvoo City, 111., by the mob. 1845. — Texas, which had wrested its independ- ence from Mexico, and applied for admission to the Union, was received into the family of States, De- cember 27, 1845. 1846. — Battle of Palo Alto. — The Texas boundary having given rise to a dispute between the United States and Mexico, Gen'l Taylor was ordered to oc- cupy the disputed territory with his troops. He was attacked by the Mexicans, with a superior force, May 8, at Palo Alto. The latter were defeated. Gen’l Taylor fought the battle of Resaca de la Palma , the following day, and gained a signal vic- tory. 1846. — War declared against Mexico by Congress, May 11, 1846. 1846. — Capture of Monterey, with its garrison of ten thousand men, by Gen’l Taylor, with a force of six thousand, Sept. 24, 1846. 1 846. — Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted to the Union December 28, 1846. 1846. — Conquest of New Mexico and California, by Captain John C. Fremont, assisted by Commo- dores Sloat and Stockton, and General Kearney. 1847. — Battle of Buena Vista, fought between a portion of General Taylor’s command, and twenty thousand Mexican troops, under Santa Anna, Feb. 23. After a desperate struggle, lasting the entire day, the American troops, though vastly outnumbered, were victorious. 1847. — Capture of Vera Cruz, by Gen’l Scott, after a furious bombardment of four days, March 29, 1847. 1847. — Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, 1847. 1847. — Battle of Contreras, August 20. 1847. — Capture of Chapultepec, September 13. 1847. — Surrender of Mexico to the American army, September 14. 1848. — Treaty of Peace with Mexico, February 2, 1848. By this treaty the United States acquired the territory stretching south to the Gila, and to the Pacific on the west. 1848. — Gold was discovered in California in Feb ruary, and soon attracted a tide of immigration from Europe, Asia, Australia, South America and all parts of the United States. Towns and settlements grew up as if by magic. More than one hundred thousand persons flocked to the mines from the United States within eighteen months after the discovery of the precious metal. 1849. — General Zachary Taylor, the twelfth President of the United States, was inaugurated March 5, 1849. 1850. — Death of President Taylor July 9, 1850. 1850. — Millard Fillmore, the Vice-President, in- augurated thirteenth President of the United States in accordance with the Constitution, July 16, 1850. 1850.— California, the thirty-first State, was ad mitted to the Union September 9, 1850. 1853. — Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1853. 1854 — Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed, May 1854. This Bill was a virtual nullification of the Missouri Compromise Bill. It provided that the inhabitants of each Territory should decide whether the State should enter the Union as a free or slave State. 1854. — A Treaty with Japan was secured in May 1854, by Commodore Perry, whereby the United States were granted two ports of entry in that exclusive country. 1857. — James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the United States, was inaugurated March 4, 1857. 1858. — Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union, May 11, 1858. It derives its name from the Indian word, signifying “ cloudy water.” 1859. — Oregon, the thirty-third State, was re- ceived into the Union February 14, 1859. Its name is of Spanish origin. 1860. — Secession of South Carolina. — On the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency, the A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Southern leaders prepared to carry out their threats of secession from the Union. On December 20, South Carolina withdrew, and was soon followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. The act of secession was the outcome of the question of State rights in regard to slavery, which had vexed the country almost from the for- mation of the Union. i86r. — Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was ad- mitted to the Union January 29, 1861. The name is derived from an Indian term, signifying “smoky water.” 1861. — Southern Confederacy Inaugurated. — On the 4th of February, 1861, delegates from the se- ceded States met at Montgomery, Ala., and formed a government known as the “ Confederate States of America.” Jefferson Davis, formerly a United States Senator from Mississippi, was chosen Presi- dent, and Alex. H. Stevens, of Georgia, was chosen Vice-President. All the national property and mu- nitions of war belonging to the United States, sit- uated in the seceded States, were seized and held. 1861, — Attack on Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861. — The Star of the West, an unarmed steamer, bearing supplies to Major Anderson’s garrison in Fort Sum- ter, had been fired upon and driven back January 9, 1861. At the same time the Southern leaders de- clared that any attempt to relieve Fort Sumter would be regarded as a declaration of war. At length Gen’l Beauregard opened fire on the fort on the morning of the 1 2 of April, and after a contest of thirty-seven hours the garrison surrendered. The garrison numbered only seventy men, while the be- sieging force was seven thousand. 1861. —Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth Presi- dent of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1861. 1861. — Call for seventy-five thousand volun- teers by President Lincoln to suppress the rebellion, April 15, 1861. 1861. — Seizure of Harper’s Ferry by Confederate troops, April 18, 1861. 1861. — Seizure of the Norfolk Navy Yard by the Confederates, April 20, 1861. 1861. — Massachusetts troops attacked in the streets of Baltimore, April 19, 1861. First blood shed in the civil war on the anniversary of Con- cord and Lexington. 361 1861. — The Confederate Congress assembled at Richmond, Va., July 20, 1861. 1861. — Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, 1861. — The Federal troops having driven the enemy from the field after a sharp contest, were suddenly attacked in flank and thrown into a panic. The retreat was changed to a rout, arms and munitions being aban- doned, the fugitives flying in all directions. The effect of this battle was to convince the Northern people of the desperate nature of the great conflict that had just opened. Congress immediately voted $500,000,000 and 500,000 men to prosecute the war. 1862. — Capture of Fort Donelson with its garri- son of fifteen thousand men, by General Grant, Feb- ruary 16, 1862. 1862. — Battle of Shiloh (April 6 and 7) 1862. 1862. — Capture of New Orleans by Captain Far- ragut, April 25, 1862. 1862.— Battle of the Merrimac and Monitor , March 9, 1862. This was the first battle ever fought between turreted iron ships. 1862. — Invasion of Maryland by the Confederate forces under General Lee, September 5, 1862. 1862. — Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862. This was one of the bloodiest conflicts of the war, and though the result could scarce be said to be de- cisive, the effect was a Federal victory. Lee was forced to retire across the Potomac, and Washing- ton was no longer threatened. 1862. — Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862 ; overwhelming defeat of Union troops; Fed- eral loss twelve thousand. 1862. — While the civil war was at its height, the Sioux Indians took to the war path, and perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa and Dakota. They were finally routed by Colonel Sibley, and sev- eral of their number taken prisoners and hanged. 1862. — Battle of Murfreesboro, December 31, and January 2, 1863. This was one of the fiercest bat- tles of the war, the loss being stated as one-fourth of the number engaged. The Confederates were compelled to retreat. 1863. — Emancipation Proclamation, declaring freedom to the slaves, issued by President Lincoln, January 1, 863. 1863. — Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2-3. 1863. 1863. — West Virginia, the thirty-fifth State, was A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863. This por- tion of Virginia remained loyal to the Union during the war, and was accordingly incorporated into a separate State. 1863. — Battle of Gettysburg, Penn., July 1-3, 1863. This was the bloodiest and most desperately con- tested struggle of the war. The loss on both sides numbered about fifty thousand men. Lee was forced to retreat beyond the Potomac, and a North- ern invasion was no longer thought of. The back- bone of the rebellion was broken. 1863. — Surrender of Vicksburg with 37,000 pris- oners of war, July 4, 1863. This was one of the most important events of the war. By its capture the Confederacy was cut in two and the Mississippi opened to the Gulf. 1863. — Battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20, 1863. 1863. — Battle of Chattanooga, Tenn., November 24-25, 1863. 1864. — Battle of the Wilderness, May 5-6, 1864. 1864. — Battle of Spottsylvania, May 8-12, 1864. 1864. — Battle of Cold Harbor, June 3, 1864. Twenty minutes after the battle had opened, ten thousand Union soldiers had fallen. 1864. — Capture of Atlanta, Ga., by General Sher- man, September 2, 1864. 1864. — Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was re- ceived into the Union, October 31, 1864. The name is of Spanish origin. 1864. — Battle of Nashville, December 15-16, 1864. 1865. — Capture of Petersburg and Richmond, April 2-3, 1865, by the forces of General Grant. 1865. — Surrender of General Lee, at Appomatox Court House, Va., April 9, 1865. This event brought the civil war to a close. 1865. — Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14, 1865. This black deed was perpetrated in Ford’s Theater, Washington, where the President occupied a box during the performance. It was the act of the crazed brain of one who, thinking he was rid- ding the country of a tyrant, struck an almost deadly blow at the now vanquished South, in the murder of her most powerful friend. 1865. — Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, inau- gurated seventeenth President of the United States, in accordance with the Constitution, April 15, 1865. 1865. — The Thirteenth Amendment, declaring the abolition of slavery adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States, December 1865. 1867. — Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, admit- ted to the Union, March 1, 1867. 1867. — Death of Maximilian, so-called Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 1867. During the American civil war, Napoleon III. sought to found an empire in Mexico, and established Maximilian, of the house of Austria, emperor, with the aid of French troops. This the Americans regarded as a violation of the “Monroe Doctrine,” and after the close of the war they compelled the French Emperor to withdraw his troops from the neighboring republic. Deprived of foreign aid, Maximilian’s regime was overthrown by the Mexicans, and the unfortunate monarch shot. 1867. — Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States Government for the sum of $7,200,000 in gold. 1868. — Impeachment of President Johnson, Feb- ruary 24, 1868. The order to impeach the Presi- dent was made in consequence of the latter having attempted to remove the Secretary of War, a pro- ceeding which was held to be in violation of the Tenure-of-Office Bill, which had some time previous been passed over the President’s veto. After a pro- tracted trial, President Johnson was acquitted, hav- ing escaped conviction by one vote. 1868. — The Fourteenth Amendment, whereby equal civil rights were guaranteed to all, irrespective of race or color, was adopted by Congress, July 28, 1868. 1868. — Treaty between China and the United States, whereby valuable commercial privileges were acquired by the latter. 1869. — Ulysses Simpson Grant, the eighteenth President of the United States, inaugurated Ma ch 4, 1869. 1869. — Completion of the great trans-continental railroad from New York to San Francisco. 1870. — The Fifteenth Amendment, whereby the right of suffrage is guaranteed to all, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was formally announced as part of the Constitution, March 30, 1870. 1870. — The Treaty of Washington ratified whereby Great Britain was compelled to pay the United States the sum of $15,500,000 in gold, in consideration of damages caused to American com- merce by the Alabama and other Confederate crui» A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 3 6 3 ers fitted out in English ports during the Civil War. 1870. — Rejection by Congress of the pro- posed annexation of San Domingo to the United States. 1871. — Great fire broke out in Chicago, Oct. 8, 1871. Three thousand acres of the city dev- astated, $200,000,000 of property destroyed, and a hundred thousand people left homeless. 1872. — Great Boston fire, Nov. 9. Sixty acres of the business portion of the city laid waste and $70,000,000 of property destroyed. 1873. — Difficulties with the Modoc Indians. After dispatching troops against them. Cap- tain Jack and several of the leaders were capt- ured, and executed Oct. 3, 1873. 1875. — Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, re- ceived into the Union, March 3, 1875. 1876. — Centennial Exhibition of the “arts and industries of all nations,” at Philadelphia, opened May 10, 1876. The exhibition lasted six months, and had an average daily attend- ance of 61,000 persons. 1877. — War with the Sioux Indians. — The Indian reservation being encroached on by gold prospectors, it led to difficulties which terminated in compelling a dispatch of regu- lar troops to the reservation. General Custer and his entire command were slain in the con- flict whicli occurred on the twenty-fifth of June on the Little Big Horn river. 1877. — Rutherford B. Hayes, the nineteenth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1877. 1881. — James A. Garfield, the twentieth President of the United States, inaugurated March 4, 1881. 1881. — Assassination of President Garfield, July 2, 1881, by Charles J. Guiteau, at the railroad depot, Washington. The assassina- tion was regarded as the act of a crazed brain. The wounded President was removed to Long Branch, N. J., where he died on the 19th of Sept, following. 1881, — Gen. Chester A. Arthur, Vice- Presi- ll dent, inaugurated twenty-first President of the United States, in accordance with the Consti- tution, Sept. 20, 1881. The centennial anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown was celebrated Oc- tober 19, 1881. One month previous England had mourned with us over the death of Presi- dent Garfield, and in recognition and grateful acknowledgment of the friendly feelings mani- fested upon that occasion, President Arthur directed that during the Yorktown celebra- tion a national salute should be fired in honor of the flag of Great Britain. France, natur- ally and historically, had a place in the anni- versary whose event her aid alone made pos- sible. The Stars and Stripes floated in peaceful company with the cross of St. George and the lilies of France on the field of Yorktown, where, one hundred years ago, the decisive battle of the Revolution was fought. The steam yacht Jeannette, fitted out by James Gordon Bennett, left San Francisco, July 8, 1879, under the command of Lieutenant G. W. DeLong, on an expedition into the Arctic regions. The vessel was caught in the ice soon after entering the Arctic Sea, floated about helplessly for more than twenty-one months and sank June 13, 1881. The nearest coast was Siberia, some four hundred miles distant. On sleds and boats mounted on runners the men started southward over the ice in three parties. The party under Lieutenant Danen- hower and Chief Engineer Melville entered the Lena river and was rescued by the natives. That under Lieutenant DeLong perished of hunger and cold on the delta of the Lena. The other party has never been heard from. At Lady Franklin Bay a Signal Service sta- tion was established under Lieutenant A. W. Greely in the Summer of 1881 for the purpose of investigating the meteorologj^ of the Arctic regions. Several exploring parties were sent out, one under Greely. Supplies expected did not arrive, and the Greely expedition returned southward in August, 1883. They went in 8c A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 3^4 Winter quarters at Cape Sabine, where their only food for several weeks was moss and lichens and sealskin broth. June 22, 1384, when the relief squadron under Commander Schley found the party, only seven of the orig- inal twenty-five members were alive. Though the party continued to die off, one by one, ex- plorations were continued, and the results of the expedition have proved of great value to science. The Signal Service of the United States, under General William B. Hazen, who was appointed December 8, 1880, began in 1881 to be recognized as a very important department. Signal Service stations were established at various points and equipped with the latest appliances for correct observations. Results were telegraphed to Washington, and the workings were soon regulated with method- ical exactness. The track of storms across the continent is now so clearly marked out from day to day, and the laws of climatic movements and developments are so well understood, that data are easily obtainable for forecasting the time and nature of anj^ important meteorological change likely to occur in any part of the country. By a disastrous flood in the Mississippi Val- ley, in the Spring of 1S82, 100,000 persons were made homeless. The appropriations by Con- gress to relieve the distress of the sufferers were liberal and timely, and the sums con- tributed by all the people were princely and unstinted. The suspension bridge between New York and Brooklyn was opened May 24, 1883, hav- ing been begun January 3, 1870. The road- way is 85 feet wide and 5,989 feet long. The towers are 278 feet high. The suspended span, from tower to tower, is 1,596 feet long, and its height above the East river high tide is 135 feet. The four cables are 15 3-4 inches in diameter, each cable containing 5,296 par- allel galvanized steel, oil -coated wires and weighing, with its covering, 89' 1-S tons. The strength of the four cables is estimated at 48,800 tons. The Brooklyn Bridge railway is operated by an endless wire rope. The rail- road fare one way is three cents. Foot pass- engers are free. Important measures passed by the Forty- seventh Congress (1881-1883) were : a civil service bill regulating the method of appoint- ment and promotions in the civil service of the United States by means of a system of examinations and a bill reducing single letter postage from three cents to two cents per half ounce. Important measures passed by the Forty- eighth Congress (1883-1885) were : a bill in- creasing from one-half an ounce to one ounce the maximum weight of a letter to be carried for two cents; a bill constituting Alaska a civil and judicial district, with temporary seat of government at Sitka, providing for the ap- pointment of a governor, judge, marshal and other officers to serve four years, without authorizing a legislative assembly or a terri- torial delegate in Congress. A World’s Industrial and Cotton Exposition was held at New Orleans in the Winter of 1884-85. It was intended to commemorate the century of the cotton industry in this country. President Arthur, in the presence of distinguished men in the Executive Man- sion at Washington, opened the exposition by telegraph. The exhibition was a great suc- cess, the exhibits from Mexico, West Indies and Central and South America attracting special attention. The administration of President Cleveland (1885-1889) was marked by frequent efforts to change the economic policy of the government on the subject of the tariff. The Mills Bill, providing for the reduction of duties on im- ports to a revenue basis, failed to become a law. Cattle drovers were excluded from the government lands in the Far West. Many new cruisers were projected and built. The progress of the country was satisfactory and A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED S I'ATES. 365 the policy of the administration conservative. General Grant died July 23, 1885, at Mount McGregor, sincerely mourned by the entire re-united nation and eulogized in many quar- ters as the foremost military chieftain of the century. In the Fall of 1888 Hon. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, was elected over President Cleve- land. President Harrison’s administration (1889-1893) was marked by many stirring events and important public acts. Six new States were admitted into the Union. The McKinley Bill, a protective tariff measure, became a law. The Congressional election of 1890 returned an extraordinary Democratic majority to the House of Representatives. The World’s Fair site was located in Chicago, and buildings and improvements were erected and projected there on a scale never before witnessed in the civilized world. The census of 1890 showed a population of nearly 63,000,- 000. Chicago passed the 1,000,000 mark. Chili paid $75,000 indemnity for man-of-war’s men killed and injured by a mob in Valpa- raiso, and Italy was paid a liberal sum in- demnity for the death of Italian citizens in the Mafia massacre at New Orleans. The Summer and Autumn of 1892 witnessed the following among other stirring events — viz.: Civil war in Tennessee on the subject of convict labor in the mines, which was put down after much reprehensible delay on the part of the State authorities ; riotous violence in mining regions near Cceur d’Alene, Idaho, resulting in much bloodshed and not sup- pressed until many fiendish acts of cruelty had been committed by the rioters ; a switch- men’s strike at Buffalo, in which nearly all the railroads centering at that point were in- volved, and which developed such serious con- ditions that the entire State militia of New York was dispatched to the scene, the result being the unconditional declaring off of the strike, after much loss of property and dis- quietude in the public mind had been caused ; a great lock-out strike at the Carnegie Mills in Homestead, Pa., by which nearly four thou- sand men were thrown out of employment and several lives lost in a battle between Pinker- ton guards and strikers, the State militia of Pennsylvania finally taking possession of the town and mills, and, as a final settlement, the leaders of the strikers were arrested on charges of murder and Heason and some of the officials of the mills charged with conspiracy ; the struggle of American seaports, especially New York, against the cholera invasion from Hamburg, Russia and France, resulting in a signal victory for the vigilance of the great metropolis. President Harrison and ex-Pres- ident Cleveland were again the opposing can- didates for the Presidency. A treaty between the United States and Chili, under which all disputes between the two countries, including claims of American citi- zens for damages during the Chili- Peru war, are to be settled by arbitration, was nego- tiated by Minister Egan and was to be sub- mitted to the President and Senate as soon as possible after Congress met in December, 1892. The issues between the Democratic and Re- publican parties were clearly defined in the Presidential and Congressional campaign of 1892. The Republicans favored the protective principle in tariff legislation, on the ground that American industries will be thereby built up. They also favored a Federal Elections Bill, giving the Federal authorities the right of supervision over Congressional and Presi- dential elections. On the tariff question the Democrats sharply declared tlicir opposition to any but a tariff for revenue only, and solely for the needs of the government eco- nomically administered. They opposed the proposed Federal Elections Bill on the ground that it is a needless interference with the in- dividual and is liable to be abused so as to give the Federal authority undue power to perpetuate themselves in office. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 366 A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled , July 4 th, 1776. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the sep- arate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separa- tion. We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these, are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, govern- ments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destruc- tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organ- izing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suf- fer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them- selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : — He has refused his assent to laws the most whole- some and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accom. modation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such disso- lutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the danger of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population o! A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 36? these states ; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and rais- ing the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judici- ary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unac- knowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among its : I For protecting them by a mock trial, from punish- ment, for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefit of trial by jury : For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses : For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instru- ment for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the pow- ers of our governments : For suspending our own legislatures, and declar- ing themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. Pie is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circum- stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken cap- tive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc- tion of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have peti- tioned for redress, in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevit- ably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world foi the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain, is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full 3*8 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing declaration was, by order of Con- gress, engrossed, and signed by the following members : JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire. Massachusetts Bay. Rhode Island. Stephen Hopkins, Josiah Bartlett, Samuel Adams, William Ellery. William Whipple, Tohn Adams, ... Matthew Thornton. Robert Treat Paine, -r, oiinec icu . p,, ., r, ’ Roger Sherman, ridge rry. Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. New York. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. Delaware. Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M’Kean. Alary land. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. Virginia. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, jr. , Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina. William Hoopei; Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina. Edward Rutledge, ThomasHeyward.jr, Thomas Lynch, jr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquil- lity, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section I. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. ['] The House of Representatives shall be com- posed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. [ 2 ] No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. [Noth. — The small figures in brackets are not in the original, but have been added subsequently, to mark the different clauses in the sceuua.J [ 3 ] Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service fora Term of Years, and ex- cluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Man- ner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Represen- tatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New-Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode- Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Dela- ware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. ['] When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. [ 6 ] The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeach- ment. Section 3. PI The Senate of the United States shall bo CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 3$9 somposed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. [ 2 ] Immediately after they shall be assembled in Conse- quence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legis- lature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. [ 3 ] No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an In- habitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. [’j The Vice President of the United States shall be Presi- dent of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. [ 5 ] The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. [ 8 ] The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeach- ments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. [’] Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and Disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honour, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punish- ment, according to Law. Section 4. ['] The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the places of chusing Senators. P] The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, un.ess they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section 5. ['] Each House shall be the Judge of the Elec- tions, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. P] Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceed- ln g s > punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. p] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either Plouse on any question shatl, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. [ 4 ] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section 6. ['] The Senators and Representatives shall re* ceive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. p]No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been cre- ated, or the Emoluments whereof have been encreased during such time ; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Con- tinuance in Office. Section 7. ['] All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Eills. [ 2 ] Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Repre- sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objec- tions to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and pro- ceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like Man- ner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Ad- journment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. [ 3 ] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concur- rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be pre- sented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or beinjf disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section. 8 The Congress shall have Power [’] To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and gen- eral Welfare of the United States ; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 370 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. [ 2 ] To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; [ 3 ] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ; [’] To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States : P] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of for- eign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; [*] To provide for the Punishment of - counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States ; [ 7 ] To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; [ S J To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the ex- clusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; [”] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court , [ ,0 ] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations , ["] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; [ ,a ] To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; [ 13 ] To provide and maintain a Navy ; [ ,4 ] To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces ; [ |b ] To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; [‘*J To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the Discipline prescribed by Congress ; [ ,7 ] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatso- ever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particu’ar States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over ab Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And ['“] To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Section 9. [’] The Migration or Importation of such Per- son as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. ["J The privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. [ 3 ] No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. [ 4 J No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. [ b ] No Tax or Duly shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. [*J No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Com- merce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. [’] No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. [ 7 ] No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, ac- cept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Section 10. ['J No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alli- ance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obli- gation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. [ 2 ] No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it’s inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treas- ury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless ac- tually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of Delay. ARTICLE II. Section x. [’] The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as fol- lows : ['■] Each State shall appoint, in. such manner as the Legisla- ture thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Represen- tative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. [ 3 ] The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Sen- ate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Num- CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ber be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Majority and have an equal number of Votes, then the House of Repre- sentatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote : a Quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person hav- ing the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Bal- lot the Vice-President. [’] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. [ s ] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States at the time of the Adoption of this Consti- tution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. [ 5 ] In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. [ 7 ] The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Ser- vices, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected; and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. [ K ] Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation : — “ I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully exe- “cute the Office of President of the United States, and will to “ the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the “Constitution of the United States.” Section 2. ['] The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Par- dons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. [’] He shall have Tower, by and with the Advice and Con- sent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by aad With the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. [ ] The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by grant- ing Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Com- mission all the officers of the United States. Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Offi- cers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Im- peachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Section X. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section 2. ['] The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority ; — to all Cases affecting Ambas- sadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ; to Controversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State ; — between Citizens of different States, — be- tween Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. [ 2 ] In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Minis- ters and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. [ -1 ] The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeach- ment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but when nut committed within any State, the Trial shall be at 37 * CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. such riace or Places as the Congress may by Law have di- rected. Section 3. ['] Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. P] The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punish- ment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Cor- ruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Section 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Pro- ceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2. ['] The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. [•] A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. [ 2 ] No person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section 3. P] New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State : nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. [’] The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The L T nited States shall guarantee to every State in this Uision a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion, and on Applica- tion of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legisla- ture cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two thirds of botli Houses shall deem it necessary shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amend- ments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Con- ventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be de- prived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. ['] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. ["] This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary not- withstanding. [ 3 ] The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all execu- tive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to sup- port this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be re- quired as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In Witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our Names, Co Washington — rrcsidt and deputy from Virginia NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon Nicholas Gilman MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King CONNECTICUT. Wm Sami Johnson Roger Sherman NEW YORK. Alexander Hamilton NEW JERSEY. Wil Livingston Wm Paterson David Brcarley Jona Dayton CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 373 PENNSYLVANIA. B Franklin Thomas Mifflin Robt Morris Geo Clymer Tho Fitzsimons Jared Ingersoll James Wilson Gouv Morris DELAWARE. Geo Read Gunning Bedford, Jun’r John Dickinson Jaco Broom Richard Bassett MARYLAND. James M’Henry Dan of St Thos Jenifer Danl Carroll VIRGINIA. John Blair James Madison, Jr NORTH CAROLINA. Wm Blount Hu Williamson Rich’d Dobbs Spaight SOUTH CAROLINA. J Rutledge Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler GEORGIA. William Few Abr Baldwin Attest: William Jackson, Secretary, ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OE (ARTICLE III.) No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. (ARTICLE IV.) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the per- sons or things to be seized. (ARTICLE V.) No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the landor^aval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. (ARTICLE VI.) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been com- mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the ac- cusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have Compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Proposed by Congress , and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Con- stitution. (ARTICLE I.) Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of Leligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. (ARTICLE II.) A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall am be UUnagwk (ARTICLE VII.) In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re- examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. (ARTICLE VIII.) Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. (ARTICLE IX) The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or desparage others retained by the people. (ARTICLE X.) The powers not delegated to the United States by the Con- stitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 374 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. (ARTICLE XI.) The Judicial power of the United States shall not be con- strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of an- other State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. (ARTICLE XII.) The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them- selves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice- President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be President, if such number be a ma- jority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representa- tion from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this pur- pose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. — The Person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest num- bers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole num- ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitu- tionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. (ARTICLE XIII.) Section I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, ex- cept as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. (ARTICLE XIV.) Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States: nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in re- bellion or other crime, the basis of representation shall therein be reduced to the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or a judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for pay- ment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing in- surrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- cipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro, priate legislation, the provisions of this article. (ARTICLE XV.) Section I. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color or previous condi- tion of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. OUT-DOOR GAMES. 375 'S to^i jiHE ball must weigh not less than 5 ounces and not more than 5 1-4 ounces, and must measure PmS* not less than 9 and not more than 9 1-4 inches j] in circumference. The Spalding League Ball or the Reach American Association Ball must jg be used in all games under these rules for the 3# championship of the League. F 2. The bat must be made wholly of wood, except il j that the handle may be wound with twine or coated ' with a granular substance, not to exceed eighteen inches from the end. A “ flat bat’’ has been allowed for “ bunting,” but its thickest or widest part must not exceed two and one-half inches in diameter. 3. The bases must be four in number, and designated as First Base, Second Base, Third Base and Home Base. The Home Base must be of whitened rubber twelve inches square, so fixed in the ground as to be even with the surface, and so placed in the corner of the infield that two of its sides will form part of the boundaries of said infield. The First, Second and Third Bases must be canvas bags, fifteen inches square, painted white, and filled with some soft ma- terial, and so placed that the center of the Second Base shall be upon its corner of the infield, and the center of the First and Third Bases shall be on the lines running to and from Second Base and seven and one-half inches from the Foul Lines, providing that each base shall be entirely within the Foui;Lines. All the bases must be securely fastened in their positions, iitu I bq pluctid us to bo distinctly soon by tbo Umpire. 4. The Foul Lines must be drawn in straight lines from the outer corner of the Home Base, along the outes edge of the First and Third Bases, to the boundaries of the Ground. 5. The Pitcher’s Lines must be straight lines forming the boundaries of a space of ground in the infield, five and one-half feet long by four feet wide, distant fifty feet from the center of the Home Base, and so placed that the five and one-half feet lines will each be two feet distant from and parallel with a straight line passing through the centers of the Home and Second Bases. Each corner of this space must be marked by a flat, round rubber plate six inches in diameter fixed in the ground even with the surface. 6. The Batsman’s Lines must be straight lines forming the boundaries of a space on the right and of a simi- lar space on the left of the Home Base, six feet long by four feet wide, extending three feet in front of and three feet behind the center of the Home Base, and with its nearest line distant six inches from the Home Base. 7. The players of each club in a game shall be nine in number, one of whom shall act as Captain, and in no case shall less than nine men be allowed to play on each side. Players in uniform shall not be permitted to seat themselves among the spectators. Every Club shall be required to adopt uniforms for its players, and each player shall be required to present himself upon the field during said game in a neat and cleanly condition, but no player shall attach anything to the sole or heel of his shoes other than the ordinary baseball shoe plate. 8. The Pitcher shall take his position facing Bthe ats man with both feet square on the ground, one foot on the rear line of the “Box.” He shall not raise either foot, unless in the act of delivering the ball, nor make more than one step in such delivery. He shall hold the ball, before the delivery, fairly in front of hir body, and in Bight of tho Umpiro. "When the Pitohor 3 76 OUT-DOOR GAMES. feigns to throw the belli to a base he must assume the above position and pause momentarily before deliver- ing the ball to the bat. A Fair Ball is a ball deliv- ered by the Pitcher while standing wholly within the lines of his position, and facing the Batsman, the ball, so delivered, to pass over the Home Base, not lower than the Batsman’s knee, nor higher than his shoul- der, provided a ball so delivered that touches the bat of the Batsman in his position shall be considered a batted ball, and in play. An Unfair Ball is a ball delivered by the Pitcher, as above, except that the ball does not pass over the Home Base, or does pass over the Home Base, above the Batsman’s shoulder, or below the knee. A Balk is any motion made by the Pitcher to deliver the ball to the bat without de- livering it, and shall be held to include any and every accustomed motion w r ith the hands, arms or feet, or position of the body assumed by the Pitcher in his delivery of the ball and any motion calculated to deceive a Base Runner, except the ball be accident- ally dropped; the holding of the ball by the Pitcher so long as to delay the game unnecessarily ; or any motion to deliver the ball, or the delivering the ball to the bat by the Pitcher when any part of his person is upon ground outside of the lines of his position, in- cluding all preliminary motions with the hands, arms and feet. 9. A Dead Ball is a ball delivered to the bat by the Pitcher that touches the Batsman’s bat without be- ing struck at, or any part of the Batsman’s person or clothing while standing in his position without being struck at; or any part of the Umpire’s per- son or clothing, while on foul ground, without first passing the Catcher. In case of a Foul Strike, Foul Hit ball not legally caught out, Dead Ball, or Base Runner put out for being struck by a fair hit ball, the ball shall not be considered in play until it is held by the Pitcher standing in his position. A Block is a batted or thrown ball that is stopped or handled by any person not engaged in the game. Whenever a Block occurs the Umpire shall declare it, and Base Runners may run the bases, without being put out, until the ball has been returned to and held by the Pitcher standing in his position. In the case of a Block, if the person not engaged in the game should retain possession of the ball, or throw or kick it beyond the reach of the Fielders, the Umpire should call “ Time,” and require each Base Runner to stop at the last base touched by him until the ball be returned to the Pitcher standing in his position. 10. Every Championship Game must be commenced not later than two hours before sunset. A game shall consist of nine innings to each contesting nine, ex- cept that (a) if the side first at bat scores less runs in nine innings than the other side has scored in eight innings, the game shall then terminate ; (b) if the side last at bat in the ninth inning scores the winning run before the third man is out, the game shall terminate ; and (c) if the Umpire calls “Game” on account of darkness or rain at any time after five innings have been completed, the score shall be that of the last equal innings played, unless the side second at bat shall have scored more runs than the side first at bat, in which case the score of the game shall be the total number of runs made. 11. The Batsman is out if he fails to take his position at the bat in his order of batting, unless the error be discovered and the proper Batsman takes his position before a Fair Hit has been made ; and in such case the Balls and Strikes called must be counted in the time at bat of the proper Batsman. Provided, this rule shall not take effect unless the out is declared before the ball is delivered to the succeeding Batsman ; if he fails to take his position within one minute after the Umpire has called for the Batsman ; if he makes a Foul Strike; if he attempts to hinder the Catcher from Fielding or throwing the ball, by stepping out- side the lines of his position, or otherwise obstructing or interfering with that player; if, while the First Base be occupied by a Base Runner, three strikes be called on him by the Umpire, except when two men are already out; if, wiiile making the third strike, the ball hits his person or clothing; if, after two strikes have been called, the Batsman obviously at- tempts to make a Foul Hit. 12. The Batsman becomes a Base Runner instantly after he makes a Fair Hit ; instantly after four balls have been called by the Umpire; instantly after three strikes have been declared by the Umpire; if, while he be a Batsman, his person— excepting hands or forearm, w'hich makes it a Dead Ball — or clothing be hit by a ball from the Pitcher, unless — in the opinion of the Umpire — he intentionally permits himself to be so hit; instantly after an illegal delivery of a ball by the Pitcher. 13. The Base Runner shall be entitled, without being put out, to take the base in the follow ing cases : H, w hile he was Batsman, the Umpire called four balls; if the Umpire awards a succeeding Batsman a base on four balls, or for being hit with a pitched ball, or in case of an illegal delivery, and the Base Runner is thereby forced to vacate the base held by him ; if the Umpire calls a “ Balk ” ; if a ball delivered by the Pitcher pass the Catcher and touch the Umpire or any fence or building within ninety feet of the Home Base ; if upon a Fair Hit the ball strikes the person or clothing of the Umpire on fair ground ; if he be prevented from mak- ing a base by the obstruction of an adversary ; if the Fielder stop or catch a batted ball with his bat, or any part of his dress. 14. The Base Runner shall return to his base, and shall be entitled to so return without being put out, if the Umpire declares a Foul Tip or any other Foul Hit not legally caught by a Fielder; if the Umpire declares a Foul Strike; if the Umpire declares a Dead Ball, unless it be also the fourth Unfair Ball, and ho be thereby forced to take the next base ; if the person or clothing of the Umpire interferes with the Catcher, or he is struck by a ball thrown by the Catcher to intercept a Base Runner. 15. The Umpire shall not be changed during the prog- ress of a game, except for reason of illness or in- jury. The Umpire is master of the Field from the commencement to the termination of the game, and is entitled to the respect of the spectators, and any person offering any insult or indignity to him must be promptly ejected from the grounds. He must be invariably addressed by the players as Mr. Umpire; and he must compel the players to observe the pro- visions of all the Playing Rules, and he is hereby invested with authority to order any player to do OUT-DOOR GAMES. 37/ 15. or omit to do any act as he may deem necessary, to give force and effect to any and all of such pro- visions. The Umpire is the sole and absolute judge of play. In no instance shall any person be al- lowed to question the correctness of any decision made by him on a play, and no player shall leave his position in the field, his place at the bat, on the bases or players’ bench, to approach or address the Umpire, except on an interpretation of the Playing Rules, and only that shall be done by the Captains of the contending nines. No Manager or any other officer of either club shall be permitted to go on the field or address the Umpire, under a penalty of a forfeiture of a game. Before the commencement of a game, the Umpire shall see that the rules gov- erning all the materials of the game are strictly ob- served. He shall ask the Captain of the Home Club whether there are any special ground rules to be enforced, and if there are, he shall see that they are duly enforced, provided they do not conflict with any of these rules. He shall also secure from the Captains of the contesting teams their respective batting orders, which, upon approval, shall be fol- lowed. The Umpire must keep the contesting nines playing constantly from the commencement of the game to its termination, allowing such delays only as are rendered unavoidable by accident, injury or rain. He must, until the completion of the game, re- quire the players of each side to promptly take their positions in the field as soon as the third man is put out, and must require the first striker of the opposite side to be in his position at the bat as soon as the field- ers are in their places. The Umpire shall count and call every “ Unfair Ball ” delivered by the Pitcher, and every “ Dead Ball,” if also an Unfair Ball, as a “Ball,” and he shall also count and call every “Strike.” Neither a “Ball” nor a “Strike” shall be counted or called until the ball has passed the 15. Home Base. He shall also declare every “ Dead Ball,” “Block,” “Foul Hit,” "Foul Strike,” and “ Balk.” For the special benefit of the patrons of the game, and because the offenses specified are under his im- mediate jurisdiction, and not subject to appeal by players, the attention of the Umpire is particularly directed to possible violations of the purpose and spirit of the Rules, of the following character: Laziness or loafing of players in taking their places in the field, or those allotted them by the Rules when their side is at the bat, and especially any failure to keep the bats in the racks provided ior them ; to be ready to take position as Batsmen and to remain upon the Players’ Bench, except when other- wise required by the Rules. Any attempt by players of the side at bat by call- ing to a Fielder, other than the one designated by his Captain, to field a ball, or by any other equally dis- reputable means seeking to disconcert a Fielder. The Rules make a marked distinction between hin- drance of an adversary in fielding a batted or thrown ball. This has been done to rid the game of the childish excuses and claims formerly made by a Fielder failing to hold a ball to put out a Base Run- ner. But there may be cases of a Base Runner so flagrantly violating the spirit of the Rules and of the Game in obstructing a Fielder from fielding a thrown ball that it would become the duty of the Umpire, not only to declare the Base Runner “out” (and to compel Base Runners to return to the bases last held by them), but also to impose a heavy fine upon him. For example : If the Base Runner plainly strike at the ball while passing him, to prevent its being caught by the Fielder; if he holds a Fielder’s arms so as to disable him from catching the ball, or if he run against or knock the Fielder down for the same purpose. 37-® OUT-DOOR GAMES. FULL-SIZED croquet ground should measure 40 yards by 30 yards. Its boundaries should be accurately defined. The Hoops should be of half-inch round iron, and should not be more than 6 inches in width, inside measurement. The crown of the hoop should be at least 12 inches clear ol the ground. A hoop with the crown at right angles to the legs ii to be preferred. The Pegs should be of uniform diameter of not less than inch, and should stand at least 18 inches above the ground. The Balls should be of boxwood, and should not weigh less than 14 ounces each. The Four-Ball Game is recommended for adoption in pref- erence to any other. When odds are given, the Bisque is recommended. A bisque is an extra stroke which may be taken at any time during the game in continuation of the turn. A player re- ceiving a bisque cannot roquet a ball twice in the same turn without making an intermediate point. In other respects, a bisque confers all the advantages of an extra turn. A player receiving two or more bisques cannot take more than one in the same turn. Passing the boundary, or making a foul stroke, does not prevent the player taking a bisque. The following Settings are recommended : No. 1. Eight-H:op Setting. — Distances on a full-sized ground : Pegs 3 yards from boundary ; first and correspond- ing hooo 5 yards from pegs ; center hoops midway between first and sixth hoops, and 5 yards from each other ; corner hoops 6 yards from end of ground, and 5 yards from side. Starting spot 2 feet in front of first hoop, and opposite its Center. . No. 2. Seven-Hoop Setting. — Distances on a full-sized ground : Pegs in center line of ground 8 yards from nearest boundary. Hoops up center line of ground 6 yards from peg, and 6 yards apart ; comer hoops 7 yards from center, and in * line with pegs. Starting spot i£ yard from first hoop in center line of ground. No. 3. Six-Hoop Setting. — Distances on a full-sized ground as in No. 2, except the middle-line hoops 8 yards apart. Start- ing spot I foot from left-hand corner hoop, and opposite Us center. It is essential to match play that bystanders should abstain from walking over the grounds, speaking to the players or the umpires, making remarks upon them aloud, or in any way dis- tracting their attention. DEFINITIONS. A Point is made when a hoop is run, or a peg is hit, in ewder The striker’s hoop or peg in order is the one he has next tc make. A Roquet is made when the striker’s ball is caused by a blow of the mallet to hit another which it has not before hit in the same turn since making a point. The striker’s ball is said to be in play until it roquets another. Having made roquet, it is in hand until croquet is taken. Cro- quet is taken by placing the striker’s ball in contact with the one roqueted, the striker then hitting his own ball with the mallet. The non-striker’s ball, when moved by a croquet, is called the croqueted ball. A Rover is a ball that has made all its points in order except the winning peg. THE LAWS OF CROQUET. 1. Mallets. — There should be no restriction as to the numbei weight, size, shape, or material of the mallets ; nor as to the attitude or position of the striker ; nor as to the part of the mallet held, provided the ball be not struck with the handle, nor the mace stroke used. 2. Size of Balls. — The balls used in match play shall be 3I inches in diameter. 3. Choice of Lead and of Balls. — It shall be decided by lot which side shall have choice of lead and of balls. In a succession of games the choice of lead shall be alternate, the sides keeping the same balls. 4. Commencement of Game. — In commencing, each ball shall be placed on the starting spot (see Settings). The striker’s ball, when so placed and struck, is at once in play, and can roquet another, or be roqueted, whether it has made the first hoop or not. 5. Stroke, when taken. — A stroke is considered to be taken if a ball be moved in the act of striking ; but should a player, in taking aim, move his ball accidentally, it must be re- placed to the satisfaction of the adversary, and the stroke be then taken. If a ball be moved in taking aim, and then struck without being replaced, the stroke is foul (see Law 25). 6. LLoop , when run. — A. ball has run its hoop when having passed through from the playing side and ceased to roll, it cannot be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the side from which it was played. 7. Ball driven partly through Hoop. — A ball driven partly through its hoop from the non-playing side cannot run the hoop at its next stroke, if it can be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the non-play, ing side. 8. Points counted to Non-Striker's Ball. — A ball driven through its hoop, or against the turning peg, by any stroke not foul, whether of its own or of the adverse side, counts the point so made. 9. Points made for Adversary's Ball. — If a point be made for an adversary’s ball, the striker must inform his adversary of it. Should the striker neglect to do so, and the adver sary make the point again, he may continue his tum fa though he had played for his right point. OUT-DOOR GAMES. 379 10. The Turn. — A player, when his turn comes round, may roquet each ball once, and may do this again after each point made. The player continues his turn so long as he makes a point or a roquet. 11. Croquet imperative after Roquet. — A player who roquets a ball must take croquet, and in so doing must move both balls (see Law 25). In taking croquet, the striker is not allowed to place his foot on the ball. 12. Ball in hand after Roquet. — No point or roquet can be made by a ball which is in hand. If a ball in hand dis- place any other balls, they must remain where they are driven. Any point made in consequence of such dis- placement counts, notwithstanding that the ball displac- ing them is in hand. 13. Balls Roqueted simultaneously. — When a player roquets two balls simultaneously, he may choose from which of them he will take croquet ; and a second roquet will be required before he can take croquet from the other ball. 14. Balls found Touching. — If at the commencement of a turn the striker’s ball be found touching another, roquet is deemed to be made, and croquet must be taken at once. 15. Roquet and Hoop made by same Stroke. — Should a ball, in making its hoop, roquet another that lies beyond the hoop, and then pass through, the hoop counts as well as the ro- quet. A ball is deemed to be beyond the hoop if it lies so that it cannot be touched by a straight-edge placed against the wires on the playing side. Should any part of the ball that is roqueted be lying on the playing side of the hoop, the roquet counts, but not the hoop. 16. Pegging out. — If a rover (except when in hand) be caused to hit the winning peg by any stroke of the same side, not foul, the rover is out of the game, and must be removed from the ground. A rover may similarly be pegged out by an adverse rover. 17 Rover pegged out by Roquet. — A player who pegs out a rover by a roquet loses the remainder of his turn. 18. Balls sent off the Ground. — A ball sent off the ground must at once be replaced 3 feet within the boundary, measured from the spot where it went off, and at right angles to the margin. If this spot be already occupied, the ball last sent off is to be placed anywhere in contact with the other, at the option of the player sending off the ball. 19. Ball sent off near Corner. — A ball sent off within 3 feet of a comer is to be replaced 3 feet from both boundaries. 20. Ball touching Boundary. — If the boundary be marked by a line on the turf, a ball touching the line is deemed to have been off the ground. If the boundary be raised, a ball touching the boundary is similarly deemed to have been off the ground. 21. Ball sent off and returning to Ground. — If a ball be sent off the ground, and return to it, the ball must be similarly replaced, measuring from the point of first contact with the boundary. S2. Ball sent within 3 feet of Boundary. — A ball sent within 3 feet of the boundary, but not off the ground, is to be replaced as though it had been sent off — except in the ca..e of the striker’s ball, when the striker has the option of bringing his ball in, or of playing from where it lies. v 23. Boundary interfering with Stroke. — If it be found that' the height of the boundary interferes with the stroke, the striker, with the sanction of the umpire, may bring in the balls a longer distance than 3 feet, so as to allow a free swing of the mallet. Balls so brought in must be moved in the line of aim. 24. Dead Boundary. — If, in taking croquet, the striker send his own ball, or the ball croqueted, off the ground, he loses the remainder of his turn ; bnt if by the same stroke he make a roquet, his ball, being in hand, may pass the boundary without penalty. Should either ball while roll- ing after a croquet be touched or diverted from its course by an opponent, the striker has the option given him by Law 26, and is not liable to lose his turn should the ball which has been touched or diverted pass the boundary. 25. Foul Strokes. — If a player make a foul stroke, he loses the remainder of his turn, and any point or roquet made by such stroke does not count. Balls moved by a foul stroke are to remain where they lie, or be replaced, at the option of the adversary. If the foul be made when tak- ing croquet, and the adversary elect to have the balls re- placed, they must be replaced in contact as they stood when the croquet was taken. The following are foul strokes : (a) To strike with the mallet another ball instead of or beside one’s own in making the stroke. (Q To spoon, i. e., to push a ball without an audible knock. (c) To strike a ball twice in the same stroke. ( d ) To touch, stop, or divert the course of a ball when in play and rolling, whether this be done by the striker or his partner. ( e ) To allow a ball to touch the mallet in rebounding from a peg or wire. (ff) To move a ball which lies close to a peg or wire by striking the peg or wire. (g) To press a ball round a peg or wire (crushing stroke). (h) To play a stroke after roquet without taking cro- quet. (i) To fail to move both balls in taking croquet. (k) To croquet a ball which the striker is not entitled ta croquet. 36. Balls touched by Adversary. — Should a ball when roiling, except it be in hand, be touched, stopped, or diverted from its course by an adversary, the striker may elect whether he will take the stroke again, or whether the ball shall remain where it stopped, or be placed where, in the judgment of the umpire, it would have rolled to. 27. Balls stopped or diverted by Umpire. — Should a bali be stopped or diverted from its course by an umpire, he is to place it where he considers it would have rolled to. 28. Playing out of Turn, or with the Wrong Ba/t.—li e player play out of tum, or with the wrong ball, the re- mainder of the tum k lost, and any point or roquet made after the mistake. The balls remain where they lie when 3*o OUT-DOOR GAMES. ' the penalty is claimed, or are replaced as they were before the last stroke was made, at the option of the adversary. But if the adverse side play without claiming the penalty, the turn holds good, and any point or points made after the mistake are scored to the ball by which they have been made — that is, the ball is deemed to be for the point next in order to the last point made in the turn — except when the adversary’s ball has been played with, in which case the points are scored to the ball which ought to have been played with. If more than one ball be played with during the turn, all points made during the turn, whether before or after the mistake, are scored to the ball last played with. Whether the penalty be claimed or not, the adversary may follow with either ball of his own side. 29. Playing for Wrong Point. — If a player make a wrong point it does not count, and therefore — unless he have, by the same stroke, taken croquet, or made a roquet — all subsequent strokes are in error, the remainder of turn is lost, and any point or roquet made after the mistake. The balls remain where they lie when the penalty is claimed, or are replaced as they were before the last stroke was made, at the option of the adversary. But if the player make another point, or the adverse side play, before the penalty is claimed, the turn holds good ; and the player who made the mistake is deemed to be for the point next in order to that which he last made. 30. Information as to Score. — Every player is entitled to be informed which is the next point of any ball. 31. State of Game, if disputed. — When clips are used, their position, in case of dispute, shall be conclusive as to the position of the balls in the game. 32. Wires knocked out of Ground. — Should a player, in trying to run his. hoop, knock a wire of that hoop out of the ground with his ball, the hoop does not count. The ball must be replaced, and the stroke taken again ; but if by the same stroke a roquet be made, the striker may elect whether he will claim the roquet or have the balls re- placed. 33. Pegs or Hoops not Upright. — Any player may set upright a peg or hoop, except the one next in order ; and that must not be altered except by the umpire. 34. Ball lying in a Hole or on Bad Ground. — A ball lying in a hole or on bad ground may be removed with the sanc- tion of the umpire. The ball must be put back — i. e., away from the object aimed at — and so as not to alter the line of aim. 35. Umpires. — An umpire shall not give his opinion, or no- tice any error that may be made, unless appealed to by one of the players. The decision of an umpire, when ap- pealed to, shall be -final. The duties of an umpire are — (c) To decide matters in dispute during the game, if ap- pealed to. (I) To keep the score, and, if asked by a player, to dis- close the state of it. (r) To move the clips, or to see that they are properly moved. ( d) To replace balls sent off the ground, or to see that they are properly replaced. (e) To adjust the hoops or pegs not upright, or to see that they are properly adjusted. 36. Absence of Umpire. — When there is no umpire present, permission to move a ball, or to set up a peg or hoop, or other indulgence for which an umpire would be appealed to. must be asked of the other side. 37. Appeal to Referee. — Should an umpire be unable to decide any point at issue, he may appeal to the referee, whose decision shall be final ; but no player may appeal to the referee from the decision of an umpire. 6 . HE Ball must weigh not less than 5Joz.,nor more than 5I oz. It must measure not less than 9^ inches in circumference. At the beginning of each innings either party may call for a new ball. The Bat must not exceed 4I inches in the widest part ; it must not be more than 38 inches in length. 3. The Stumps must be three in number, 27 inches out of the ground ; the bails 8 inches in length ; the stumps of equal and sufficient thickness to prevent the ball from passing through. The Bowling-crease must be in a line with the stumps, 6 feet 8 inches in length, the stumps in the center, with a return-crease at each end towards the bowler at right angles. The Popping-crease must be 4 feet from the wicket, and parallel to it ; unlimited in length, but not shorter than the bowling-crease. The Wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by the umpires, at the distance of 22 yards. It shall not be lawful for either party, during a match, without the consent of the other, to alter the ground by rolling, watering, covering, mowing, or beating, except at the commencement of each innings, when the ground may be swept and rolled at the request of either party, such request to be made to one of the umpires within one min- ute after the conclusion of the former innings. This rule is not meant to prevent the striker from beating the ground with his bat near to the spot where he stands dur- ing the innings ; nor to prevent the bowler filling up holes with sawdust etc., when the ground is wet. After rain the wickets may be changed with the consent of both parties. The Bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground behind the bowling-crease and within the return-crease, and shall bowl four ball s before tan OUT-DOOR GAML~ 3 8 i change wickets, which he shall be permitted to do only once in the same innings. jo. The ball must be bowled. If thrown or jerked, the um- pire shall call “ No ball.” 11. He may require the striker at the wicket from which he is bowling to stand on that side of it which he may direct. 12. If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker’s head, or bowl it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall not be fairly within the reach of the batsman, he shall ad- judge one run to the party receiving the innings, either with or without an appeal, which shall be put down to the score of “wide balls.” Such ball shall not be reck- oned as one of the four balls ; but if the batsman shall by any means bring himself within reach of the ball, the run shall not be adjudged. 13. If the bowler deliver a “ no ball ” or a “ wide ball ” the striker shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and he shall not be put out, except by running out. In the event of no run being obtained by any othei means, then one run shall be added to the score of no balls, or wide balls, as the case may be. All runs obtained for wide balls to be scored for wide balls. The names of the bowl- ers who bowl wide balls and no balls in future to be placed on the score, to show the parties by whom either score is made. If the ball shall first touch any part of the striker’s dress or person, except his hands, the umpire shall call “ leg-bye." 14. At the beginning of each innings the umpire shall call “ Play ! ” From that time to the end of each innings no trial ball shall be allowed to any bowler. 15. The Striker is out if either of the bails be bowled off, or if a stump be bowled out of the ground ; 16. Or if the ball, from the stroke of the bat or hand, but not the wrist, be held before it touch the ground, although it be hugged to the body of the catcher ; 17. Or if, in striking, or any other time while the ball shall be in play, both his feet shall be over the popping-crease and his wicket put down, except his bat be grounded within it ; 18. Or if, in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket ; 19. Or if, under pretense oftunning or otherwise, either of the strikers prevent a ball from being caught, the striker of the ball is out ; 20. Or if the ball be struck and he wilfully strike it again ; 21. Or if, in running, the wicket be struck down by a throw, or by the hand or arm (with ball in hand), before his bat (in hand) or some part of his person be grounded over the popping-crease. But, if both the b?.:ls be off, a stump must be struck out of the ground ; 22. Or if any part of the striker’s dress knock down the wicket ; 23. Or if the striker touch or take up the ball while in play, unless at the request of the opposite party ; 24. Or if with any part of his person he stop the ball, which, in the opinion of the umpire at the bowler’s wicket, shall have been pitched in a straight line from it to the striker’s wicket, and would have hit. 25. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs foi tbe wicket which is put down is out. 26. A ball being caught, no run shall be reckoned. 27. A striker being out, that run which he and his partnei were attempting shall not be reckoned. 28. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six runs ; but if more than six shall have been called, then the striker shall have all that have been run. 29. After the ball shall have been finally settled in the wick- et-keeper’s or bowler’s hands, it shall be considered dead; but when the bowler is about to deliver the ball, if the striker at his wicket go outside the popping-crease before su'' 1 actual delivery, the said bowler may put him out, unless (with reference to Law 21) his bat in hand, or some part of his person, be within the popping-crease. 30. The striker shall not retire from his wicket, and return to it to complete his innings, after another has been in, with- out the consent of the opposite party. 31. No substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out or run between wickets for another person without the con- sent of the opposite party ; and in case any person shall be allowed to run for another, the striker shall be out if either he or his substitute be ofl the ground, in manner mentioned in Laws 17 and 21, while the ball is in play. 32. In all cases where a substitute shall be allowed, the con- sent of the opposite party shall also be obtained as to the person to act as substitute, and the place in the field which he shall take. 33. If any fieldsman stop the ball with his hat, the ball shall be considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five runs to their score ; if any be run, they shall have five in all. 34. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket with his bat, or with any part of his body except his hands, that Law 23 may not be disobeyed. 35. The wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose of stumping until it shall have passed the wicket ; he shall not move until the ball be out of the bowler’s hand ; he shall not by any noise incommode the striker ; and if any part of his person be over or before the wicket, although the ball hit it, the striker shall not be out 36. The umpires are the sole judges of fair or unfair play, and all disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own wicket ; but in case of a catch which the umpire at the wicket bowled from cannot see sufficiently to decide upon it, he may apply to the other umpire, whose decision shall be conclusive. 37. The umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets, and the parties shall toss up for choice of innings. The um- pires shall change wickets after each party has had one innings. 38. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in, and ten minutes between each innings, when the umpire shall call “ play.” The party refusing to play shall lose the match. 39. They are not to order a striker out, unless appealed toby the adversaries ; 40. But if one of the bowler’s feet be not on the ground be- 382 OUT-DOOR GAMES. hind the bowling-crease and within the return-crease when he shall deliver the ball, the umpire at his wicket, un- asked, must call “no ball.” 41. If either of the strikers run a short run, the umpire must call “one short.” 42. No umpire shall be allowed to bet. 43. No umpire is to be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both parties, except in case of violation of Law 42 ; then either party may dismiss the transgressor. 44. After the delivery of four balls the umpire must call “ over,” but not until the ball shall be finally settled in wicket-keeper’s hands : the ball shall then be considered dead. Nevertheless, if an idea be entertained that either of the strikers is out, a question maybe put previously to, but not after, the delivery of the next ball. 45. The umpire must take especial care to call “ no ball ” in- stantly upon delivery, and “wide ball ” as soon as it shall pass the striker. 46. The players who go in second shall follow their innings if they have obtained 80 runs less than their antagonists, except in all matches limited to only one day’s play, when the number of runs shall be limited to 60 instead of 80. 47. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use of the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker shall come in. THE LAWS OF SINGLE WICKET. 9. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket. 10. Not more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball. OBSERVATIONS ON RULES. DOUBLE WICKET. Rules 3, 4 and 5 — The accompanying diagram will explain, better than many words, the arrangement and method of marking the various creases, which are usually marked out on the turf with a mixture of chalk or whiting and water. 3 A s s s -000- 8 in. 3 A 1 r. e P Unlimited. O jsi, the Stumps (the three together forming the Wicket ) ; B. C. the Bowling-crease ; r. c. the Returning-crease ; P. C. the Popping-crease. I. When there shall be less than five players on a side, bounds shall be placed 22 yards each in a line from the off and leg stump. 3 . The ball must be hit before the bounds, to entitle the striker to run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling-stump or crease in a line with his bat, or some part of his person, or go beyond them, returning to the popping-crease, as at double wicket, according to Law 21. 3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on the ground and behind the popping-crease ; other- wise the umpire shall call “no hit.” 4. When there shall be less than five players on a side, neither byes nor overthrows shall be allowed ; nor shall the striker be caught out behind the wicket, nor stumped out. 5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the play between the wicket and the bowling-stump, or between the bowling-stump and the bounds ; the striker may run till the ball be so returned. 6. After the striker shall have made one run, if he start again, he must touch the bowling-stump and turn before the ball cross the play, to entitle him to another. 7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the same number for ball stopped with bat, with ref- erence to Laws 28 and 23 of double wicket. 8. When there shall be more than four players on a side, there shall be no bounds. All hits, byes and overthrows shall then be allowed. It is well to practice always with the creases duly marked, and in strict observance of all rules connected with them, as the mind thus forms a habit of unconscious conformity to them, and the player is not embarrassed, as too many are when they come to play in an actual match, by the necessity of keep- ing a watch over his feet as well as over the ball. Many a good bat, especially amongst boys, allows himself to be cramped in his play in this very unsatisfactory manner. The purposes of the several creases are as follows : The Bowling-crease marks the nearest spot to the striker from which the bowler may deliver the ball. The Return-crease prevents the bowler from delivering the ball at an unreasonable distance laterally from the wicket ; and the two together mark out within sufficiently exact limits the precise spot from which the striker may expect the ball. The Popping-crease, while giving the striker ample space to work in, puts a check upon any attempt to get unduly for- ward to meet the ball ; it forms, too, a distinct and convenient mark by which to judge of a man’s being on his ground, and of his having run the requisite distance between wickets. It is unlimited, to avoid the confusion between strikers and fieldsmen, which must inevitably be of constant recurrence were the strikers required to run directly from wicket to wicket. Rule 13. — “ All inns obtained from wide balls to be scored to wide balls.” This does not include hits, as, by the latter part of Rule 12, “ if the batsman bring himself within reach of the ball, the wide does not count.” Hits, therefore, mada o 6 wide ball* score to tke tirikor. OUT-DOOR GAMES. 3 8 3 Rule 17. — The popping-crease itself, it must b& remembered, does not form part of the ground ; the bat or part of the body must, therefore, be inside it ; on it is not sufficient to meet the requirements of the rule : if the bat or some portion of the body be not on the ground inside the crease when the wickets are put down, the player is out. Rule 20. — The striker may block or knock the ball away from his wicket after he has played it, if that be necessary to keep it from the stumps. The rule only forbids striking it a second time with intent to make runs. SINGLE WICKET. The accompanying diagram shows the ground marked out for single wicket with less than five players on a side ; y / 22 Yds. W y the Bowling-stump, Crease, &c.; W. the Wickets, with Popping- crease, as in double wicket ; b b. the Boundaries. Rule 2. — “ Hit before the bounds ’’means that the ball, after leaving the bat, must first touch the ground in front of the line marked by the two bounds, which line, by the way, is, like the popping-crease, supposed to extend inimitably either way. Single wicket is chiefly valuable in dearth of sufficient play- ers to form an adequate field at double wicket. It is so infe- rior in interest to double wicket, that it is hardly ever played, unless when the latter is impracticable. A good game at single wicket, though, where only a few players have met for practice, is far better, and infinitely more improving, than any amount of the desultory knocking about which is usual on such occasions. For a player deficient in driv- ing and forward hitting of all kinds the practice it affords is in- valuable, and to such a good course of single wicket is strongly recommended. Implements. — A few words upon the choice of bats, balls, gloves, etc. Too much pains cannot be taken by a cricketer in thus providing his outfit. None but experienced hands can estimate the vital importance of attention to all such details : that the bat is the right weight and size, and properly bal- anced ; that the gloves, shoes, pads, etc., are perfect in their fit and appointments ; in fine, that the player stands at the wicket or in the field fully equipped for the fray, yet in nowise impeded or hindered by ill-fitting garments, clunv-v shoes, or cumbersome pads. First, then, for the bat. This is limited in Rule 2 both as to length and width ; but the thickness and weight are left to the fancy and capacity of the player. In a general way, a tall man can use a heavier bat than a short one. About 2 pounds is a fair weight for a player of middle height and ordinary muscular development. Although it is a great mistake to play with too heavy a bat — for nothing so cramps the style, and so entirely does away with that beautiful wrist-play which is the ne plus ultra of good batting, as attempting to play with a bat of a weight above one’s powers — yet extreme lightness is still more to be depre- cated : it is useless for hard hitting, and can therefore do little in the way of run-getting against a good field ; “ shooters,’ too, will be apt to force their way past its impotent defense. The points most to be looked for in a bat are these : First, weight suited to the player. The young player should play with a heavier bat every year, until he attains to his full stat- ure. Don’t let him think it “ manly ” to play with a full-sized bat before he is thoroughly up to the weight and size ; it is much more manly to make a good score. Secondly, good thickness of wood at the drive and lower end of the bat, i. e. , at the last six inches or so. Thirdly, balance. Badly balanced bats give a sensation as of a weight attached to them when they are wielded, while a well-balanced one plays easily in the hand. Experience alone can teach the right feel of a bat. The outward appearance of a bat must not always be taken as a certain indication of its inherent merits : varnish and careful getting up may hide many a defect. There are many fancies, too, in favor of different grains : a good knot or two near the lotver end is generally a good sign ; but, after all, nothing but actual trial of each several “bit of willow” can decide its real merits or defects. Last, but not least, the handle is a very important consider ation. Cane handles, pure and simple, or in composition with ash or other materials, are the best : some prefer oval handles, some round. The handle should, at least, be as thick as the player can well grasp : a thick handle greatly adds to the driving power of the bat ; it is also naturally stronger, and therefore more lasting. A good youth’s bat costs about eight shillings. It should be remembered that a good bat, like good wine; improves with keeping. In purchasing balls, wickets, and other needful “ plant,” it will be found better economy to pay a little more in the be- ginning, and thus get a good article. With reasonable care, such first-class goods will last out whole generations of the more cheaply got-up articles, and prove more satisfactory throughout into the bargain. In choosing wickets, attention must be paid to two points ; first, that each stump be perfectly straight ; and, secondly, that it be free from flaws or knots. The least weakness is sure to be found out sooner or later. Great attention should be paid to the bails, that they are exactly of the right size, especially that they are not too long. The least projection beyond the groove in the stump may make all the difference between “out ’’and “notout” — bo tween, perhaps, winning a match and losing it. 3«4 OUT-DOOR GAMES. 1 Stumps and bails, with ordinary care, ought to last a very long time. The chief thing to guard against is their lying about in the wet, or being put away damp ; moisture is very apt to warp them. So that the gloves and pads fit , the player may be left pretty much to his own discretion in selecting a pattern. Vulcanized India-rubber is the best for gloves. Spiked or nailed shoes are a necessity. The player may please himself in the vexed question of spikes v. nails. Many players keep two pairs of shoes — with spikes for wet and slippery ground, with nails for dry ground. It is hardly worth while for a boy in the rapid-growing stage to set up a regularly built pair of cricketing-shoes an admir- able substitute may be found, though, in the ordinary canvas shoes, as used for rackets, etc., price half-a-crown ; a few nails will make them answer all the purposes of the more legitimate article. Parents and guardians may be informed that a proper cos- tume of flannel and shoes is actually better economy than condemning a boy to play in his ordinary clothes ; and for this reason — flannels are made to suit the exigencies of the game : loose where they should be loose, and vice versd, with- out regard to the exigencies of fashion ; they are cheaper, and are, nevertheless, more lasting, than ordinary cloth clothes ; they never get shabby, will wash when dirty, and will carry a darn or patch without detriment to their dignity ; they are not injured by perspiration or wet ; and, above all, they are great preservatives against colds and other ailments. Shoes may put in much the same claim. Cricket is marvel- ously destructive to the ordinary walking-boot ; is it not, then, better to substitute a cheaper and more durable article ? In choosing spikes, care should be taken to obtain good length and small diameter ; a squat, clumsy spike is an awful nuisance. If nails be the choice, they should not be put much nearer than at intervals of an inch, otherwise they will be liable to clog. If men play cricket, let that cricket be their very best ; any little extra trouble at first will be more than repaid by the results. It is not given to every man to be a first-rate crick- eter ; but most men might play far better than they do, and many men, who now hardly deserve the name of players, might, with very little expenditure of trouble in their younger days, have been now men of mark in the cricketing world. Be it remembered, then, that there is a right -way to per- form each function of cricket, and a wrong way , or perhaps I 'should rather have said, innumerable wrong ways. Now, this right way will hardly come of itself : cricket, by the light of nature only, would be a prodigy indeed. The beginner must, therefore, first ascertain what this right way is, and thenceforth strive continually to practice and perfect him- self in it, whether it be in batting, bowling, or fielding, until habit has become a second nature. And not only must the learner cultivate good habits, he must diligently eschew all bad ones ; for bad habits are wonderfully easy of acquirement, but, once acquired, can hardly ever be completely shaken off. It is all very well to say, “ I know the right way, and that Tk enough,” and then, from sheer laziness or indifference, go the wrong ; but when it comes to the point of practical expo, rience, it will be found that the bad habit will have an uiv comfortable knack of coming into play at critical moments, just when it is least desired. For cricket, it should be remembered, is a series of sur- prises. Give a man time to think, and he can decide between the right way and the wrong ; but time to think is just the very thing a man does not get at cricket : instant, unhesitat- ing action is his only chance. If he has habituated himself to one only method of action, he must, he can , only act in accordance with it ; but if there be several conflicting habits, who shall say which shall be the one that comes first to hand in an emergency ? Let the young cricketer, then — and the old one, too, for the matter of that — make this his rule and study, to make every ball he bowls, he bats, or he fields, one link more in the chain of good habits, one step farther on the road to success. eturn your partners lead directly : — When you win with the Ace, and can return an honor ; for then it will greatly strengthen his hand. When he leads a trump, in which case return the best re- maining in your hand unless you hold four. An exception to this arises if the lead is through an honor. When your partner has trumped out ; for then it is evident he wa..ts to make his strong suit. When you have no good card in any other suit ; for then you are entirely dependent on your partner. In the following instances it is proper that you should NOT re- turn your partner’s lead immediately . — When you win with the King, Queen, or Knave, and have only small cards remaining. The return of a small card will more distress than strengthen your partner’s hand. When you hold a good sequence ; for then you may make tricks and not injure his hand. When you have a strong suit. Leading from a strong suit is a direction to your partner and cannot injure him. When you have a good hand ; for in this case you have a right to consult your own hand, and not your partner’s. When you hold five trumps ; for then you are warranted to play trumps if you think it right. When, in fine, you can insure two or three tricks, play them, and then return the lead. With a leading hand, it is well to play your own game. THE FINISH. The most important part of a game at Whist is the Finish - — the last two or three tricks. Be careful how you play, or you may make a bad ending to a good beginning. Loose Card. — If you hold three winning cards and a loose one, play the latter, and trust to your partner. Loose Trujnp and Tenace. — Holding these, play the loose trump. King and the Lead. — If you hold a King, and a loose card, the best plan is to play the last, so that your partner may lead up to your King. Long Trumps. — If you hold three it is best to lead the small, est ; by this means you give your partner a chance of making tricks, and still hold a commanding card in your own hand. It is not well to play out the King card. Third Hand with King , lAc. — “ Supposing," says Coelebs, “ ten tricks being made, you remain with King, Ten, and another. If second hand plays an honor, cover it ; otherwise finesse the Ten for a certain trick. If you want two tricks play your King. ” Running a Card. — The same authority says — “ With such cards as Knave, Nine, Eight, against Ten guarded, by ‘ run- ning’ the Eight you make every trick.” STRENGTH IN TRUMPS. The following hands arc given by Hoyle to demonstrate what is known as being strong in trumps : — Ace, King, and three small trumps. King, Queen, and three small trumps. Queen, Ten, and three small trumps. Queen and four small trumps Knave and four small trumps. Five trumps without an honor must win two tricks if led. FORCING YOUR PARTNER. You are justified in forcing your partner if you hold— Ace and three small trumps. King and three small trumps. Queen and three small trumps. Knave and four small trumps. Five trumps. CALCULATIONS FOR BETTING. At Long Whist. It is about five to four that your partner holds one card out of any two. Five to two that he holds one card out of any three. Two to one that he does not hold a certain named card. Three to one that he does not hold two out of three named cards in a suit. Three to two that he does not hold two cards out of any four named. ^ Five to one that your partner holds one winning card. Four to one that he holds two. Three to one that he holds three. Three to two that he holds four. Four to six that he holds five. BETTING THE ODDS. The odds on the rubber are five to two in favor of the deal ers generally. GAMES OF CARDS. 405 With the first game the deal, are — secured the odds on the rubber, ' 1 to love about 7 to 2 2 — — 4 — I 3 ~ — 9 — 2 4 — — 5 — I 5 ~ — 6 — I At any part of the game, except at the points of eight or nine, the odds are in proportion to the number of points required to make the ten required. Thus, if A wants four and B six of the game, the odds are six to four in favor of A. If A wants three and B five, the odds are seven to five on A win- ning the game. Against honors being divided, the odds are about three to two against either side, though the dealers have certainly the best chance. The following, calculated strictly, are the ODDS ON THE GAME WITH THE DEAL. I love is 11 to 10 4 to 3 is 7 to 6 2 love — 5 — 4 5 — 3 — 7 — 5 3 love — 3 — 2 6 — 3 — 7 — 4 4 love — 7 — 4 7 — 3 — 7 — 3 5 love — 2 — 1 8 — 3 — 7 — 2 6 love — 5 — 2 9 — 3 — * 3 — 1 7 love — 7 — 2 8 love I 9 love — 9 — 2 5 6 to 4 4 is 6 6 to 5 4 1 to I is 9 to 8 7 8 4 4 2 3 1 1 3 — I — 9 9 — J 6 9 — 4 — 5 — ■ 2 4 — I — 9 — 5 5 — I — 9 — 4 6 to P is 5 to 4 6 — I — 3 — 1 7 — 5 — 5 — 3 7 — I — 9 — 2 8 — 5 — 5 — 2 S — I — 4 — 1 9 — 5 — 2 — 1 3 to 2 is 8 to 7 7 to 6 is 4 to 3 4 — 2 4 3 8 6 . 2 I 5 6 — 2 — 2 8 2 5 1 9 — 6 — 7 — 4 7 — 2 — 8 — 3 — 8 — 2 — 4 — 1 8 to 7 is 3 to 2 9 — 2 — 7 — 2 9 — 7 — 12 — 8 Honors counting at eight points and not at nine, the odds are slightly in favor of the players at eight. It is usual for the players at eight points, with the deal, to bet six to five on the game. It is about an even bet, if honors are not claimed at eight points, that the dealers win. As a disinterested piece of advice, however, let me add — Don't bet at all. AT SHORT WHIST. The following are the generally-accepted odds, but it must be remembered that in respect of betting the chances in Short Whist do not greatly differ from those of the old and, as I think, much superior game. ON THE GAME WITH THE DEAL. At starting, the odds are about 11 to 10, or perhaps 21 to 20, in favor of the dealers. With an honor turned up, the odds are nearly a point greater in favor of the dealers. 1 to love is about 10 to 8 2 — 5—3 3 — 3 - x 4 — 4 — 1 2 to I is about 5 to 4 3 — 2 — 2 — 1 3 — 3 — ri — to 4 — 3 — 9—7 ON THE RUBBER WITH THE DEAL. 1 to love is about 7 to 4 2 — 2 — I 3 — 9—2 4 — 5—x The following are given as mere matters of curiosity : It is 50 to 1 against the dealer holding 7 trumps, neithef more nor less. 15 to 1 against his holding 6 trumps. 8 to 1 against his holding exactly 5. 3 to 2 against his holding exactly 4. 5 to 2 in favor of his holding 3 trumps or more trumps. II to 2 in favor of his holding 2 or more trumps. 30 to 1 against his holding only the I trump turned up. Against any non-dealer holding any specified number of trumps. 100 to 1 against his holding exactly 7. 30 to 1 “ “ 6. 15 to 1 ** “ 5 - 5 to I II “ 4 - 3 to 2 «4 “ 3 - 5 to 2 in favor of his holding 2 or more. 50 to 1 in favor of his holding 1 trump or more. Against the dealer holding 13 trumps it is calculated to to 158,753.389.899 to I- Against his holding 12 trumps, 338,493,367 to I. Against his holding 11 trumps, 3,000,000 to I. Against his holding 10 trumps, 77,000 to I. Against his holding 9 trumps, 3,500 to I. Against his holding 8 trumps, 320 to 1. Against his holding 7 trumps, 50 to 1. These figures are, however, of but small practical utility in Whist, from the simple fact that nowadays such odds are seldom or never offered or taken. Whist is not a game to gamble at. SHORT WHIST, DUMMY, DOUBLE DUMMY, etc. THE LAWS OF SHORT WHIST. 1. The game consists of five points. Ona point scored saves the triple game ; three points, a double. The rubber is reckoned as two points. [Eight points may therefore be gained In a single rubber.] 2. Honors cannot be “ called ” at any part of the game, and do not count at the point of four. [In all other respects, honors are reckoned as in Long Whist.] 4o6 GAMES OF CARDS. The two highest and two lowest are partners, the lowest cut having the deal. [The cards are to be shuffled and cut in precisely the same way as in the old-fashioned game.] 4 An exposed card necessitates a fresh deal. 5. In cases -of misdeal, the deal passes to the next player. [Misdeals occur from precisely the same causes as in Long Whist, and need not therefore, be stated.] 6. No questions as to either hand can be asked after the trick is turned. [Nor are any questions except those admissible in the other game to be asked.] 7. Any card played out of turn, or shown accidentally, can be called. 8. A revoke is subject to the penalty of three tricks. [Taken as in Long Whist.] 9. The side making the revoke remains at four, in whatever way the penalty be enforced. 10. Lookers-on must not interfere unless appealed to by the majority of the players. It is not necessary to dilate upon the best method of playing each ceparate hand at this game, because whatever is useful and true at Long Whist is equally useful and true at Short Whist. “ The peculiarities of the short game,” says a recent writer, “ call for special appliances. This should act as stim- ulants to the player, and rouse his energy. But what these special appliances are it is difficult to discover, seeing that the two games are identical in everything but length. The only advantage of the short game lies in the more forcible use that can be ir. de of trumps. “ Trumps,” says Carleton, “ should be your rifle company ; use them liberally in your manoeuvers ; have copious reference to them in finessing, to enable you to maintain x long suit. Should you be weak in trumps, ruff a doubtful card at all times ; with a command in them, be very chary of that policy. Let your great principle always be to keep the control of your adversaries’ suit, and leave that of your partner free. If you see the probable good effect of fo.cing, decide which of your adversaries you will assail, but do not attempt them both at once. Let it be the stronger if possible. When you force both hands opposed to you, one throws away his useless cards ; while the chance is, the other makes trumps that, under other circumstances, would have been sacrificed.” And so, et cetera ad infinitum. Deschapel- les, who is the French Hoyle without his science, but with double his power of writing, says of Short Whist “ When we consider the social feelings it engenders, the pleasure and vi- vacity it promotes, and the advantages it offers to the less skill- ful player, we cannot help acknowledging that Short Whist is a decided improvement upon the old game.” All this is, however, open to argument ; and therefore de gustibus non esc. DUMBY, OR THREE-HANDED WHIST. This game is precisely the same as Long Whist, only that one player takes two hands, one of which he holds in the usual manner, and the other he spreads open on the table. The rules are the same. Atcolher Game is played by three persons, in which two Nines and Fours, and one of the Five is cast out from the pack, and each player plays on his own account. A Third Way of playing three-handed Whist is to reject the fourth hand altogether, and allow it to remain unseen on the table. Each player then takes the miss, or unseen hand, in exchange for his own, if he thinks fit. Each player stands on his cards, and the best hand must win. There is, however, room for finesse, and the player who sees two hands — the miss, and that first dealt to him — has an undeniable advantage. TWO-HANDED WHIST. This game is either played as Double Dumby, by exposing two hands and playing as with four players, or by rejecting two hands and each player making the best he can of his own hand. In these games each honor counts as one point in the game. There is but small room for skill in any of the im- perfect Whist games, and the player who is acquainted with the real old-fashioned game need not be told how to play his cards at Dumby or French Humbug. At best these games are inferior to Cribbage, Ecarte’, All-Fours, or any of the regular two-handed games. UCHRE is played with a pack of thirty-two cards, all below the Seven being rejected. Two, three, or four persons may play, but the lour-handed game is the best. THE DEAL. The players having cut for deal the pack is shuffled and the player to the right of the dealer cuts. The deal is executed by giving five cards to each player. The dealer gives two cards at a lime to each in rotation, begin- ning with the player to his left ; he then gives three cards at a time to each, or vice versa. In which ever manner the dealei commences to distribute the cards, he must continue ; he must not deal two to the first, three to the next, and so on. Aftei each player has received five cards, the dealer turns up the next card for tramps, and places it face upward on top of the stock. The right to deal passes successively to the left. At the outset of the game each player cuts for the deal, and the lowest cut deals. In a tie, the parties tied cut again. Th* players cutting the two highest cards play against those cut- ting the two lowest. In cutting, the Ace is lowest, and the other cards rank as at Whist. Should a player expose more than one card, he must COJ again. GAMES OF CAFES. 407 The cards may be shuffled by any player who demands that privilege, but the dealer has always the right to shuffle last. The cards must be cut by the right-hand opponent before they are dealt. A cut must not be less than four cards removed from the top, nor must it be made so as to leave less than four cards at the bottom ; and the pack must be put on the table for the cat. RANK. The cards in suits, not trumps, rank as at Whist, the Ace being the highest, the Seven the lowest. When a suit is trump, the cards rank differently. The Knave of the suit turned up is called the right Bower, and is the highest trump. The other Knave of the same color (black or red, as the case may be) is called the left Bower, and is the next highest trump. HOW TO ORDER UP, ASSIST, PASS, AND TAKE UP. When the trump is turned, the player to the left of the dealer examines his hand to determine his plans. lie may either order rp the trump, or pass. If he thinks his cards are strong enough to win three tricks, he says, “ I order it up.” The dealer then discards one card from his hand, and puts it under the stock, face downward, and die trump caiu belongs to the dealer, instead of the card he discarded. If the elder. t hand is not satisfied with his cards, he says, “ I pass.” If the eldest hand pass, the partner cf the dealer then has the option of declaring what he will do, and he may either assist his partner, or pass If his hand is strong enough, with the help of the trump his partner has turned, to win three tricks, he says, “ I assist,” and his partner discards as before, and the trump card belongs to him. If the partner of the dealer has a weak hand, he says, “ I pass,” and the third player, that is, the player next to the right of the dealer, has the option of saying what he will do. The third player proceeds exactly as the eldest hand, and, if he pass, the dealer has the next say. If all the ether players pass the dealer may either take up the trump, or pass. If his hand is strong enough to take three tricks he says, “ I take it up.” The dealer then discards the weakest card from his hand, and takes the trump card instead. If the dealer has a weak hand, he says, “ I turn it down,” and, at the same time, places the trump card face upward under the stock. If the dealer turns down the trump, the eldest hand has the option of naming any suit (except the one turned down) for trumps, or of passing again. If he pass, he says, “ I pass the making.” If the eldest hand pass the making, the partner of the dealer then has the option of making the trump, and so on in rota- tion up to and including the dealer. If all the players, including the dealer, decline to make the trump, a fresh deal takes place, and the eldest hand deals. If either side adopt (play with the suit turned up for trumps or make the trump, the play of the hand commences. When the trump is made of the same color as the turn up (that is, black, if the turn up is black, or red, if it is red), it is called making it next in suit. If the trump is made of a different color from the turn up, it is called crossing the suit. WHEN TO PLAY IT ALONE. If a player holds a hand so strong that he has a reliable hope of taking all five tricks without the assistance of his partner, he may play alone. If he plays without his partner, he says, “/ play alone.” His partner then places his cards face downward on the table, and makes no sign. If the eldest hand order up, or make the trump either he or his partner may play alone. If the dealer’s partner assist, or make the trump, either he or the dealer may play alone. If the player tc the right of the dealer order up or make the trump, he may play alone (but his partner cannot). If the dealer take up or make a trump, he may play alone (but his partner cannot). A player cannot play alone after having passed a trump, or passed the making of a trump. A player cannot play alone when the opposing side adopt or make the trump ; nor can he play alone unless he announce his intentions to do so before he or the opposing side make a lead. THE PLAY. The eldest hand leads a card and each player in rotation plays a carl *o the lead. The four cards tlfj played consti- tute a trick. A player must follow suit if he can, but if not able to follow suit he may play any card he chooses. The highest card of the suit 'ead wins the trick ; trumps win all other suits. The winner of the trick leads to the next, and so on until the five tricks are played. the score. The game is five points. If the side who adopt, or make a trump, win all five tricks, they make a march, and score two. If they win three tricks, they make the point, and score one. Four tricks count no more than three tricks. If they fail to take three tricks they arc enckered, and tha opposing side scores two points. When a player plays alone and takes all five tricks, he scores four points. If he takes three tricks he scores one point. If he fails to take three tricks he is euchered, and the opposing side score two points. By some rules to euchre a lone hand counts the opposing side four points. Cards are used in marking game. The face of the Three being up, and the face of the Four down on it. counts one, whether one, two, or three pips are exposed ; the face of the GAMES OF CARDS. 408 Four being up, and the Three over it, face down, counts two, whether one, two, three, or four of the pips are shown ; the face of the Three uppermost counts three ; and the face of the Four uppermost counts four. GOLDEN MAXIMS. Never lose sight of the state of the game. When you are four and four, adopt or make the trump upon a weak hand. When the game stands three to three, reflect before you adopt or make a trump upon a weak hand, for a euchre will put your adversaries out. When your are one and your opponents have scored four, you can afford to try and make it alone upon a weaker hand than if the score were more in your favor. When you are eldest hand and the score stands four for you and one for your opponents, do not fail to order up the trump, to prevent them from playing alone. This is called a “ Bridge.” You need not do this if you hold the Right Bower, or the Left Bower guarded. Never trump your partner’s winning cards, but throw your losing and single cards upon them. If your partner adopts or makes the trump, and you hold the Right or Left Bower alone, ruff with it as soon as you can get the opportunity. When playing second, be careful how you ruff a card of a small denomination the first time round, for it is an even chance that your partner will be able to take the trick if you let it pass. Throw away any single card lower than an Ace, so that you may ruff the suit you throw away when it is led. When your partner assists, and you hold a card next higher to the turn-up card, ruff with it when an opportunity occurs, for by so doing you give your partner information of value. When you are in the position of third player, ruff with high or medium trumps. When your partner leads a lay Ace, and you have none of that suit, do not trump it ; but if you have a single card, throw it away upon it. When second hand, if compelled to follow suit, head the trick if possible, to strengthen your partner’s game. When you cannot follow suit or trump, dispose of your weakest card. When opposed to a person playing it alone, be careful how you separate two cards of the same suit. Be cautious how you separate your trumps when you hold the Left Bower guarded. When it comes your turn to say what you will do, decide promptly, saying, “ I pass,” “ assist,” etc., at once. In discarding endeavor to keep as few suits as possible. EUCHRE WITH THE JOKER. A euchre pack is usually accompanied by a specimen blank card, which has given rise to this amusing variety of the game of Euchre. It is called “the Joker,” or highest trump card, and ranks above the Right Bower. If this “ Joker ” should happen to be turned for trump, the dealer must turn up the next card to determine the trump suit. In all other particu- lars the game is played in the same manner as the regular game of Euchre. TWO-HANDED EUCHRE. The rules of the four-handed game apply equally to two- handed euchre. The player, remembering that he has but a single hand to contend against, may play or even order up, if he has a reason- able hope of making three tricks. MISDEALS. A card too many or too few given to either player. Dealing the cards when the pack has not been properly cut ; tb* claim for a misdeal in this case must be made before the trump card ia turned, and before the adversaries look at their cards. Whenever a misdeal is attributable to any interruption by the adversaries, the deal will not be forfeited. If, during the deal, a card be exposed by the dealer or part- ner, should neither of the adversaries have touched their cards, the latter may claim a new deal, but the deal is not lost If, during the deal, the dealer’s partner touch any of his cards, the adversaries may do the same without losing their privilege of claiming a new deal should chance give them that option. If an opponent displays a card dealt, the dealer may make a new deal, unless he or his partner have examined their owtv cards. If a deal is made out of turn, it is good, provided it be not discovered before the dealer has discarded, and the eldest hand has led. If a card is faced in dealing, unless it be the trump card, * new deal may be demanded, but the right to deal is not lost. If the pack is discovered to be defective, by reason of hav- ing more or less than thirty-two cards, the deal is void ; but all the points before made are good. The dealer, unless he turn down the trump, must discard one card from his hand and take up the trump card. The discard is not complete until the dealer has placed the card under the pack ; and if the eldest hand makes a lead be- fore the discard is complete, he cannot take back the card thus led, but must let it remain. The dealer, however, may change the card he intended to discard and substitute another, or he may play alone, notwithstanding a card has been led. After the dealer has quitted the discarded card he cannot take it back under any circumstances. After the discard has been made, the dealer may let the trump card remain upon the table until it is necessary to play it. After the trump card has been taken in hand, no player has a right to demand its denomination, but he may ask what card is trump, and the dealer must inform him. Should a player play with more than five cards, or the dealer forget to discard or omit to declare the fact before three tricks have been turned, the offending party is debarred from counting any points made in that deal, under these circum- stances. Should the adverse side win, they may score all the points they make. PLAY OUT OF TURN, AND EXPOSURE OF CARDS. All exposed cards may be called, and the offending party compelled to lead or play the exposed card or cards when h» GAMES OF CARDS. can legally do so, but in no case can a card be called if a revoke is thereby caused. EXPOSED CARDS. Two or more cards played at once. If a player indicates that he holds a certain card in his hand. Any eard that is dropped with its face upwards. All cards exposed, by accident or otherwise, so that an opponent can distinguish and name them. I If any player lead out of turn, his adversaries may demand of him to withdraw his card, and the lead may be compelled from the right player, the card improperly led be treated as an exposed card, and called at any time during that deal, provided it causes no revoke. If any player lead out of turn and the mislead is followed by the other three, the trick stands good ; but if only the second, or the second and third, have played to the false lead, their cards, on discovery of their mistake, are taken back, and there is no penalty save against the original offender, whose card may be called. If a player play out of turn, his opponents may compel him to withdraw his card, and the card so played may be treated as an exposed card, and called at any time during that deal, provided no revoke is thereby caused. If any player trump a card in error, and thereby induce an opponent to play otherwise than he would have done, the latter may take up his card without penalty, and may call up- on the offender to play the trump at any period of the hand. If two cards be played, or if the player play twice to the xme trick, his opponent cam elect which of the two shall be- long to the trick, provided, however, that no revoke be caused. If a player, imagining that he can take every trick, or for any other reason, throw down his cards upon the table with their faces exposed, the adverse side may call each and all of the cards so exposed, as they may deem most advantageous to their game, and thedelinquent party mustplay the exposed cards accordingly. This, however, in the case of a lone hand only. REVOKE. When a revoke takes place, the adverse party is entitled to add two points to their score. If a suit is led, and any one of the players, having a card of the same suit, shall play the card of another suit to it — that constitutes a revoke. But if the error be discovered before the trick is quitted, or before the party having so played a wrong suit, or his partner, shall play again, the penalty only amounts to the cards being treated as exposed, and being liable to be called. When the player, who has made a revoke, corrects his error, his partner, if he has played, cannot change his card played ; but the adversary may withdraw his card and play another if he elects to do so. When a revoke is claimed against adversaries, if they mix their cards, or throw them up, the revoke is taken for granted, and they lose the two points. No party can claim a revoke after cutting for a new deal. A revoke on both sides causes forfeit to neither ; but a new deal must be made. If a player makes a revoke, his side cannot count any point W joints made in that hand. 4 r '9 A party, refusing to play an exposed card on call, forfeit* two to his opponents. MAKING THE TRUMP, PLAYING ALONE. Any player making a trump cannot change the suit after having once named it ; and if he should by error name the suit previously turned down, he forfeits his right to make the trump, the privilege passing to the next eldest player. A player may only play alone when he orders up, takes up, or makes a trump ; or when his partner assists, orders up, or makes a trump. He cannot play alone with a trump he has passed, cr with a trump, the making of which he has passed ; nor can he play alone after a lead has been made by himself, or by his opponents. A player cannot play alone when he or his partner is ordered up by an opponent, or when the opposite side adopt or make the trump. When a player, having the right to play alone, resolves to do so, his partner cannot supersede him, and play alone instead. When a player announces that he will go it alone, his partner must place his cards upon the table face downwards, and should the latter expose the face of any of his cards, either by accident or design, his opponents may compel him to play or not to play with his partner, at their option. A player who goes alone must announce his intention In a clear and audible tone, so that no doubt can be entertained of his design. DELICATE HINTS BETWEEN PARTNERS. If a partner indicates his hand by words or gestures to his partner, directs him how to play, even by telling him to follow the rules of the game, or in any way acts out of order, the adversary scores one point. If a player, when his side is at a bridge, call the attention of his partner to the fact, so that the latter orders up, the latter forfeits the right to order up, and either of the op- ponents may play alone, if they choose so to do. No player has a right to see any trick but the one last turned. T requires a pack of fifty-two cards to play this game, and any number of persons from two to six. THE DEAL. Before the dealer begins to deal the cards, the /player next to his left, who is called the Ante-man, or Age, must deposit in the pool an ante not exceeding one-half the limit previously agreed upon ; this is called a blind. 410 GAMES OF CARDS. The deal is executed by giving five cards to each player, one at a time, beginning with the player to the left of the dealer. THE ORIGINAL HAND. After the cards have been dealt the players consult their hands, and each player, in rotation, beginning with the player to the left of the Age, determines whether he will go in or not. Any player who decides to go in — that is, to play for the pool, must put into the pool double the amount of the ante, except the player holding the Age, who contributes the same amount as his original ante. Those who declare they will not play throw their cards, face downward, upon the table in front of the next dealer. Any player, when it is his turn, and after making the ante good, may raise, i. e., increase the ante any amount within the limit of the game ; the next player, after making good the ante and raise, may then also raise it any amount within the limit ; and so on. Each player as he makes good and pays a share that equalizes his with the other players who are in be- fore him, may thus increase the ante if he chooses, compelling the others to pay up that increase, or abandon their share of the pool. Each player who raises the ante, must do so in rotation, going round to the left, and any player who remains in to play, must put in the pool as much as will make his stake equal to such increase, or abandon everything which he has already contributed to the pool. STRADDLE. When betting upon the original hand, the straddle may be introduced The straddle is nothing more than a double blind. The straddle does not give a player the Age , it only gives him the first opportunity to be the last in before the draw; that is, the player to the left of the last straddler, after looking at his hand, and before the draw, must be the first to declare whether he will make good the straddle, and so on, in rota- tion, up to the player who made the last straddle. After the draw, the player to the left of the Age must make the first bet, provided he remains in. FILLING THE HANDS. When all are in who intend to play, each player has the right to draw any number of cards he chooses, from one to five, or he can retain the cards originally dealt to him. If a player draws cards, he must discard a like number from his hand previous to drawing, and the rejected cards must be placed face downward upon the table near the next dealer. The dealer asks each player in rotation, beginning with the holder of the Age, how many cards he wants, and, when the player has discarded, he gives the number requested from the top of the pack. When the other hands have been helped, the dealer, if he has “gone in,” and wants cards, then helps himself last. BET, RAISE, AND CALL. When all the hands are filled, the player to the left of the Age has the first say, and he must either bet or retire from the game, forfeiting what he has already staked. The same with all the other players, in rotation, up to the Age. When a player makes a bet, the next player must either see him — that is, put in the pool an equal amount, or go better — that is, make the previous bet good, and raise it any amount not exceeding the limit; or he must retire. This continues either until some one player drives all the others out of the game, and takes the pool without showing his hand ; or until all the other players who remain in see the last raise (no one going better) and call the player who made the last raise. In this event, that is, when a call is made, the players remaining in all show their hands, and the strongest hand takes the pool. If all the players pass, up to the Age, the latter takes the pool, and the deal ends. VALUE. One Pair. — If two players each hold a pair, the highest pair wins; if the two are similar, the highest remaining card wins. Two Pair. — if the players each hold two pairs, the highest pair wins. If the two pairs are similar, the player whose re- maining card is the highest wins. Triplets. — Three cards of the same denomination, not ac- companied by a pair. The highest triplet wins. Triplets beat two pairs. A Straight. — A sequence of five cards not all of the same suit. An Ace n'.ay cither begin or end a straight. If more than one player holds a straight, the straight headed by the highest card wins. A straight will beat triplets. A Flush. — Five cards of the same suit, not in sequence. If more than one player holds a flush, the flush containing the highest card wins ; if the highest cards tie, the next highest cards in those two hands wins, and so on. A flush will beat a straight, and consequently, triplets. A Full — Three cards of the same denomination ar.d a pair. If more than one player holds a full, the highest triple's win. A full will beat a flush. Fotirs. — Four cards of the same denomination, accompanied by any other card. If more than one player holds fours, the highest fours win. When straights are not played, fours beat a straight flush A Straight Flush . — A sequence of five cards, all of the same suit. If more than one player holds a straight flush, the win- ning hand is determined in the same manner as the straight, which see. When none of the foregoing hands are shown, the highest card wins ; if these tie, the next highest in those two hands, and so on. If, upon a call for a show of hands, it occurs that two or more parties interested in the call hold hands identical in value, and those hands are the best out, the parties thus tied must divide the pool, share and share alike. THE TECNICAL TERMS. Age. — Same as eldest hand. Ante. — The stake deposited in the pool by the Age at the beginning of the game. Blaze. — This hand consists of five court cards, and, when it is played, beats two pairs. Blind. — The ante deposited by the Age previous to Um GAMES OF CARDS. 4ii deal. The blind may be doubled by the player to the left of the eldest hand, and the next player to the left may at his op- tion straddle this bet ; and so on, including the dealer, each player doubling. The player to the left of the Age alone has the privilege of the first straddle, and if he decline to straddle, it debars any other player corning after him from doing so. To make a blind good costs double the amount of the ante, and to make a straddle good costs four times the amount of the blind. Each succeeding straddle costs double the pre- ceding one. Call. — When the bet goes round to the last better, a player who remains in, if he does not wish to see and go better, simply sees and calls, and then all those playing show their hands, and the highest hand wins the pool. Chips.— Ivory or bone tokens, representing a fixed *"\lue in money. Discard. — To take from your hand the number of cards you intend to draw and place them on the table, near the next dealer, face downwards. Draw. — After discarding one or more cards, to receive a corresponding number from the dealer. Eldest Hand , or Age. — The player immediately at the left ©f the dealer. Filling. — To match, or strengthen the cards to which you draw. Foul Hand. — A hand composed of more or less than five cards. Going Better. — When any player makes a bet, it is the privi- lege of the next player to the left to raise him — after making good the amount already bet by his adversary, to make a still higher bet. Going In. — Making good the ante of the Age and the strad- dles (if any) fot the privilege of drawing cards and playing for the pool. Limit. — A condition made at the beginning of a game, limit- ing the amount of any single bet or raise. Making Good. — depositing in the pool an amount equal to any bet previously made. This is done previous to raising or calling a player, and is sometimes called seeing a bet. Original Hand. — The first five cards dealt to any player. Fat Hand. — An original hand not likely to be improved by drawing, such as a full, straight, flush or pairs. Pass. — “/ Pass," signifies that a player throws up his hand and retires from the game. Jack Pots. — Comes from out West. See page 412. Raising a Bet. — The same as going better. Say. — When it is the turn of any player to declare what he will do, whether he will bet , or pass his hand, it is said to be feis say. Seeing a Bet. — Synonymous with making good. Straddle. — Refer to Blind. Table-Stakes. — A table-stake signifies that each player places his stake where it may be seen, and that a player cannot be raised more than he has upon the table ; but, at any time be- tween deals, he may increase his stake from his pocket, or he may put up any article for convenience’ sake, say a key, and state that that makes his stake as large as any other player’s, and he is then liable to be raised to any amount equal to the I stake of any other player, and must make good with cash. When playing table-stakes if a player have no money on the table, he must put up or declare his stake previous to raising his hand, and failing to do this, he must stand out of the game for that hand. THE LAWS. CUT AND DEAL. The deal is determined by casting one card to each player and the lowest card deals. In casting for the deal, the Ace is lowest and the King highest. Ties are determined by cutting. The cards must be shuffled above the table ; each player has a right to shuffle the cards, the dealer last. The player to the right of the dealer must cut the cards. The dealer must give each player one card at a time, in rotation, beginning to his left, and in this order he must deliver five cards to each player. If the dealer deals without having the pack properly cut, or if a card is faced in the pack, there must be a fresh deal. The cards are reshuffled and recut, and the dealer deals again. If a card be accidentally exposed by the dealer while in the act of dealing, the player to whom such card is dealt must accept it as though it had not been exposed. If the dealer give to himself, or either of the other players, more or less than five cards, and the player receiving such 8 number of cards discover and announce the fact before he raises his hand, it is a misdeal. If the dealer give to himself, or either of the other players more or less than five cards, and the player receiving such im- proper number of cards lift his hand before he announces the fact, it is not a misdeal, and the player must retire from the game for that hand. After the first hand the deal proceeds in rotation, begin- ning with the player to the left of the dealer. DISCARD AND DRAW. After the deal has been completed, each player who remain* in the game may discard from his hand as many cards as he chooses, or his whole hand, and call upon the dealer to give him a like number from the top of those re- maining in the pack. The eldest hand must discard first, and so in regular rotation round to the dealer, who discards last. All the players must discard before any party is helped. ! Any player, after having asked for fresh cards, must take the exact number called for ; and after cards have once been discarded, they must not again be taken in hand. Any player, previous to raising his hand or making a bet, may demand of the dealer how many cards he drew, and the latter must reply correctly. By raising his hand, or making a bet, the player forfeits the right to inquire, removing the obli- gation to answer. Should the dealer give any player more cards than the latter has demanded, and the player discover and announce the fact before raising his cards, the dealer must withdraw the super- fluous cards and restore then to the pack. But if the player raise the cards before informing the dealer of the mistake, he must retire from the game during that hand. GAMES OF CARDS. Should the dealer give any player fewer cards than the lat- ter has discarded, and the player discover and announce the fact previous to lifting the cards, the dealer must give the player from the pack sufficient cards to make the whole num- ber correspond with the number originally demanded. If the player raise the cards before making the demand for more, he must retire from the game during that hand. If a player discard and draw fresh cards to his hand, and while serving him the dealer expose one or more of the cards, the dealer must place the exposed cards upon the bottom of the pack, and give to the player a corresponding number from the top of the pack. BET, CALL AND SHOW. In opening the pool, the Age makes the first ante, which must not exceed one-half the limit. After the cards are dealt, every player in his proper turn, beginning with the player to the left of the Age, must make this ante good by depositing double the amount in the pool, or retire from the game for that hand. After the cards have been dealt, any player, in his proper turn, beginning with the player to the left of the Age, after making good the Age's ante, may raise the same any amount not exceeding the limit of the game. After the hands are filled, any player who remains in the game, may, in his proper turn, beginning with the player to the left of the Age, bet or raise the pool any amount not ex- ceeding the limit of the game. After the draw has been made, the eldest hand or Age has the privilege of deferring his say until after all the other players have made their bets, or passed. The Age is the last player to declare whe.herhe will play orpass. If, however, the Age pass out of the game before the draw, then the next player to his left in the game after the draw, must make the first bet ; or failing to bet, must pass out. If a player, in his regular turn, bet, or raise a bet any amount not exceeding the limit of the game, his adversaries must either call him, go better , or retire from the game for that hand. When a player makes a bet he must deposit the amount in the pool. If a player makes good, orwa bet, and calls for a show of hands, each player must show his entire hand to the board, the caller last, and the best poker hand wins the pool. If a player bets, or raises a bet, and no other player goes better ox calls him, he wins the pool and cannot be compelled to show his hand. Upon a show of hands, if a player miscall his hand, he floes not lose the pool for that reason, for every hand shows for itself. If a player pass or throw up his hand, he passes out of the game, and cannot, under any circumstances whatever , parti- cipate further in that game. Any player betting with more or less than five cards in his hand, loses the pool, unless his opponents all throw up their hands before discovering the foul hand. If only one player is betting against the foul hand, that player is entitled to the ante and all the money bet ; but if there are more than one betting against him, then the best hand among his opponent* is entitled to the pool. If a player makes a bet, and an adversary raises him, and the player who made the previous bet has not money sufficient to see the raise, he can put up all the funds he may have and call for a show for that amount. None but the eldest hand (the Age) has the privilege of going a blind. The party next and to the left of the eldest hand may double the blind, and the next player straddle it, the next double the straddle, and so on, but the amount of the straddle, when made good, must not exceed the limit of the game. A player cannot straddle a blind and raise it at the same time, nor can any player raise a blind before the cards are dealt. If the player to the left of the Age decline to straddle a blind, he prevents any other player from doing so. JACK POT. This is played as follows : When all the players pass up to the blind hand, the latter allows his blind to remain in the pot, and each of the other players deposits a similar amount. The blind now deals, and any player in his regular turn may open or break the pot, provided he holds a pair of Jacks or better, but a player is not compelled to do so, this being en- tirely optional. Each player in turn, commencing with the one at the left of the dealer, declares whether he can and will open the pot. If no player opens the pot, then each player deposits in the pool the same amount that was previously contributed, and the deal passes to the next player. The same perform- ance or mode of action will continue until some player holds the necessary cards, and is willing to break the pot. A player may break the pot for any amount within the lim- its of the game, and each player in turn must make the bet good, raise it, or retire. After all the players who determine to go in have made good the bet of the player who opened the Jack Pot, and the hands have been filled, then the opener of the pot makes the first bet. If all pass up to the player who broke the pot, the latter takes the pool, and can only be compelled to show the Jacks, or better, necessary to break the pot. A player who breaks the pot on a pair, may split the pair in order to draw to a four flush or straight; but, if he does so, he must lay the discard to one side, separate from any other cards, so that after the result has been determined he may satisfy the other players that he broke the pot with a correct hand. If this precaution is not observed, and attention called to it, the delinquent is subject to deposit in the pool, as pen- alty, twice the amount of his original bet. If no player come in except the one who broke the pot on an insufficient hand, a new hand must be dealt, and the penalty added to the pot. STRAIGHT POKER. Straight Poker, which is sometimes called Bluff, is played with a pack of fifty-two cards. The same rules as those of GAMES OF CARDS. 4»3 Draw Poker govern it. It differs from the latter game in the following particulars only: I. The winner of the pool has the deal. II. Each player antes before the cards are cut for the deal. III. Any player may pass with the privilege of coming in again, provided no player preceding him has made a bet. IV. No player is permitted to discard, or draw any cards. V. When all the players pass, the eldest hand deals, and each player deposits another ante in the pool, thus making what is termed a “ double-header.” When a misdeal occurs the rule is the same. WHISKEY POKER. Each player contributes one chip to make a pool, and the same rules govern as at Draw Poker, save that the strongest hand you can get is a straight flush. Five cards are dealt to each player, one at a time, and an extra hand is dealt on the table, which is called the “ widow.” The eldest hand then examines his cards, and if, in his judgment, his hand is suffi- ciently strong, he passes. The next player then has the pri- vilege of the widow, and, supposing him to take it, he then lays his discarded hand (that which he relinquishes for the widow) face up n the centre of the table, and the next player to the left selects from it that card which suits him best in filling his hand, and so on all around the board, each player discarding one card and picking up another, until some one is satisfied, which he signifies by knocking upon the table. When this occurs, all the players around to the satisfied party have the privilege of one more draw, when the hands are shown, and the strongest wins. If any player knocks before the widow is taken, the widow is then turned face up, ar.d each player from him who knocks has but one more draw. Should no one take the widow, but all pass to the dealer, he then turns the widow, and all parties have the right to draw until some one is satisfied. STUD POKER is in all essential particulars like the other Poker games, and is subject to the same laws and mode of betting, passing, etc. MISTIGRIS is a variety of a game of Draw Poker, sometimes called Fifty- Three Deck Poker. Mistigris is a name given to the blank card accompanying every pack ; the player holding it can call it any card not already in his hand* 4i 4 GAMES OF SKILL. Black. White. ORDER OF THE MEN ON THE BOARD. HESS is one of the most ancient of known games of skill. Various theories are advanced as to its origin. One ac- count states that the wife of Ravan, King of Ceylon, devised it in order to amuse her royal spouse with an image of war while his metropolis was closely be- sieged by Rama. We will now proceed to give the necessary directions for playing the game. The game is played on a board divided into sixty-four squar.es, colored alternately black and white. It is the same as that used at draughts. Eight pieces of different denomina- tions and powers, and eight pawns, are allotted to each com- petitor. As a necessary distinction, each set is colored in a different way, one commonly being white, the other red or black. The pieces are named as follows : King. Queen. Bishop. M .Knight. Rook. Pawn. Every player, therefore, is provided with one king, one queen, two bishops, two knights, and two rooks, besides the eight pawns. They are placed, at the beginning of each game, in the order shown at the head of this article. In placing the board, care must be taken that a white corner square be at the right hand of each player. It should also be observed that the queen must be placed upon a square of her own color. THE PIECES: THEIR POWERS AND MODE OF ACTION. The king can move in any direction — forward, backward, sideways, or diagonally, provided always, of course, that he does not move into check. The king possesses one great prerogative — that of never being taken ; but, by way of counter- balancing the advantage of this exemption, he is restrained from exposing himself to check. lie can move only one square at a time, except when he castles, which he may do once during each game. He may then move two squares. lie cannot castle when in check, nor after he has once moved, nor with a rook that has been moved, nor if any of the squares over which he has to move be commanded by an adverse piece. The queen can move either horizontally or diagonally, biro GAMES OE SKILL. Ai5 m combines the powers of the bishop and the rock. She can, at one move, pass along the whole length of the board, or, if moving diagonally, from corner to corner. Although she can move and take in the same manner as a bishop or as a rook, she must make the whole of one move in one direction, and cannot combine in one move the powers of these two pieces : in other words, she cannot move round a corner at one step. The rook (sometimes called the castle) may pass along the entire length of the board at one move. It may move back- wards, or forwards, or sideways — but always horizontally, never diagonally. The bishop can move only in a diagonal direction, but can go any number of squares, from one to eight, or as far as the space be open. The bishop can never change the color of his square. Thus, the white king’s bishop being on a white square at the beginning, remains so throughout the game. This is a necessary consequence of his move being purely diagonal. The knight has a power of moving which is quite peculiar, and rather difficult to explain. He moves two squares at once in a direction partly diagonal and partly straight. He changes the color of his squares at every move. The knight is the only piece that possesses what is styled the “ vaulting motion.” He is not precluded from going to a square be- tween which and his own other pieces intervene. Thus, instead of moving your king’s pawn two, as your first move, you might, if good play permitted it, move out either of your knights right over the row of pawns in front. This power is possessed by the knight alone, all the other pieces being obliged to wait until there is an opening in front of them before they can emerge. The pawn moves in a straight line towards the adverse party. It cannot move out of its file except in capturing one of the opposing pawns or pieces, when it steps one square in a diagonal or slanting direction, and occupies the square of the captured piece. It can only be moved one square at a time, excepting in the first move, when the player has the option of advancing it two squares. The pawn is the only piece which cannot retreat, and which does not take in the direction in which it moves. For full explanations relative to “queening the pawn,” and taking a pawn en passant, see instructions on those points. ABBREVIATIONS. The abbreviations which are invariably used in chess publi- cations are the following: K. for king, Q. for queen, B. for bishop, Kt. for knight, R. for rook, P. for pawn, Sq. for square, and Ch. for check. The pieces on one side of the board are distinguished from those on the other in the follow- ing manner: Those on the same side as the king are named after him, as K.’s B. (king’s bishop), K.’s Kt. (king’s knight), K.’s R. (king’s rook) ; while those on the same side as the queen are named Q.'s B. (queen’s bishop), Q.’s Kt. (queen’s knight), Q.’s R. (queen’s rook). The pawns are distinguished in like manner. The pawn occupying the square in front of the K.’s B. is called K.’s B.’s P, ; that in front of the K.’s Kt. is called K.’s Kt.’s P. ; that in front of the Q.’s R. the Q.’s R.’s P., etc. CHESS NOTATION. It is very necessary that the beginner should thoroughly understand the system of notation which is invariably used throughout England, for without it he could never make any use of book games. The following diagram fully explains it. It will be seen that the moves are reckoned both for black and white. Black. ■bsyQ bstJI'O 'bs a 0 •bs -0 -bs-ji •bsaa bs jji •bsy>j Q.R. 8 . Q.Kt. 8 . Q.B. 8 . Q 8 . K.8. K.B 8 . K.Kt.8. K.R 8 . z >yi 5 •2 ac5 *0 ■'as •'•ora ' ! ns Q R 7 - Q.Kt.7 q.b. 7 . 0 - 7 - k. 7 . R.B 7. K.Kt.7 k.r. 7 . £ n0 £-)>r 5 ■e-U’O •£•0 ■E-a e aa £ a yj Q.R.6. Q.Kt.6. Q.B.6. Q.6. K.6. K.B. 6. K.Kt.6. K.R 6. + H'0 t-TjpQ * aO •t a a *hm Q-R-s- Q.Kt.5. q.b, 5 . Os- K.5. K.B. 5. K.Kt. 5. KR.5. ■S’U-O •saO s-Q SK ■S 3 M •s-iyryj E y yi Q.R.4. Q.Kt.4 Q.B.4. 04 - k 4 - K.B 4. K.Kt.4. K R.4. '9'U'0 •9 ■ 9 ad ■ 9 'Q ■ 9 Ji 9 an •9 lyryi 9 H M Q.R.j. Q.Kt. 3 . q.b. 3 . 0 - 3 - k 3 . K.B 3 . K.Kt. 3 . K.R.* ‘■SQ L iyi 0 ■ L a O <■6 L a yj 1 ITH Q.R.2. QKt.2. Q.B.2. Q.2. K.2. K.B 2. K.Kt 2. K.R.2. B'U'O 8 J>f5 8 a 0 8 0 ■8M •8-a >1 '8'1>iJl ■8 M M Q R sq. Q.Kt.sq Q B sq Q.sq. K.sq. K.B sq K.Kt sq K.R.sq. White. CHESS NOTATION FROM EACH END OF THE BOARD. Suppose the white queen’s bishop moves one square, it is then said to stand on its second, which is the black queen’s bishop’s seventh. The white king’s eighth is the black king’s first, and vice versd all through the pieces. TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN THE GAME. The Move. — Whichever player opens the game by making the first move is said to have “ the move.” Check. — When your king is attacked by any piece, he is said to be “in check,’’ and it is your opponent’s duty to give you warning of such an event by crying “ Check,” when he makes the move. You must then put your king out of check by moving him, by taking the checking piece, or by interposing one of your own men between the checking piece and your king, thus “covering ” check, as it is termed. Checkmate is the term used when the king is in inextricable check, i.e., when none of the above means avail to place him beyond the range of the attacking pieces. When a checkmate is obtained, the game is at an end, that being the sole object. Discovered Check is when the player moves a pawn or piece from before another piece, thereby opening or “discovering* check : e.p. , the black rook may be on a line with the oppos- ing king, the only intervening piece being a black pawn. The removal of this pawn “discovers check.” Double Check is when check is discovered as above, the king being also attacked by the piece moved. Perpetual Check is when the king of one of the players can be checked almost at every move, and when he has little else GAMES OF SKILL. 410 to do but move out of check. When the game has reached this stage, the weaker player may demand that checkmate shall be given in a certain number of moves, in default of which it may be declared a drawn game. (See Rule 8.) Drawn Game. — A drawn game may arise from several causes : 1. As above. 2 . Stalemate. (See “ Stalemate.”) 3. Equal play. “ Between very good players,” remarks Fhillklor, “ it sometimes happens that the equipoise in force and position is constantly sustained in the opening, in the in- termediate stages, and in the last result ; when either all the exchangeable pieces have been mutually taken, or the remain- ing forces are equal — as a queen against a queen, a rook against a rook, with no advantage in position, or the pawns are mu- tually blocked up.” • 4. Absence of mating power, /.■»., when neither player pos- sesses the force requisite to obtain a checkmate. (See “ Mating Power.”) 5. Unskillful use of a sufficiently strong force. If one player is superior in force to his adversary, and possesses the requisite mating power, the game may still be drawn by the unskillful use of that superiority. If he cannot effect a checkmate in fifty moves it maybe declared a drawn game. Stalemate describes that state of the game when one of the players has nothing left but his king, which is so placed that, although not in check, he cannot move without going into check. Castling is a double operation, accomplished by moving the king and one of the rooks at the same time. When the re- moval of the bishop and the knight on the one side, or of the bishop, knight, and queen on the other, has cleared the inter- vening squares, the king may castle with either of his rooks. If it should be done on the king’s side of the board, the king is to be placed on the knight’s square, and the rook on the bishop’s; if in the queen’s section, the king must be moved to the bishop’s square, and the rook to the queen’s. In other words, the king, in either case, must move two squares, and the rook be placed on the opposite side of him to that on which he stood before. En Prise. — A piece is said to be en piise when under attack. En Passant (in passing). — If your adversary has advanced one of his pawns to the fifth square, and you move one of your pawns in either of the adjoining files two squares, he is entitled to take your pawn, en passant , as though you had only moved it one square. This peculiar mode of capture can only be effected by pawns. Ranks and Files. — The lines of squares running from left to right are known as ranks , and those perpendicular to them, Tinning from one player to the other, are called files. Passed and Isolated Pawns. — A pawn is said to be “ passed ” when it is so far advanced that no pawn of the adversary’s can oppose it. An isolated pawn is one that stands alone and un- supported. Double Pawn. — Two pawns on the same file. “ find cube” (signifying I adjust or I arrange ) is the ex- pression generally used when a player touches a piece to arrange it without the intention of making a move. Perhaps it is not absolutely necessary that he should say "fiadoube’’ but he must at any rate use an equivalent expression. To Interpose. — This term explains itself. If your king or one of your pieces is attacked, and you move another of your pieces between the attacking piece and the piece attacked, either for the purpose of covering check, or as a means of protection, or with any other object, you are said to “ inter- pose.” Winning the Exchange. — You arc said “ to win the ex- change ” when you gain a rook for a bishop, a bishop for a knight, or, in short, whenever you gain a superior piece by giving an inferior. Queening a Pawn. — You are said to “ queen a pawn ” when you advance it to the eighth square on the file. You may then claim a queen or any other piece in exchange for it. Formerly the rule was, that you might substitute for it any piece you had previously lost, but according to the modern game three or more rooks, or bishops, or knights may be obtained in this way. Gambit. — This term, which is derived from the Italian, de- scribes an opening in which a pawn is purposely sacrificed at an early stage of the game, in order subsequently to gain an advantage. Several gambits are distinguished by the names of their inventors, such as the Cochrane gambit, the Muzio gambit, the Salvio gambit, etc.; there are also the bishop’s gambit, the queen’s gambit, etc., etc. Mating Power. — The force requisite to bring about a check- mate : a king and queen against king and two bishops, king and two knights, king and bishop and knight, or against king and rook, can effect checkmate. King and two bishops can mate against king and bishop, or king and knight. King with two bishops and knight can mate against king and rook. King with rook and bishop can mate against rook and king. King can always draw against king and bishop, or king and knight. King and rook against either a king and bishop, or king and knight, makes a drawn game, etc. LAWS OF THE GAME. The following laws are in force in all the principal clubs in this country : 1. If a player touch one of his men, unless for the purpose of adjusting it, when he must say “ J’adoube ” (see Law 4), or it being his turn to move, he must move the piece he has so touched. [Walker gives the following remarks on this law : “When you touch a piece with the bona fide intention of playing it. the saying J’adoube will not exonerate you from completing the move. A chess-player’s meaning cannot be misunderstood on the point ; and were it otherwise, you might hold a man in your hand for five minutes, and then saying ‘ fiadoube ,’ re- place it, and move elsewhere.”] 2. If the men are not placed properly at the beginning of the game, and this is discovered before four moves have been made on each side, the game must be recom- menced. If the mistake should not be found out till after four moves have been made, the game must be proceeded with. GAMES OF SKILL. 417 3. Where the players are even, they must draw lots for the first move, after which they take the first move alternately. When a player gives odds, he has the option of making the first move, and the choice of men in every game. [In giving odds, should it be agreed upon to give a pawn, it is customary to take the K. B. P. If a piece is to be given, it may be taken from either the king’s or queen’s side.] 4. If a player should accidentally or otherwise move or touch one of his men without saying “ J'adoube” his adversary may compel him to move either the man he has touched or his king, provided the latter is not in check. 5. When a player gives check, and fails to give notice by crying “Check,” his adversary need not, unless he think proper, place his king out of check, nor cover. [If it is discovered that the king is in check, and has been so for several moves past, the players must move the men back to the point at which they stood when check was given. If they cannot agree as to when check was first given, the player who is in check must retract his last move, and defend his king.] 6. The player who effects checkmate wins the game. 7. Stalemate constitutes a draw game. 8. So long as you retain your hold of a piece you may move it where you will. 9. Should you move one of your adversary's men instead of your own, he may compel you to take the piece you have touched, should it be en prise, or to replace it and move your king ; provided, of course, that you can do so without placing him in check. 10. Should you capture a man with one that cannot legally take it, your adversary may compel you either to take such piece (should it be en prise ) with one that can le- gally take it, or to move the piece touched ; provided that by so doing you do not discover check, in which case you may be directed to move your king. IX. Should you move out of your turn, your adversary may compel you either to retract the move, or leave the piece where you placed it, as he may think most advan- tageous. 12. If you touch the king and rook, intending to castle, and have quitted hold of the one piece, you must complete the act of castling. If you retain your hold of both, your adversary may compel you to move either of them. 13. The game must be declared to be drawn should you fail to give checkmate in fifty moves, when you have King and queen against king. King and pawn against king. King and rook “ King and two pawns “ King and two bishops “ King and minor piece “ King, bishop, and kt. “ 14. Prawn games of every description count for nothing. 15. Neither player may leave a game unfinished, nor leave the room without the permission of his adversary. 16. Lookers-on are not permitted to speak, nor in any way express their approbation or disapprobation while a game is pending. 17. In case a dispute should arise on any point not provided for by the laws, a third party must be appealed to, and his decision shall be final. HINTS FOR COMMENCING THE GAME. To open the game well, some of the pawns should be played out first. The royal pawns, particularly, should be advanced f to their fourth square ; it is not often safe to advance them I farther. The bishop's pawn should also be played out early in the game ; but it is not always well to advance the rook’s and knight’s pawns too hastily, as these afford an excellent ’ protection to your king in case you should castle. Phillidof describes pawn-playing as the “the soul of chess.” When they are not too far advanced, and are so placed as to be mu- tually supporting, they present a strong barrier to the advance of your adversary, and prevent him from taking up a com- manding position. If you play your pieces out too early, and advance too far, your adversary may oblige you to bring them back again by advancing his pawns upon them, and you thus lose time. Do not commence your attack until you are well prepared. A weak attack often results in disaster. If your attack is likely to prove successful, do not be diverted from it by any bait which your adversary may purposely put in your way. Pause, lest you fall into a snare. Beware of giving check uselessly — *. e., unless you have in view the obtaining of some advantage. A useless check is a move lost, which may, particularly between good players, de- cide the game. It is generally injudicious to make an exchange when your position is good, or when, by so doing, you bring one of your adversary’s pieces into good play. Never make an exchange without considering the consequences. When your game is crowded and ill arranged and your position inferior, it is ad- vantageous to exchange. Sometimes also, when you are much superior in force, it is worth your while to make an equal exchange. The operation of castling often relieves a crowded game. A lost opportunity of castKng, or castling at the wrong time is a disadvantage which may be turned to account by your ad- versary. Never put your queen before your king in such a way that your adversary may bring forward a bishop or rook and attack her, and the king through her. In such a case, unless you can interpose another piece, you will inevitably lose your queen. It is good play to “ double ” your rooks — i. e . , to make them mutually supporting. Don’t bring your rooks into active play too soon. They can generally operate most effectively at a distance, and they are therefore of most value toward the end 1 of a game, when the board is comparatively clear. From time to time take a review of the game. Although an incurably tedious player is a general nuisance, it is mere 1 folly to play without “ knowing the reason why. ’ To tal ; an occasional review of the game gets you into a systemat ■ habit. When near the close, take notice of the position of your adversary’s pawns, and if you find that you can queeo before him, make all haste to do so ; if not, attack his pawi so as to prevent him from queening. If your adversary pos-i sesses a decided advantage, look out for a means of drawing the game. Do not stick to one opening, but learn as many as you can 418 GAMES OF SKILL. Always be willing to accept odds of a better player, so that the game may be interesting to him. If you should lose, it is natural that you should feel inwardly chagrined, but do not let your disappointment be perceived. “Keep your temper” is a golden rule. Do not give up the game before you are quite sure it is lost. On the other hand, you should not too hastily jump to the conclusion that you have won it. It is necessary that you should occasionally study some of the best book games, but without actual practice proficiency can seldom be attained. Endeavor to understand the reasons which lead to your adver- sary’s moves, and take measures accordingly. I "Openings” of Games. — The principal openings are the king’s gambit, the queen’s gambit, the king’s knight’s open- ing, the king’s bishop’s opening, etc. From these spring the various gambits, known as the Evans, the Muzio, the Cunning- ham, the Allgaier, the Cochrane, the Giuoco piano, etc., most of them deriving their names from the inventors. All these gambits have a variety of subdivisions, and openings not founded on them are termed irregular openings. We shall, after defining each of the most celebrated of these openings, give illustrations of them. The King's Gambit. — In this gambit, the first player ad- vances his K. B. P. two squares at his second move. The Queen's Gambit is when the first player, at his second move, advances his Q. B. P. two squares. King's Bishop’s Gambit is sc styled because the first player brings out the K. B. at his second move. King’s Knight's Gambit. — In this much-used opening the first player brings out his K. Kt. at his second move. The Evans Gambit , so styled from its inventor, Captain W. D. Evans, F.. N. , is when the player advances Q. Kt. P. two at his fourth move, and sacrifices it, with the object of recov- ering at least its equivalent, at the same time obtaining a de- cided lead. Besides the above, there are the queen’s pawn-two-opening, the queen’s bishop’s pawn’s opening, the Lopez gambit, the king’s pawn-one-opening, the queen’s counter-gambit, the king’s rook’s pawn’s gambit, the Allgaier gambit, the Muzio gambit, the Cochrane gambit, the Cunningham gambit, the bishop’s gambit, the Damian’s gambit, the Greco counter- gambi , etc., etc. Ir. an article of such limited scope as the present, it would be impossible to treat at any length upon every one of these openings. We shall therefore content ourselves with making t selection which will be at once interesting and suitable for beginners. In every case we have preferred to give those variations which are considered the best and most legitimate. believing that the study and practice of such positions will be I more advantageous to the learner than giving, as some writers do, inferior play and positions, and then afterward giving the crrrcct ones. The King 's Gambit . — White. Black. 1. K. P. 2. J. K. P. 2. 2. K. B. P. a. 2. P. takes P. V K. Kt. to B. 3. 3. K. Kt. P.2. 4. K. B. to Q. B. 4. There has been much difference of opinion as to the move which black should now make. Some writers prefer advancing K. Kt. P., whilst Walker and a whole host of authorities think it better to place the K. B at Kt. second: “ Although,” says Walker, “playing the pawn is productive of more brilliant situations.” He advises both moves for practice. King's Bishop's Opening . — This opening is considered by the great chess master, Phillidor, as the very finest opening for the first player, as it brings out the bishop at the second move, and immediately attacks black’s K. B. P. , his weakest point. From this opening spring some of the finest and most difficult combinations known. It commences thus : White. Black. >. K. P. to K. 4. 2. K. B. to Q B. 4. 3. P. to Q B. 3. 4. K. Kt. to B. 3. 1. P. to K. 4. 2. K. B. to Q. B. 4 (best> 3. Q. to K. 2 (good). Some prefer to play the Kt. to K. 2, but in our opinion this is not so good as to B. 3, because in the former case black could lake K. B. P. with his bishop (check) ; and if white K. takes bishop, black queen gives check at her B. 4, and white loses bishop. White. Black. 4. K. Kt. to B. 3. 5. p. to K. 2. 5- P- to Q. 3. 6. P. to 0 . 3. 6. P. to Q B. 3 If black plays his Q. B., pinning Kt., white will advance R. P., which will cau=e black either to retire bishop (which will be losing time) or force an exchange, which will open the game to white’s queen. Therefore it will be better for black to play P. to Q. B. 3, as we have given it, which will leave the game pretty equal up to this point. If black, at his third move, replies as follows — which is an inferior move — then the game proceeds thus : White. 4. P. to Q. 4. 5. P. to K. 5. 6 . Q. to K. 2. 7. P. to K. B. 4. 8. P. to K. B. 5. Black. 3. K. Kt. tc*B 3. 4. P. takes P. 5. Kt. to K. 5 6. Kt- to Kt. 4. 7. Kt. to K. 3. If black now play 8. Kt. to K. B., white has the best of the game, and ought to win ; but if black play Kt. to Kt. 4, white will play Q. to K. R. 5, and then P. to K. R. 4. If white at his third move should play Q. to K. 2, attacking K. B. P. and threatening ch. with Q. and^capture of bishop, and if black advance Q. P. one, it may then become the Ruy Lopez gambit by white playing as his fourth move P. to K. B. 4. If the gambit referred to be not properly met, it leads to strong positions of attack. It is better for the second player to refuse the pawn offered. Kings Knight's Opening . — This is a sound opening, and has been largely treated upon by many writers. Some fine situations spring from it. At the second move, white directly attacks K. P. with K. Kt. We will give the opening, and a few brief remarks thereon, together with a game arising from White. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. 1. P. to K. 4. 2. K. Kt. to B. 3. For black, in reply to this, to move P. to K_ B. 3, would GAMES OF SKILL. only show weak play, and would enable white to win in a few moves, or at any rate to obtain a rook and a pawn in exchange for a knight. Black’s best answer is the following : 2. Q Kt. to B. 3. Black thus defends his pawn, and has the advantage of a counter-attack. King s Knight's Gambit . — This is a variation of the king’s gambit, brought about by white at his fourth move advancing ’.he K. R. P. before bringing out bis K. B. This variation brings out some fine play, but is not so strong for the first player as the king’s gambit proper. The Allgaier gambit springs from this opening. White, x. P. to K. 4. 2. P- to K. B. 4. 3. K. Kt. to B 3. 4. P. to K. R. 4. 5. K. Kt. to K. 5. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. 2. P. takes P. 3. P. to K. Kt. 4. 4. P. to K. Kt. s (best). By white’s last move the game emerges into the Allgaier. Black’s best move now is 5. P. to K. R. 4. 6. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 6. R. to K. 2. This move of black’s is considered better than K. Kt. to R. 3. 7. P. to Q. 4. 7. P. to Q. 3. 8. Kt. to Q. 3. 8. K. B. P. advances. If white now plays K. Kt. P., black has the best of the game by keeping the gambit pawn. If white attacks queen with bishop, black will give check with pawn, and have the stronger game. Most authorities consider this opening weak for the first player. ' ''The Allgaier Gambit.— This opening, the invention of a noted German from whom it takes its name, arises out of the king’s knight’s gambit, as detailed in the preceding paragraph. It is not a safe opening, although, if successful, it will prove a strong one. When properly met, the siege is soon raised, and the second player will stand in the better position. It is, how- ever, a fine opening, and requires cautious play on both sides. It is as follows : White. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. 1. P. to K. 4. 2. P. to K. B. 4. 2 P. takes T. 3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 3. P. to K. Kt. 4. 4. P. to K. R. 4. 4 . P to K. Kt. 5. 5. K. Kt. to Kt. 3. White’s fifth move constitutes the Allgaier gambit, white in- tending to sacrifice the knight if attacked by the pawns. Black may reply in several ways, but in our opinion his best move is the following : 5. P. to K. R. 3. Blaek by this move wins the knight. 6 . Kt. takes K. B. P. 6 . K. takes Kt. 7. Q. takes P. 7. K. Kt. to B. 3. 8. Q. takes B. P. The last move is much better than giving check with the bishop, which would only have the effect of involving white’s game. Walker says, “ No better move can be played at this crisis.” It will be good practice for the student to continue the above opening, and exercise his ingenuity by finishing the game. I he Muzio Gambit . — This is another variation of the king’* gambit, and is produced by while offering to sacrifice knighl in order to gain a strong attacking position. It is the inven- tion of Signor Muzio, an Italian player of some eminence. Walker says this may be classed as the most brilliant critical opening known, and recommends the student 'Qt play it at every opportunity ; he also throws out the warmtja that an incorrect move may irrecoverably lose the game 1 13 defense is most difficult to discover in actual play. White. 1. P. to K. 4. 2. P. to K. B. 4. 3. K. Kt. to B. 3. 4. K. B. to Q. E. 4. 5. Castles. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. a. P. takes P. 3. P. to K. Kt. 4. 4. K. Kt. P. advances. This move constt utes the gambit ; for, instead of white with- drawing his Kt., or moving it to Q. 4, he allows it to remain and be taken. It now rests with black whether he will accept the gambit. Walker says he cannot do better. 5. P. takes Kt. 6. Q. takes P. 6 Q. to K. B. 3 (best). This last move is Sarratt’s defense, which is clearly shown to be the best. 7. K. P. advances. 7. Q. takes K. P. This is black’s best move, for, if he did not take P., white at once obtains the advantage by playing P. to Q. 2, defending K. P. If black play Q. to Kt. 3 (ch.), white moves K. to R. sq., and ought to win. The Scotch Gambit , or Queen’s K awn Two Opening . — This gambit has a fine, dashing attack, and one of its advantages is, that in case it should miscarry, the disaster is comparatively slight. “ It is,” as Walker says, “ one of the most attacking yet safe methods of commencing the game which can possibly be adopted." Again, “ It is alike fertile in resource and safe in results.” White. Black. 1. P. to K. 4. 1. P. to K. 4. 2. K. Kt. to B. 3. 2. Q. Kt. to B. 3. 3. P. to Q. 4. The third move of white gives it the name of the Queen’s Pawn Two Opening. White plays the pawn for the purpose of opening the game, especially for his bishops. Black may now take the pawn either with his P. or Kt. We will suppose him 10 do the former, which we consider best : 3. P. takes P. 4. K. B. toQ. B. 4. Some players now give black's fourth move as B. to Q. Kt. 1 5 (ch.); but this is a decidedly bad move, and with an indif- ferent player would lose the game. Black’s best move is that introduced by Macdonnell, and described by Walker as a sound defense. We give it below : 4. Q. to K. B. 3. White may now castle, or play P. to Q. B. 3 ; either of which is better than Kt. or B. to K. Kt. 5. HOW TO FINISH THE GAME. Having now considered the “ Hints for Commencing the Game,” and studied most of the principal openings, we must say a few words with regard to finishing the game. It is often very difficult to checkmate when you have a king, bishop, and knight against a king. Although possessing the requisite mat ing power, good player? have often failed to accomplish the 420 GAMES OF SKILL. the mate within the stipulated fifty moves. The only way in which it can be done is by driving the adverse king to a corner commanded by your bishop. The better to convey our meaning, we give an illustration. Suppose the men to be placed thus : White K. at K. B. 6. « K. B. at K. B. s. “ Kt at K. Kt. 5. Black K. at K. R. sq. Then, in eighteen moves, white may effect checkmate : White. Black. X. Kt. to K. B. 7 (ch.). 1. K. to Kt. sq. 2. B. to K. 4. 2. K. to K. B. sq. 3 - B. to K. R. 7. 3 - K. to K.' sq. 4 - Kt. to K. 5. 4 - K. to K. B. sq. 5 - Kt. to Q. 2. 5 - K. to K. sq. 6. K. to K. sq. 6. K to Q. sq. 7 - K. to Q. 6 . 7 - K. to K. sq. 8. B. to K. Kt. 6 (ch.). 8. K. to Q. sq. 9 - Kt. to Q. B. 5. 9 - K. to Q. B. sq. 10. B. to B. 7. 10. K. to Q. sq. XX. Kt. to Q. Kt. 7 (ch.). 11. K. to Q. B. sq. 12. K. to Q. B. 6. 12. K. to Q. Kt. sq. 13 - K. to Q. Kt. 6. * 3 - K. to Q. B. sq. 14. B. to K. 6 (ch.). 14. K. to Q. Kt. sq. * 5 - Kt. to Q. B. 5. * 5 * K. to Q. R. sq. x6. B. to Q. 7. 16. K. to Q. Kt. sq. 17. Kt. toQ. R. 6 (ch.). 17 - K. to Q. R. sq. 18. B. to Q. B. 6, checkm. As will be observed from the above example, one of the Important objects is never to let the king escape into the middle of the board. In our chapter on checkmate we should not omit to give the “ Fool’s Mate ” and the “ Scholar’s Mate.” The former shows that it is possible to effect mate in as few as two moves. It is easy to understand why it should be named the “ fool’s mate ; ” but why a checkmate which may be effected in four moves should be termed “ scholar’s mate” is probably less capable of explanation. Foot s Mate . — White. Black, i. K. Kt. P. asq. i. K P. a. a. K. B P i sq a Queen mates Scholar’s Mate . — White, i. K. P. a Black, i. K. P. 2 . a. K. B. to Q. B. 4. a. K. B. to Q. B. 4. 3. Q. to K. R. 5. 2. Q. P. 1. 4. Q. takes K. B. P., giving “ scholar’s mate.” King and Queen against King . — Several examples of this checkmate might be given, but the one below will probably be sufficient. The principal point upon which the learner need be warned is against allowing his adversary to effect stalemate. Suppose the pieces to be placed thus : White king at K. sq. “ queen at Q. B. sq. Black king at Q. 3. The game may then proceed as follows : White. Black. 1. Q. to K. Kt. 5. а. K. to K. 2. 3. K. to K. 3. 4. K. to K. 4. 5. Q. to K. Kt. 6 . б . K. advances. > 0 mates. >. K. to K. 4. 2. K. to Q. 3. 3. K. to K. 3. 4 K to Q. 3. y 4 King and Queen against King and A'ao/i. — Suppose the men to be placed thus : White king at K. B. 3. “ queen at K. sq. Black king at K. R. 7. “ rook, at K. Kt. 7, supposing white to have the first move, the game may be com- pleted in three m s ; Whw Black. 1 . Q. to K. 5 (ch.). 1. K. to R. 8. 2. Q. to Q. R. (ch.). 2. K. moves. 3. Q. to K. sq., and wins. PROBLEMS. The following problems are selected from various sources, and are given because they are just sufficiently difficult to ex- ercise the ingenuity of the learner. At the same time, we would caution him against too close a study of problems until he is well up in the game, for, if followed up, it will only tend to weary and tire him, and the result may be that he will throw up the game with dislike. PROBLEM No. 1. White. White to move, and mate in two moves. PROBLEM No. 2. Black. GAMES OF SKILL. 421 PROBLEM No. * Black. White to move, and mate in three moves. PROBLEM No. 4, Black. White to move, and mate in three moves. PROBLEM No. 5. Black. PROBLEM No. 6. White. White to move, and mate in three moves. PROBLEM No. 7. Black. White to move, and mate in three movts. PROBLEM No. 8. Black. White. White to move, and mate in three moves White. White to move, and mate in four moves. GAMES OF SKILL. 43a PROBLEM No. 9. Block. White to move, and mate in four moves. PROBLEM No. 10. ( The / ndian Problem.') Black. White to move, and mate in four moves SOLUTIONS OF THE PROBLEMS. Problem i. Problem 2. White. Black. White. Black. 1 Q. to B. 4 (ch.). 1. P. takes Q. 1. R. to Q. 8 (ch.). 1. K. takes R. 9. R. to Q. 8, mate 2. Q. to Q. 7, mate. Problem 3. Problem 4. White. Black. Whit . Black. 1. R. to K. sq. 1. K. to B. sq. 1. K. R to R. 6. 1. K. toK.B 4. 2. R. to K. Kt. sq. 2. K. to K. sq. 2. Q. R to K. Kt. sq. 2. K. toK. 4. 3. R. to Kt. 8. mate. 3. R. to Kt. 5, mate. There are two other solutions to this problem. Problem 5. Problem 6. White. Black. White. Black. J. Q. to K. R. 7. I. Q. Kt takes Q. 1. Q. to Q. 2. 1. K. moves. ■. Kt. to Kt. 6(ch.). 2. K. to Kt.sq. 2. Q to Q. sq. 2. K. takes Kt. ». B to Q s, mate. ». 0 - Problem 7. White. Black. 1. R. to Q. B. 2 (dis. ch ). 1 . R. takes 1. R. 2. 2 R. to Q B. 4. (ch.). 2. P. lakes R. 3. 3. B. mates. 4. Problem 9. White. Black. 1. R. to K Kt. 2 (ch.). 1. K. to B. sq. 2. Kt. to Q. 7 (ch.). 2. R. takes Kt. 3. R. to K. 8 (ch.). 3. K. takes R. 4. R. to Kt. 8, mate. Problem 8. White. Black. Kt. to K. B. 6. 1. P. advances. Kt. to K. 4 (ch ). 2. K. to R. 8. K. to B sq. 3. R. P. 1. Kt. to B. 2, mate. Problem 10. (The J ndian Problem.) White. Black, r. B. toQ. B. sq. 1. P. moves. 2. R. to Q. 2. 2. P. moves. 3. K. moves. 3. K moves 4. R. to Q. 4 (dis. checkm.). DRAUGHTS. 1 RAUGHTS is a game that is very often underrated, because it is supposed that there is little or no play in it, and thus, when a person is asked if he plays draughts, his reply is not unusually, “ No, it is such a stupid game; there’s no play in it.” Whenever this remark is made to us, we challenge the person to a series of games, when, having beaten him some half-dozen in succession, we prove that there must be some play in the game, or such a re- sult would be improbable. When playing chess, there are so many pieces, each having a different moving power and a relative value, that one oversight, caused probably by a momentary relaxation of memory, loses a game, whereas in draughts such a result is less probable, and the attention can be more completely devoted to some plot, through which the opponent does not see. As a rule, a good draught-player is a more acute person on every-day subjects than is a good chess-player, and thus we strongly recommend draughts as a game likely to call into action very useful qualities. Draughts is played on the same board as is chess, the men, however, being placed entirely on squares of one color. There are twelve men on each side, arranged on the squares from I to 12 and from 21 and 32. The two squares marked I and 5, and 32 and 28, are cdlled the double corners , and these must always be on the rightlhand of the player, whilst the left-hand lowest squares, 4 and.29, must always be on the left-hand side. Having arranged the men, the first move is arrangecL*bo> tween the players by lot. GAMES OF SKILL. 433 The men move one square at a time ; thus, the man on 22 can move either to 18 or 17; the man on 23 can move either to 19 or 18. The men can only move forwards, not back- wards, until they have succeeded in reaching the bottom row of the adversary’s squares, when they are crowned by having a second man placed above them. They are then termed kings, and can move either forwards or backwards as desirable. A man may take an opponent’s man by leaping over him and taking up the vacant square beyond him, the piece taken being removed from the board. A man may take two or three men at one move, provided he can leap over each in succession. To understand this, place a white man at 18, 11, and 25, and a black man at 29, all other pieces being removed from the board. The black man can move and take the three white men, as he can leap to 22 , 15, and 8, thus taking the men on squares 18, II, and Black. White. 25. A king can take both backwards and forwards any num- ber of men, as long as a square is open. Thus, place a white man on 25, 26, 27, 19, 10, 9, and 17. A black king at 29 could take all these men at once, for he could leap from 29 to 22, taking 25 man ; to 31, taking 26 ; to 24, taking 27; to 15, taking 19 ; to 6, taking 10 ; to 13, taking 9 ; and to 22, taking 17, and taking all these in one move. If a man take other men, and in the taking reach the bottom row, he cannot go on taking, as a king, until the ad- versary has moved. Example . — Place a white man at 24, 7, 16, and 8, a black man at 28. The black man takes 24 by leaping to 19, takes 16 by leaping to 12, takes 8 by leaping to 3, and is there crowned ; but cannot leap to 10, thus taking the man at 7, until the adversary has moved. The game is won when all the adversary’s men are either taken or blockaded so that they cannot move, and it is drawn when two kings or less remain able to move, in spite of the adversary. Laws. — The following are the established laws of the game, which should be learned by every person who is desirous of becoming a draught-player. RULES OF THE GAME OF DRAUGHTS. The chief laws for regulating the game of draughts are as follows ; — 1. Each player takes the first move alternately, whether the last game be won or drawn. 2. Any action which prevents the adversary from having a full view of the men is not allowed. t 3. The player who touches a man must play him. 4. In case of standing the huff, which means omitting 19 take a man when an opportunity for so doing occurred, the other party may either take the man, or insist upon his man, which has been so omitted by his adversary, being taken. 1 5. If either party, when it is his turn to move, hesita.es above three minutes, the other may call upon him to play; and if, after that, he delay above five minutes longer, then he loses the game. 6. In the losing game, the player can insist upon his adver- sary taking all the men in case opportunities should present themselves for their being so taken. 7. To prevent unnecessary delay, if one color have no pieces but two kings on the board, and the other no piece but one king, the latter can call upon the former to win the game in twenty moves. If he does not finish it within that number of moves, the game to be relinquished as drawn. 8. If there are three kings to two on the board, the subse- quent moves are not to exceed forty. Advice. — The men should be kept as much as possible in a wedge form towards the center of the board. Avoid moving a man on the side square, for, when there, he is deprived of half his power, being able to take in one direction only. Consider well before you touch a man, for a man once touched must be moved. Avoid the cowardly practice of moving a man, and then, when you discover by your adversary’s move that you have committed an error, taking your move back. Stand the con- sequences though the game be lost, and next time you will be more careful. A game, even if won after replacing a man, is unsatisfactory, and not to be counted a victory, and often leads to disputes. The rules are made to avoid all argument and dispute, and the more closely, therefore, you obey these, the more harmonious will be your games. Do not talk during a game, or whistle, or fidget by drum- ming with the fingers, or in any way act so as to annoy or worry an adversary. A game of draughts, though only aj game, may be made a training process for much more im- portant matters. A careless, thoughtless, or worrying draught- player will, undoubtedly, be the same character in worldly matters. Never allow the loss of a game to cause you to lose your temper, for such a proceeding shows you to be more self- sufficient than intellectual. If beaten, it proves your adver- sary to be more experienced or quicker-sighted than yourself, and you should, therefore, use all your faculties to discover how he beats you. As a rule, seek to play with a better player than yourself rather than with a worse, which is merely saying, “ Endeavor to improve your own game rather than to instruct a worse player.” When you lose a game, avoid all disparaging remarks, such 4^4 GAMES OF SKILL. as, “ Oh, I should have won that if so-and-so had not oc- curred,” etc. Your adversary who defeats you will think imore highly of you if you say nothing, or merely acknow- ledge his greater skill. | If you find a person who defeats you easily, remember how much thought and time he must have devoted to the subject in order to obtain this advantage, and bear in mind that it is only by a similar process that you can gain like results. GAMES. ! Draughts is a game in which one is particularly called upon to estimate the skill and style of play of one's adversary. One person may very easily be drawn into a trap, where another more cautious could not be thus defeated. Again, a too cau- tious player may be defeated by a dashing move, whereas another opponent would win the game in consequence. We will now give one or two examples of games, calling attention to the points in each. The men are supposed to be arranged as before mentioned — white’s men from 21 to 32, black’s from I to 12. Black moves first. Black. 11 to 15. IS to 22 (takes). 8 to 11. White. 2a to 18. 25 to 18 (takes). 29 to 25. Now, at this point of the game, if white were a very young or incautious player, he might be easily tempted into a false move by black moving 11 to 16, for white, seeing a supposed advantage in position, might move 24 to 20. Let us suppose these moves to have been made, and black wins at once, for, moving 3 to 8, he compels white to take 20 to II, and then, with a man at 8, takes II, 18, and 25, and procures a king at 29, thus gaining a majority of two men, an advantage equi- valent to the game, for, by exchanging man for man on every occasion, he would soon reduce the odds to 4 to 2, or 2 to O. If, however, black play a more cautious game, he should move 4 to 8. White again might lose the game if he moved either 24 or 23 to 1 9, for black would respond by I O to I 5, when white must move from 1 9 to I o, black from 6 to 29, taking these men as before. Black’s best move is, perhaps, 25 to 22. At this period of the game exchanges of men usually take place, the object being an advantage of position, as follows: Black. White. 9 to 14. 18 to 9. 5 to 14. 24 to 20. 6 to 9. 22 tO 18. 1 to 5. 28 to 24. Up to the present time no great advantage is gained on either side, the game being, perhaps, slightly in favor of black, who may cause a separation in white’s men by the following: Black. White. 9 to 13. 5 to 14 - 18 to 9. White may reply by — 33 to 18. Then, 14 to 23. 27 to 18. Now, unless black moves a to 6 , or 10 to 1 white could procure a king as follows: Suppose black had moved I 2 to id then white 18 to 14, Black. White. 10 to 17. 21 to 14. and whatever black now does, white must procure a king. It is under such conditions as these that the acute player often wins a game ; for we shall find that the eagerness for 'gaining this king may cause white to be in a difficult position. Carry ing on the game under this supposition, we have Black. White. • 16 to 19. 24 to 15. 11 to 18. 13 to 9. 8 to 11. 9 to 5. 18 to 22. 26 to 17. 13 to 22. 5 to 1 (king). 2 to 6. 1 to 10. 7 to 14. 32 to 28. 14 to 17. 28 to 24. 3 to 8.* 31 to y. 8 to 12. 27 to 23. Biack must now lose a man, and therefore the game, as follows — Black. White. 22 to 26, or 1 7 to 21. 23 to 18. 26 to 31 > or 22 to 25. 19 to 15, and white wins. The Double Corners . — When there is one king against two, the rule is that the game is drawn unless it be won in at least twenty moves. If the player does not know how to block up in the double corners, this may easily be a drawn game. We will now show the moves for blocking in the double corners, giving the case that will require the greatest number of moves. Black’s kings at I and 5 ; white’s at 10. Black. White. 5 to 9. xo to 15. 9 to 14. 15 to 19. 14 to 18. 19 to 24. 18 to 23. 24 to 28 (reaches doub!e i to 6. 28 to 32. corner^ 6 to xo. 32 to 28. jo to 15. 28 to 32. 15 to 19. 32 to 28. 23 to 27. 28 to 32. 19 to 23. 32 to 28. 27 to 32. 28 to 24. 23 to 18. 24 to 19. 32 to 28. 19 to 16. 18 to 15. 16 to 20. 15 to 11, and wins in 15 moves. Had black moved from 15 to 19 at last, white could have gone to 24, and the game would have been prolonged. There is no position on the board where two kings cannot defeat one in fifteen moves. It is usual with two experienced players to pronounce the game drawn when there are two kings only on each side, one of which is enabled to reach the double corners. There are however, two or three chances of catching an incautious player. The following example will serve to illustrate cases. White’s * This move of black’s will very likely lose him a man, or, at least, allow his adversary to make a king rapidly. GAMES OF SKILL. 425 positions are king at 28 and at 30 ; black’s at 24 and 19. Black moves. Black. White. 24 to 27. 28 to 32. 19 to 23. 30 to 26. 23 to 30. 32 to 23. 30 to 25. 23 to 26. 25 to 30. 26 to 22, and wins. Another case may be tried with caution, and which is as follows, two kings each: black at 15 and 23; white at 16 and 25. White moves. White. Black. 25 to 22. 23 to 18. 16 to 11. 18 to 25. 11 to 18, and wins next move by blocking. These are not positions likely to entrap very good players, but succeed very often with average hands. The game in these instances resulted in the winner having what is called “ the move.” To ascertain whether you have the move of any one of your adversary’s men, examine the situation of each. If your opponent has a black square at a right angle under his man, you have the move, and vice versa. Draughts is in reality a deeply interesting game, and one that is very rarely appreciated. THE LOSING GAME OF DRAUGHTS. The losing game of draughts is rarely understood, and there, fore rarely appreciated. We believe that there is even more foresight required in the losing than in the winning game of draughts, for it is equally as necessary to see several moves on ahead, and the game may be almost instantly lost by a thought- less move. To win at the losing game we must compel our adversary to take all our men, and the novice usually commences by losing as many men as possible. This proceeding is an error ; the player has the advantage who has the most men on the table, as will be instanced by one or two examples. Suppose white to have a king on each of the four squares, I, 2, 3, 4; black, one on 31. First, we will suppose that white commences thus : — White. Black. 4 to 8. 31 to 27. 3 to 7. 27 to 23. 2 to 6. 23 to 18. 1 to 5. Black must now retreat, for, if he moves to 14 or 15, the game is lost, as he may be compelled to take each of his opponent’s men in succession. Thus, suppose he move to 14 : — White. 5 to 9. 6 to 9. 7 to 10. 8 to [i and wins. Black. 14 to 5. 5 to 14. 14 to 7. Thus black’s move must be a retreat in answer to white's 1 to 5. Then. Black. White. 18 to 22. 5 9 - 22 to 26. 6 to 14. 26 to 31. 14 to 18L V to 27. At this point, if white advanced from 18 to 23 to be taken, he would lose the game unless very careful, as the lost man would have the move against him. His best move, therefore, would be 18 to 25. If black moves to 24, he loses. Black had better move to 32, and white 6 to 10. Black. White. 32 to 28. 8 to 11. 28 to 32. 15 to 19. 32 to 28. 19 to 24. 28 to 19. 10 to 15. 19 to 3- it to 7, and wins. We will now point out the best “traps” for the losing game. Suppose white’s men to be placed from 21 to 32. If then we can secure one of the adversary’s men at 21, we are almost certain to lose all our men first, and thus to win the game, for, by keeping this man blocked until required, he can be made use of at the right time. Let us take an example, white moving first. White. Black. 22 to 18. 9 to 14. 18 to 9. 5 to 14 (very bad play) 21 to 17. 14 to 21. this ought to 24 to 20. ii to 16. have been 6 20 to II. 7 to 16. to 13.) 23 to 18 (not a good move, but will 10 to 15. 18 to 11. serve to illustrate the 8 to 15. 28 to 24. advantaged manat 21.) 15 to 00. 24 to 15. 6 to 10. 15 to 6. 1 to 10. 26 to 22. 4 to 8. 27 to 23. 16 to 19. 23 to 16. 12 to 19. 22 to 18. 10 to 15. 18 to 4. CO 0 ro 4 to II. 2 to 7. 11 to 2. White now has six men on the board, whilst black has only two ; but white can reduce this number at any time by moving 30 to 26. Black can only move 19 to 24 or to 23. Suppose he move it to 23, then it will be better for white to reduce black to one as follows : — White. Black. 31 to 27. 23 to 26. 30 to 23. 21 to 30. 29 to 25. 30 to 21. 32 to 28. 21 tO 17. 28 to 24. 17 to 14. If black move to 18, 10, or 9, he loses at once, so 14 to 17 is the best move. If white move 27 to 23 he loses the game, for black would move 17 to 22, from which white could not escape. Hence the game would be best played by White. Black. 2 to 6. 17 to 21. 6 to 10. 21 tO 24, 10 to 14. 25 to 3a 14 to 17 The game might now be prolonged, but still to win the losing game with the four against one is almost a certainty, ar it can only be lost by an oversight. 15 #20 GAMES OF SKILL. HE game of dominoes is frequently looked upon as a trivial amusement, but those who are well acquainted with it agree that it affords room for much curi- ous calculation. It is by no means a mere game of chance. Let any ordinary player enter the lists against an old and ex- perienced hand, and he will soon discover that it requires something besides good weapons to come off victorious in this as in most other contests. In fact, it is as much a game of skill as any of the card games. A moderately good player can generally tell what his adversary has in his hand, by his style of play ; and by calculating two or three moves in advance, he may either block the game or leave it open, just as he finds it will suit his purpose. The ordinary game — technically termed “ double sixes ” — is played with twenty-eight dominoes. In some parts of England — chiefly in the North — they use “ double nines ” and “ double twelves.” But it signifies little how many dominoes are used, the rules and principles of the game, as here laid down, will, in most cases, equally apply. HOW TO COMMENCE THE GAME. In the English game it is usual to play a rubber of three games ; but this, of course, is subject to arrangement. After the dominoes have been well shuffled, each player draws one, and he who draws the domino containing the smallest number of pips wins “ the down in plainer Eng- lish, he wins the privilege of playing first. Sometimes a dif- ferent method of deciding who shall have “the down” is adopted. One of the players draws a domino, and without showing it, asks if it is odd or even. If the adversary guesses right he wins “ the down ; ” if, on the contrary, he guesses wrong, he loses it. The latter method is the more common of the two. A third method is in use on the Continent. The person holding the highest double has the “pose," or “ down,” Bad he commences by playing that domino- If there should be no doubles, then the person holding the highest domino has the pose. However, it is quite immaterial which of these plans is adopted- The dominoes having been shuffled, each player takes six or seven, as may be agreed upon. If it is found that one of the players has drawn more than the number agreed upon, his adversary withdraws the extra number, and puts them back on the heap, keeping the face downwards, of course. Each player then takes up his dom- inoes, and the first player commences by putting down one of his dominoes, after which his adversary joins one to it, con- taining on one of its sections the same number of pips as are marked upon adjoining of the domino first played. They thus play alternately till the game may become so “blocked” that one of the players cannot “ go.” His adversary will then continue to play as long as there is an end open. If he should succeed in getting rid of all his men he wins the game ; but if the game should be blocked at both ends before either player has played out, they compare the aggregate number of pips on all the dominoes in each hand, and whoever has the smallest number wins the game. GENERAL MAXIMS. 1. Endeavor to play so as to keep both ends open, so that you may be sure of being able to “go” next time. 2. Play out your heavy dominoes first, because, if the game becomes blocked, you will then have fewer pips to count. 3. Contrive to play so that the numbers at both ends shall be those of which you hold the most. By this means you may often block your adversary till you are played out. 4. If you have made both ends alike, and your adversary plays, follow him at that end, as the chances are that he can- not go at the other, which you may keep open for yourself until you are able to play at his end. 5. It is sometimes an advantage to hold heavy dominoes as they not unfrequently enable you to obtain what is called a good “ follow ; ” and if your adversary should hold none but low dominoes, he would not be able to go, thus enabling you to play five or six times consecutively, or even to play out. 6. When you have sole command over both ends you are generally in a position to “block” the game or not, as you think most expedient for your own game. In such a case, you must be guided by the number of dominoes you hold com- pared with those in your adversary’s hands ; and another ele- ment for your consideration would be whether yours are light or heavy. If they are light, and fewer in number than your adversary’s, of course your best policy is to close the game at once and count. But in this you must learn to calculate from your adversary’s style of play whether his hand is light or heavy. 7. At the commencement of the game it is better to have a variety in hand. 8. If you hold a “double,” with two of the same number, it is better to play the double before either of the others. Sometimes you will be obliged to play one, in which case you must endeavor to force the double. 9. If you hold a double, and one other of the same r.unv ber, play both consecutively ; but if you are unable to d« that, endeavor at any rate to let the double go first. GAMES OF SKILL 427 10. In playing against “ the down,” endeavor to deceive your opponent by playing a domino or two at each end indif- ferently. This is better than playing to his last domino, as it leads him to believe you cannot go at that end, while at the same time you may be simply keeping both ends open. 11. If your adversary has possession of one end, make the other of a number of which you hold several, with a view of forcing him to play at his end, and shutting it against the dominoes he was keeping it for. 12. If you hold several doubles, wait till your adversary makes the number for them in preference to making them for yourself ; otherwise, a good player will see what you are aim- ing at, and will block the double. But if you hold a double with several duplicates, and can bring that number at both ends, do so. 13. If your adversary cannct go at one end, and you hold the double of that end, it is better that you should play at the other as long as you can. When you are blocked at that end, you may then play your double, and your adversary will then in most cases be obliged to open the other end for you. 14. It is generally considered that a light hand, yet with no number missing, is the Lest for ordinary play. The follow- ing, for example, would be a very fine hand : j, 3, r. i> u, u- An example of a bad hand would be : g, g, f, f , f, | ; but the worst possible hand would be the following : J, 4, §, |, |. The latter, however, would seldom occur in actual play. 15. It does not necessarily follow that because a hand is heavy it must therefore lose. Provided it is equally varied, it has an equal chance of success with a light hand. The dis- advantage of a heavy hand is shown when the game becomes blocked, and has to be decided by counting. 16. In leading “the down” from a hand consisting of a high double and several light dominoes, lead the double, and afterwards endeavor to obtain command of both ends. Sup- pose, for example, you hold the following hand : J, J, 3, |, i, S; it would be better to play the g, as your other double can be forced by the aid of the 5 and f. 17. It will at all times be found a difficult thing, in an equal game and between equal players, for the second player to win. 18. Endeavor to bring both ends as often as you can to a number of which you have several duplicates, for by that means you may block your adversary. 19. In blocking the game, you must be cautious th?t you do not block it to yourself, and leave it open to your ad /ersary. 20. During the game look over the dominoes which have been played, so that you may calculate what numbers are likely to be soon run out, and what numbers your opponent is likely to be short of. 21. Do not push the game to a block if you hold a heavy hand, but play out your heaviest first, and keep both ends open. 22. Use your judgment freely. It is not always the best policy to adhere too strictly to the rules laid down in books. In fact, a wily player will oftentimes find it expedient to play a speculative, eccentric game, apparently quite at variance with the ordinary “laws.” 23. Keep perfectly quiet, attentively watoh your opponent’s moves, and prevent him, if you can, from obtaining an insight into your play. 24. Last (though not least), don’t lose your temper. ALL FIVES. This game stands next in popularity to the preceding one The same number of dominoes are taken, or as many as may be agreed upon, and in many points it is similar. The object of the game is to contrive so to play that the aggregate num ber of pips on the dominoes at both ends shall number 5, 10, 15, or 20. If they number 5, the player who makes the point counts one ; if 10, two ; if 15, three ; if 20, four. In order to make our meaning clearer, we give an illus- tration. Suppose that at one end there is $, and at the other a five. The next player then plays g to the single five, and scores two, because the aggregate number of pips on the dom- inoes at both ends is ten. It the opponent should follow up by playing the g to the £, he, of course, scores three. To give another illustration. Suppose at one end is §, and the next player places at the other end 4, he scores four for making twenty. If the game becomes blocked, he who holds the least num- ber of pips counts one. The custom as to what number shall be “up,” is different in different parts of the country. In some places it is ten ; in others fifteen ; in others again, twenty. The number ought to be agreed upon at the commencement of the game. In our opinion it adds to the interest of the game to select the lower numbers. Sometimes the game is so played that he who makes five counts five ; ten is made to count ten, and so on ; but in that case not fewer than 50, and not more than 100, points should constitute the game. As we have shown, the material point in which this game differs from the previous one is that you count the fives, from which circumstance it derives its name. The next best thing to making fives yourself is to prevent your adversary from doing so ; and when you do give him the opportunity of making a point it should only be in order that you may make two or three points yourself. When your adversary fails to avail himself of a good chance, you may presume that he does not hold such and such dom- inoes, and from that and like indications, which you must carefully store up in your memory, you will be able to form a tolerably accurate estimate of his hand. You should never omit to turn these indications to good account. There is only one domino in the whole pack which can be led without the next player being able to make a point from it — namely §. Always lead that if possible. If you must play one of two dominoes, either of which you fear your adversary will turn to his account, of course you must play that by which you think you will be likely to lose the least. It is good practice occasionally to take a survey of the game as far as it has gone, not only in order to refresh your memory as to what has been played, but also that you may form an opinion, if possible, of what your opponent’s “little game" is. If there are good grounds for coming to the conclusion 428 GAMES OF SKILL. that he holds heavy numbers while you hold light ones, block up the game as speedily as you can, and proceed to count. To understand your opponent’s hand is a most important matter, and we do not think we have insisted on it too much. Good players will tell you that they have won many games by watch- ing closely the opponent’s moves, and drawing therefrom in- ferences respecting the dominoes he holds in hand. We need not add, the greatest caution must be used in forming these inferences. THE DRAWING GAME. The same number of dominoes are used, and the lead is drawn for in the same manner in this as in the previously described games. The difference is that when a player cannot go, he must draw a domino from the pack. If he cannot then go, he must draw another, and so on until he is able to continue the game. He who plays out first, or, in case the game becomes blocked, he who holds the smallest number of pips, wins. The French have a different way of playing this game. The player who holds the highest double, or, in the event of there being no double, the highest domino, has the pose or lead. The second player, should he be unable to go, may draw all the remaining dominoes except two, which must remain untaken. If he leave more than two, the first player, should he require them in order to continue the game, may appropri- ate the surplus, still leaving two on the table. If a player cannot go, it is compulsory that he draw till he gets hold of a domino that will enable him to continue the game. Each player may take the pose alternately, or the winner in the first instance may letain it, as agreed upon. The Fiench method of counting is also different. When a player has played out, he counts the pips in his opponent’s hand, and scores them to his own account. In case the game should become blocked, the player holding the fewest pips scores the number of pips in his adversary’s hand to his own account, each pip counting one. A game consists of from 20 to IOO points, according to agreement. With respect to the English method of playing this game, the general instructions and maxims given on the other games apply equally to this. But a few words must be added with regard to the French play. He who has the highest double is compelled to play first, and cannot draw any more dominoes until it is his turn to play again, but his opponent may draw all but two, which two must remain untaken during that game. But the second player should not draw more than half the dominoes, unless really compelled by the badness ol his hand, as by this means it will leave a chance of his opponent having as many to draw. A good player at times might be justified in taking all but two, for by the calculation and judgment obtained by having them, he might be enabled to play them all before his opponent could play his five or six dominoes, as the case may be. Should the second player hold a good hand, comprising dominoes of every denomination, he should not draw until compelled. If he should happen to draw high doubles, he ought to continue to draw until he holds several of that number It is not always the player holding the greatest number whe gets out first, because as he has some of almost every denomi nation, his adversary will keep playing to him, and the odds are that he (the adversary) will be able to play out first. Still, in many games, the one holding the largest number of dom- inoes possesses this advantage, that he has the power to keep both ends open to himself but closed to his opponent, and he may thus run out. In order to be able to play out first with the largest number (supposing that only two dominoes remain untaken), you should by all means, and in the first place, endeavor to ascer. tain what those two are. You may arrive at this in two ways. Suppose you hold so many of a particular number that with those already played they make six out of the seven of that denomination, you must by all means keep playing them. As an illustration, we will suppose you held in your hand four threes, and that two other threes have already been played. Now, if you play your threes, and your adversary, not being able to play to them, becomes blocked, it is quite clear that one of the dominoes on the table is a three. Then, if those you hold in your hand are — §, |, l, and jj, and you find among the dominoes played $ and f, it is, of course, quite safe to conclude that the domino which is left is the J. The second plan is this. If during the course of the game you have given your opponent opportunities of playing a cer- tain double which you do not yourself hold, you may be cer- tain that it is one of the left dominoes. A little experiment, in order to test the nature of your ad versary’s hand, so as, however, not materially to injure youi own, would often be found more expedient than groping ali the while, as it were, in the dark. By carefully looking over your own hand, you may judge pretty correctly as to whether your adversary’s is light or heavy. It is only by taking into account all these and other nice points that a player can possibly be successful. Having formed an idea of your opponent’s hand, you should make it an object to “ run out,” or play so that he may be blocked, or that he may be obliged to leave both ends open for you to play out. Having given some instructions to the player who holds the larger number of dominoes, we must now proceed to give a few hints to the lesser hand. If, holding the lesser hand, you can contrive to play a few moves at first without being blocked, you ought to be pretty sure of winning ; because, by that time, your hand will have become so disproportionately small, that your opponent will have some difficulty in preventing you from playing out with- out blocking himself. This, therefore, must be one of your main objects. If the game goes pretty equal, bring out your strong suits. Wherever you are short of a particular suit, if you find that many of that number have already been played, you need not fear that your adversary will be able to block you in regard to it, for you will, of course, infer that they are as scarce in his hand as in your own. Endeavor to bring these rules to bear, reserving to your discretion as to whether you should in any wise depart from them, or use such modifications as the con* tingencies of the moment require. GAMES OF SKILL. 429 THE MATADORE GAME. This is a foreign game, and each player takes only three dominoes. You can only play when your domino, added to the one previously played, would make seven. Those dominoes which themselves make that numberare termed “matadores,” and may be played at any time, regardless of the numbers played to. The double blank is also a mat adore. The mata- 1 dores, therefore, are four in number, viz. : f, f, g. The highest domino leads, and if the next player cannot go, he must draw from the heap until he can. He must cease, however, to draw when there are only two dominoes left. He who plays out first wins, and if the game is blocked, he who holds the least number of pips counts those held by his op- ponent, and scores them to his own game. The number of points constituting the game is subject to agreement ; it varies from 26 to IOO. MAXIMS FOR PLAYING THE MATADORE GAME. This game differs widely from any of the other varieties of dominoes. The element of chance is more largely introduced. The player who happens to obtain more matadores than the other is almost certain of winning, provided the parties be pretty evenly balanced in skill and experience. The blanks are very valuable at this game — the double blank being the most valuable of all the matadores. It is impos- sible to make a seven against a blank, so that if you hold blanks you may easily block the game and count. When you have the worst of the game, and indeed at other times as well, guard against your adversary’s blanks, and pre- vent him from making them ; which you may do by playing only those dominoes which fit with the blanks already down. Never play a blank at the pose unless you have a matadore or a corresponding blank. Keep back your double blank till your opponent makes it blanks all ; you can then force him to play a matadore, or compel him to draw till he obtains one. It is better to have a mixed hand. DOMINO POOL. This game is played either by partners or by separate play- ers. If played singly by three or four players, each must draw a domino, and he who draws the highest number of pips but one sits on the left of him who draws the highest, the next highest to the left of the second, and so on. If the game is played by partners, the two lowest are partners and the two highest. The partners must sit opposite to each other. The players must draw afresh at each game, and the stake to be played for, called the “ pool,” must be placed on the table. Each player takes five dominoes, and he who holds the high- est leads. When one player cannot go, the next in turn plays, and so on. The maxims given in reference to the English game apply equally to this. The game is scored in the following manner : When one player has played out, the one keeping the score counts the number of pips on each player’s remaining dominoes, and puts down the number under each of their names or initials respec- tively. The same is done if a player cannot go. When the number of any one player reaches 40,50, or 100, or any limit previously agreed upon, he is out of the game ; but he comes in again by what is called “starring.” In other words, he must pay over again the amount he originally put into the pool. The method of “ starring ” is the same as at billiards, from which the game is taken. He who “ stars ” recommences at the number which the player holds who is in the worst position. Suppose, for example, there were three players — one at 20, one at 40, and the other at 60, 100 being up, the player who “ stars ” must recommence at 60. He can only “star” once,” and that must be at the time he is out. Each player has the option of “ starring,” except the last two, who must divide the pool, or they may agree to play it out. Still, unless an agreement to play out is made beforehand, the last two must divide. INSTRUCTIONS FOR PLAYING DOMINO POOL. When this game is played by separate players, and one be- comes greatly ahead, the other three can combine, so as to render his chance of winning uncertain. The necessity of this combination is clear. If he is allowed to win, the competi- tion for that game is over ; but if, by combining, the other players can keep him back a little, they obtain for themselves a better chance of success. The player who is ahead will also do his best to throw obstacles in the way of the player in the next best position, as he becomes a dangerous competitor. The two in the worst position will in like manner combine against the two ahead. The necessity for this combination does not arise till the game is somewhat advanced, as at the beginning all the players are on a level ; and the relative posi- tion of the others is of no moment till the game becomes ad- vanced. It is of very little use for one player to attempt to stop the progress of another who is too far ahead, unless the others combine with him. If, through ignorance or anything else, they continue to play for their own hands, you must do likewise. Although, if you attempted by yourself to stop the player who was ahead of you, you might succeed, that success might be purchased at the risk of your own chance in the game. As in this game you have only five dominoes out of twenty, your power of influencing the game is very much diminished, and there is not quite so much scope for the exercise of your judgment as in other single games where you hold six dom- inoes out of twelve. Your opponents are sure to hold some of the remaining numbers in which you are strong ; so that the in- jury you can in other games inflict by having a preponderance of a particular number will be greatly diminished here. Therefore it is scarcely worth your while endeavoring to retard your opponent’s game when you have three of a number, un- less some of that number have already been played ; because, if you keep those numbers until you are called upon to play them, you will do infinitely more towards crippling their game than if you were to lead from them. On the other hand, should you hold more than three of a particular number, do not wait for this chance, but lead it on the first opportunity. If you find that you and one of the other players hold nearly all of a particular number, combine with him, in order to exhaust the hands of the other two. In doing this you are of course only studying your own interest. It is better to adopt this plan wliAi you have reasons to believe you are already on the safe side. If you hold one or two doubles, with duplicates of GAMES OF SKILL. 43° either, retain the latter until you first get rid of the doubles ; but if you hold three or four duplicates along with a double, play the duplicates at once, as you will be able by your own hand to force the double at any time. If you are short in any particular number, get rid of your heavy dominoes as quickly as possible. In playing off you may lead with a light domino, if you hold one or more of the number ; but if not, you must lead a higher domino, in order to diminish the number of pips in your hand. If you hold a heavy hand with high doubles, or a hand which admits of little or no variety, or without any particular preponderance, you must play a safe game, and sustain as little loss as you possibly can under the circum- stances. Endeavor to balance the inferiority of your hand by drawing the other players along with you. When there are only three players left, and one is greatly ahead, while another has starred, it should be the object of the third player to prolong the game as much as possible, as he still has a chance to star. When two players are in advance, the two behind must avoid embarrassing each other in their combinations against the other two. It is better for them to use their joint efforts against one at a time, as the attack, if concentrated in that way, would be stronger and more effectual. Should one of the advanced players get embarrassed, endeavor to embarrass him still more, for you may be sure his competitor wil! not assist him. It will be perfectly understood, however, that, in playing with partners, the object of each partner will be to play as much as possible into his partner’s hands and to cripple his opponents. If it is your lead and you have a good hand, you must try and win with it, regardless of your partner’s position. So, on the other hand, if it is your partner’s down, and you have a bad hand, you must be content to sacrifice your own chance in order to increase his. In the partner’s game it is generally good play to lead from a strong suit, for, as this is a generally understood rule, your partner will accept the hint, and will not fail to “ return your lead,” or, in other words, to play into your hands as much as possible. If you hold some doubles, with others of the same number, you may — contrary to the single game — play the latter first if it suits your hand, as your partner will be sure to assist in getting out your doubles. We might continue these directions and hints ad infinitum , but experience, after all, is the best teacher ; and — recom- mending the learner to practice assiduously and play carefully —we dismiss this portion of our subject. THE WHIST GAME. This game resembles in some points the game of cards from which it takes its name. It is played by four persons — two partners on each side. The partners, as usual, sit opposite to each other. The whole of the dominoes are taken — seven by each player. It is best to lead from your strongest suit. By this and such other indications you will enable your partner to form an opinion as to your hand, by which he will be guided very much in his play, and as the game proceeds each must tax his recollection as to who played such and such a domino, and how the game stood at that particular time, so as to form a judgment as to the motive of such play, etc. The general in- structions given in previous chapters will apply in great measure to this game, particularly those given in reference to the Pool Game. THE FOUR GAME. In this game, which is played by four persons, each player takes seven dominoes ; and he who plays out first, or, if the game becomes blocked, holds the least number of pips, wins the hand, and draws a certain stake from the other three. Very little in the way of instruction is required in this game. If you have the pose, you should play out as far as possible, and then endeavor to block the game. Endeavor to keep your hand even, so as to be ready at any number, or (and in this you must be guided by the nature of your hand) play to keep your strongest suit in hand until those of the same suit held by other players are out. By this means you may oftentimes be able to play out or shut the game, as you find most expedient. SEBASTOPOL GAME. This game is played by four players, each taking seven dom- inoes. The player holding the double six plays it, and takes the lead. Each player must play a six to it. He who cannot loses the turn. The dominoes are played in the form of a cross the first round, after which the players alternately play at either of the four ends. He who has the last domino, or, in the event of more than one player being left with dominoes when the game is shut, he who holds the greatest number of pips, pays a certain amount to the winners. Endeavor to get rid of your heavy dominoes, and put ob- stacles in the way of your adversaries running out. TIDDLE-A-WINK GAME. This is a very amusing game, and suitable for a round party. If six or more play, each takes three dominoes. The jj is then called for, as in the French game, and the person holding it leads with it. If it is not out, the next highest double is called forth, and so on downwards until a start is made. In this game, he who plays a double, either at the lead or at any other part of the game, is entitled to play again if he can — thus obtaining two turns instead of one. The game then proceeds in the ordinary way, and he who plays out first cries “ Tiddle-a-wink !” having won. In the event of the game being blocked, he who holds the lowest number of pips wins. PARLOR MAGIC. 431 FEW preliminary hints are necessary in order to enable an amateur to perform the tricks he attempts with effect and success. A conjuror should always be able to “ palm ” well. That is done by holding coin in the fingers, and by a quick move- ment passing it into the middle or palm of the hand, and, by contracting the muscles on each side of the hand, to retain it there, making the hand appear open and as though nothing were in it. After a lit- tle practice this will become comparatively easy, but it will require the exercise of great perseverance in order to become perfect. The pains, however, will be well bestowed, as this is one of the principal means by which prestidigitators deceive their audiences. MAKING THE PASS. In many of the tricks with cards it is necessary to “make the pass,” as it is termed, which is a very neat and simple movement. The operator shows a card, which he wishes his audience to believe he can change by simply using the mysterious words “ Presto, begone ! ” While, however, he is saying these words, he gives a sharp blow on the pack he holds in his hand, and at the same time slips the card under the pack and takes off the top one, or vice versa. Prac- tice, in this as in other matters, will impart great dexterity to the operator ; and, as the hand can be trained to move more quickly than the eye can see, he will be able to go through the movement without it being perceived by his audience. The following mode of “ making the pass ” should be well studied : Hold the pack of cards in your right hand so that the palm of your hand may be under the cards ; place the thumb of that hand on one side of the pack, and the first, second, and third fingers on the other side, and your little finger between those cards that are to be brought to the top and the rest of the pack. Then place your left hand over the card in such a manner that the thumb may be at 5, the forefinger at 6, and the other fingers at 7. as in the accompanying figure : Left hand. 7 6 5 The hands and the two portions of the pack being thus disposed, you drawoff the lower cards confined by the little finger and the other parts of the right hand, and place them with an imperceptibly quick motion on top of the pack. But before you attempt any of the tricks that de- pend upon “ making the pass ” you must have great practice, and be able to perform it so dexterously and expeditiously that the eye cannot detect the movement of the hand, or you may, instead of deceiving others, expose yourself. Tup. Right hand. Bottom. Little finger. FORCING A CARD. In card tricks it is frequently necessary to “ force a card,” by which you compel a person to take such 43 2 PARLOR MAGIC. a card as you think fit, while he imagines he is taking one at haphazard. The following is, perhaps, the best method of performing this trick : Ascertain quietly, or whilst you are amusing your- self with the cards, what the card is which you are to force ; but either keep it in sight, or place the little finger of your left hand, in which you have the cards, upon it. Next, desire a person to select a card from the pack, for which purpose you must open them quick- ly from left to right, spreading the cards backwards and forwards so as to perplex him in making his choice, and when you see him about to take one, open the pack until you come to the one you intend him to take, and just at the moment his fingers are touching the pack let its corner project invitingly a little forward in front of the others. This will seem so fair that in nine cases out of ten he will take the one so offered, unless he is himself aware of the secret of forcing. Having by this method forced your card, you request him to examine it, and then give him the pack to shuffle, which he may do as often as he likes, for you are of course always aware what card he has taken. A perfect acquaintance with the art of forcing is indispensably necessary before you Mtempt any of the more difficult card tricks. THE “LONG CARD.” Another stratagem connected with the perform- ance of many of the following tricks is what is termed the “ long card,” that is, a card a trifle longer or wider than the rest of the pack, so as not to be per- ceptible to the eye of the spectator, but easily dis- tinguished by the touch of the operator. Good operators sometimes have both cards in the pack. Any bookbinder will shave the edges of your pack so as to leave you a long and a wide card. Having laid down what we may be allowed to term the “ leading principles ” which rule the art of card conjuring, we now propose to explain the vari- ous tricks which may be performed with a pack of ordinary playing-cards. They depend to some ex- tent for success on manual dexterity, a knowledge of the science of numbers, and some simple appara- tus, easily procured or made by an ingenious youth. For instance, all the court cards may be made to come together by reiving upon the doctrine of chances. Thus : take the pack, separate all the kings, queens, and knaves, and place them all to- gether in any part of the pack you choose. There are five hundred chances to one that a stranger can- not in twelve cuts disturb the order in which they are placed. This trick is easy, and when success- fully carried out is amusing. It may be made more so by placing one-half of the above number of cards at the bottom of the pack and the other half at the top. Of a very similar character is the famous trick of GUESSING A CARD THOUGHT OF. To do this well you must attend to the following directions t Spread out the cards in your right hand in such a manner that, in showing them to the audience, not a single card is wholly exposed to view, with the exception of the king of spades, the upper part of which should be clearly seen with- out any obstruction either from the fingers or from the other cards. When you have thus spread them out, designedly in fact, but apparently at random, show them to one of the spectators, requesting him to think of a card, and at the same time take care to move the hand a little, so as to describe a segment of a circle, in order that the audience may catch sight of the king of spades without noticing that the other cards are all partially concealed. Then shuffle the cards, but in doing so you must not lose sight of the king of spades, which you will then lay on the table face downwards. You may then tell the person who has thought of a card that the one in his mind is on the table, and request him to name it. Should he name the king of spades, which he would be most likely to do, you will of course turn it up and show it to the company, who, if they are not acquainted with the trick, will be very much astonished. If, however, he should name some other card— say the queen of clubs — you must tell him that his memory is defective, and that that card could not have been the card he at first thought of. Whilst telling him this, which you must do at as great length as you can in order to gain time, shuffle the cards rapidly and apparently without any par- ticular purpose until your eye catches the card he has just named (the queen of clubs). Put it on the top of the pack, and, still appearing to be engrossed with other thoughts, go through the first false shuffle to make believe that you have no particular card in view. When you have done shuffling, take care to leave the queen of clubs on the top of the pack ; then take the pack in your left hand and the king of spades in your right, and while dexterously exchanging the queen of clubs for the king of spades, say, “What must I do, gentle- men, that my trick should not be a failure ? what card should I have in my right hand?” They will not fail to call out the queen of clubs, upon which you will turn it up, and they will see that you have been successful. This trick, when well executed, always has a good effect, whether the spectator thinks of the card you intended him to think of, or, from a desire to complicate matters, of some other. It requires considerable presence of mind, however, and the power of concealing from your audience what your real object is. Another method of making the spectator think of any par- PARLOR MAGIC. 433 Ocular card is the following : Pass several cards under the eye of the person selected, turning them over so rapidly that he sees the colors confusedly, without being able to distinguish their number or value. For this purpose take the pack in your left hand, and pass the upper part into your right, dis- playing the front of the cards to the audience, and conse- quently seeing only the backs yourself. Pass one over the other so rapidly that he will not be able to distinguish any one of them, until you come to the card which you desire to force — presuming, of course, that you have made yourself ac- quainted with its position. The card you select ought to be a bright-looking and easily distinguishable one, such as the king of hearts or the queen of clubs. Contrive to have this card a little longer before your audience than the rest, but avoid all appearance of effort, and let everything be done naturally. During the interval watch the countenance of the spectator, in order that you may be sure he notices the card you display before him. Having thus assured yourself that he has fixed upon the card you selected, and that he is not acquainted with the trick, you then proceed as before. Should you come to the conclusion that he has fixed upon some other card, you will then have recourse to the “ex- changed card ” trick, as explained in the previous trick. TO TELL A CARD BY SMELLING IT. A very clever trick, and one which never fails to excite as- tonishment at an evening party, is to select all the court cards when blindfolded ; but before commencing it, you must take one of the party into your confidence, and get him to assist you. When all is arranged, you may talk of the strong sense of smell and touch which blind people are said to possess, and state that you could, when blindfolded, distinguish the court cards from the rest, and profess your willingness to attempt it. The process is this : After you have satisfied the company that your eyes are tightly bound, take the pack in your hands, and holding up one of the cards in view of the whole com- pany, feel the face of it with your fingers. If it is a court card, your confederate, who should be seated near to you, must tread on your toe. You then proclaim that it is a court card, and proceed to the next. Should you then turn up a common card your confederate takes no notice of it, and you inform the company accordingly ; and so on until you have convinced the company that you really possess the extraordi- nary power to which you laid claim. TO TELL ALL THE CARDS WITHOUT SEEING THEM. Another good parlor trick is to tell the names of all the cards when their backs are turned towards you. Perhaps this ts one of the best illusions that can be performed with cards, as it not only brings the whole pack into use, but can never fail in the hands of an ordinarily intelligent operator. This trick, which is founded on the science of numbers, enables you to tell every card after they have been cut as often as your audience please, although you only see the backs of them. It is thus performed : A pack of cards are distributed face up- permost on a table, and you pick them up in the following order — 6, 4, i, 7, 5, king, 8, 10, 3, knave, 9, 2, queen. Go through this series until you have picked up the whole of the pack. It is not necessary that you should take up the whole of one suit before commencing another. In order that the above order may not be forgotten, the following words should be committed to memory : 641 75 The sixty-fourth regiment beats the seventy-fifth ; up starts king 8 10 3 knave 9 2 the king, with eight thousand and three men and ninety-two queen women. The cards being thus arranged, the cards must be handed to the company to cut. They may cut the cards as often as they like, but it must be understood that they do it whist fashion, that is, taking off a portion of the cards, and placing the lower division on what was formerly the upper one. You then take the pack in your hands, and, without letting your audience perceive, cast a glance at the bottom card. Having done this— which you may do without any apparent effort — you have the key of the whole trick. You then deal out the cards, in the ordinary way, in thirteen different sets, putting four cards to each set ; in other words, you deal out the first cards singly and separately, and then place the fourteenth card above the first set, the next upon the second set, and so on throughout, until you have exhausted the whole pack. You may be certain now that each one of these thirteen sets will contain four cards of the same denomination — thus, the four eights will be together, and so with the four queens, and every other denomination. The thirteenth, or last set, will be ot the same denomination as the card at the bottom which you contrived to see, and as they will be placed exactly In the re- verse order of that in which you first of all picked them up, you may without difficulty calculate of what denomination each of the sets consists. For example, suppose an 8 was the bottom card, you would find, after a little calculation, that after being dealt out in the manner above described, they would be placed in the following order : king, 5, 7, 1, 4, 6, queen, 2, 9, knave, 3, 10, 8 ; and repeating in your own mind the words which you have committed to memory, and reckon- ing the cards backwards, you would say — 8 10 3 knave 9 2 queen “ Eight thousand and three men, and ninety-two women ; 641 75 sixty-fourth regiment beats the seventy-fifth ; up starts the king king with,” etc., etc. You observe the same rule whatever the bottom card may be. TO TELL A CARD THOUGHT OF. By a certain prearranged combination of cards, the con juror is enabled — apparently to guess, but really to calculate — not only the card that is thought cf by any member of the company, but to tell its position in the pack. You take the pack and present it to one of those present, desiring him to shuffle the cards well, and after he is done, if he chooses, to hand them over to some one else to shuffle them a second time. You then cause the pack to be cut by several persons, after which you select one out of the company whom you ro* PARLOR MAGIC. quest to take the pack, think of a card, and fix in his memory not only the card he has thought of, but also its position in the pack, by counting I, 2, 3, 4, and so on, from the bottom of the pack, as far as, and including, the card thought of. You may offer to go into another room while this is being done, or remain with your eyes bandaged, assuring the com- pany that, if they desire it, you will announce beforehand the number at which the card thought of will be found. Now, supposing the person selecting the card stops at No. 13 from the bottom, and that this thirteenth card is the queen of hearts, and supposing also that the number you have put down beforehand is 24, you will return to the room or remove your handkerchief, as the case may be, and without putting any question to the person who has thought of a card, you ask for the pack, and rest your nose upon it, as if you would find out the secret by smelling. Then, putting your hands behind your back or under the table, so that they cannot be seen, you take away from the bottom of the pack twenty-three cards — that is, one fewer than the number you marked down before- hand — and place them on the top, taking great care not to put one more or less, as inaccuracy in this respect would cer- tainly cause the trick to fail. You then return the pack to the person who thought of the card, requesting him to count the cards from the top, beginning from the number of the card he thought of. For example, having selected the thir- teenth card, he will commence counting 14, 15, 16, and so on. When he has called 23, stop him, telling him that the number you marked down was 24, and that the twenty-fourth card which he is about to take up is the queen of hearts, which he will find to be correct. In performing this trick it is neces- sary to observe that the number you name must be greater than the number which your opponent gives you, describing its position in the puck. TO CHANGE A CARD BY WORD OF COMMAND. It at first sight seems singular that any one should be able even to appear to change a card by word of command ; yet it can easily be done, and under different titles, and with slight variations, the trick is constantly performed in public. To do it, you must have two cards alike in the pack — say, for ex- ample, a duplicate of the king of spades. Place one next to the bottom card, which we will suppose to be the seven of hearts, and the other at the top ; shuffle the cards without dis- placing these three, and then show one of the company that the bottom card is the seven of hearts. This card you dex- terously slip aside with your finger, so that it may not be per- ceived, and taking the king of spades from the bottom, which the person supposes to be the seven of hearts, lay it on the table, telling him to cover it with his hand. Shuffle the cards again without displacing the first and last cards, and shifting the other king of spades from the top to the bottom, show it to another person. You then contrive to remove the king of spades in the same manner as before, and taking the bottom card, which will then be the seven of hearts, but which the company will still suppose to be the king of spades, you lay that also on the table, and tell the second person to cover it with his hand. You then command the cards to change places, and when the two parties take off their hands, they will see, to their great astonishment, that your commands are obeyed. “TWIN CARD” TRICK. Another trick performed by means of “ twin,” or duplicate, cards, as in the previous case, is to show the same card appar- ently on the top and at the bottom of the pack. One of these duplicate cards may be easily obtained ; in fact, the pattern card, which accompanies every pack, may be made available for that purpose. Let us suppose, then, for a mo- ment, that you have a duplicate of the queen of clubs. You place both of them at the bottom of the pack, and make be- lieve to shuffle them, taking care, however, that these two keep their places. Then lay the pac*. upon the table, draw out the bottom card, show it, and piace it on the top. You then command the top card to pnss to the bottom, and, on the pack being turned up, the company will see with surprise that the card which they had just seen placed upon the top is now at the bottom. MAGIC TEA-CADDIES. This, like some of the tricks we have previously explained, requires suitable apparatus for its successful performance. Two cards, drawn by different persons, are put into separate tca-caddies, and locked up, and the object of the operator is to appear to change the cards without touching them. This may be done without the aid of a confederate. The caddies are made with a copper flap which has a hinge at the bottom and opens against the front, where it catches under the bolt of the lock, so that when the lid is shut and locked the flap will fall down upon the bottom. The operator places the two cards he intends to be chosen between the flap and the front, which may be handled without any suspicion ; he then re- quests one of the persons to put the card he has selected into one of the caddies, taking care that he puts it into the caddy into which you placed the other card ; the second person, of course, puts his card into the other caddy. The operator then desires them to lock the caddies, and in doing this the flap becomes unlocked, falls to the bottom, and covers the cards, and when opened, the caddies show apparently that the cards have been transposed. THE VANISHING CARD. Another good trick is thus performed : Divide the pack, placing one-half in the palm of the left hand, face downwards; and, taking the remainder of the pack in the right hand, hold them between the thumb and first three fingers, taking care to place the cards upright, so that the edges of those in your right hand may rest upon the back of those in the left, thus forming a right angle with them. In this way the four fingers of the left hand touch the last of the upright cards in your right hand. It is necessary that the cards should be placed in this position, and that once being attained, the rest of the trick is easy. These preliminaries having been gone through, one of the company, at your request, examines the top card of the half-pack that rests in the palm of your left hand, and then replaces it. Having done this, you request him to look at it again, and, to his astonishment, it will have vanished PARLOR MAGIC. 435 and another card will appear in its place. I» order to accom- plish this, having assumed the position already described, you must damp the tips of the four fingers that rest against the last card of the upright set in your right hand. When the person who has chosen a card replaces it, you must raise the upright cards in your right hand very quickly, and the card will then adhere to the damped fingers of your left hand. As you raise the upright cards, you must close your left hand skillfully, and you will thereby place the last of the upright cards — which, as we have explained, adheres to the fingers of your left hand — upon the top of the cards in the palm of your left hand, and when you request the person who first examined it to look at it again, he will observe that it has been changed. Rapidity and manual dexterity are required for the perform- ance of this capital sleight-of-hand trick. TO TELL THE NUMBER OF CARDS BY WEIGHT. The apparently marvelous gift of telling the number of cards by weight depends on the use of the long card. Take a portion of a pack of cards — say forty — and insert among them two long cards. Place the first — say fifteen from the top, and the other twenty-six. Make a feint of shuffling the cards, and cut at the first long card ; poise those you hold in your hand, and say, “ There must be fifteen here ; ” then cut at the second long card, and say, “ There are but eleven here and poising the remainder, say, “ And here are four- teen.” The spectators, on counting them, will find that you have correctly estimated the numbers. TO PRODUCE A MOUSE FROM A PACK OF CARDS. Cards are sometimes fastened together like snuff-boxes. If you possess such a pack, or can procure one, you may, with- out difficulty, perform this feat. The cards are fastened to- gether at the edges, but the middles must be cut out, leaving a cavity in the pack resembling a box. A whole card is glued on to the top, and a number o{ loose ones are placed above it. They must be skillfully and carefully shuffled, so that your audience may be led to believe that it is an ordinary and per- fect pack. The card at the bottom of what we may term the “box” must likewise be a whole card, but must be glued to the box on one side only, so that it will yield immediately to internal pressure. This bottom card serves as the door through which you convey the mouse into the middle of the pack. Being thus prepared, and holding the bottom tight with your hand, request one of the company to place his open hands together, telling him you intend to produce something very marvelous from the pack. Place the pack in his hands, and whilst you engage his attention in conversation, affect to want something out of your bag, and at the same moment take the pack by the middle, and throw it into the bag, and the mouse, which you had previously placed in the box, will re- main in the hands of the person who holds the cards. TO SEND A CARD THROUGH A TABLE. Request one of the company to draw a card from the pack, examine it, and then return it. Then make the pass — or, if you cannot make the pass, make use of the long card — and bring the card chosen to the top of the pack, and shuffle by means of any of the false shuffles before described, without losing sight of the card. After shuffling the pack several times, bring the card to the top again. Then place the pack on the table, about two inches from the edge near which you are sitting, and having previously slightly dampened the back of your right hand, you strike the pack a sharp blow, and the card will adhere to it. You then put your right hand very rapidly underneath the table, and taking off with your left haifd the card which has stuck to your right hand, you show it to your audience, who will at once recognize in it the card that was drawn at the commencement of the trick. You must be careful while performing this trick not to allow any of the spectators to get behind or at the side of the table, but keep them directly in front, otherwise the illusion would be dis- covered. TO KNOCK ALL THE CARDS FROM A PERSON’S HAND EXCEPT THE CHOSEN ONE. With a little care a novice may easily learn this trick. It is not new, and is called by some the “ Nerve Trick.” Force a card, and request the person who has taken it to return it to the pack and shuffle the cards. Then look at the card your- self, and place the card chosen at the bottom of the pack. Cut them in two, and give him the half containing his card at the bottom, and request him to hold it just at the corner be- tween his finger and thumb. After telling him to hold them tight, strike them sharply, and they will all fall to the ground except the bottom one, which is the card he has chosen. An improvement in this trick is to put the chosen card at the bottom of the pack and turn the face upwards, so that when you strike, the card remaining will stare the spectators in the face. ANOTHER CLEVER CARD TRICK. This trick, commonly called the “ Turnover Feat,” is easily performed, and yet is difficult of detection. Having forced a card, you contrive, after sundry shufflings, to convey it to the top of the pack. Make the rest of the cards perfectly even at the edges, but let the chosen card project a little over the others. Then, holding them between your finger and thumb, about two feet above the table, let them suddenly and quickly drop, and the projecting card in the course of its de- scent will be turned face uppermost by the force of the air, and exposed to the view of the whole company. TO TELL THE NAME OF A CARD THOUGHT OF. One of the company must, at your request, draw seven or eight cards promiscuously from the pack, and select one from among them as the card he desires to think of. He then re- turns them to the pack, and you, either by shuffling or in any other way which will not be noticed, contrive to pass the whole of them to the bottom of the pack. You then take five or six cards off the top of the pack, and throw them on the table face upwards, asking if the card thought of is among them. Whilst the person is examining them you secretly take one card from the bottom of the pack and place it on the top ; and when he tells you that the card he thought of is not in the first parcel, throw him five or six more, including the card 43° PARLOR MAGIC. you have just taken from the bottom — the denomination and suit of which it is presumed you have taken the opportunity to ascertain — so that should be say that his card is in the sec- ond parcel, you will at once know which card is indicated, and in order'to “ bring it to light,” you may make use either of the two foregoing tricks, or any other you think proper. TO TELL THE NAMES OF ALL THE CARDS BY THEIR WEIGHTS. The pack having been cut and shuffled to the entire satis- faction of the audience, the operator commences by stating that he undertakes, by poising each card for a moment on his fingers, to tell not only the color, but the suit and number of spots, and, if a court card, whether it be king, queen, or knave. For the accomplishment of this most amusing trick we recommend the following directions : You must have two packs of cards exactly alike. One of them we will suppose to have been in use during the evening for the performance of your tricks ; but in addition to this you must have a second pack in your pocket, which you must take care to arrange in the order hereinafter described. Previous to commencing the trick you must take the opportunity of exchanging these two packs, and bringing into use the prepared pack. This must be done in such a manner that your audience will believe that the pack you introduce is the same as the one you have been using all the evening, which they know has been well shuffled. The order in which the pack must be arranged will be best ascertained by committing the following lines — the words in italics forming the key : — Eight kings threa-ten’d to save, Eight , king, three, ten, two, seven, Nine fair ladies for one sick knave. Nine, Jive, queen, four, ace, six, knave. These lines thoroughly committed to memory will be of material assistance. The alliterative resemblance will in every instance be a sufficient guide to the card indicated. The order in which the suits should otherwise be committed to memory, — viz., hearts, spades, diamonds, clubs. Having sorted your cards in accordance with the above directions, your pack is “ prepared ” and ready for use ; and when you have successfully oompleted the exchange, you bring forward your prepared [rack, and hand it round to be cut. The pack may be cut as often as the audience pleases, but always whist fashion, — i.e., the lower half of the pack must be placed upon the upper at each cut. You now only want to know the top card, and yen will then have a clue to the rest. You therefore take off the top card, and holding it between your- self and the light, you see what it is, saying at the same time, by way of apology, that this is the old way of performing the trick, but that it is now superseded. Plaving once ascertained what the first is, which, for example, we will suppose to be the king of diamonds, you then take the next card on your finger, and poise it for a moment, as if you were going through a process of mental calculation. This pause will give you time to repeat to yourself the two lines given by which means you will know what card comes next. Thus : — “ Eight kings threa -ten'd to," etc. ; it will be seen that the three comes next THE QUEEN’S DIG FOR DIAMONDS. Taking the pack in your hands, you separate from it ths four kings, queens, knaves, and aces, and also four common cards of each suit. Then laying the four queens, face up- wards, in a row on the table, you commence telling your story somewhat after this fashion : — “ These four queens set out to seek for diamonds. [ Here you place any four cards of the diamond suit half aver the queens .] As they intend to dig for diamonds, they each take a spade. \Here lay four common spades half over the diamonds] The kings, their husbands, aware of the risk they run, send a guard of honor to protect them. [ Place the four aces half over the spades.] But fearing the guard of honor might neglect their duty, the kings resolve to set out themselves. [Here lay the four kings half over the four aces.] Now, there were four robbers, who, being apprised of the queens’ intentions, deter- mined to waylay and rob them as they returned with the dia- monds in their possession. [Lay the four knaves half over the four kings.] Each of these four robbers armed himself with a club [lay out four clubs half over the knaves] ; and as they do not know how the queens may be protected, it is necessary that each should carry a stout heart.” [Lay out four hearts half over the knaves.] You have now exhausted the whole of the cards with which you commenced the game, and have placed them in four col- umns. You take the cards in the first of these columns, and pack them together, beginning at your left hand, and keeping them in the order in which you laid them out. Having done this, you place them on the table, face downwards. You pack up the second column in like manner, lay them on the first, and so on with the other two. The pack is then handed to the company, who cut them as often as they choose, provided always that they cut whist fashion. That done, you may give them what is termed a shuffle-cut ; that is, you appear to shuffle them, but in reality only give them a quick succession of cuts, taking care that when you are done a card of the heart suit remains at the bottom. You then begin to lay them out again as you did in the first instance, and it will be found that all the cards will come in their proper order. MYSTERIOUS DISAPPEARANCE OF THE KNAVE OF SPADES Fixing your eye upon the stoutest looking man in the room, you ask him if he can hold a card tightly. Of course he will answer in the affirmative ; but if he should not, you will have no difficulty in finding one who does. You then desire him to stand in the middle of the room, and holding up the pack ol cards, you show him the bottom one, and request him to state what card it is. He will tell you that it is the knave of spades. You then tell him to hold the card tightly and look up at the ceiling. While he is looking up you ask him if he recollects his card ; and if he answer, as he will be sure to do, the knave of spades, you will reply that he must have made a mistake, for if he look at the card he will find it to be the knave of hearts, which will be the case. Then handing him tho PARLOR MAGIC. 437 pack, you tell him that if he will look over it, he will find his knave of spades somewhere in the middle of the pack. This trick is extremely simple and easy of accomplishment. You procure an extra knave of spades, and cut it in half, keeping the upper part, and throwing away the lower. Be- fore showing the bottom of the pack to the company, get the knave of hearts to the bottom, and lay over it, unperceived by the company, your half knave of spades ; and under pretense of holding the pack very tight, put your thumb across the middle, so that the joining may not be seen, the legs of the two knaves being so similar that detection is impossible. You then give him the lower part of the knave of hearts to hold, and when he has drawn the card away hold your hands so that the faces of the cards will be turned toward the floor. As early as possible you take an opportunity of removing the half knave. SLEIGHT-OF-HAND TRICKS, Etc. Having completed our catalogue of card feats, we now pro- ceed to give a short selection of other conjuring tricks. A CHEAP WAY OF BEING GENEROUS. You take a little common white or bees’ wax, and stick it on your thumb. Then, speaking to a bystander, you show him sixpence, and tell him you will put the same into his hand ; press it down upon the palm of his hand with your waxed thumb, talking to him the while, and looking him in the face. Suddenly take away your thumb, and the coin will adhere to it ; then close his hand, and he will be under the impression that he holds the sixpence, as the sensation caused by the pressing still remains. You may tell him he is at liberty to keep the sixpence ; but on opening his hand to look at it he will find, to his astonishment, that it is gone. THE FAMOUS MOUNTEBANK TRICK. In the days when merry-andrews and mountebanks met with a hearty welcome on every English village green, no conjuring trick was more popular than this ; yet there are few that can be performed with less difficulty. You first of all procure a long strip of paper, or several smaller strips pasted together, two or three inches wide. Color the edges red and blue, and roll up the paper like a roll of ribbon. Before doing so, how- ever, securely paste a small piece of cotton at the end you begin to roll. Then, when the proper time has arrived, you take hold of this cotton, and begin to pull out a long roll which very much resembles “a barber’s pole.” In order to perform this trick with good effect, have before you some paper shavings, which may easily be procured at any book- binder’s, and commence to appear to eat them. The chewed paper can be removed each time a fresh handful is put into the mouth ; and when the proper time and opportunity have arrived, put the roll into the mouth, and pull the bit of cotton, when a long roll comes out, as before described, to the as- tonishment of the audience. A more elegant but similar feat is the following, which we will style BRINGING COLORED RIBBONS FROM THE MOUTH. Heap a quantity of finely-carded cotton wool upon a plate, which place before you. At the bottom of this lint, and con- cealed from the company, you should have several narrow strips of colored ribbons, wound tightly into one roll, so as to occupy but little space. Now begin to appear to eat the lint by putting a handful in your mouth. The first handful can easily be removed and returned to the plate unobserved while the second is being “crammed in.” In doing this, care should be taken not to use all the lint, but to leave sufficient to conceal the roll. At the last handful, take up the roll and push it into your mouth without any lint ; then appear to have had enough, and look in a very distressed state, as if you were full to suffocation ; then put your hands up to your mouth, get hold of the end of the ribbon, and draw, hand over hand, yards of ribbon as if from your stomach. The slower this is done, the better the effect. When one ribbon is off the roll your tongue will assist you in pushing another end ready for the hand. You will find you need not wet or damage the ribbons in the least. This is a trick which is frequently performed by one of the cleverest conjurers of the day. CATCHING MONEY FROM THE AIR. The following trick, which tells wonderfully well when skill- fully performed, is a great favorite with one of our best-known conjurers. So far as we are aware, it has not before been published. Have in readiness ar.y number of silver coins, say thirty-four ; place all of them in the left hand, with the exception of four, which you must palm into the right hand, then, obtaining a hat from the audience, you quietly put the left hand with the silver inside ; and whilst playfully asking if it is a new hat, or with some such remark for the purpose of diverting attention, loose the silver, and at the same time take hold of the brim with the left hand, and hold it still so as not to shake the silver. Now address the audience, and in- form them that you are going to “catch money from the air.” Ask some person to name any number of coins up to ten, say eight. In the same way you go on asking various persons, and adding the numbers aloud till the total number named is nearly thirty ; then looking round as though some one had spoken another number, and knowing that you have only thirty-four coins, you must appear to have heard the number called which, with what has already been given, will make thirty-four ; say the last number you added made twenty-eight, then, as though you had heard some one say six, “ and twenty- eight and six make thirty-four — Thank you, I think we have sufficient.” Then, with the four coins palmed in your right hand, make a catch at the air, when they will chink. Look at them, and pretend to throw them into the hat, but instead of doing so palm them again ; but, in order to satisfy your audience that you really threw them into the hat, you must, when in the act of palming, hit the brim of the hat with the wrist of the right hand, which will make the coins in the hat chink as if they had just fallen from the right hand. Hav- ing repeated this process several times, say, “ I suppose we have sufficient,” empty them out on to a plate, and let one of the audience count them. It will be found that there are only thirty, but the number which you were to catch was thirty- four. You will therefore say, “ Well, we are four short ; I must catch just four, neither more nor less.” Then, still hav« 43» PARLOR MAGIC. ing four coins palmed in your right hand, you catch again, and open your hands, saying to the audience, “ Here they are.” HOW TO FIRE A LOADED PISTOL AT THE HAND WITHOUT HURTING IT This extraordinary illusion is performed with real powder, real bullets, and a real pistol ; the instrument which effects the deception being the ramrod. This ramrod is made of polished iron, and on one end of it is very nicely fitted a tube, like a small telescope tube. When the tube is off the rod, there will, of course, appear a little projection. The other end of the rod must be made to resemble this exactly. The ramrod with the tube on being in your hand, you pass the pistol round to the audience to be examined, and request one of them to put in a little powder. Then take the pistol your- self, and put in a very small piece of wadding, and ram it down ; and in doing so you will leave the tube of the ramrod inside the barrel of the pistol. To allay any suspicion that might arise in the minds of your audience, you hand the ram- rod to them for their inspection. The ramrod being returned to you, you hand the pistol to some person in the audience, requesting him to insert a bullet, and to mark it in such a way that he would recognize it again. You then take the pistol back, and put in a little more wadding. In ramming it down, the rod slips into the tube, which now forms, as it were, an inner lining to the barrel, and into which the bullet has fallen ; the tube fitting tight on to the rod is now with- drawn along with it from the pistol, and the bullet is easily got into the hand by pulling off the tube from the rod while seeking a plate to “catch the bullets”; and the marksman receiving order to fire, you let the bullet fall from your closed hand into the plate just as the pistol goes off. CURIOUS WATCH TRICK. By means of this trick, if a person will tell you the hour at which he means to dine, you can tell him the hour at which he means to get up next morning. First ask a person to think of the hour he intends rising on the following morning. When he has done so, bid him place his finger on the hour, on the dial of your watch, at which he intends dining. Then — hav- ing requested him to remember the hour of which he first thought —you mentally add twelve to the hour upon which he has placed his finger, and request him to retrograde, counting the hours you mention, whatever that may be, but that he is to commence counting with the hour he thought of from the hour he points at. For example, suppose he thought of rising at eight, and places his finger on twelve as the hour at which he means to dine, you desire him to count back twenty four hours ; beginning at twelve he counts eight, that being the hour he thought of rising, eleven he calls nine, ten he calls ten (mentally, but not aloud), and so on until he has counted twenty-four, at which point he will stop, which will be eight, and he will probably be surprised to find it is the hour he thought of rising at. THE FLYING QUARTER. This is a purely sleight of hand trick, but it does not require much practice to be able to do it well and cleverly. Take a quarter between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand; then, by a rapid twist of the fingers, twirl the coin by the same motion that you would use to spin a teetotum. At the same time rapidly close your hand, and the coin will disappear up your coat sleeve. You may now open your hand, and, much to the astonishment of your audience, the coin will not be there. This capital trick may be varied in a hundred ways. One plan is to take three quarters, and concealing one in the palm of your left hand, place one of the others between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, and the third between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand. Then give the coin in the right hand the twist already described, and closing both hands quickly it will disappear up your sleeve, and the left hand on being unclosed will be found to contain two quarters. Thus you will make the surprised spectators believe that you conjured the coin from your right hand to the left. PLUMES FOR THE LADIES. The following very clever trick was a favorite with M. Houdin, and was performed by him at St. James Theater, where it drew forth a good deal of admiration. When known, however, it appears like a great many other tricks, extremely simple and easy. Procure two or three large plumes of feathers, or a lot tied together. Take off your coat, and hold one lot in each hand, so that the plumes will lie in a parallel line with the arms. Put your coat on again, and press the feathers into small compass. Ask some one to lend you a large silk hand- kerchief, throw it over one hand and part of the arm, and with the other quickly draw the feathers from that arm. The plumes, being released from their imprisonment, will spread out and resume their bulky appearance, and the onlookers will be completely baffled as to where they could have come from. Then repeat the process with the other arm. THE BORROWED QUARTER IN THE WORSTED BALL. This easily-performed trick should be in the repertoire of every amateur magician. A large ball of worsted is obtained, ’ and a marked quarter having been borrowed from the audi- ence, the worsted is unwound, and out falls the quarter, which but a moment before was supposed to be in the hands of the operator. It is done in this way : Procure a few skeins of thick worsted; next, a piece of tin in the shape of a flat tube, large enough for the coin to pass through, and about four inches long. Then wind the worsted on one end of the tube to a good-sized ball, having a quarter of your own in your i right hand. You may now show the trick. Place the worsted anywhere out of sight, borrow a marked quarter, and taking it in your left hand, you put the one in your right hand on the end of the table farthest from the company. While so doing, drop the marked quarter into the tube, pull the tube out, and wind a little more worsted on in order to conceal the hole. Then put the ball into a tumbler, and taking the quarter you left on the table, show it to the company (who will imagine it to be the borrowed quarter), and say “Presto! fly! pass!” Give the end of the ball to one of the audience and request him to unwind it and on that being done the money will fall out. PARLOR MAGIC. 435 THE INK AND FISH TRICK. This trick, originally introduced by M. Houdin, has been performed by every wizard since. A large goblet is placed on the table, containing apparently several pints of ink. A small quantity of ink is taken out with a ladle, and being poured out into a plate, is handed round to the company to satisfy them that it really is ink. A handkerchief is then covered over the goblet, and upon being instantly withdrawn, reveals the glass now full of water, in which swim gold and silver fish. The trick is thus performed : a black silk lining is placed inside the goblet, and kept in its place by a wire ring. It thus forms a bag without a bottom, as it were, and when wet adheres close to the glass in which are the water and the fish. The next part of the deception is the ladle, which must be capable of contain- ing as much ink as will induce the audience to believe that it was got from the goblet before them. The ink must be con- cealed in the handle of the ladle, so that when it is lying on the table it will not be perceived ; but on being elevated, it must run into the ladle through a small aperture made for the purpose. The black silk rs easily withdrawn by the thumb and finger at the time the handkerchief is removed. It must be concealed within the folds of the handkerchief. SILVER CHANGED TO GOLD— FLYING MONEY. Before commencing this trick you must provide yourself with two quarters and a half eagle, and one of the quarters must be concealed in the right hand. Lay the other quarter and the half eagle on the table, in full view cf the audience. Now ask for two handkerchiefs, then take the half eagle up and pretend to roll it in one of the handkerchiefs ; but instead of that roll up the quarter, which you had concealed in the right hand, and retain the half eagle. Then give the handker- chief to one of the company to hold. Now take the quarter off the table, and pretend to roll that up in the second hand- kerchief, but put up the half eagle instead. Give this hand- kerchief to a second person and bid him “hold it tight,” while you command the half eagle and the quarter to change places. On the handkerchief being opened, the coins will appear to have obeyed your command. THE "TWENTY CENTS” TRICK. This trick may be performed with any number of either quarters, half eagles, or half dollars ; but, following the tradi- tional rule, we will suppose that you borrow at random twenty cents from the company and display them on a plate, having previously concealed five other cents in your left hand. You take the cents from the plate into the right hand, mix them with the concealed five, and then give them to one of the company to hold. You then ask the possessor to return five to you, which he will do, under the supposition that he only retains fifteen, while in reality he retains twenty. You must now have another cent palmed in your right hand, so that when you give the five cents to another person to hold, you add one to the number, and in reality put six in his hands. You then ask him, as in the previous case to return one to you, reminding him, as you receive it, that he has only four left. Then pretending to put the cent you have just received into your left hand, you strike the left hand with your magic wand, and bid the coin you are supposed to be holding to fly into the closed hand of the person holding five, or, as he supposes, four cents. On unclosing his hand he will find it to contain five cents, and he will believe that you transferred one of them thither. Now, taking the five cents, you must dexterously pass them into the left hand, and bid them fly into the closed hand of the person holding the supposed fifteen ; and he, in like manner, will be astonished to find, on unclosing his hand, that it con- tains twenty cents instead of, as he supposed, fifteen. THE MYSTERIOUS BAG. Mr. Philippe, when appearing before his wonder-struck au-= diences, used to excite the most profound amazement by means of a mysterious bag, from which he produced nearly every conceivable thing, from a mouse-trap to a four-post bedstead ; and its capacity was so prodigious, that it swallowed even more than it produced. Similar but less pretending is the one which we give under the title of “ The Mysterious Bag." Make two bags, each about a foot long and six inches wide, of some dark material, and sew them together at the edge, so that one may be inside the other. Next make a number of pock- ets, each with a cover to it, which may be fastened down by a slight elastic band. Place these about two inches apart, be- tween the two bags, sewing one side of the pocket to one bag and the other side to the other. Make slits through both bags about an inch long, just above the pockets, so that you can put your hand in the bags ; and by inserting your thumb and finger through these slits you may obtain entrance to the pock- ets, and bring out of them whatever they contain. It is, of course, necessary that a variety of articles should be put in the pockets. Before commencing the trick you may turn the bag inside out any number of times, so that your audience may conclude that it is quite empty. You can then cause to appear or disappear any number of articles of a light nature, much to the amusement of your audience. TO MAKE A DIME DISAPPEAR AT COMMAND. This simple and well-known but often amusing trick, en- ables the operator to cause a small coin to disappear after it has been wrapped up in a handkerchief. Borrow a dime or a small coin, or use one of your own, and secretly place a small piece of soft wax on one side of it; then spread a pocket- handkerchief on a table, and taking up a coin, show it to your audience, being very careful not to expose the side that has the wax on it. Having done this, place the coin in the center of the handkerchief, so that the wax side will adhere. Then bring the corner of the handkerchief over, and com pletely hide the coin from the view of the spectators. All this must be carefully done, or the company will perceive the wax on the back of the coin. You must now press very hard on the coin with your thumb, in order to make it adhere. When you have done this, fold over successively the other corners, repeating the operation a second time, and leaving the fourth comer open. Then take hold of the handkerchief with both hands at the open part, and sliding your finger along the parlor magic. 44 O edge of the same, it will become unfolded, and the coin ad- hering to the comer of the handkerchief will, of course, come into your right hand ; then detach the coin, shake out the handkerchief, and to the great astonishment of the company the coin will have disappeared. In order to convince your audience that the coin is still in the handkerchief after you have wrapped it up, you can drop it on the table, when it will sound. TO PRODUCE A CANNON-BALL FROM A HAT. This is a very old trick, though it still finds favor with most of the conjurors of the present day. You borrow a liat, and on taking it into your hands you ask a number of questions about it, or say it would be a pity for you to spoil so nice a hat, or make use of some such remark. This, however, is only a ruse for the purpose of diverting attention. Then passing round to the back of your table— (where, by the way, you have arranged on pegs a large wooden “ cannon-ball,” or a cab- bage, or a bundle of dolls, trinkets, etc., loosely tied together, so that they may be easily disengaged)— you wipe, in passing, one or other of these articles off the pegs, where they must be very slightly suspended, into the hat so rapidly as not to be observed. Returning to the gentleman from whom you received the hat, you say to him — “You are aware, sir, that your hat was not empty when you gave it to me ” — at the same time empty- ing the contents in front of the audience. Supposing you have, in the first instance, introduced the dolls and trinkets, you may repeat the trick by wiping the “ cannon-ball ” or one of the other articles into the hat, and again advancing towards the gentleman from whom you received it, say, “ Here is your hat ; thank you, sir.” Then, just as you are about to give it to him, say, “Bless me, what have we here?” and turning the hat upside down, the large cannon-ball will fall out. EVANESCENT MONEY. “ ’ T is here, and ’t is gone ! ” This simple but effective trick is done in the following manner : Stick a small piece of white wax on the nail of your middle finger ; lay a dime on the palm of your hand, and state to the company that you will make it vanish at the word of command, at the same time observing that many perform the feat by letting the dime fall into their sleeve, but to convince them that you have not recourse to any such deception, turn up the cuffs of your sleeves. Then close your hand, and by bringing the waxed nail in contact with the dime, it will firmly adhere to it. Then blow upon your hand, and cry “ Begone!” and sud- denly opening it and extending yonr palm, you show the dime has vanished. Care must be taken to remove the wax from the dime before you restore it to the owner. THE WINGED DIME. Take a dime with a hole in the edge, and attach it t<4 a piece of white sewing-silk, at the end of which is a piece of elastic cord about twelve inches in length. Sew the cord to the lining of your left-hand coat sleeve, but be careful that the end of the cord to which the coin is attached should not ex- tend lower than within two inches of the end of the sleeve when the coat is on. Having done this, bring down the six- pence with the right hand, and place it between the thumb and under finger of the left hand, and showing it to the company, tell them you will give it to any one present who will not let it slip away. You must then select one of your audience, to whom you proffer the dime, and just as he is about to receive it you must let it slip from between your fingers, and the con- traction of the elastic cord will draw the coin up your sleeve, and its sudden disappearance will be likely to astonish the would-be recipient. This feat can be varied by pretending to wrap the coin in a piece of paper or a handkerchief. Great care should be taken not to let any part of the cord be seen, as that would be the means of discovering the trick. THE AERIAL COIN. The following will furnish the key to many of the stock tricks of professional conjurors. Having turned up the cuffs of your coat, begin by placing a cent on your elbow (your arm being bent by raising the hand toward the shoulder) and catching it in your hand — a feat of dexterity easily performed. Then say that you can catch even a smaller coin in a more difficult position. You must illustrate this by placing the dime half-way between the elbow and the wrist, and by suddenly bringing the hand down the dime will fall securely into the cuff, unseen by any one, and it will seem to have disappeared altogether. Take a drinking glass or tumbler, and bidding the spectators to look upwards, in- form them that the lost coin shall drop through the ceiling. By placing the glass at the side of your arm, and elevating your hand, the coin will fall from the cuff into the tumbler. THE TRAVERSING RING. Provide yourself with a silk handkerchief and a small ring. With a needleful of silk, doubled, sew the ring to the mid- dle of the handkerchief, but let it be suspended by the silk within an inch or two of the bottom of the handkerchief. When the handkerchief is held up by the two corners, the ring must always hang on the side facing the conjuror. The hand- kerchief may now be crumpled up to “ show all fair.” Obtain a ring from one of the company, and retain it in the hand with which you receive it, but pretend to pass it to the other. Then pretend to wrap it up in the handkerchief, and taking hold of the other ring through the folds, request some one to hold it. Ask them if they can feel it, and as soon as they are satisfied that this is the identical ring which you borrowed, you put a plate on the table, and request the person holding the hand- kerchief to place both it and the ring on the plate. You then inform the company that you will cause the ring to pass through the plate and table into a little box, which you show round, and which you will place under the table. You can easily slip the ring in as you are doing so. Then partly un- wrap the handkerchief, so that the ring will chink upon the plate, and with the words, “Quick ! change! begone !” or some expressions of similar import, take the handkerchief by two corners, and put it in your pocket, saying, “It is now in PARLOR MAGIC. 4** the box.” You then request some one to pick it up and take out the ring. THE COOKING HAT. Have cakes or pudding previously made, and procure a jar or doctor’s gallipot, and a tin pot, made straight all the way up, with the bottom half way down, so that both ends contain exactly the same quantity. The ready-made pancakes are pre- viously put into the one end of this pot, which must be dex- trously slipped into the hat. Then take some milk, flour, eggs, &c., and mix them up in the jar. Having done so, de- liberately pour the mixture into the hat, taking care that the pot previously deposited there receives it. Put the jar down into the hat, press it on the tin pot, which exactly fits inside the jar, and brings away the pot containing the mixture, leav- ing the pancakes, which you pretend to fry over the candle, using the hat as a frying-pan. Then turn out the pudding or pancakes, show that the hat remains unsoiled, and restore it to its owner. AN AVIARY IN A HAT. This excellent, but well-known trick requires the assistance of a confederate. A hat is borrowed as before from one of the audience, and turned round and round to show there is nothing in it. It is then laid on the operator’s table, behind a vase or some other bulky article ; after which, as if a new idea had occurred to you, perform some other trick, during which the confederate removes the borrowed hat, substituting one previously prepared. This substituted hat is filled with small pigeons, placed in a bag with a whalebone or an elastic mouth, which fits the inside of the hat. The bag containing the birds is covered with a piete of cloth, with a slit in the top. The operator, taking up the hat, puts his hands through the slit, and takes out the birds one by one, till all are free. The hat is then placed on the table, for the ostensible purpose of cleaning it before handing it back, and the confederate again changes the hats, having in the interim fitted the bor- rowed hat with a bag similar to the other, and also filled with pigeons. This having been done, you call out to your confederate, and request him, so that all your audience may hear, to “ Take the gentleman’s hat away, and clean it.” He takes it up, and peeps into it, saying, “ You have not let all the birds away,” upon which, to the surprise and amusement of the spectators, you produce another lot of birds as before. In brushing the hat previous to restoring it to the owner, the bag may be adroitly removed. A BANK-NOTE CONCEALED IN A CANDLE. Ask some one to lend you a bank-note, and to notice the number, etc. You then walk up to the screen behind which your confederate is concealed, pass the note to him, and take a wax or composite candle. Then turning to the audience, you ask one of them — a boy would be preferred — to step up on the platform. At your request he must cut the candle into four equal parts. You then take three of them, and say you will perform the trick by means of them, passing the fourth piece to the other end of the table, where your confederate has already rolled up the note in a very small compass, and thrust it into a hollow bit of candle, previously made ready. You take up this piece, and, concealing it in your hand, you walk up to the boy, and appear accidentally to knock one of the bits of candle out of his hand, and. while you are stooping to pick it up off the floor, you change it for the bit which con- tains the note. You then place it on the table, and say to the audience, “ Which piece shall I take — right or left ? ” If they select the one which contains the note, ask the boy to cut it carefully through the middle, and to mind that he does not cut the note. When he has made a slight incision, tell him to break it, when the note will be found in the middle. If the audience select the piece which does not contain the note, you throw it aside, and say that the note will be found in the re- maining piece. When this is done w ith tact, the audience will naturally believe that they have really had the privilege of choosing. THE DOLL TRICK. The Doll Trick, although common in the streets of London and at every fair throughout the country', is without exception one of the best sleight-of-hand tricks that was ever performed, and must not be omitted here. The conjuror produces a wooden painted doll, about six inches long ; he then places it in a bag of very dark material, and tells his story. “The little traveler, ladies and gentle- men, you see before you, is a wonderful little man who has been all over the world ; but as he has grown older he has be- come very nervous. One evening lately, at a small cabaret in the south of France, he was stating how nervous he was and how much he dreaded being robbed, when a Jew w'ho sat in a corner of the room undertook to impart to him the means of making himself invisible at any moment, for a sum to be agreed upon. The bargain was struck, the money paid, and the Jew placed at his disposal a small skull-cap, which, as soon as it was placed upon his head, rendered him at once in- visible ; and I will now show you, ladies and gentlemen, the power possessed by this cap.” The doll is then introduced into the bag, which has a small opening at the smaller end sufficiently large to admit of the doll’s head passing through it. When the head has been shown, the lower part of the bag is turned over the doll and its body shown, “ so that there can be no deception ! ” The conjuror then says (still holding the head above the top of the bag), “ I will now show you the wonderful cap by which the old gentleman is at once rendered invisible ; ” and producing it from his pocket, he places it upon the head of the doll for a moment, and then removes it; the head then disappears in the bag, which is then turned in- side out, and no trace of the doll can be perceived, though the bag be thrown on the floor, stamped upon, etc. And now for the secret and the method of performing this really surprising though very simple trick. The head is re-' movable and only fastened to the neck by a peg about three- quarters of an inch long ; the bag or dress is made full at the bottom, i. e., about the size of a hat, and has an opening at the top just large enough to allow the doll’s head to pas<- through it ; at the lower edge of this bag must be made a small pocket, just large enough to contain easily the doll, and on th* <542 PARLOR MAGIC. outside of the bag must be a red streak, by way of ornament, coining from the top directly down to the pocket, so that it may be seen exactly where the pocket is. This side of the bag must be held nearest to the performer. In performing the trick the doll is introduced at the bottom of the bag, and passed upwards until the head is shown through the opening at the top ; and when the performer says, “ I will now show you the cap,” he, holding the head of the doll in his left hand, quickly passes the body into his pocket, where he has the cap, which he produces, leaving the body in it', place. He then for a moment places the cap on the doll’s head, and replaces it in his pocket ; then placing his right hand in the bag, he slowly draws down the head, which he slips into the small pocket in the bag, and shows his hand open and empty. He then catches hold of the lower edge of the bag at the pocket, holding, of course, the head of the doll in his hand, and strikes the bag against the table, ground, etc , and says, “ I told you the old gentleman would become invisi- ble.” He then says, “ I will try to bring him back again and introducing his hand into the bag, he takes the head from the pocket and shows it through the opening at the top of the bag, and retaining it in his hand, he throws the bag on the floor and tramples upon it. If well done, we consider this trick, though common, one of the best that is performed. It will be as well to have two dolls made exactly alike, one with the head fixed, to be handed round, and the other with the movable head to be used in the trick. We sometimes use a pocketless dress, and “ palm ” the head. TO PASS A DIME, OR OTHER SMALL ARTICLE, THROUGH A TABLE. This trick, like the preceding one, is very amusing, and if well, and what we may call cleanly done, is really very aston- ishing. The conjuror, seating himself at a table, borrows two articles of any kind sufficiently small to be concealed in the hands ; these he places on the edge of the table before him, and says, I take this one, as you see, in my right hand, and ilold it at arm's length, and the other I take in my left hand- ily hands never meet. I now place my left hand under the table and my right hand above it, and upon my giving the Hold ** Pass 1 ” the dime which you saw me take in my right band will pass through the table to the ball of cotton in my left, which you see is the case. This trick is very easy of accomplishment, if but a little time and patience be bestowed upon it. The dime, piece of India-rubber, or any other small article must be piaced on the edge of the table, and the fingers must be placed over it ex. mctly the same way as if it were really desired to lake it in the band ) but instead of doing so the fingers merely push it over the edge of the table, and, the knees of the performer being (Closed, it falls into his lap. It is then picked up with the left band, and the right hand being brought sharply upon the upper surface of the table, the dime appears to have passed through it. THE CUP AND CENT. This too, if well performed, is a most astounding trick. Three coins of one cent each are shown, and a small cap or cup. The cents are thrown on the table, picked up again, arranged one on the other, and the cap placed over them. A hat is then introduced, and shown to be empty ; this is then held in the left hand under the table, the cap removed with the right hand, the cents shown and recovered. The conjuror then says, “Pass!” when the cents are heard to fall in the hat ; the cap on the table is raised, and they are gone, and ia their place a small die or three cent piece appears. The cents are then taken in the left hand, held under the table, and com- manded to pass ; and on raising the cap they again appear be- neath it. This trick is very simple though ingenious, and the solution of it is as follows. The cap is of leather or any similar stiff material, and made to fit over three coins of one cent each easily; and the “trick ’’cents are six riveted together, the upper one being entire, but the other five being turned out, leaving nothing but their outer rims. Three coins of one cent each are shown, as also the cap ; and after showing the cents, while gathering them in the hand, “ palm” them and place the "trick” cents (inside of which is the die) on the table, and cover them with the cap. Then tak- ing the hat in the left hand, command the cents to pass, and at the word drop the genuine cents into the hat, at the same time raising the cap on the table, and by pinching the sides of it rather tightly the “ trick ” cents are raised with it, and the die or three cent-pieces appear, then covering the die or three cent-pieces with the cap and the "trick” cents concealed in it, show the genuine cents in the hat and command them to return ; and holding the genuine cents in the left hand, lift the cap, and the cents again appear. Then taking the cap in the right hand, adroitly drop the “trick” cents into it and tender the cap for scrutiny. The table-cloth should be a thick and soft one, to prevent the spectators from hearing the die fall as the “trick” cents are placed on the table. THE SHOWER OF SUGARPLUMS. This is a capital finale to an evening's amusement, particu- larly with young children. A small bag, capable of holding about a pint, must be made of a piece of figured calico, of a conical shape, but open at the bottom or larger end, on each side of which must be inserted a flat thin piece of wh-alebone ; at the upper or smaller end must be a small hook made of wire — a lady’s hair-pin will answer the purpose perfectly. The trick is performed in this way : — The bottom of the bag must be opened by pressing the op- posite ends of the two pieces of whalebone, when, of course, they will bend and divide, and the bag must then be filled with sugarplums, care being taken to put the small bonbons at the top of the bag, and the large ones at the bottom next the whalebone, which will prevent the small ones from falling out. The bag when filled must on the first opportunity be sus- pended by its hook at the back of a chair having a stuffed back, so that it cannot be seen. When the trick is to be performed, a large handkerchief must be shown, with a request that it may be examined. It PARLOR MAGIC. 443 is then laid over the back of the chair. A little girl must then be asked if she is afraid of being out in the rain, and on her answering in the negative she must be requested to kneel down in the middle of the room. The performer must then place his left hand on the handkerchief, and feeling the hook which supports the bag, he raises it with the handkerchief, and holds it above the little girl’s head ; then passing his right hand from the fourth finger and thumb of the left hand which hold the handkerchief and bag, downwards, he can easily feel the bottom of the bag, and on pressing the opposite ends of the whalebone, they bend and open, and the contents of the bag of course fall out in a shower, and a general scramble among the children takes place. TO REMOVE AN EGG FROM ONE WINE-GLASS TO ANOTHER WITHOUT TOUCHING EITHER THE EGG OR THE GLASSES. Place two wine-glasses touching each other and in a direct line from you, and in the one nearer to you must be placed an egg with its smaller end downwards. Then blow with the mouth suddenly and sharply and strongly against the side of the egg, but in a downward direction, when the egg will be lifted up, and falling over will lodge in the other glass. THE EGG IN THE BAG. This, too, is a capital trick, if quietly and neatly performed, and the more slowly the better. A small bag is produced, rather larger than a sheet of note- paper, into which an egg (or rather the shell of one out of which the contents have been blown) is dropped. The corner of the bag must then be squeezed round it to show that it is there, and it may be felt by any one present. The corner of the open end of the bag is then held by the finger and thumb of the left hand, and the right placed in the bag, which is then held open end downwards, and the right hand withdrawn empty. The bag is then seized by the right hand, and struck violently against the table, and then crumpled up in the hands. It is then held with the mouth upwards, the right hand is again placed in the bag, and the egg unbroken pro- duced. The trick is performed in this way : The bag is made dou- ble on one side, thus forming a second bag, the mouth of which is at the bottom of the other. After the egg has been dropped in the bag and felt to be there, it is held in the right hand, while the bag is held bottom upwards, and then dropped in the second bag. The right hand is then with- drawn. When the edge of the bag is seized by the right hand, the egg must be also held in the same hand in the bag, and it is thus preserved from being broken when the bag is struck against the table, etc. The mouth of the bag being then held upwards, the egg of course falls into the first bag, and is then taken out and shown. TO FIX A PENKNIFE BY ITS POINT IN THE CEIL ING, AND AFTERWARD PLACE A QUARTER SO EXACTLY UNDER IT THAT WHEN DIS- LODGED BY STRIKING THE CEILING THE KNIFE SHALL FALL ON THE QUARTER. This is a most ingenious trick, and is done in this way Mounting a table, stick the penknife by its point into the ceil- ing, but only sufficiently to support it. Then after a deal of examination of its position, etc., place a piece of brown pape: on the floor, on which put the quarter, and then say you will undertake to place the quarter so exactly under it that, when dislodged, the knife shall fall upon it. When wonder is ex- cited, and it is declared to be impossible, call for a glass of water ; then mounting on the table, dip the penknife in the water and withdraw the glass ; a drop of wa’er will soon fall on the paper, and on that very spot place the quarter. You then strike the ceiling with your fist, when the knife will fall, of course, on the quarter. The knife chosen for the purpose should be one having rather a heavy pointed handle, as the drop of water will then fall from the most central point. TO PRODUCE A CANNON-BALL FROM A HAT. A ball must be turned out of any kind of soft light wood, and must have a hole bored in it large enough to admit the middle finger, and it should be painted black. The trick is performed in this way : On the front of the conjuring table, i. e., the side next the spectators, should be placed a few layers of books, high enough to conceal from view the ball or any other apparatus with which it is intended to perform. On the side of the books next the performer the ball should be placed, with the hole in it towards him. The hat should be placed on the books on its side on the left-hand end of the table, with its crown next the spectators. When the trick is to be performed the hat should be shown to be entirely empty, and then re- turned to its position on the books ; then, having placed a hat- brush or silk handkerchief at the right hand of the table, say, “This trick cannot be performed unless the hat is perfectly smooth,” and while leaning to the right to reach the brush or handkerchief, which diverts attention to that end of the table, the middle finger of the left hand must be placed in the hole in the ball, which is thus slipped into the hat, which must then be carefully brushed and held crown uppermost. The brush should then be put down, and the right thumb placed on the rim of the hat, with the fingers extended underneath so as to support the ball in the hat, and the left hand should then be placed in the same position, and the hat, with the ball in it. carried and placed upon another table. A small ball must then be produced, and a boy asked if he thinks he can hold it in his mouth, and told to try. The ball is then taken in the right hand, pretended to be thrown against the hat, “ palmed,' 1 and concealed in the pocket. The boy should then be asked if he will again take the ball in his mouth, and while opening it the cannon-ball is suddenly taken from under the hat and placed in front of his face. PHYSICS WITHOUT APFLIa^CZ: CXK* QiiO EJ£H=a 3 E 3 E »3 Ei 3 Eii£l Ea 3 QJLD EJLD E 3 Gi£l EL-ID CJi£I EjLD ^WWW^W^WWWWW^tfWWWWWWgWWWWWWWW r/w/wj F"7. xv \imimj'imr\j^i^r\i^nrmimm smucs %\m\m\im»m\im\imm\iMimm\ ECTiEHOiElfalE^lESEllE^BiEgHliESaiESHlil Cl'S!? *^ 1^5 V<|N5 ^c|>5 CCfN? •/IV -y*srT VtV't'S A Cheap Magnifying Lamp — Measuring the Illuminat- ing Power of a Candle and an Argand Lamp. ?N ordinary looking-glass, a lighted taper, and a foot rule, or a measuring tape, are quite sufficient to demonstrate the simple geometrical laws of reflection ; for, with their aid, it is very easy to show that the image of the candle in the mirror is virtually situated at a distance behind the mir- ror equal to the actual distance of the candle front, and that, when a ray falls obliquely on the mir- ror, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. A teacher who wishes to go further into the matter, and to de- monstrate the laws of reflection at curved surfaces, usually provides himself with the appropriate silvered mirrors of convex and concave form. Failing these, the exterior and interior surfaces of the bowl of a bright silver spoon will probably be as satisfactory a substitute as any. We have found even a saucer of common glazed earthenware to form a very fair concave mirror, giving upon a small tissue paper screen a beautifrl little inverted image of a distant gas flame. To illustrate the geometrical laws of refraction through lenses, a good reading- glass of large size is a desirable acquisition. Spectacle-lenses, though of a smaller size, and therefore admitting less light, are also of service. In the absence of any of these articles, it is generally possible to fall back upon a water decanter, provided one can be found of a good globular form, and not spoiled for optical purposes by having ornamental work cut upon the sides of the globe. It is held a few inches away from a white wall and a candle is placed at the opposite side, so that its light falls through the decanter on to the wall. The candle is moved toward or away from the decanter until the position is found in which its rays focus themselves upon the wall, giving a clear inverted image of the candle-flame upon the wall. The experiment may be varied by setting down the candle on the table, and then moving the decanter to and fro until a definite image is obtained. If a large hand-reading-glass be available, the image will be much clearer than with the improvised water- lens ; and a further improvement in the manner of experiment- ing may be made by using a screen of white paper or card instead of a whitened wall on which to receive the image. The first sheet of paper should be set up in simple fashion at t>ne end of the table. The candle should be placed at the •th».r end of the table, and the reading-lens moved about be- tween them until a point is found at which it throws upon the screen a good clear image of the candle. It will be found that there are two such points, one near the candle, the other near the screen. In each case the image of the candle will be inverted, but in the first case it will be a magnified and, in the second, a diminished image, the size of the image, as compared with that of the real flame, being proportional to their respect- ive distances from the lens. When the lens has been placed in a position of good focus, the candle may be removed and placed w'here the screen stood ; if now the screen is placed where the candle was, it will be found that the image is again visible on the screen, still in- verted, though altered in magnitude. This experiment, in fact, proves the law of conjugate foci. The young beginner in science who repeats these experi- ments for himself will begin to understand how it is that in the photographer’s camera the image in the instrument is inverted, and how it can also be true that the images cast on the sensi- tive retina of the eye are also inverted. The retina at the back of the eyeball answers to the white screen on which the image is thrown by the lens in front of it. It is possible, indeed, to show in actual fact that the image iri the eyeball is inverted ; the experiment is very simple, but we believe that this is the first time that it has been described in print. Take a candle, and hold it in your right hand as you stand opposite a looking-glass. Turn your head slightly to the left while you look at the image of yourself in the glass. Open your eyes very wide, and look carefully at the image of your left eye. Move the candle about gently, up, down, forward, etc., so that the light falls more or less obliquely on to the eyeball. You will presently notice a little patch of light in the extreme outer corner of the eye ; it is the image of the candle on the inside of the eyeball, which you see through the semi-transparent horny substance of the eye. If you move the candle up, the little image moves down, and if you succeed well, you will discern that it is an inverted image, the tip of the flame being downward. You thus prove to youf own satisfaction that the image of the candle in your eyeball i» really upside down. A magnifying-glass of very simple construction a few years ago found a great sale in the streets of London, at th«> price of one penny. A bulb blown at the end of a short glass tube is filled with water. When held in front of the eye, this forms a capital lens for examining objects of microscopic dimensions, which may be secured in place by a bit of wir* twisted round the stem* PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. 445 The principle by which the intensity of two lights is com- pared in the photometer is very easily shown. We can measure, by the following process, the relative brightness of an Argand oil-lamp, and of an ordinary candle. Both these lights are set upon the table, and are so arranged that each casts on to a screen of white paper a shadow of a tall, narrow object. The most handy object for this purpose is another candle unlighted. The Argand lamp, being the brighter light, will cast the deeper shadow of the two, unless it is placed farther away. The meas- ure of the brightness is obtained by moving the brighter light just so far off that the intensity of the two shadows is equal, for then we know that the relative intensities of the two lights are proportional to the squares of their distances from the photo- meter. All that remains, therefore, is to measure the distances and calculate out the intensities. If, for example, the distance of the lamp is double that of the candle when the two shadows are equally dark, we know that the brightness of the lamp is four times as great as that of the candle. Many other facts in optics can be shown with no greater trouble than that entailed by such simple experiments as we have described. The pendant luster of a chandelier will pro- vide an excellent prism of glass for showing the dispersion of light into its component tints. A couple of spectacle glasses appropriately chosen will, when pressed together, afford capital “ Newton’s rings ” at the point where they touch. Diffraction bands of gorgeous hue may be observed by looking at a distant gaslight, or at the point of light reflected by a silvered bead in sunshine, through a piece of fine gauze, or through a sparrow’s feather held close in front of the eye. And yet more remark- able effects of diffraction are obtained if the point of light be looked at through substances of still finer structure, such as the preparations of woody structure, and of the eyes of insects which are sold as microscopic objects. But the explanation of these beautiful phenomena would lead us far beyond out subject. Expansion of Air — T o keep Hot and Cold Water apart. The science of heat constitutes one of those departments of physics in which both the uninitiated beginner and the advanced student can find food for thought. To follow out the theoretical teachings of the science of heat requires a knowl- edge of abstruse mathematical formulae ; but, on the other hand, a very large proportion of the fundamental facts of ex- periment upon which the science depends can be illustrated with the simplest means. The property possessed by almost all material bodies of expanding when they are warmed affords us the means of as- certaining the degree to which they are warmed. Thus the expansion of the quicksilver in the bulbs of our thermometers shows us the degree of temperature of the surrounding air. Again, the heat imparted to the air within a paper fire-balloon makes it expand and become specifically lighter than the sur- rounding atmosphere through which it rises. In general it maybe asserted that matter, in whichever state it may be — solid, liquid, or gaseous — expands when heat is imparted to it, and contracts when heat is taken from it. An empty wine bottle is placed with its mouth downward in a deep dish or jar con- taining water, the bottom of the bottle projecting over the side of the jar. Heat is then applied by means of a spirit- lamp ; or, if this is not available, by burning under it a piece of cotton-wool soaked in spirits and held on the end of a fork. The glass of the bottle becomes hot — if too hot it may crack — and the air inside shares its warmth and begins to expand. There being only a limited space in- side the bottle, some of the air will be forced out and will rise in bubbles through the water. If now the flame be removed, the reverse operation of contraction by cooling may be wit- nessed ; for, as the air inside the bottle cools, it will occupy a smaller and smaller amount of space, and the water will gradu- ally rise up in the bottle-neck. Of course, this is seen better with a bottle of clear glass than with one of dark or opaque tint. The contraction of a liquid on cooling can be even more simply shown. Take a common medicine bottle, warm it gently (by rinsing it out with a little hot water) so that it shall not crack by the sudden heating, and then fill it btimful of boiling water. Heave it to cool ; and in less than half an hour you will find that the water which you poured in to overflow- ing has shrunk down into the neck of the bottle, having con- tracted as it cools. It was mentioned above that the hot air in a fire balloon raises it, being lighter than the cold air. In the same way hot water will rise through cold, and float on the top of it, being specifically lighter. You may prove this in several ways. Fill a deep jar with water, and then, taking a red-hot poker, plunge about an inch of the tip of it into the surface of the water. Presently the whole of the water at the top will be boiling furiously ; but the water at the bottom will be just as cool as 4 AO PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. before, for the hotter water will not have gone down, but wilt have floated at the top, being lighter in consequence of expan- sion. The same thing can be shown very prettily by the following simple experiment : — Fill a wide and deep glass jar — the glass of a parlor aquarium will do excellently — to about half its depth with cold water. Provide yourself also with a kettleful of boiling water, a funnel, a bit of wood about three inches square, and with some ink — red ink if possible. Pour into the kettle enough of the ink to color it with a perceptible tint : this is simply that you may be able to distinguish between the colorless cold water and the colored hot water which you are going to cause to float at the top. The only difficulty of the experiment is how to pour out the hot water without letting it mix with the cold water. A bit of wood (or cardboard) is laid on the water as a float, and you must pour the hot water on to this to break the force of its fall. The funnel will also help to break the fall of the hot water, and will aid you to guide the stream on to the middle of the float. With these precautions you need not fear failure, and you will enjoy the spectacle so seldom seen, though so often actually occurring, of hot water floating on the top of cold water. SINGING AND SENSITIVE FLAMES. Much notice was attracted some years ago by the discovery of singing and sensitive flames. A sensitive flame is not easily t made, unless where gas can be burned at a much higher pres- sure than is to be found in the case of the gas supplied by the companies for house-lighting. To make a singing-flame requires the proper glass tubes, and an apparatus for generating hydro- gen gas. The roaring-tube, which we are now about to de- *erib«. is a . good substitute, however, and is also due to the generation of very rapid vibrations, although in this case the way in which the heat sets up the vibrations cannot be very simply explained. Let a common paraffine lamp-chimney be chosen, and let us thrust up loosely into its wider or bulbous portion a piece of iron wire gauze such as is often employed for window-blinds. If this be not at hand, a few scraps of wire twisted together, or even a few hairpins, will suffice. The lamp-chimney must then be held over the flame of a spirit- lamp, or other hot flame, until the wire gauze glows with a red heat. Now remove the lamp or lift the chimney off it, so that the gauze may cool. It will emit a loud note like a powerful (though rather harsh) organ-pipe, lasting for about a quarter of a minute, or until the gauze has cooled. Tubes at different sizes produce different notes. It is now well known that the quality of different sounds depends upon the form or character of the invisible sound- waves, and that different instruments make sounds that have characters of their own, because their peculiar shapes throw the air into waves of particular kinds. The different vowel- sounds are caused by putting the mouth into particular shapes in order to produce waves of a particular quality. Take a jew’s- harp and put it to the mouth as if you were going to play it. Shape the mouth as if you were going to say the vowel O, and on striking the harp you hear that sound. Alter the shape of the mouth to say A, and the harp sounds the vowel accordingly. The special forms of vibration corresponding to the different vowel-sounds can be rendered evident to the eye in a very beautiful way by the simplest conceivable means. A saucerful of soapy water (prepared from yellow kitchen soap and soft water, or with cold water that has previously been boiled), and a brass curtain-ring, is all that is needed. A film of soapy water shows, as all children know when they blow bubbles, the loveliest rainbow-tints when thin enough. A flat film can be made by dipping a brass curtain-ring into the soapy water, and then lifting it out. When the colors have begun to show on the edge of the film, sing any of the vowels, or the whole of them, one after the other, near the film. It will be thrown into beautiful rippling patterns of color, which differ with the different sounds. Instead of a curtain-ring, the ring made by closing together the tips of finger and thumb will answer the purpose of proving a frame on which to produce the phoneido* scopic film. TRANSMISSION OF SOUND. Acoustical experiments require, for the most part, the aid of some good instrument or valuable piece of apparatus. Never- theless, a few instructive illustrations of the principle of science can be improvised without difficulty. Firstly, there is the familiar experiment brought into fashion by Professor Tyndall, of setting a row of ivory billiard balls, or glass solitaire marbles, along a groove between two wooden boards, and showing how their elasticity enables them to transmit from one to another a wave of moving energy imparted to the first of the row, thus affording a type of the transmission of sound-waves from parti- cle to particle through elastic media. Then we may show how sounds travel through solid bodies by resting against a music-box, or other musical instrument, a broomstick, or any PHYSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. 447 the course of a few hours the weight will have dragged the wii» through the ice, as if it were no harder than a piece of cheese, yet the ice has healed up as fast as the wire cut into it, and it is still one solid block. This is termed regelation, and the extraordinary fact can be accounted for in the followii g way : — In the neighborhood of the wire, where it passes through tl * ice, the pressures are not uniform, for just below the wire tl.» portions of the ice are under pressure, owing to the pull of tl • heavy weight, while immediately above the wire the ice is sub- jected to a stress tending to draw the particles asunder, or. in other words, it is subjected to a pull or “ negative pressure.* The pressure on the ice under the wire lowers its melting point, and causes very small quantities of it to melt ; these liquid portions immediately are squeezed out, and find theii way round the wire to the space above it, where, the pressure being reduced, they again freeze hard. TO LIFT A DECANTER WITH A STRAW. The following simple experiment illustrates the principle that a substance which is very weak in one direction may bs very strong in another, the “ strength ” of the material (till* is to say, the resistance it offers before it will break) depend* ing on the way in which a force is applied to it. It is possibl® to lift a decanter full of water by means of a single straw. To do this the straw must be bent, as shown in the above illustration, so that the weight comes longitudinally upon the straw. The straw is a very weak thing if it has to resist force applied laterally. Lay a single straw horizontally, so that the two ends are supported, and then hang weights on tc •onvenient rod of wood, at the other end of which we place our ear. Another familiar illustration is afforded by means of threads : — A large spoon is tied to the middle of a thin silken or hempen thread, the ends of which are thrust into the ears upon the ends of the thumbs. If the spoon be dangled against the edge of the table it will resound, and the tones reach the ear like a loud church-bell. The thread telephone, or “ lover’s tele- graph,” is upon the same principle, the thread transmitting the whispered words to a distance, without that loss — by spreading in all directions — which takes place in the open air. The discovery that a musical tone is the result of regularly recurring vibrations, the number of which determines the pitch of the tone, was made by Galileo without any more formal apparatus than a mill-edged coin along the rim of which he drew his thumbnail, and found it to produce a sound. We can show this better by taking a common toy gyroscope-top with a heavy leaden wheel, such as are sold at every toy shop. With a strong penknife or a file, cut a series of fine notches or grooves across the rim, so that it shall have a milled edge like a coin. Now spin it, and while it spins, gently hold against the revolving wheel the edge of a sheet of stiff writing-paper, or of a very thin visiting card. A loud, clear note will be heard if the nicks have been evenly cut, which, beginning with a shrill pitch, will gradually fall with a dolorous cadence into the bass end of the scale, and finally die out in separately audible ticks. REGELATION DEMONSTRATED. If apiece of ice be placed on two chairs and a copper wire passed around it, with a weight to make it press on the ice 4 in MfSICS WITHOUT APPLIANCES. 448 the middle of it — a very few ounces will break it across. But let the weights be fixed to one end of the straw, and the Straw itself be hung downward so that the pull is exerted along it, and it will support one or two pounds at least. When bent, as in the figure inside the bottle, most of the weight is applied as a thrust against the end of the straw ; the bottle tilts slightly until the center of gravity of the whole is below the point from which it hangs between finger and thumb ; but in this position the sideway thrust against the middle of the straw is very small, and the material is strong enough to stand the strain to which it is subjected lengthways. MELTING LEAD ON A CARD. Twist up the edges of a common playing-card or other bit of cardboard, so as to fashion it into a light tray. On this tray place a layer of small shot or bits of lead, and heat it over the flames of a lamp. The lead will melt, but the card will not burn. It may be charred a little round the edges, but immediately below the lead it will not be burned, for here again the lead conducts off the heat on one side as fast •sit is supplied on the other. Lastly, we give an experiment which, like the two preceding, proves that a good conduct- ing substance may protect a delicate fabric from burning by conducting away the heat rapidly from it. Lay a piece of muslin quite flat upon a piece of metal. A live coal placed on the muslin will not bum it, for the metal takes away the heat too fast. If the muslin is, however, laid on a had conductor, such as a piece of wood, it will not be protected, and the live coal will kindle the muslin. A MINIATURE DIVING BELL. A wine-glass is turned mouth downward and plunged into ftjar of water. The water rises up only a very little way into the mouth of the wine-glass, owing to the air which it con- tains. The deeper the wine-glass is plunged the more the air is compressed, and the higher does the water rise in the miniature bell. To compress the contained air into one-half of its orig- inal volume it would be necessary to plunge the wine-glass about thirty-four feet deep into the water ; for to halve the volume of the air inside we must double the external pressure. The pressure of the air i^ already several pounds to each square inch of surface. A few flies or other insects may, with- out incurring the charge of cruelty to animals, be made to do duty as divers inside the diving bell during this experiment. EXPERIMENT WITH COIN. A simple experiment, depending partly upon the inertia oi matter and partly upon elasticity, is often shown as an after- dinner trick. Upon a linen table cloth is placed a five-cent piece, between two quarters, or larger and thicker coins. Over this an empty wine-glass is placed, and the puzzle is how to get out the smaller coin without touching the glass. The very simple operation of scratching with the finger-nail upon the cloth, as shown in our illustration, suffices to accomplish the trick, for the little coin is seen to advance gently toward the finger until it is carried forward beyond the glass. While the fibers are drawn forward slowly, they drag the coin with them to a minute distance ; but when the slip occurs and they fly backward, they do so very rapidly, and slip back under the coin before there is time for the energy of their movement to be imparted to the coin to set it in motion. So the coin is gradually worked toward the operator. ASTRONOMY. 449 )STRONOMY (from the Greek, asiron, a mm star, and nomos , a law) is, comprehen- sively, that science which explains the nature and motions of the bodies fill- ing infinite space, including our own globe, in its character of a planet or mem- ber of the solar system. The science may be divided into two departments — i. Descriptive As- tronomy, or an account of the systems of bodies occupying space ; 2. Mechanical Astronomy , or an explanation of the physical laws which have pro- duced and which sustain the arrangements of the heavenly bodies, and of all the various results of the arrangement and relations of these bodies. Ura- nography is a subordinate department of the science, presenting an account of the arrangements which have been made by astronomers for delineating the starry heavens, and working the many mathematical problems of which they are the subject. DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY. The field contemplated by the astronomer is no less than infinite space. So at least, he may well presume space to be, seeing that every fresh power which he adds to his tele- scope allows him to penetrate into remoter regions of it, and still there is no end. In this space, systems, consisting of suns and revolving planets, and other systems again, consist- ing of a numberless series of such lesser systems, are sus- pended by the influence of gravitation, operating from one to another, yet each body at suen a distance from another, as, though the mind of man can in some instances measure, it can in none conceive. We begin with what is usually called the Solar System — that is, the particular solar system to which our earth belongs. THE SOLAR SYSTEM. The solar system, so named from sol (Latin), the sun, con- sists of the sun in the center, numerous planets, and an un- known number of bodies named comets. The word planet is from the Greek planao , to wander, because the few such bodies known to the ancients were chiefly remarkable in their eyes on account of their constantly shifting their places with reference to the other luminaries of the sky. Comets are so named from coma (Latin), a head of hair, because they seem to consist of a bright spot, with a long brush streaming be- hind. Some of the planets have other planets moving round them as centers — the moon, for instance, round the earth. These are called secondary planets, moons or satellites ; while those that move round the sun are called primary planets. The primary planets consist — 1st, of eight larger planets, including the Earth ; their names, in the order of their nearness to the sun, are — Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel or Uranus, and Neptune. 2d. A group of small planets or planetoids, ca'led also asteroids, considerable in num- ber. The discovery of a new asteroid by Professor Borelli, places the entire number of planets in the solar system at one hundred and eighteen, against six known in 1781, when Sir W. Herschel discovered Uranus. The planets move round the sun on nearly one level or plane, corresponding with the center of his body, and in one direction, from west to east. The secondary planets, in like manner, move in planes round the centers of their primaries, and in the same direction, from west to east. These are de- nominated revolutionary motions ; and it is to be observed that they are double in the case of the satellites, which have at once a revolution round the primary, and a revolution, in company with the primary, round the sun. The path de- scribed by a planet in its revolution is called its orbit. Each planet, secondary as well as primary, and the sun also, has a motion in its own body, like that of a bobbin upon a spindle. An imaginary line, forming, as it were, the spindle of the sun or planet, is denominated the axis, and the two ex- tremities of the axis are called the poles. The axes of the sun and planets are all nearly at a right angle with the plane of the revolutionary movements. The motion on the axis is called the rotatory motion, from rota , the Latin for a wheel. The sun, the primary planets, and the satellites, with the doubtful exception of two attending on Uranus, move on their axes in the same direction as the revolutionary movements, from west to east. The Sun is a sphere or globe of 882,000 miles in diameter, or 1,384,472 times the bulk of the earth, moving round its axis in 25 days. When viewed through a telescope, the surface appears intensely bright and luminous, as if giving out both heat and light to the surrounding planets. But on this sur- face there occasionally appear dark spots, generally surround- 450 ASTRONOMY. ed with a border of less dark appearance ; some of which spots have been calculated to be no less than 45,000 miles in breadth, or nearly twice as much as the circumference of the earth. The region of the sun’s body on which the spots ap- pear, is confined to abroad space engirdling his center. They are sometimes observed to come into sight at his western limb, to pass across his body in the course of twelve or thirteen days, and then disappear. They are sometimes observed to contract with great rapidity, and disappear like something incited and absorbed into a burning fluid. Upon the bright parts of the sun’s body there are also sometimes observed Streaks of unusual brightness, as if produced by the ridges of an agitated and luminous fluid. It has been surmised, that the sun is a dark body, enveloped in an atmosphere calculated for giving out heat and light, and that the spots are produced by slight breaks or openings in that atmosphere, showing the dark mass within. Though so much larger than the earth, the can only be seen occasionally in the morning or evening, as it never rises before, or sets after the sun, at a greater distance of time than 1 hour and 50 minutes. It appears to the naked eye as a small and brilliant star, but when observed through a telescope, is homed like the moon, because we only see a part of the surface which the sun is illuminating. Mountains of great height have been observed on the surface of this planet, particularly in its lower or southern hemisphere. One has been calculated at 10J miles in height, being about eight times higher, in proportion to the bulk of the planet, than the loftiest mountains upon earth. The matter of Mercury is of much greater density than that of the earth, equaling lead in weight ; so that a human being placed upon its surface would be so strongly drawn toward the ground as scarcely to be able to crawl. Venus is a globe of about 7,800 miles in diameter, or nearly the size of the earth, rotating on its axis in 23 hours, 21 min- Ratr of movement of the Planets in miles per minute. Mercury 1796 Venus 1334 Earth 1133 Mars 905 Vesta 905 Juno 90s Ceres 693 Pallas €93 Jupiter 490 Saturn 363 Uranus 255 Moon 38 Densities of Planets compared with water-, which is considered OS tne. The Sun . . . .r, 2-i3ths. Mercury ... 9, i-6th. Venus 5, ii-isths. Earth 4} Mars 3, 2-7U1S. Jupiter i, i-24th. Saturn o, i3-32ds. Uranus o, 99-iooths. / nclinalions of Oriits to the Ecliptic. Mercury. 7° o' 9" 1. Venus. 3 0 23' 28" 5. Mars. x° 51' 6" 2. Vesta. 7° S' 9" Juno. 13° 4' 9" 7- Ceres. lo° 37' 26" 3. Pallas. 34° 34' 55" o- Jupiter. i° 18' 51" 3. Saturn. *" 29' 35" 7. Uranus, o” 46' 38" 4. matter of the sun is of only about a third of the density or compactness of that of our planet, or little more than the density of water. The sun is surrounded to a great distance by a faint light, or luminous matter of extreme thinness, shaped like a lens or magnifying-glass, the body of the sun being in the center, and the luminous matter extending in the plane of the planetary revolutions, till it terminates in a point. At particular sea- sons, and in favorable states of the atmosphere, it may be ob- served before sunrise, or after sunset, in the form of a cone pointing obliquely above the place where the sun is either about to appear or which he has just left. It is termed the Zodiacal Light. Mercury, the nearest planet to the sun, is a globe of about 2,050 miles in diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours and 5^ minutes, and revolving round the central luminary, at a dis- tance of 37,000,000 of miles in 88 days. From the earth it utes, and 19 seconds, and revolving round the sun, at the dis- tance of 68,000,000 of miles in 225 days. Like Mercury, it is visible to an observer on the earth only in the morning and evening, but for a greater space of time before sunrise and after sunset. It appears to us the most brilliant and beautiful of all the planetary and stellar bodies, occasionally giving so much light as to produce a sensible shadow. Observed i.irough a telescope, it appears horned, on account of our seeing only apart of its luminous surface. The illuminated part of Venus occasionally presents slight spots. It has been ascertained that its surface is very unequal, the greatest mountains being in the southern hemisphere, as n the case of both Mercury and the Earth. The higher mountains in Venus range between 10 and 22 miles in altitude. The planet is also enveloped in an atmosphere like that by which animal and vegetable life is supported on earth, and it has consequently a twilight. Venu9 performs its revolution round the sun in 225 days. Mercury ASTRONOMY. 45 * md Venus have been termed the Inferior Planets, as being placed within the orbit of the Earth. The Earth, the third planet in order, and one of the smaller size, though not the smallest, is impoitant to us, as the theater on which our race have been placed to “ live, move, and have their being.” It is 7,902 miles in mean diameter, rotating on its axis in 24 hours, at a mean distance of 95,000,000 of miles from the sun, round which it revolves in 365 days, 5 hours, 56 minutes, and 57 seconds. As a planet viewed from another of the planets, suppose the moon, “ it would present a pretty, variegated, and sometimes a mottled appearance. The distinction between its seas, oceans, con- tinents, and islands, would be clearly marked ; they would appear like brighter and darker spots upon its disk. The con- tinents would appear bright, and the ocean of a darker hue, because water absorbs the greater part of the solar light that falls upon it. The level plains (excepting, perhaps, such re- gions as the Arabian deserts of sand) would appear of a some- what darker color than the more elevated and mountainous regions, as we find to be the case on the surface of the moon. The islands would appear like small bright specks on the darker surface of the ocean ; and the lakes and Mediter- ranean seas like darker spots on broad streaks intersecting the bright parts, or the land. By its revolution round the axis, successive portions of the surface would be brought into view, and present a different aspect from the parts which pre- ceded.” The form of the earth, and probably that of every other planet, is not strictly spherical, but spheroidal ; that is flat- tened a little at the poles, or extremities of the axis. The diameter of the earth at the axis is 26 miles less than in the cross direction. This peculiarity of the form is a consequence of the rotatory motion, as will be afterward explained. The earth is attended by one satellite, the Moon, which is a globe of 2,160 miles in diameter, and consequently about a TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE MOON. 49th part of the bulk of the earth, revolving round its primary m 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and II seconds, at the distance of 240,000 miles. The moon is 400 times nearer the earth than the sun is ; but, its diameter being at the same time 400 times less than that of the sun, it appears to us of about the same size. The moon rotates on her axis in exactly the srttnC time as she revolves round the earth. She consequently pre- sents at all times the same part of her surface toward tfv* earth. Inspected through a telescope, her surface appears j,(f unequal brightness and extremely rugged. The dark pcT , however, are not seas, as has been supposed, but more lijr® the beds of seas, or great alluvial plains. No appearance (l (5 water, or of clouds, or of an atmosphere, has been detected. The surface presents numerous mountains, some of them about a mile and three quarters in height, as has been ascertained by measurement of the shadows which they cast on the neigh- boring surface. The tops of the mountains of the moon ang generally shaped like a cup or basin, with a small eminence rising from the center, like many volcanic hills on the earth. It has hence been surmised that the moon is in a volcanic state, as the earth appears to have been for many ages before the creation of man, and that it is perhaps undergoing pro- cesses calculated to make it a fit scene for animal and vege- table life. The moon turning on its axis once in a little more than 27 days, presents every part of its surface in succession to the sun in that time, as the earth does in 24 hours. The day of the moon is consequently nearly a fortnight long, and its nights of the same duration. The light of the sun, falling upon the moon, is partly absorbed into its body ; but a small portion is reflected or thrown back, and becomes what we call moonlight. The illuminated part from which we derive moon- light, is at all times increasing or diminishing in our eyes, as the moon proceeds in her revolution around our globe. When the satellite is at the greatest distance from the sun, we, being between the two, see the whole of the illuminated surface, which we accordingly term full moon. As the moon ad- vances in her course, the luminous side is gradually averted from us, and the moon is said to wane. At length, when the satellite has got between the earth and the sun, the luminous side is entirely lost sight of. The moon is then said to change. Proceeding in her revolution, she soon turns a bright edge toward us, which we call the new moon. This gradually increases in breadth, till a moiety of the circle is quite filled up ; it is then said to be half moon. The luminary, when on the increase from new to half, is termed a crescent, from crescens, Latin for increasing ; and this word has been 45 2 ASTRONOMY. applied to other objects of the same shape — for instance, to a curved line of buildings. In the early days of the new moon, we usually see the dark part of the body faintly illuminated, an appearance termed the old moon in the new moon's arms. This faint illumination is produced by the reflection of the sun’s light from the earth, or what the inhabitants of the moon, if there were any, might be supposed to consider as moonlight. The earth, which occupies one invariable place in the sky of the moon, with a surface thirteen times larger than the apparent size of the moon in our eyes, is then at the full, shining with great luster on the sunless side of its satellite, and receiving back a small portion of its own reflected light. The light, then, which makes the dark part of the moon visible to us, may be said to j erforin three journeys, first from the sun to the earth, then from the earth to the moon, and finally from the moon back to the earth, before our eyes are enabled to perceive this object. Mars, the fourth of the primary planets, is a globe of 4,189 miles in diameter, or little more than a half of that of the earth ; consequently, the bulk of this planet is only about a fifth of that of our globe. It performs a rotation on its axis in 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 133 seconds, and revolves round the sun, at a distance of 142,000,000 of miles, in 686 days, 22 hours, and 18 seconds. Mars appears to the naked eye of a red color ; from which circumstance it was, probably, that the ancients bestowed upon it the name of the god of war. Inspected through a telescope, it is found to be occasionally marked by large spots and dull streaks, of various forms, and by an unusual brightness of the poles. As the bright polar parts sometimes project from the circular outline of the planet, it has been conjectured that these are masses of snow, similar to those which beset the poles of the earth. Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno are among the globes, re- volving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, in paths near and crossing each other, and which are not only much more elliptical than the paths of the other planets, but also rise and sink much further from the plane of the general planetar)' rev- olutions. Vesta is of a bulk only I-15, oooth part of the bulk of the earth, with a surface not exceeding that of the kingdom of Spain. It revolves round the sun in 3 years, 66 days, and 4hours, at a mean distance of 225,500,000 miles. Thougli the smallest of all the planets, it gives a very brilliant light, Insomuch that it can be seen by the naked eye. Juno is 1,425 miles in diameter, and presents, when in- spected through the telescope, a white and well-defined ap- pearance. Its orbit is the most eccentric of all the planetary orbits, being 253,000,000 of miles from the sun at the greatest, and only 126,000,000, or less than one-half, at the least dis- tance. In the half of the course nearest to the sun, the motion of the planet is, by virtue of a natural law afterward to be explained, more than twice as rapid as in the other part. Ceres has been variously represented as of 1,624 and 160 miles in diameter. The astronomer who calculated its diameter at 1,624 miles, at the same time believed himself to have ascertained that it has a dense atmosphere, extending 675 miles from its surface, it is of a reddish color, and ap- pears about the size of a star of the eighth magnitude. Ceres revolves round the sun, at a distance of 260,000,000 of miles, in 4 years, 7 months, and 10 days. Pallas has been represented as of 2,099 miles in diameter, with an atmosphere extending 468 miles above its surface. Another astronomer has allowed it a diameter of only 80 miles. It revolves round the sun, at a mean distance of 266,- 000,000 of miles, in 4 years, 7 months, and 11 days. How- ever unimportant it may appear beside the large planets, it has a peculiar interest in the eyes of astronomers, on account of its orbit having a greater inclination to the plane of the ecliptic than those of all the larger planets put together. Jupiter is the largest of all the planets. Its diameter is nearly eleven times that of the earth, or 89,170 miles, and its volume or mass is consequently 1,281 times that of our globe. The density of Jupiter is only a fourth of that of the earth, or about the lightness of water ; and a human being, if transfer- red to it, would be able to leap with ease over a pretty large house. It performs a rotation on its axis in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 33 seconds, or about two-fifths of our day. It revolves round the sun, at a distance of 490,000,000 of miles, in 4,330 days, 14 hours, and 39 minutes, or nearly twelve of our years. Viewed through a telescope, Jupiter appears sur- rounded by dark lines, or belts, which occasionally shift, melt into each other, or separate, but sometimes are observed with little variation for several months. These belts are generally near the equator of the planet, and of a broad and straight form ; but they have been observed over his whole surface, and of a lighter, narrower, and more streaky and wavy appear- ance. It is supposed that the dark parts are lines of the body of the planet, seen through openings in a bright, cloudy atmosphere. Jupiter is attended by four satellites, which revolve round it, in the same manner as the moon round our globe, keeping, like it, one face invariably presented to their primary. They are of about the same size, or a little larger diameter than our moon ; the first having a diameter of 2,508, the second of 2,068, the third of 3,377, and the fourth of 2,890 miles. The first revolves round the primary planet in 1 day, 18 hours, 28 minutes; the second in 3 days, 13 hours, 14 minutes; the third in 7 days, 3 hours, 43 minutes ; and the fourth in 16 days, 16 hours, 32 minutes. These satellites frequently eclipse the sun to Jupiter ; they are also eclipsed by the primary planet, but never all at the same time, so that his dark side is never altogether without moonlight. Saturn, seen through a telescope, is the most remarkable of all the planets, being surrounded by a ring, and attended by seven satellites. In bulk this is the second of the planets, being 79,042 miles in diameter, or about 995 times the volume of the earth. Its surface appears slightly marked by belts like those of Jupiter. It performs a rotation on its axis in 10 hours, 16 minutes, and revolves round the sun, at a distance of 900.000,000 of miles, in 10,746 days, 19 hours, 16 minutes, or about 29I of our years. At such a distance from the sun, that luminary must be diminished to one-eightieth of the size he bears in our eyes, and the heat and light in the same pro- portion. The matter of Saturn is one-eiy v \of the density of our earth. ASTRONOMY. 453 The ring of Saturn surrounds the body of the planet in the plane of its equator. It is thin, like the rim of a spinning- wheel, and is always seen with its edge presented more or less directly toward us. It is luminous with the sun’s light, and casts a shadow on the surface of the planet, the shadow of which is also sometimes seen falling on part of the ring. The distance of the inner edge from the planet is calculated at about 19,000 miles ; its entire breadth from the inner to the outer edge is 28,53s ; the thickness is not more than too. In certain positions of the planet we can see its surface at a con- siderable angle, and the openings or loops which it forms on the sides of the planet. At other times we see its dark side, or only its edge. From observations made upon it in favor- able circumstances, it is found to be apparently divided near the outer edge by a dark line of nearly 1,800 miles in breadth, as if it were divided into two concentric rings. From other appearances, it has been surmised to have other divisions, or to be a collection of several concentric rings. It is also occasionally marked by small spots. The ring of Saturn rotates on its own plane in 10 hours, 32 minutes, 15 seconds, and a part of a second, being about the same time with the rotation of the planet. The seven satellites of Saturn revolve around it,, on the ex- terior of the ring, and almost all of them in nearly the same plane. They are so small as not to be visible without a power- ful telescope. The two inner ones are very near to the outer edge of the ring, and can only be discerned when that object is presented so exactly edgeways as to be almost invisible. They have then been seen passing like two small bright beads along the minute thread of light formed by the edge of the ring. The three next satellites are also very small ; the sixth is larger, and placed at a great interval from the rest. The seventh is the largest ; it is about the size of the planet Mars, and is situated at nearly thrice the distance of the sixth, or about 2,300,000 miles from the body of Saturn. The revolu- tions of these satellites range from 1 to 79 days ; and it has been ascertained of some of them that, according to the usual law of secondary planets, their rotations on their axes and their revolutions round their primary are performed in the same time, so that, like our moon, they always present the same face to the center of their system. The orbit of the seventh satellite is much inclined to the plane of Saturn’s equator. Uranus, or Herschel, the remotest planet known in the solar system, is a globe of 35,112 miles in diameter, rotating on its axis in 7 hours, and performing a revolution round the sun, at a distance of 1,800,000,000 of miles, in 84 of our years. The sun to this remote planet must appear only a 400th part of the size which he bears in our eyes. Two satel- lites are known, and other four are suspected, to attend upon Uranus. The two which have been observed circulate round their primary in orbits almost perpendicular to the ecliptic, and are further supposed to move in a direction contrary to that of all the other planetary motions — namely, from east to west. Some idea may be obtained of the comparative size of the principal objects of the solar system, by supposing a globe of two feet diameter, placed in the center of a level plain, to represent the sun ; a grain of mustard-seed, placed on the circumference of a circle 164 feet in diameter, for Mercury ; a pea, on a circle of 284 feet, for Venus ; another pea, on a circle of 430 feet, for the Earth ; a large pin’s head, on a circle of 654 feet, for Mars ; four minute grains of sand, in circles of from 1, 000 to 1,200 feet, for Vesta, Ceres, Pallas, and Juno ; a moderate sized orange, on a circle of nearly half a mile in diameter, for Jupiter ; a small orange, on a circle four-fifths of a mile in diameter, for Saturn ; and a small plum or full-sized cherry, on a circle of a mile and a half in diameter, for Uranus. It is calculated that the united mass of the whole of the planets is not above a 600th part of the mass of the sun. The sun and planets are represented, with an approximation to correctness, in philosophical toys termed orreries, of which the appearance is conveyed in the preced- ing engraving. COMETS. Comets are light vapor}' bodies, which move round the sun in orbits much less circular than those of the planets. Their orbits, in other words, are very long ellipses, or ovals, having the sun near one of the ends. Comets usually have two parts, a body or nucleus, and a tail ; but some have a body only. The body appears as a thin vapory, luminous mass, of globular form ; it is so thin, that, in some cases, the stars have been seen through it. The tail is a lighter or thinner luminous vapor surrounding the body, and streaming far out from it, in one direction. A vacant space has been observed between the body and the enveloping matter of the tail ; and it is equally remarkable that the tail has in some instances appeared less bright along the middle, immediately behind the nucleus, as if it were a stream which that nucleus had in some measure parted into two. Out of the great multitude — certainly not less than 1,000— » which are supposed to exist, about 150 have been made the subject of scientific observation. Instead of revolving, like the planets, nearly on the plane of the sun’s equator, it is found that they approach his body from all parts of surround- ing space. At first, they are seen slowly advancing, with a comparatively faint appearance. As they approach the sun, the wot! on becomes quicker, and at length they pass round 454 ASTRONOMY. nim with very great rapidity, and at a comparatively small distance from his body. The comet of 1680 approached within one-sixth of lus diameter. After passing, they are seen to emerge from his rays, with an immense increase to their former brilliancy and to the length of their tails. Their motion then becomes gradually slower, and their brilliancy diminishes, and at length they are lost in distance. It has been ascertained that their movement round the sun is in accordance with the same law which regulates the planetary movements, being always the quicker the nearer to his body, and the slower the more distant. In the remote parts of space their motions must be extremely slow. Three comets have been observed to return, and their periods of revolution have been calculated. The most re- markable of these is one usually denominated Halley’s Comet, from the astronomer who first calculated its period. It revolves round the sun in about seventy-five years, its last appearance being at the close of 1835. Another, called Enke’s Comet, from Professor Enke, of Berlin, has been found to revolve once in 1,207 days, or 3 j years ; but, in this case, the revolving body is found at each successive approach to the sun, to be a little earlier than on the previous occasion, showing that its orbit is gradually lessening, so that it may be expected ulti- mately to fall into the sun. This fact has suggested that some part of that space through which the comet passes, must be occupied by a matter presenting some resistance to the move- ment of any denser body ; and it is supposed that this matter may prove to be the same which has been described as con- stituting the zodiacal light. It is called a resisting medium ; and future observations upon it are expected to be attended with results of a most important nature, seeing that, if there be such a matter extending beyond the orbit of the earth, that planet, in whose welfare we are so much interested, will be exposed to the same ultimate fate with Enke’s Comet. The third, named Beila’s Comet, from M. Beila, of Joseph- stadt, revolves round the sun in 64 years. It is very small, and has no tail. In 1832, this comet passed through the earth’s path about a month before the arrival of our planet at the same point. If the earth had been a month earlier at that point, or the comet a month later in crossing it, the two bodies would have been brought together, and the earth, in all probability, would have instantly become unfit for the existence the human family. Ccsroetg often pass unobserved, in consequence of the part of the heavens in which they move being then under daylight. During a total eclipse of the sun, which happened sixty years before Christ, a large comet, not formerly seen, became visi- ble, near the body of the obscured luminary. On many occa- sions, their smallness and distance render them visible only by the aid of the telescope. On other occasions, they are of vast size. The comet now called Halley’s, at its appearance in 1456, covered a sixth part of the visible extent of the heavens, and was likened to a Turkish scimitar. That of 1680, which was observed by Sir Isaac Newton, had a tail calculated tc be 123,000,000 of miles in length, a space greater than the distance of the earth from the sun. There was a comet in 1744, which had six tails, spread out like a fan across a large space in the heavens The tails of comets usually stretch in the direction opposite to the sun, both in advancing and retiring, and with a slight wave at the outer extremity, as if that part experienced some resistance. THE STARS. The idea at which astronomers have arrived respecting the stars, is, that they are all of them suns, resembling our own, but diminished to the appearance of mere specks of light by the great distance at which they are placed. As a necessary consequence to this supposition, it may be presumed that they are centers of light and heat to systems of revolving planets, each of which may be further presumed to be the theater of forms of beings, bearing some analogy to those which exist upon earth. The stars, seen by the naked eye on a clear night, are about two thousand in number. This, allowing a like number for the half of the sky not seen, gives about four thousand, in all, of visible stars. These are of different degrees of brilliancy, probably in the main in proportion to their respective dis- tances from our system, but also perhaps in some measure in proportion to their respective actual sizes. Astronomers class the stars under different magnitudes , not W'ith regard to ap- parent size, for none of them present a measurable disk, but with a regard to the various quantities of light flowing round them ; thus, there are stars of the first magnitude, the second magnitude, and so on. Only six or seven varieties of magni- tude are within our natural vision ; but with the telescope vast numbers of more distant stars are brought into view ; and the magnitudes are now extended by astronomers to at least sixteen. The stars are at a distance from our system so very great, that the mind can form no idea of it. The brilliant one called Sirius or the Dog-star, which is supposed to be the nearest, merely because it is the most luminous, has been reckoned by tolerably clear calculation to give only 1-20, 000,000th part of the light of the sun ; hence, supposing it to be of the same size, and every other way alike, it should be distant from our earth not less than 1,960,000,000,000,000,000 miles. An at- tempt has been made to calculate the distance of Sirius by a trigonometrical problem. It may be readily supposed that the position of a spectator upon the earth with respect to celestial objects must vary considerably at different parts of the year : for instance, on the 21st of June, he must be in ex- actly the opposite part of the orbit from what he was on the 21st of December — indeed, no less than 190,000,000 of miles from it, or twice the distance of the earth from the sun. This change of position with relation to celestial objects is called parallax. Now, it has been found that Sirius is so distant, that an angle formed between it and the two extremities of the earth’s orbit is loo small to be appreciated. Were it so much as one second, or the 3,600th part of a degree, it could be appreciated by the nice instruments we now possess ; but it is not even this. It is hence concluded that Sirius must be at least 19,200,000,000 of miles distant, however much more! Supposing this to be its distance, its light would take three years to reach us, though traveling, as it does, at the rate of IQ2.000 miles in a second of time 1 THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. 455 PUBLIC MEETINGS. PUBLIC meeting is the assemblage of a portion of the people, for the expression of opinion upon matters of local or gen- eral concern. The proceedings are but few and simple ; yet, to preserve order during its session, and to give effect to its action, the meeting has to be guided by defined rules from the time of its projection to the moment of its close. A DEMOCRATIC MEETING! The citizens of Blank, in favor of the policy of the Demo- cratic party, are requested to meet on Saturday Evening, Sep- tember 9th, at the house of Jasper Glyde, Bridge Street, at 7 o’clock, to take such measures as are deemed advisable to pro- mote the success of the party in the coming election. The notice is also published in the county newspaper, should there be one. Meanwhile, the proposers of the affair, either after a caucus or individually, obtain the consent of some speaker, say a Mr. Joseph Becker, to be present and give his views on public topics. In that case, the advertisement closes with an an- nouncement like this : “A. B., Esq., has accepted an invitation to address the meeting." The projectors meanwhile meet in caucus, and agree upon officers. They select for chairman Mr. Charles Kendrick, an old resident and a man of standing, and Mr. John Travers, to act as secretary, and these gentlemen consent to take the posi- tions assigned them. When the evening comes, and the meeting has assembled, no business is begun until half an hour after the hour named. This interval is called “ thirty minutes’ grace,” and is always allowed, through custom, for the difference in watches. At 7 1 o’clock, Mr William Irwin steps forward and says: , “The meeting will please come to order,” Every one hereupon suspends conversation, and, so soon as all is quiet, Mr. Irwin continues : “I move that Mr. Charles Kendrick act as President of this meeting.” Mr. Parke Neville says : “ I second the motion.” 1 .fen Mr. Irwin puts the question thus : “ It has been moved and seconded that Mr. Charles Kendrick act as president of this meeting. So many as are in favor of the motion will signify their assent by saying 4 aye ! ’ ” As soon as those in the affirmative have voted, he will say : “ Those who are opposed, will say ‘ no ! ’ ” If there are more ayes than noes, as there will be, unless Mr. Kendrick be very unpopular indeed, he will say : “ The ayes have it. The motion is carried. Mr. Kendrick will take the chair." If, on the contrary, the noes prevail, he will say ; “ The noes have it. The motion is lost.” Thereupon he will nominate some other, or put the ques- tion upon other nominations. As soon as a chairman is chosen, he will take his place. Mr. Thomas Turbot then says : “ I move that Mr. John Travers act as secretary af this meeting." This motion is seconded, and the chairman puts the ques- tion and declares the result. The form of putting the question to the chairman may be simplified thus : “ Mr. Charles Kendrick has been nominated as president of this meeting. Those in favor, will say 'aye!’ — Contrary opinion, 4 no ! ”’ The meeting is now organized. The chairman will direct the secretary to read the call. When that has been done, he will say : 44 You have heard the call under which we have assembled ; what is your further pleasure ?” Hereupon, Mr. John Smith says : “ I move that a committee of three be appointed to draft resolutions expressive of the sense of this meeting," This is seconded. 45 6 THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. The chairman then says : “ Gentlemen, you have heard the mol ion ; are you ready for the question? ” If any one desires to speak against the resolution, he arises and says : “ Mr. Chairman ! ” The chairman turns toward the speaker, and listens to him, and so to each in succession. When they are all done, or in case no one responds to the call, he puts the question in the customary form previously given, and declares the result. The resolution being adopted, the chairman says : “ How shall that committee be appointed? ” If there be no reply, or a reply of “chair,” tne chairman names the mover of the resolution and two others as a com- mittee. The committee withdraws to prepare the resolutions, or to examine those previously prepared for the purpose. During the absence of the committee is a proper time for the speaker or speakers to address the meeting. When the speeches are over, the chairman of the committee comes for- ward and says : “ Mr. Chairman, the committee begs leave to report the fol- lowing resolutions : ” He then reads the resolutions, and hands them to the sec- retary. The chairman now says : “ You have heard the report of the committee ; what order do you take on it ? ” Some one now moves that the report be accepted, and the resolutions be adopted. To save time, the chairman will put the question solely on the adoption of the resolutions. If no objection is made, and no amendment offered, he will put the question, and declare the result. As a general thing, a committee may be avoided, as a use- less formality, and the resolutions be offered by one of the projectors of the meeting. So soon as the resolutions are adopted, and the speeches are over, the chairman should ask : “ What is the further pleasure of this meeting ? ” If there be no further business, some one moves an adjourn- ment. The chairman does not ask if the meeting be ready for the question, since an adjournment is not debatable, but puts the question direct. If carried, he says : “This meeting stands adjourned without day.” If the meeting thinks proper to adjourn to meet at another time, the time is fixed by a previous resolution, and then, when it adjourns, the chairman declares it adjourned to the time fixed upon. It will be seen that the foregoing form, by varying the call, and changing the business to suit, will answer for any other political party, or fo^any other purpose. When a public meeting is called by any executive or other committee, the name of the chairman of that committee should be appended to the call, and the committee itself should prepare business for the action of the meeting, as much as possible. The duty of the secretary of a public meeting is merely nom- inal, unless it is desired to publish an account of its proceed- ings. In the latter case, the record of the foregoing meeting, which is a form for any other meeting, varied, under the cir- cumstances of the case, would read thus : “ At a meeting of the Democratic citizens of Blank, held pursuant to public notice, on Saturday evening, September gth, at 7 o’clock, at the house of Jasper Clyde, Mr. Charles Kendrick was called to the chair, and Mr. John Travers ap- pointed secretary. “ On motion of Mr. John Smith, a committee of three, con- sisting of Messrs. John Smith, Henry Magraw, and Casper Evans, was appointed to draft resolutions expressive of the sense of the meeting. “ During the absence of the committee, the meeting was effectively addressed by Joseph Becker, Esq. “ The committee, through its chairman, reported the fol- lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : [//ere the secretary inserts the resolutions .] “On motion, the meeting adjourned.” ORGANIZING ASSOCIATIONS. When it is advisable to form a society, club, or other asso- ciation, for any specific purpose, those who agree in regard to its formation may meet upon private notice or public call. The mode of organizing the meeting is similar to that of any other. As soon as the meeting has been organized, and the chair- man announces that it is ready to proceed to business, some one of the originators, previously agreed upon, should rise, and advocate the formation of the club or society required for the purpose set forth in the call, and end by moving the ap- pointment of a committee to draft a constitution and by-laws. This committee should be instructed to report at the next meeting. A convenient time of adjournment is fixed on, and if there be no further business, the meeting adjourns. When the time for the second meeting arrives, the same officers continue, without any new motion. If either be absent, his place is supplied, on motion, by some other. The Committee on the Constitution and By-laws reports. If the constitution is not acceptable, those present suggest amend- ments. As soon as it has taken the required shape, it is adopted, and signed by those present. The by-laws are treated in the same way. The society is now formed, but not fully organized. The officers provided for by the constitution have now to be elected. This urny be done at that meeting, or the society may be adjourned over for that purpose. So soon as it has been done, the chairman of the meeting gives way to the newly-elected president, or, in his absence, to a vice-presi- dent ; the secretary of the meeting vacates his seat, which is taken by the newly elected secretary or secretaries, and thus the organization of the new body is complete. PUBLIC CELEBRATIONS. Public celebrations may be made by some public society, or by the citizens at large. If by the latter, a meeting is gener- ally called, subject to the customary rules, and a committee of arrangements appointed, who take charge of the business. A society appoints a like committee. THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. 457 The committee of arrangements meet, and appoint a chair- man and secretary. As soon as this is done, the mode of cele- bration is determined upon. In the case of the Fourth of July, some fit person is generally invited to deliver an oration, and another to read the Declaration of Independence. A sub- committee is appointed to secure a proper room, unless the celebration takes place in the open air, when the committee has in charge the erection of a stand. The proper sub-committees are : 1. On correspondence. The duty of this committee is to invite such distinguished guests as are desirable. 2. On orator. This committee invites the orator selected. 3. On place. This committee attends to hiring a room and fitting it up, or, if it be an out-of-door celebration, see to the erection of a stand for the officers and speaker, and seats for the auditors. 4. On printing. This committee attends to the necessary advertising and printing. All these report their action to the main committee as it adjourns from time to time. The day having arrived, at the hour named, the officers and speakers being ready, and the audience assembled, the chair- man of the committee of arrangements calls the meeting to order, nominates the president of the day, and puts the ques- tion on his acceptance. The latter now takes his seat, and the other officers are appointed. So soon as this is done, a clergyman, if there be one named for the purpose, delivers a short prayer. The chairman of the day next announces by name the reader of the Declaration, and says : “ Mr. [naming him], will read the Declaration of Indepen- dence.” The Declaration being read, the chairman says : “Mr. [naming him], the orator of the day."' The orator now comes forward, and delivers his oration, at t%e close of which the exercises are determined, and after a benediction, if a clergyman be present, the meeting adjourns without any formal motion. If a band of music can be had, it is always engaged on such an occasion, and plays national and patriotic airs previous to the taking the chair, at the close of the proceedings, and at the various intervals. The public celebration of their own anniversaries by public societies, if done by orations, follows the same form. CONVENTIONS. A convention is a number of delegates assembled for the purpose of carrying out the views of constituents, and is gifted with powers over that of an ordinary meeting. It is the legis- lature of a party ; and, consequently, is governed by the same rules of action, or very nearly, as any other legislative body. A convention may be called, either by some committee gifted with the power, or by invitation of the leading friends of a particular cause or measure. The call should contain some general directions as to the mode of electing delegates. The night before the meeting, it is usual for the friends of particular men or measures, among its delegates, to hold a caucus, in order to devise the plan of action necessary to tecure the success of the man or measures they prefer. Here 16 they discuss acts and views with a freedom which cannot be permitted in open convention, and agree upon their common ground on the following day. Part of their proceedings will leak out in spite of all precaution ; but care should be taken to admit none but those who are friendly, in order that as much secrecy as possible may be attained. There are two sets of officers in a convention — temporary and permanent. The first is merely for the purpose of conducting the business preparatory to organization. The possession of the permanent president is often a matter of great importance when there are two parties in a convention. If the temporary president appoints the committee which is to nominate per- manent officers, it may be important to gain him. In that case there is a struggle who shall nominate first, and some- times there are several nominations for temporary chairman. To avoid this indecent competition, it is usual to give the delegation from each county, district, or township, the right to name one member of the committee on permanent organiza- tion. Until the permanent officers have been chosen, and have taken their seats, none but preliminary business is to be transacted. The whole machinery of a convention resembles that of one of the houses of legislature. But a convention for a political or social purpose never formally goes into committee of the whole. When there is an interval, and the main body is wait- ing for the report of a committee, or after the business is done, and previous to adjournment, it is customary to call on various prominent men to address the convention, which thus goes into quasi-committee, without the formality of a motion. Frequently, the permanent chairman of a convention is chosen on account of his wealth or position ; but the custom is a bad one. A convention is essentially a business convoca- tion ; the time of its members is more or less valuable ; and no chairman should be installed unless he is familiar with the duties of his position, and capable of conducting affairs with promptness, dignity, and force. It is a custom to give the thanks of the convention to its officers, just previous to adjournment. In that case, the mem- ber who makes the motion puts, himself, the question upon its adoption, and declares the result. FORMS OF CONSTITUTIONS. A constitution is the formal written agreement making the fundamental law which binds the parties who associate. In preparation of this, useless words should be avoided. The constitution, after having been adopted, should be en grossed in a blank book, and signed by the members. Amendments or alterations should be entered in the same book, with the date of their adoption, in the shape of a copy from the minutes ; and a side-note inserted in the margin of the constitution, opposite the article amended, showing on what page the amendment may be found. LYCEUMS OR INSTITUTES. Preamble. — Whereas, experience has shown that knowl- edge can be more readily acquired by combination of effort than singly, we, whose names are hereunto annexed, have agreed to form an association to be known as [here insert titlc\ 45 » THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. and for its better government, do hereby establish the follow- ing constitution : Article I. — The name, style, and title of this association shall be [here insert name], and its objects shall be the increase and the diffusion of knowledge among its members. Article II. — i. The officers of this association shall con- sist of a president, two vice-presidents, a corresponding secre- tary, a recording secretary, a treasurer, a librarian, and a curator, who shall be elected annually on [here insert time of election and mode, whether by open voice or by ballot], 2. The said officers shall hold their offices until their suc- cessors shall have been elected ; and their powers and duties shall be similar to those of like officers in like associations. Article III. — There shall be appointed bv the president, immediately after his election, by and with the consent of the association, the following standing committees, to consist of five members each, namely : on finance, library, museum, lect- ures, and printing, who shall perform such duties and take charge of such business as may be assigned to them by vote of the association. Article IV. — I. Any person residing within [here state limits ], who is above the age of twenty-one years, may become a resident member of this association, by consent of a major- ity of the members present at any stated meeting succeeding the one at which his name shall have been proposed ; any per- son residing without the limits aforesaid may be chosen, in like manner, a corresponding member ; and any person who is eminent in science or literature, may be elected an hon- orary member. 2. Each and evpry resident member, upon his election, shall sign this constitution, and pay over to the recording sec- retary the sum of [here insert the sum], and shall pay the like sum annually in advance ; but no dues or contributions shall be demanded of corresponding or honorary members. Article V. — I. This association shall be divided into the following sections, namely : i. Natural Science ; 2. Arts ; 3. History ; 4. Agriculture and Horticulture ; 5. Mental and Moral Philosophy ; 6. General Literature ; to each of which sections shall be referred all papers or business appropriate to its department ; and to one or more of these sections each member, immediately after his election, shall attach himself. 2. Each section shall report, from time to time, upon the business intrusted to it, as this association shall direct. Article VI. — This association shall meet monthly [here insert time], and at such other times as it may be called upon by the president, upon the written request of six members ; of each of which meetings due notice shall be given, and at each and all of these meetings six members shall constitute a quo- rum for the transaction of business. Article VII — The rules of order embraced in “ The Rules of Debate and Chairman’s Assistant,” shall govern the deliber- ations of this association so far as the same may apply ; and the order of business therein laid down shall be followed, un- less suspended or transposed by a two-thirds vote. Article VIII. — Any member who shall be guilty of any public, felonious offence against the law, or who shall perse- vere in a course of conduct degrading of itself or calculated to bring this association into odium, may be expelled by a two- thirds vote of the members present at any stated meeting , and any member who shall neglect or refuse to nay his dues for more than one year, shall thereby cease to be a member of this association ; but no member shall be expelled until due notice shall have been given him of the charges brought against him, and until he shall have had the opportunity of being confronted with his accusers, and of being heard in his own defence. Article IX. — This constitution may be altered, amended, or abrogated, at any stated meeting, by a vote of two-thirds of the members present ; provided, that written notice of said alteration, amendment, or abrogation, shall have been given at a previous stated meeting. DUTIES OF OFFICERS. THE PRESIDING OFFICER. The chairman should have made himself fully acquainted with the rules of order and the usages of deliberative bodies. He should be prompt, dignified, and impartial. He should be quick of eye to note any member who rises, and quick of speech to declare him in possession of the floor. He should suffer no member to violate order, without instant rebuke. His voice should be steady, distinct and clear, so that all may hear readily. When he puts the question, states a point of order, or otherwise addresses the body, he should rise ; and when he has finished, resume his seat. His constant attention is necessary, and his eye should never wander from the speaker before him ; nor should he, in any way, show a neglect of the business. No matter what disturbance may arise, his cool- ness and temper must be preserved. If his decision be ap- pealed from, he should show no resentment — an appeal being a matter of privilege — but should put the appeal in the same indifferent manner as though it were an ordinary question. He should always remember that he has been placed there to guide and control the machinery of the moment, and not to give his own views, or display his own abilities in an organ- ized association. He will sign all orders for the payment of money, ordered by the body. THE RECORDING OFFICER. The secretary or clerk, at the commencement of proceed- ings, will seat himself at his table ; and, at the order of the chairman, will read the minutes of the previous meeting. He must note down the proceedings, and write them down in full, previous to another meeting. He must file all resolutions and other papers before the body, and allow none to go from his custody without due authority. He must read all resolutions and papers, when requested to do so by the chair. He must turn over his records and papers in good order to his suc- cessor on leaving his office. He must countersign all orders on the treasurer, which have been signed by the president, as this counter-signature is the evidence that the society has ap- proved the order. THE TREASURER. The treasurer must enter, in a book to be provided for the purpose, all money received, and all payments made, on ac- count of the body. He must pay out no money, except on an order, signed by the president, and countersigned by the THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. 459 secretary. He must retain these orders, as his vouchers. He must turn over his books, in good order, to his successor on leaving his office. He must give bonds in such needful sum as it deems best, if the body require. THE LIBRARIAN. The librarian will take upon him the charge of the books and manuscripts not pertaining to the duties of other officers. Of these he must keep a catalogue. He must keep a record of all books borrowed, by whom and when returned ; and must only loan them under such regulations as the body see fit to adopt. He must turn over his catalogue and records to his successor on leaving his office. THE CURATORS. The curators will take charge of all specimens of nature or art, or otherwise, and all property of the body, not in charge of other officers. This they will have catalogued, and will keep it under such restrictions as may be imposed on them by the main body. They must turn over their catalogue papers and property to their successors on leaving their office. THE COMMITTEE ON CORRESPONDENCE. The committee will take charge of all correspondence or- dered by the body, and if there be no corresponding secretary, will conduct it with all parties, at direction of the body, through its chairman. It will report, from time to time, as directed, and will keep copies of letters sent, and a file of those received, which it will turn over to its successors, on its discharge. If there be a corresponding secretary, he will per- form the duties assigned above to the committee of corre- spondence. THE COMMITTEE ON FINANCE. The committee on finance will devise the ways and means to obtain the necessary funds for the body, and report thereon from time to time ; and will attend to such other duties as may be assigned to them. OTHER COMMITTEES. Other committees will attend to such business as may be as- signed to them by the main body, reporting thereon as may be required. BY-LAWS. The old custom of appending a distinct set of By-Laws has fallen into disuse. The main points will be found embodied in the Constitution in the forms given. Any others, or any modifications of the rules necessary, may be provided for in the Constitution, or enacted by a majority vote. But, if it be thought necessary, that portion of the Constitution that con- tains provisions that were formerly so placed, can be made distinct. OFFICIAL FORMS. THE PRESIDENT. On taking his seat, says : “ The meeting [or society , or club, or association, as the case may be] will come to order. ” If there have been a meeting previous : “ The secretary will please to read the minutes." After the minutes have been read : “ You have heard the minutes of the previous meeting read. What order do you take on them ? ” When a motion has been made and seconded : “ It has been moved and seconded that [here state the mo- tion ]. Are you ready for the question ?” If a member arises to speak, recognize him by naming him by his place, or in any way which will identify him without using his name, if possible. In putting the question : “ It has been moved and seconded that [here state the mo- tion ]. So many as are in favor of the motion will signify their assent by saying * Aye ! ’ ” When the ayes have voted, say : “ Those to the contrary opinion, ‘ No ! ’ ” Or, have the resolution read, and say : “ It has been moved and seconded that the resolution just read be passed. So many as are in favor,” etc. On a call for the previous question : “ Shall the main question be now put ? Those in the af- firmative will,” etc. On an appeal, state the decision, and, if you think proper, the reasons therefor, and that it has been appealed from, and then : “ Shall the decision of the chair stand ? Those in the af- firmative,” etc. Should it be sustained, say “ The ayes have it. The decision of the chair stands as the judgment of this meeting ” [or society, etc., as the case may be]. Should it not be sustained, say : “ The noes have it. The decision of the chair is reversed.” In announcing the result of a question, if it be carried, say : “ The ayes appear to have it — the ayes have it — the motion [or amendment, as the case may be] is carried.” If it be lost : “ The noes appear to have it — the noes have it — the motion is lost." If a division be called for : “ A division is called for. Those in favor of the motion will rise.” Count them. When counted, announce the number, and say : “ Those opposed will rise.” Count them, report the number, and declare the result. If the yeas and nays be called for, and no objection be made, he states the question, if needed, and says : “ As the roll is called, members will vote in the affirmative or negative. The secretary will call the roll.” After the ayes and nays have been determined, the chair- man states the number and declares the result. If no quorum be present at the hour of meeting, after wait- ing a reasonable time, he says : “ The hour for which this meeting was called having ar- rived and past, and no quorum being present, what order is to be taken ?” Or, he may simply announce the fact, and wait for a mem ber to move an adjournment. 460 THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. If during a meeting some member calls for a count, he counts, and announces if a quorum be present or not. If not, he says : “ This meeting is in want of a quorum. What order is to be taken ? ” Or he may state the fact only, and wait for a motion to ad- journ. But while there is no quorum present, business must be suspended. After the minutes have been adopted, he says : “ The next business in order is the reports of standing com- mittees.” If none, or after they have reported, he says ; “ The reports of special committees are next in order.” And so he announces each business in its proper succession. When the hour for the orders of the day arrives, on call of a member, he says : “ Shall the orders of the day be taken up ? So many as are in favor,” etc. In case of disorder in committee of the whole, which its chairman cannot repress, the presiding officer may say : “ The committee of the whole is dissolved. The society [or club, or association, as the case may be] will come to order. Members will take their seats. ” He will then take the chair, instead of the chairman of the committee of the whole. In taking the question on amendment, he says : “ The question will be on the amendment offered by the member from [naming his place, or otherwise indicating him]," and then puts the question. If on an amendment to an amendment, then : “The question will be on the amendment to the amend- ment,” and the rest as before. If either the amendment or the amendment to the amend- ment be carried, he will say : “ The question now recurs on the resolution as amended. Are you ready for the question ? ” And if no member rises to speak, he will put the question. On the motion to amend by striking out words from a reso- lution, he says : “ It is moved to amend by striking out the words [naming them]. Shall those words stand?” And then he puts the question. Objection being made to the reading of a paper, he will say : “Shall the paper [naming it] be read?” and then put the question. And on an objection being made to the reception of a re- port, he will say : “Shall the report of the committee be received?” and after the demand he puts the question. When in doubt as to which member was up first, he says : '* The chair is in doubt as to which member is entitled to the floor. The society [or club, or association, as the case may be] will decide. Was the gentleman from [indicating any one] first up ? ” And puts the question. If the body decide against that member, he puts the question on the next, and so through, until the society decides that some one of them has the floor. If but two contend, however, and the society de- cide against the first named, the decision virtually entitles the other to the floor without further vote. If a member is out of order, he will say : “ The member [indicating him] is out of order.” He wil 1 make him take his seat, and then state wherein the member is out of order. If the point of order is raised by a member, he will say : “ The member [indicating him] will state his point of or der.” When this has been done, he decides the point. On a question of the time of adjournment, he says : “ It has been moved and seconded that when this meeting [or club , etc., as the case may be] adjourns, it adjourn to [naming time and place J. Are you ready for the question ? ” And if no one rises to speak, puts the question. On a question of adjournment, he says : “ It has been moved and seconded that this meeting [or club, etc.] do now adjourn ; ” and puts the question. When adjournment is carried, he says : “ This society [or club, etc.] stands adjourned to ” [naming time and place] ; or if without any time, he says : “ This society [or club, etc.] stands adjourned without day.” THE RECORDING SECRETARY. The secretary commences his minutes thus : “ At a stated [or special, or adjourned stated, or adjourned special, as the case may be] meeting of [here insert the name of the body], held on [here insert the time and place of meeting], Mr. [insert chairman's name] in the chair, and [here insert secretary's name] acting as secretary — “ The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and ap- proved.” If the reading of the minutes was dispensed with, say so, instead of the preceding line. Then give a statement of what was done, without com- ments, as succinctly as possible, down to the adjournment. In countersigning an order for money, or in giving a certi- fied copy of the minutes, or an extract from them, always sign the name on the left-hand comer of each sheet except the last. On the last, the signature on the same comer should be preceded — if an order for money — by the word teste or attest ; and if it be a copy of minutes, by the words “ A true copy of the minutes.” In case of an adjournment for want of a quorum, say : “ At a stated [or special, etc.] meeting called at [name place and time], no quorum being present, the meeting adjourned.” In recording the yeas and nays, prepare a list of the mem- bers, or have it on hand, and after the name of each have two columns ruled. Where a member votes, 1 * aye,” write it in the first column,, or head one column “ aye,” and the other “ no,” and make a mark in the proper column, opposite the name. Where lie votes “ no,” write it on the second. Add up, and enter the number at the foot of each column. Indorse the resolution or motion voted upon the back of the list. Where a report is made, it is not necessary in the minutes to do more than give an abstract of its contents, or a sentence or two indicating its nature. The report should, however, be indorsed with its title, and the date of its report, and filed. THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. 461 A list of the orders of the day should always be made out previous to every meeting, for the convenience of the presid- ing officer. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY. In addressing a letter for the body, write the words “Cor- responding Secretary,” as concluding part of the signature, and retain a copy of the letter sent, with a record of the time it was dispatched, stating whether by mail or private hand. THE TREASURER. The form of account of the treasurer is very simple. But where the accounts are complicated, a regular set of books should be opened, and kept by double entry. THE COMMITTEES. The chairman of the committee of the whole, when the committee has risen, will say to the president of the main body, if it have concluded its business : “ Mr. President : The committee of the whole has, acccord- ing to order, gone through the business assigned to it, and asks leave to report.” Leave being granted, he reports what has been done. Or, not having concluded — “ The committee of the whole has, according to order, con- sidered the business assigned to it, and made progress therein, but not having time to conclude the same, asks leave to sit again.” Or, if rising from the want of a quorum — “ The committee of the whole, has, according to order, con- sidered [proceeded to consider ] the business assigned to it, but has risen for want of a quorum.” In putting the question for rising — “ It has been moved and seconded that this committee do now rise and report [or report progress']. So many as are in favor, ” etc. All written reports are headed after a similar form. If from a standing committee, thus : “ The committee on [ insert name of committee] respectfully report .” And then let the report follow. If a special committee — The committee to which was referred [here state the special matter of reference ], have considered the same, and respect- fully report,” etc. And all reports conclude with : *' All of which is respectfully submitted.” A minority report is headed “ The undersigned, the minority of a committee to which was referred,” etc. And concludes as in a majority report. RULES OF ORDER. QUORUM. 1. A quorum is a sufficient number to legally transact busi- ness. A majority of the members of any association consti- tutes a natural quorum ; but a smaller number is usually made a quorum by a provision to that effect in the constitution or by-laws, through motives of convenience. 2. If there be a quorum present at the hour named for the meeting, or within thirty minutes thereafter, the presiding officer takes the chair, and calls the association to order ; if not, he waits a reasonable time, and from the chair announces that no quorum is present. Thereupon no further business is in order, except to adjourn for want of a quorum. But it will be in order to call the roll of members, and to make endeavor to obtain the presence of enough to form a quorum. 3. During the transaction of business, should it be observed that no quorum is present, the chair may announce the fact, or any member may call for a count. If, on counting, it be found that there is no quorum, business is suspended until a quorum be found. If not to be had, the meeting must be ad* journed. 4. If, on calling the ayes and noes, or on division, :: quorum be not found, the vote is null, and at the next meet- ing the unfinished business is in the exact state it was when the absence of a quorum was discovered. CALL. 1. On a call of the body, each member rises as he is called, and answers to his name, and the absentees are noted. In a small body it is not necessary to rise. MINUTES. 1. The presiding officer having taken the chair, and a quorum being present, the minutes are read. If there be any mistakes in the record, these are amended, and then the min- utes are adopted. If, under any circumstances requiring haste, or in the absence of the journal, the reading of the minutes be suspended, they may be either read and adopted at another stage of the proceedings, or at the next succeeding meeting. Nevertheless, the minutes being a record of facts, any error subsequently discovered may be amended at any time. This may be done by unanimous consent ; or, if objec- tions be made, then any member who voted in the affirmative on their adoption, can move a reconsideration of the motion to adopt. This last motion prevailing, the minutes are open to amendment ; and after being amended, the motion on their adoption as amended is put. 2. The rule of record in ordinary associations is somewhat different from that in legislative bodies. The minutes ot the former stand in lieu of the journals of the latter. The former never contain a question which is interrupted by a vote to ad- journ, or to proceed to the order of the day ; the latter always do. Even propositions withdrawn, or ruled out of order, may be entered, as so treated. The minutes are to be full and ex- plicit, and a true record of all that was done, but not of all that was said, unless the latter be necessary to the clear under- standing of the business. 3. Proceedings in committee of the whole are, of course, not entered on the minutes — the entry merely that the com- mittee rose and reported thus, and so, and what was done thereon by the association. PRESIDING OFFICER. In the absence of the president, or in ease he declines, the vice-president takes the chair. If there be more than one vice-president, then they take it in their numerical order, unless the association, by vote, designate a particular one. If neither 462 THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. president nor vice-president be present, some member is called to act temporarily as chairman, on motion put by the mover thereof. RECORDING OFFICER. In the absence of the secretary, or, if more than one, in the absence of all, a temporary secretary must be appointed on motion. ARRANGEMENT OF BUSINESS. This, in associations, is usually provided for in the by-laws. If not otherwise provided for, it is as follows : 1. Reading the minutes ; 2. Reports of standing committees ; 3. Reports of special committees; 4. Special orders; 5. Unfinished business; 6. New business. The election of new members, unless other- wise ordered, is always in order ; and the election of officers ranks as a special order ; but an election of members is not in order while other business is pending, or while a member has the floor. ORDERS. There is only one case where a member has a right to insist on anything, and that is where he calls for the execution of an existing order. No debate nor delay can be had on it ; but where it is for an order of the day, fixing some particular business to be taken up, then the president, on call of a mem- ber, puts the question whether the association will proceed to the order of the day. If it is decided in the negative, that is, in effect, a reversal of the former order, and the association decides to proceed to other business. COMMITTEES. 1. Standing committees are appointed under the constitution or by-laws of the association, or by resolution, and sit perma- nently, while special committees are usually appointed by resolution to attend to some particular business, which being done, they are usually discharged. 2. The first-named person acts as chairman of any commit- tee. It is true that the committee possesses the inherent power to choose its own chairman ; but custom prevents this power from being used. Should a committee select some other than the first named as chairman, it would be considered a wanton insult. 3. It is always proper to place the mover of a successful motion on any committee arising through his resolution, and to name him first ; but if the committee is upon an inquiry into his conduct, or where its deliberation concerns himself personally, or his manifest interest, the rule is not followed. 4. As near as they will apply, the rules of order of the main body govern the deliberations of committees. 5. A committee to whom a resolution or affirmative prop- osition is committed should always have a majority of mem- bers, if they can be had, favorable to such resolution or propo- sition. 6. Unless otherwise ordered, the chair appoints all commit- tees. 7. When there is a standing committee on any subject, any- thing referring to such subject should be referred to that com- mittee alone ; but it may be given to a special committee, if the association think proper. 3 . Standing committees require no order to report. They are always in session, and should report at every meeting, il only to report progress. 9. A committee cannot sit while the main body is in ses- sion, unless so ordered to do. 10 A majority of a committee must concur in a report ; but the minority are never refused leave to bring in a counter report. 11. Sometimes a majority cannot be found, when the com- mittee should report the fact of their disagreement, and ask leave to be discharged ; they are then to be discharged, and either a new committee raised, or the subject brought before a committee of the whole, or before the main body. 12. Persons appointed upon a committee should join that committee so soon as they are notified of their appointment, unless they are excused ; as it is the duty of the first named member of the committee to call his fellows together as soon as possible. COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE. 1. If it be necessary to go into committee of the whole society, either for a general or specific purpose, it is done by motion, when the chairman vacates the chair, and calls some member to it to act as chairman ; though the committee of the whole, if it chooses, can select another chairman like any other committee. This it never does. The quorum of the committee is the same as that of the main body. If a quorum be found wanting, the committee has to rise, the regular chairman takes his seat, and the chair- man of the committee informs him that the committee rises for want of a quorum. Then the usual course is taken in re- gard to the absence of a quorum. 2. If any communication be made to the main body while in committee of the whole, the committee cannot receive it. If its reception be necessary, the committee have to rise. 3. If there be confusion or disturbance in committee of the whole, the president may take the chair, declare the com- mittee dissolved, and reduce the body to order. In that case it requires another motion for that committee to sit again. 4. A committee of the whole cannot adjourn, but it must rise. It cannot take the previous question, nor take the ayes and noes. 5. If the business before the committee of the whole be unfinished, it rises on motif#, the regular presiding officer takes the c'nair, and the diairman of the committee reports that the committee of the whole have, according to order, considered the business assigned to them, and have made prog- ress therein, but, not having time to conclude the same, ask leave to sit again. Leave is then granted on motion. If the subject be a special one, and it is concluded, the motion is that the committee rise and report proceedings ; the”., when the president takes the chair, the chairman of the committee reports that the committee have gone through the business re- ferred to them, and ask leave to report. Leave is then given to report then, or at some other time, either by motion, or, should there be no objection, on the call of some member. 6. In committee, members may speak oftener than once on the same subject, and are not confined strictly to the subject- matter. With these and the foregoing exceptions, the same THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. ■463 rules of order govern the committee of the whole as govern the main body. 7. A motion to rise and report progress is in order at any stage of the business, and is to be decided without debate. When they have reported, they may be discharged on motion, which brings the matter laid before them directly before the association itself. COMMITMENT. 1. If it be desired to refer a resolution, address or other matter to a committee, it is done on motion. If to a special committee, the chair names the committee. Any member present may suggest one member on that committee, and if the main body do not object the chair will name him, since the silence of members in that case is equivalent to a direct appointment of that person by the association. But such a course is unusual, and generally improper. 2. Though the majority on a committee should be favorable to a measure, the minority may be of those who are opposed to it in some particulars. But those totally opposed to it should never be appointed ; and if any one of that view be named, he should rise and state the fact, when the main body will excuse him from serving. 3. If it be a written matter which is referred, the secretary- delivers it to the first named of the committee. 4. A committee meets when and where it pleases, unless the time and place is fixed for it. But it cannot act unless its members assemble together. 5. The committee cannot change the title or subject of the matter before it, but otherwise have full power over it. 6. If it be a written matter before it, if it originate with the committee, the writing must be considered paragraph by paragraph, and the question put on each. After each para- graph is approved or amended, it is then considered as a whole. If it has been referred, the committee only report the amendments they recommend separately ; as they have no right to amend a paper belonging to the main body. 7. When the committee is through, some member moves that it rise, and report the matter to the main body, with or without amendments, as the case may be. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. The chairman of the committee, standing in his place, in- forms the association that the committee to which was in- trusted such a matter, naming it, have directed him to report thereon, and moves that the report be received. The cry of “ Receive !” or “ Report 1 ” or “ Read it 1 ” from any one, generally dispenses with the formality of a question. He then reads the report, whatever it may be, and delivers the written report to the secretary. Then it lies on the table until called up by a motion. The committee is dissolved, and can act no more unless reconstituted for the purpose by a vote. MOTIONS. 1. A motion is a proposition by two members ; conse- quently, if not seconded, it is not to be entertained. This is different, however, in the case of an appeal, where the ques- tion may be put on the demand of one member. 2 . A motion must be put in writing, if any member desires | it, and read, when required for information. But if the de- ! mand for the reading be repeated, so as to show itself a mere pretext for delay, the association may order it to be read no more. 3. A motion for adjournment cannot be made while one member is speaking ; because it is a breach of order for one to speak when another has the floor, except to a point of order ; consequently, even a privileged motion cannot be entertained. And even on a call to order, decided against him, he must still be allowed to go on, provided he does not persist in the same violation of order in his remarks. AMENDMENTS. 1. An amendment takes the place of the question it is pro- posed to amend, and must be decided first. So an amend- ment to an amendment must be decided before the first amendment. 2. But amendments cannot be piled one on the other ; that is, while you can amend an amendment, you cannot amend the second amendment. 3. For example : it is moved to give the thanks of the asso- ciation for his kind gift of fifty volumes to the society. It is moved to amend by striking out the word “ kind ” and insert- ing “ generous.” This is an amendment, k is then moved to strike out the word “generous” and insert that of “lib- eral.” This is an amendment to the amendment. It is then proposed to strike out the word “ liberal,” and insert that of “ munificent.” This third amendment is out of order. 4. Nor can amendments be made to certain privileged ques- tions. Thus, an amendment to a motion to adjourn, for the previous question, a call of the house, or to lay on the table. 5. But an amendment, though inconsistent with one pre- viously adopted, is still in order. It is for the association alone to decide whether, by the passage of the second amend- ment, it will recede from its former action. 6. On an amendment being moved, a member who has spoken to the main question, may speak to the amendment. 7. If it be proposed to amend by leaving out certain words, it may be moved to amend the amendment by leaving out a part of the words of the amendment, which is equivalent to letting those words remain. 8. For example : the original words being “ Resolved that we have heard with feelings of lively satisfaction that the au- thorities of our town propose to tax dogs, and approve their action,” it is moved to amend by striking out the words “ with feelings of lively satisfaction.” If it be moved to amend the amendment, by striking out the words “ with feelings of sat- isfaction,” the question would be : Shall those words stand as part of the resolution? If carried, the word “lively” is struck out, and the rest remains. The question then recurs on the resolution as amended. 9. When it is proposed to amend by inserting a paragraph, or part of one, the friends of this should make it perfect by amendments ; because if it be inserted it cannot be amended, since it has been agreed to in that form. So if proposed to amend by striking out a paragraph, the friends of the para- graph should also make it as perfect, by amendments, as pos- sible ; for if the striking out be negatived, that is equivalent <64 THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. to agreeing to it in that form, and amendments are not ad- missible. io. When it is moved to amend by striking out certain words and inserting others, the manner of stating the question is, first to read the whole passage to be amended, as it stands at present ; then the words proposed to be struck out ; next those to be inserted ; and, lastly, the whole passage as it will be when amended. And the question, if desired, is then to be divided, and put first on striking out. If carried, it is next on inserting the words proposed. If that be lost, it may be moved to insert others. xi. A motion is made to amend by striking out certain words and inserting others in their place, which is negatived. Then it is moved to strike out the same words, and to insert others of a tenor entirely different from those first proposed, which is negatived. Then it is moved to strike out the same words and insert nothing, which is agreed to. All this is in order ; because to strike out A and insert B, is one proposition. To strike out A and insert C is another proposition. To strike out A and insert nothing, is another proposition. The rejection of either proposition does not preclude the offering of a new one. But a motion to strike out alone being voted down, is equivalent to voting that the words should stand, and amendments are not in order. Jefferson thinks that even if the question be divided, and taken first on the striking out, and ihat fails, amendments are in order, because the proposi- tion is only half put. There is force in this, and it seems to be the practice. 12. After the paragraph is amended, it nevertheless may be further amended by striking it entirely out. PRIVILEGED QUESTIONS. b “ When a question is under debate, no motion shall be received but to adjourn, to lay on the table, to postpone in- definitely, to postpone to a day certain, to commit, or to amend ; which several motions shall have precedence in the order they stand arranged ; and the motion to adjourn shall be always in order, and shall be decided without debate.” 2. These privileged questions shall not only be entertained while the main question is pending, but will be put before it. 3. A motion to adjourn takes precedence of all others, be- cause otherwise the body might be kept sitting against its will, and indefinitely. Yet even this question cannot be entertained after another question is actually put, and while members are voting upon it. 4. An order of the day — that is, a question which has pre- viously been set down to be argued or determined on that day — takes place of all questions except adjournment. If, for instance, a matter be set down for 7 o’clock, then at that hour, although anothe: question may be before the body, a motion to proceed to take up the order of the day must be received by the chair. 5. These privileged questions sometimes conflict with each other, but arc reconciled under known rules. 6. If the previous question be first moved, it is first put. This cuts off all the others. The society, having decided to take the question, must vote on it as it stands — postponement, Commitment, and amendment being out of order. 7. If postponement be carried, of course the question can- not be either committed, amended, nor the previous question be carried, for the subject is not before the body. 8. If committed, the same rules and reasons follow. 9. If amendment is first moved, the question on that must be determined before the previous question. 10. If amendment and postponement are proposed, the lat- ter is put first. The reason is, that the amendment is not suppressed, but comes up again in its order whenever the main question is again considered. 11. If a motion for amendment be followed by one for com mitment, the latter shall be put first. 12. The previous question cannot be put on the motion to postpone, commit, or amend the main question. 13. The motion for the previous question, or for commit- ment or amendment, cannot be postponed. 14. A motion made for reading papers relative to the ques- tion discussed must be put before the main question. ) 5. A motion made and seconded cannot be withdrawn with- out leave, though, if no member object, it is not necessary to put the question. 16. When different sums or dates are used in filling blanks, the question shall first be put on the largest sum and the long- est time. 17. In commitment, the motions to commit are privileged in the following order : I. Committee of the Whole ; 2. Stand- ing Committee ; 3. Special Committee. 18. A motion to lay on the table must be put before either postponement, commitment, or amendment, although neither of these last can be laid on the table. 19. A postponement can be amended as to time, and an amendment can be amended ; but if it be proposed to amend by inserting anything, a motion to amend or perfect the matter pro- posed to be inserted must be put to a vote before the question to insert. The same rule follows in regard to striking out. 20. A question of privilege, such as a quarrel between members, or affecting the character of members, or the main body, must be disposed of before the original question be disposed of. 21. Questions on leave to withdraw motions, or appeals from the decision of the chair, have a precedence over the main question. PREVIOUS QUESTION. 1. When any question is before the association, any mem- ber may move that the main question be put ; and this is termed moving the previous question. If the motion pass in the affirmative, the main question is put immediately, and no further debate is allowed upon the matter at issue. 2. This is frequently styled “ the gag law,” becuase its adoption cuts off all debate. When a subject in the judgment of the majority has been exhausted, or when personalities have been introduced, and disorders are threatened, it is a very proper and wise thing ; but it should not generally be brought to bear so long as members who desire to speak are unheard. DIVISION OF THE QUESTION. I. A question which contains more parts than one may be divided, on the demand of a member, provided the main body THE RULES OF DEBATE, AND HOW TO CONDUCT ONE. 465 concur. If the question contain parts which are evidently in- compatible, the presiding officer may divide them of his own will, unless the body deny him the power. 2. When a question is divided, after the question has been taken on the first member of it, the second member is still open to amendment and debate, unless the previous question be taken upon it. COEXISTING QUESTIONS. X. Occasionally there are two questions up at the same time — one primarily, and the other secondarily. Are both subject to debate ? 2. When it has been moved to commit a question, the main question is debatable under that motion ; but no amendment can be entertained, because the question of commitment will be first put. EQUIVALENT QUESTIONS. Where questions are equivalent, so that the rejection of one is the affirming the other, that necessarily determines the latter. Thus, a vote against striking out is virtually the same as a vote to agree ; a vote to reject is equivalent to a vote to adopt ; but, on a motion to strike out A and insert B being decided in the negative, this does not preclude the motion to strike out A and insert C, these being separate questions. THE QUESTION. 1. The question is first to be put on the affirmative, and then on the negative side. 2. After the question has been put, debate upon it is out of order ; but after the presiding officer has put the affirmative, any member who has not spoken before on the question may speak before the negative be put, for it is not a full question until the negative be put, 3. But on trifling matters, such as leave to bring in reports of committees, withdrawing motions, reading papers, and such like, the consent of the main body will be supposed without the formality of a question, unless some one should object, for the absence of an objection in such cases testifies to unani- mous consent. DIVISION. 1. The affirmative and negative voices having been heard upon a question, the presiding officer declares by the sound what is the result. If he have doubts as to the relative strength of the yeas and nays, or if any member demaads it, before other business has been gone into, then a division is ordered. 2. The mode of dividing is for those in the affirmative to rise, when the presiding officer counts those up, and announces the number. These sit, and those in the negative arise, to be counted in like manner. 3. One-fifth of the members present may call for the yeas and nays, each member’s name being called, and his answer entered by the secretary. In case of any disorder during a division or calling of the yeas and nays, the presiding officer decides the question of order ; and the decision is not the subject of appeal at this time, although it may be revised after the division or call is over. (See Rule XXXIII.) RECONSIDERATION. 1. A question which has been decided either in the affirma- tive or in the negative, may be reconsidered upon the motion of a member who has voted with the majority. But this motion for reconsideration will not be in order, unless made during the meeting whereat the question was decided. 2. The effect of the adoption of a motion to reconsider is to place the question in the position it occupied before the vote on its adoption or rejection was taken ; consequently it is as open to amendment, postponement, commitment, or laying on the table, as it was at that time. APPEALS. 1. An appeal from the decision of the chair is a matter of right, and brings under review and opens to debate the grounds of such decision. , 2. The presiding officer, by usage and courtesy, has the right to assign his reasons for his decision before the question is put on the appeal. 3. The question on an appeal is, whether the decision of the presiding officer shall stand as the judgment of the body itself. If a majority vote in the affirmative, the decision stands : if not, it is reversed. 4. An appeal cannot be put on an appeal ; that is, a second appeal cannot be entertained while the first remains undis- posed of. 5. A mere opinion of the chair, drawn out by an interroga- tion on points of order, is not subject to an appeal. To be appealed from, it must be an actual decision on a question coming up legitimately in the progress of business. PAPERS. 1. When papers have been laid before the main body, or referred to a committee, every member has a right to hear them once read at the secretary’s table, before he can be com- pelled to vote on them. 2. But he has not a right, therefore, to have papers read inde- pendently of the will of a majority of his colleagues. If the reading be demanded purely for information, and not for delay, and no one objects, the chairman will direct it to be done, without putting it to the question. But should any one object, the question must be put. 3. Nor can any member have a right, without a question first put, to have any thing read, which is not before the body. 4. Nor can a member have a right to read a paper, in his place, not even his own speech, if it be objected to, without the leave of the body. But this rule is not usually enforced, unless there be a gross or intentional abuse of the time and patience of the body. COMMUNICATIONS. When a communication addressed to the main body is pre- sented, the question is to be put whether it shall be received. But a general cry of “ Receive ! ” or, even if there be no objection, the silence of the body, is sufficient to dispense with the formality of the question. In that case, or in case the vote on its reception be in the affirmative, it is to be read, unless otherwise disposed of. 8. (Large.) 19. 20. (Very Large.) 21. The intermediate numbers, 3, 5, 7, &c., denote something between the two denominations, and have been found useful. In practice, the general size of the head is measured, in several directions, with calliper compasses. Twenty males, from 25 to 50 years of age, measured, from the occipital spine (the bony knot over the hollow of the neck) to the point over the nose between the eyebrows, on an average, 7i inches; some of them being as high as 8 i, and others as low as 6J. From the occipital spine to the hollow of the ear, the average was 4I, some being as high as 5, others as low as 3^. F rom the hollow of the ear to the point between the eyebrows, as above, average nearly 5; some being 5^, others 4 J. From the same hollow of the ear to the top of the head, about an inch behind the center (the organ of Firmness), the average was 5$s ; some being 6£, others 5^. Across the head, from a little below the tops of the ears (from Destructiveness to Destructiveness), the average was 5 ft, ; some being 6£, others 5^. The averages are in these twenty individuals higher than those of the natives of Britain generally, some of them being large, and none small. Phrenologists further distinguish between power and activity in the organs of the brain. Power, in whatever degree pos- sessed, is capability of feeling, perceiving, or thinking ; while activity is the exercise of power, or the putting into action the organ with more or less intensity. The powers of mind, as manifested by the organs, are called faculties. A faculty may be defined to be a particular power of thinking or feeling. A faculty has seven character- istics, in order to our concluding it primitive and distinct in the mind, namely, I. When it exists in one kind of animal and not in another ; 2. When it varies in the two sexes of the same species ; 3. When it is not in proportion to the other faculties of the same individual ; 4. When it appears earlier or later in life than the other faculties ; 5. When it may act or repose singly; 6. When it is propagated from parent to child; and, 7. When it may singly preserve health, or singly manifest disease. Division or Classification of the Faculties. — The facul- ties have been divided by Gall and Spurzheim into two great orders — Feeling and Intellect, or Affective and Intel- lectual Faculties. The Feelings are divided into two genera — the Propensities and the Sentiments. By a propensity is meant an internal impulse, which incites to a certain action and no more ; by a sentiment, a feeling which, although it has inclination, has also an emotion superadded. The second order of faculties, the Intellectual, also suffers division into the Perceptive or Knowing, and the Reflective Faculties. The Perceptive Faculties are again divided into three genera — 1st, the External Senses and Voluntary Motion ; 2d, the Internal powers which perceive existence , or make man and animals acquainted with external objects and their physi- cal qualities ; and, 3d, the powers which perceive the relations of external objects. The fourth genus comprises the Reflective Faculties, which act on all the other powers ; in other words, compare, discriminate, and judge. The following is a table of the names of the organs synop tically given : — AFFECTIVE. I.— Propensities. 1. Amativeness. 2. Philoprogenitiveness. 3. Inhabitiveness and Concentra- tiveness. 4. Adhesiveness. 5. Combativeness. 6. Destructiveness. [Alimentiveness.] [Love of Life.] 7. Secretiveness. 8. Acquisitiveness. 9. Coostructlveness. II.— Sentiments. 10. Self-Esteem. 11. Love of Approbation. 12. Cautiousness. 13. Benevolence. 14. Veneration. 15. Firmness. 16. Conscientiousness. 17. Hope. 18. Wonder. 19. Ideality 20. Wit, or Ludicrousnesc. 21. Imitation. PHRENOLOGY. 473 INTELLECTUAL. I.— Perceptive. 22. Individuality. 23. Form. 24. Size. 25. Weight. 26. Coloring. 27. Locality. 28. Number. 20. Order. 30. Eventuality. 31. Time. 32. Tune. 33. Language. II. — Reflective. 34. Comparison. 35. Causality. ORDER FIRST.— FEELINGS. GENUS I.— PROPENSITIES. The propensities are common to man and the lower animals ; they neither perceive nor reason, but only feel. N 0. 1. — Amativeness.— This organ is situated immediately over the nape of the neck, and fills up the space between the ears behind, or rather between the mastoid processes, or pro- jecting bones behind the ears. It generally forms a projection in that part, and gives a thickness to the neck when it is large, and a spareness when small. As the basis of the domestic affections, it is one of great importance, and its regulation has ever been one of the prime objects of moral systems, laws, and institutions. No. 2. — Philoprogenitiveness. — This, in man as well as animals, is the feeling of the love of his offspring. It depends on no other faculty, as reason or benevolence ; it is primitive ; and in the mother, who, for wise reasons, is gifted with it most strongly, its object, the infant, instantly rouses it to a high state of excitement. It is situated in the middle of the back of the head, and when large projects like a portion of an ostrich egg. The organ is one of the easiest to distinguish in the human head. Those who are flat and perpendicular there, instead of being delighted are annoyed by children. It is generally smaller in males than in females, though sometimes found larger ; and men so organized delight to carry about and nurse children. The feeling gives a tender sympathy gener- ally with weakness and helplessness ; and we find it often returned by the young themselves to the old and feeble. It is essential to a soft kind attendant on the sick, to a nurse or nursery-maid, and to a teacher of youth. It induces women to make pets of small and gentle animals, when tyrant circum- stances have kept them single, and denied them offspring of their own. Its feelings are, by a kind Providence, rendered so delightful, that they are extremely apt to be carried the length of excess ; and spoiling and pampering children into vicious selfishness is the ruinous consequence. No. 3. — Inhabitiveness — Concentrativeness. — The organ is situated immediately above the preceding. The pur- pose of a faculty which prompts men to settle instead of roam- ing, which latter habit is inconsistent with agriculture, com- merce, and civilization, is obvious ; nostalgia, or home-sick- ness, is the disease of the feeling. No. 4 . — Adhesiveness. — This organ is at the middle of the posterior edge of the parietal bone. It attaches men, and even animals, to each other, and is the foundation of that pleasure which we feel, not only in bestowing but receiving friendship. It is the faculty which prompts the embrace and the shake of the hand, and gives the joy of being reunited to friends. Acting in conjunction with Amativeness, it gives constancy and duration to the attachments of the married. Amativeness alone will not be found sufficient for this. Hence the frequent misery of sudden love marriages, as they are called, founded on that single impulse. The feeling attaches many persons to pets, such as birds, dogs, rabbits, horses, and other animals, especially when combined with Philoprogeni- tiveness. With this combination, the girl lavishes caresses on her doll and on her little companions. No. 5. — Combativeness. — The organ of this propensity is situated behind, and a little upward from, the ear ; anatomi- cally, at the posterior-inferior angle of the parietal bone. A small endowment of this faculty manifests itself in that over- gentle and indolent character, which is easily aggressed upon, easily repelled by the appearance of difficulty and trouble, and which naturally seeks the shades and eddy-comers of life Nations so organized — the Hindoos, for example — are easily conquered by others, under whom they naturally sink into a condition more or less of servitude. A large endowment, on the other hand, shows itself in a love of danger for its own sake, a delight in adventurous military life, and a tendency to bluster, controversy, and turmoils of all kinds. Persons with large combativeness may be readily recognized in private society by their disposition to contradict and wrangle. They challenge the clearest propositions, and take a pleasure in doubting where everybody else is convinced. The generality of boys manifest an active combativeness in their adventurous spirit, hence their disposition to fighting, and to the working of all kinds of petty mischief. To control and guide the propen- sity is one of the most delicate, but almost most important, duties of the educator. When combativeness is deranged, we have a violent and noisy, and often a dangerous patient. Intoxication generally affords a great stimulus to it, hence, drunken quarrels and fightings. No. 6 .— Destructiveness. — This organ is situated on both sides of the head, immediately over the external opening of the ear, extending a little forward and backward from it, and rising a trifle above the top or upper flap of the ear. It cor- responds to the lower portion of the squamous plate of the temporal bone. When the organ is large, the opening of the ear is depressed. It is still generally considered as giving the impulse to kill and destroy ; but, in man, this propensity is shown to have, under the control of the higher sentiments and intellect, a legitimate sphere of exercise. It prompts beasts and birds of prey to keep down the redundant breeds of the lower animals, and enables man to “ kill ” that he may “ eat.” Anger, resentment, and indignation, in all their shapes, likewise spring from this faculty. A small endowment of this faculty is one of the elements of a “ soft ” character. Persons so organized seem to want that which gives momentum to human operations, like an axe want- ing in back weight. Alimentiveness, or Appetite for Food. — Alimentive- ness is the desire of, or appetite for, food. In this feeling, as such, the stomach is not concerned ; its functions are strictly confined to the reception and digestion of our food. Alimentiveness, from its near neighborhood to Destructive- ness, seems to have a peculiar influence on that faculty, rousing it to great energy when its own enjoyments are endangered or interrupted. PHRENOLOGY. | Love of Life. — The self-preservation involved in the love ©! life is certainly not accounted for by any known organ or combination of organs. Cautiousness is fear of injury, fear ©{ death ; but it is not love of life. This feeling is powerfully manifested by some when their life is in no danger, but who Lok upon the close of life as a very great evil. ] No. 7 * — Secretiveness. — The order of this faculty will be observed to be situated immediately above that of Destructive- nsss, at the inferior edge of the parietal bone, or in the middle of the side of the brain. The legitimate use of the faculty is tc exercise that control over the outward manifestation of the other faculties which is necessary to a prudent reserve. Without it, and of course, in those in whom the organ is small and the manifestation weak, the feelings express themselves too openly. No. 8. — Acquisitiveness. — The organ of this faculty is situated farther forward than, and a little above, Secretiveness, at the anterior-inferior angle of the parietal bone. The faculty of Acquisitiveness could not, and no faculty could, be given to man by his Creator for a mean, groveling, and immoral use ; accordingly, when we consider it aright, we recognize in it the dignity of the greatest utility. In a word, it is the faculty through whose impulse man accumulates capital, and nations are rendered rich, great, and powerful. Without the faculty, man would be content to satisfy his daily wants, although even in this he would fail ; but the surplus which, under the impulse of this faculty, he contributes to the store of wealth which accumulates from generation to generation, would not exist. Under proper regulation, then, the faculty is of the greatest value to man ; by means of it he “ gathers up the fragments, that nothing may be lost.” Excessive pur- suit of wealth is, however, an abuse of the faculty, and too much the vice of civilization, when it advances, as it has hitherto done, without adequate moral improvement. No. 9.- — Constructiveness. — The situation of this organ is immediately behind the temples, in the frontal bone, above the spheno-temporal suture. The faculty of which this organ te the instrument, is the power of mechanically making, con- fltHK&ng, and fashioning, by changing the forms of matter. fttntOtfci the inferior animals possess it, as the bee, the beaver, tad insects. Some savages have it in such small en- as never to have built huts or made clothes, or 9 VGD the simplest instruments for catching fish. In all opera- ttewbo excel in their arts — engravers, joiners, tailors, &c. — •nd in children who early manifest a turn for drawing figures, catting them out in paper, the organ is large. GENUS II.— SENTIMENTS. I. SENTIMENTS COMMON TO MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS. ( -No. IO. — Self-Esteem. — The situation of this organ is at the top of the back of the head, at the center ; forming, as it were, the curve or turn between the back and top of the head, Technically, it is a little above the posterior or sagittal angle of the parietal bones. When it is large, the head rises far up- ward and backward from the ear, in the direction of the or- gan. The legitimate use of the faculty of Self-Esteem, or Seii-Love, is that degree of self-complacency which enhances the pleasures of life, and which gives the individual confidence in his own powers, and leads him to apply them to the best advantage. It is sometimes called proper pride, or self-respect, in which form it aids the moral sentiments in resisting tempta- tions to vice and self-degradation ; this is called being above doing a criminal, a vicious, or a mean action. Its deficiency renders an individual too humble, and the world take him at his word, and push him aside. In large and uncontrolled en- dowment, it produces great abuses, and causes much annoyance and often misery to others. It is the quarreling, insulting, domineering, tyrannizing, dueling faculty. In children it is pettishness, forwardness, and self-will, and produces disobedi- ence. In adults, it gives arrogance, superciliousness and sel- fishness. No. II. — Love of Approbation. — This organ is situated on each side close to Self-Esteem, and commences about half an inch from the lambdoidal suture. It gives, when large, a marked fullness to the upper part of the back of the head. The faculty, unless kept in subordination by a very large and vigilant Conscientiousness, prompts to all the conventional insincerities and flatteries of society, from the dread that the truth will offend Self-Esteem, and draw down on the teller of it disapprobation. When Secretiveness is large and Conscien- tiousness small, Love of Approbation is profuse in the tn- meaning compliments of society. No. 12. — Cautiousness. — The organ of this faculty is situat- ed about the middle of the parietal bone on both sides. It has been said that fear is the fundamental feeling of this faculty. It is an important element in prudence, which places the individual on his guard and warns him nottobe rash in his moral as well as his physical movements. In general, the organ is large in children — a wise and beneficent provision for their protection. The organ is often diseased, and then pro- duces causeless dread of evil, despondency, and often suicide. ii. SUPERIOR SENTIMENTS PROPER TO MAN. No. 13. — Benevolence. — The organ of this sentiment is situ- ated at the upper part of the frontal bone, immediately before the fontanel, in the middle of the top of the forehead, where it turns to form part of the top of the head, or coronal surface. It is easily distinguished ; and when large, gives a round elevated swell to that region. When the organ is small the forehead or top-front is low, flat, and retreating. The faculty of Benevolence gives more than compassion for, and a desire to relieve, suffering ; it gives a wish that others should be positively happy ; prompts to active, laborious, and continued exertions ; and, unless Acquisitiveness be very large and powerful, to liberal giving to promote its favorite object. It differs essentially in its charity, “which sufferethlong and is kind,” “and vaunteth not itself,” from that which springs from Love of Approbation. No. 14. — Veneration. — The organ of this faculty occupies the center of the coronal region just at the fontanel — the cen- ter of the top of the head. The function of the faculty is the sentiment of veneration, or deference in general for superior- ity, for greatness, and goodness. Its highest object is the Deity. It is remarkable in how many instances the painters PHRENOLOGY. 475 of sacred subjects have given large development of this organ in the heads of their apostles and saints — no doubt, because the pious individuals whom they would naturally select as studies for such characters, possessed the organ large. Vener- ation has no special object ; it finds appropriate exercise with regard to whatever is deemed superior. Without this sentiment to make man look up to man, a people would be like a rope of sand, and society could not exist. No. 15. — Firmness. — The organ of this faculty occupies the top of the head, behind Veneration, in the middle line. It is a faculty of peculiar character. It gives fortitude, con- stancy, perseverance, and determination ; and when too pow- erful, it produces obstinacy, stubbornness, and infatuation. With Self-Esteem, it renders the individual absolutely im- practicable. The want of it is a great defect in character ; it is unsteadiness of purpose. No. 16. — Conscientiousness. — The organ of this senti- ment is situated on each side of the organ of Firmness, between the latter organ and that of Cautiousness. Conscientiousness gives the emotion of justice, but intellect is necessary to show on which side justice lies. The judge must hear both sides before deciding, and his very wish to be just will prompt him to do so. This faculty regulates all the other faculties by its rigid rules. Conscientiousness not only curbs our faculties when too powerful, but stimulates those that are too weak, and prompts us to duty even against strong inclinations. To cultivate it in children is most important. No. 17. — Hope. — The organ of this faculty has its place on each side of Veneration, partly under the frontal, and partly under the parietal bone. When not regulated by the intellect, Hope leads to rash speculation, and, in combination with Acquisitiveness, to gambling, both at the gaming-table and in the counting-house. It tends to render the individual credulous, and often indolent. In religion, hope leads to faith, and strongly disposes to a belief in a happy life to come. No. 18. — Wonder. — The organ of this faculty is situated on each side of that of Benevolence, with one other organ, that of Imitation, interposed. Technically, it has its place in the lateral parts of the anterior region of the vertex. Persons with the faculty powerfully developed are fond of news, especially if striking and wonderful, and are always ex- pressing astonishment ; their reading is much in the regions of the marvelous, tales of wonder, of enchanters, ghosts, and witches. No. 19. — Ideality. — The organ of this faculty is situated farther down, but close to that of Wonder, along the temporal ridge of the frontal bone. The faculty delights in the perfect, the exquisite, the beau- ideal — something beyond the scenes of reality — something in the regions of romance and fancy — of the beautiful and the sublime. Those writers and speakers who possess it large, adorn all they say or write with its vivid inspirations. It is the organ of imagery. The faculty renders conversation ele- vated, animated, and eloquent, the opposite of dry and dull. No. 20. — Wit, or the Ludicrous. — The organ of this faculty is situated before, and a little lower than that of Ideal- ity. When large, it gives a breadth to the upper region of the forehead. No. 21. — Imitation. — This organ is situated on each side of that of Benevolence. The Imitative arts depend on this faculty ; and its organ is found large, accordingly, in painters and sculptors of eminence. ORDER SECOND.— INTELLECTUAL FACUL- TIES. By these faculties man and animals perceive or gain knowl- edge of the external world, and likewise of their own mental operations. The object of the faculties is to know what ex- ists, and to perceive qualities and relations. Dr. Spurzheim divided them into three genera : — 1. The External Senses ; 2. The Internal Senses, or Perceptive Faculties, which procure knowledge of external objects, their physical qualities and re- lations ; 3. The Reflecting Faculties. Genus I. — External Senses. — By these, man and the inferior animals are brought into communication with the ex- ternal material world. The Senses, as generally received, are five in number — Touch, Taste, Smell, Heating , and Sight. There are certainly two more, namely, the sense of Hunger and Thirst, and the Muscular sense, or that by which we feel the state of our muscles as acted upon by gravitation and the resistance of matter. Without this last sense we could not keep our balance, or suit our movements to the laws of the mechanical world. Genus II. — Intellectual Faculties, which Procure Knowledge of External Objects, of their Physical Qualities, and Various Relations. — These faculties corre- spond in some degree with the perceptive powers of the meta- physicians, and form ideas. No. 22. — Individuality. — The organ of this faculty is situ- ated in the middle of the lower part of the forehead, imme- diately above the top of the nose. It takes cognizance of individual existences — of a horse for example. As Individu- ality merely observes existences without regard to their modes of action, it is the faculty of the naturalist. Those who possess it large and active, observe the minutest objects ; nothing escapes them, and they remember even the minutest objects so well, that they will miss them when taken away. On the contrary, those who have it small, observe nothing, and give the most imperfect account of the objects which have been in their way. No. 23. — Form. — This organ is situated on each side of, and close to the crista galli, and occupies the space between the eyes. In those who have it large, the eyes are wide asunder and vice versa. As every material object must have a form, regular or irregular, this faculty was given to man and animals to perceive forms, and they could not exist without it. When large, it constitutes an essential element in a talent for drawing, but requires Size and Constructiveness to perfect the talent. No. 24. — Size. — Every object has a size or dimension. Hence a faculty is necessary to cognize this quality. The or- gan is situated at the inner extremities of the eyebrows, where they turn upon the nose. A perception of Size is important to our movements and actions, and essential to our safety. There is no accuracy in drawing or perspective without this organ. 47® PHRENOLOGY. No. 25. — Welgfat. — Weight is a quality of matter quite dis- tinct from all its other qualities. The weight of any material object is only another name for its degree of gravitating ten- dency — its attractability to the earth. A power to perceive the different degrees of this attraction is essential to man’s move- ments, safety, and even existence. There must be a faculty for that perception, and that faculty must have a cerebral instru- ment or organ. Phrenologists have generally localized that organ in the superorbital ridge or eyebrow, immediately next to Size, and farther from the top of the nose. No. 26. — Coloring.— -As every object must have a color in order to be visible, it seems necessary that there should be a faculty to cognize this quality. The organ is the next outward from Weight in the eyebrows, occupying the precise center of each eyebrow. No. 27. — Locality. — Objects themselves are cognized by In- dividuality; but their place, the direction where they lie, the way to them depend on another faculty, a faculty given for that purpose. Without such a power, men and animals must, in situations where objects were numerous, and complicated in their positions, as woods, have lost their way. No man could find hit own home, no bird its own nest, no mouse its own hole. The faculty, when active, prompts the individual to localize everything, and think of it as in its place. One glance at a paragraph or advertisement in a newspaper fixes its place in their minds, so that they will turn overt he largest and most voluminous newspaper, and know in what column, and partof a column, they will find it ; or direct others to do so. A per- son with the faculty powerful, will go in the dark to find what he wants, and will find it if in its place. Skillful chess-players invariably have the organ of Locality large, and it is believed that it is the organ of which they make the principal use ; for it gives the power of conceiving, before making a move, the effect of new relative positions of the pieces. No. 28. — Number. — The organ of this faculty is placed at the outer extremity of the eyebrows and angle of the eye. It occasions, when large, a fullness or breadth of the temple, and often draws downward the external corner of the eye. When it is small, the part is flat and narrow between the eye and the temple. Their number is a very important relation or con- dition of things, and requires a distinct perspective power. Our safety, and even existence, may depend on a clear percep- tion of Number. No. 29. — Order. — The organ of this faculty is placed in the eyebrow, between Coloring and Number, and is large and prominent, and often pointed like a limpet-shell, in those who are remarkable for love of method, arrangement, and symme- try, and are annoyed by confusion and irregularity. The marked love of order in some persons, and their suffering from disorder, are feelings which no other faculty, or combination of faculties, seems to embrace. N o. 30. — Eventuality. — The organ of this faculty is situated in the very center of the forehead, and when large, gives to this part of the head a rounded prominence. Individuality has been called the faculty of nouns: Eventuality is the faculty of verbs. The first perceives mere existence ; the other motion, change, event, history. All knowledge must be of one or the other of these two descriptions — either things that are or things that happen. In the following examples — the MAW speaks, the WIND blows , the DAY dawns, the nouns cognized by Individuality are printed in capitals, while the verbs, addressed to Eventuality, are in italics. No. 31. — Time. — Whatever be the essence of time as an en- tity, it is a reality to man, cognizable by a faculty by which he observes its lapse. Some persons are called walking time- pieces ; they can tell the hour without looking at a watch ; and some even can do so, nearly, when waking in the night. The faculty also marks the minute divisions of duration, and their relations and harmonies, which are called time in music, and rhythm in versification. No. 32. — Tune. — The organ of this faculty is situated still further out than that of Time, giving roundness to the point where the forehead turns to form the temples. It is large in great musicians ; and when small and hollow, there is an uttei incapacity to distinguish either melody or harmony. No. 33. — Language. — A faculty is given to man and ani mals which connects feelings with signs and cries ; but to mat alone is given articulate speech. The comparative facility with which different men clothe their thoughts in words, depends on the size of this organ, which is situated in the super-orbital plate, immediately over the eyeball, and when large, pushes the eye outward, and sometimes downward, producing, in the latter case, a wrinkling or pursing of the lower eyelid. There is no fluent speaker deficient in this organ. Internal Excitement of the Knowing Organs — Spec- tral Illusions. — The Knowing Organs are for the most part called into activity by external objects, such as forms, colors, sounds, individual things, &c.; but internal causes often excite them, and when they are in action objects will be perceived which have no external existence, and which, nevertheless, the indi- vidual will believe to be real. This is the explanation of visions, specters and ghosts, and at once explains the firm be- lief of many that they have appeared to them, and the fact that it never happens that two persons see the same specters at the same time. GENUS III. -REFLECTIVE FACULTIES. The Intellectual Faculties already considered, give us knowledge of objects, and the qualities and relations of ob- jects, also of the changes they undergo, or events. No. 34.- — Comparison. — Every faculty can compare its own objects. Coloring can compare colors ; Weight, weights ; Form, forms ; Tune, sounds ; but Comparison can compare a color with a note, or a form with a weight, &c. Analogy is a comparison not of things but of their relations. No. 35. — Causality. — This is the highest and noblest of the intellectual powers, and is the last in the phrenological analysis of the faculties. Dr. Spurzheim so named it, from observing that it traces the connection between cause and effect, and sees the re- lation of ideas to each other in respect of necessary consequence. Its organs are situated on each side of Comparison. With a powerful perception of causation , the individual reasons from cause to effect by logical or necessary consequence. It is the fac- ulty which sees principles and acts upon them, while the other two faculties only try experiments. Resource in difficulties, and sound judgment in life, are the result of powerful Causality. KNOTS AND SPLICES. 477 HE mode of forming ropes and cables is shown in ) Fig. i. A number of fibers, a, are spun right- handed (with the sun, or from left to right) into the yarn, b. A number of yarns, varying according to the size and quality of the strand required (ropes made of small fine yarn are the strongest and best), are then twist- ed, /c/V-handed, into the strand ', c. Three strands laid together, right- handed, form the rope, d. (At e is the vacant space caused by the strand c being “ unlaid ” to show its structure.) This three-strand right-handed rope is the rope used for general purposes and for the “ running rigging” of ships. For “ standing rigging ’’ — shrouds and stays — it is customary to use right-handed rope composed of four strands laid round a fifth smaller strand, called the heart, which passes straight up the middle. Left-handed rope is sometimes met with, but not often. Ropes are built up in this way for the sake of getting the twist right and left alter- nately, which is the only way of preventing them from untwisting under strain. Without the twist the fibers would fall to pieces. Three ropes like d, laid together left-handed, form the cable, /, the largest kind of rope. All left- handed rope is called cable-laid ; but, strictly speak- ing, only nine-stranded rope like f should be so called. Formerly, ordinary right-handed rope was called hawser-laid, but that term is obsolete or has come to mean the same as “ cable-laid.” There are many kinds of cord, such as window- sash lines, &c., which are not “laid,” but “plaited,” and are therefore in no sense rope. These cannot be spliced or made into the more complicated knots. Miniature rope, called humber-line, is about the smallest genuine laid rope, and is good for practic- ing knots upon. The smallest rope so called by sailors is inch-rope, i. e., i in. in circumference, nol diameter. Rope exposed to the wet should be made of yarns soaked in tar. This makes the neat- est knots and splices, the fibers sticking together better, but it makes the fingers in a sad mess. Un- tarred rope is nearly as good for practicing on. 478 KNOTS AND SPLICES String is composed of two or three yarns laid either way. Spun-yarn is a kind of soft string, made by twist- ing, right-handed, two or three yarns from old rope. Worming is filling up the channels between the strands of a rope, either to improve its appearance or to fit it for serving or parcelling (a, Fig. 2). Parcelling is covering the rope with strips of old canvas soaked in tar to keep out the wet. Follow the “ lay ” of the strands from left to right (d, Fig. 2), then cover over or serve the parcelling with Fig. 3. Fig 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 10. spun-yam (l, Fig. 2), going against the lay, or from right to left. “Service” is also put on without parcelling, over a plain rope or over worming. Marling is used instead of service to keep parcel- ling in its place. It is a kind of “ chain-stitch ” as known to ladies ( c , Fig. 2). Work it towards you. Any bend or loop in a rope is called a bight, as a or b in Fig. 3. The standing part is that which is not bent about in forming the knot ; the base, in fact, upon which the end — the part being manipu- lated — is worked. If you seize one of the bends of a coil of rope, and draw it out without finding the ends, you have hold of the “ bight ” of it. The plain Overhand Knot (Fig. 4) is the simplest of all. It is made at the end of a rope, to prevent it passing through a hole (as in sewing) or to prevent the strands from separating too far. The Figure of Eight Knot (Fig. 5) is better than the overhand, as it does not “ jam ” under strain and is easy to undo. The Boat Knot or Marlingspike Hitch (Fig. 5) is simply an overhand knot with the end held by a piece of wood instead of being taken through tha bight. On withdrawing this the knot falls to pieces. The Bowline is the best of all knots. It forms a loop which neither jams nor slips, and is easy to undo. Two ropes may be joined by a bowline at the end of each. It may be thrown over or made fast round a post, it forms a sling for a cask, and fifty other things. Having formed a bight as in Fig. 7, hold the crossing b in the right finger and thumb; with the left hand take the bight at a, and draw it over the end as in Fig. 8: being twisted by this operation, it tends to take the shape shown in Fig. 9; let it do so, but still keep the crossing in order be- tween the finger and thumb ; now draw out the end a little, and work it in as in Fig. 10; adjust the loop to the size required, and pull it tight. A Running Bowline is begun as in Fig. ix. tak- ing e as the crossing and d as the bight described above. Fig. 12 shows it finished, — the best slip- knot known, free from any risk of jamming. One merit of the bowline is that it can be made on a rope with one end fixed and out of reach ; but it can even be made in the middle of a rope when there is no time to look for the ends. This is a bowline on a bight. When a sailor hears the cry, “ Man overboard ! ” he seizes a bight in the first coil of rope he meets with, forms a bowline on it, and throws it to the drowning man in less time than it takes to describe it, because he is not detained Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. looking for the end. Figs. 13 and 14, correspond- ing to 7 and 9, show that it is commenced as a com- mon bowline, only with a double instead of a single KNOTS AND SPLICES, 473 rope ; but instead of treating the looped end, e , like the end in Fig. io, open it out and pass it round or behind the whole thing (see the dotted lines); then draw tight again, as in Fig. 15. A Bowline with Four Bights is made with two double ropes. It has four large loops, instead of the two in Fig. 15, and may be used, for instance, to support the different parts of a man’s body while being drawn out of the water insensible. Figs. 16 and 17 show two ways of slinging a cask, &c., in the loop of a single bowline. In Fig. 17 the rope must be arranged before the bowline is made. Fig. 18 is a simple running knot, but inferior to the bowline. It is often used for tying up parcels, when an overhand knot at a is made to prevent the end slipping through. The Hangman’s Knot is useful for the same Pig. 18. Fig. 20. Fig. 19. Fig. 21. and other purposes and does not jam so much, besides being more ornamental. Form bights as in Fig. 19; work the end round and round, as many times as you like, towards the loop a, Fig. 20; pass it through a j pull b so as to nip the end tightly in a (Fig. 21). When made with care this is a pretty knot. A rope may be secured to a post or spar by a bow- line, as to the cask in Fig. 16, or by The Clove Hitch or Builder’s Knot, Figs. 22 Fig. 93. and 23, which holds very tight, especially if the end is “ seized ” or “ stoppered ” down with spun-vam, or secured to the standing part by a “ half-hitch,” as at a in the latter figure. You can form this knot either by twisting the end of the rope round t 3 post, in the manner shown in Fig. 23, or by formr » a double loop as in Fig. 22, and passing the post c r spar through the opening a , and then drawing tigh .. In either case the result is the same. The Timber Hitch (Fig 24) holds tight while the strain is on, but not otherwise. It is useful in a hurry, and easily made. The Rolling Hitch (Fig. 25) holds so securely that a weight may be suspended by it from a per- pendicular pole, or the pole may be slung by it in the same position. At a it is shown drawn tight. In Fig. 26 an extra turn is taken, which adds to the Fig. 24. strength. There is also another more complicated form of the rolling hitch. In all these figures the knot is drawn loose to show the structure. The Cat’s-paw (Fig. 27) is used for hitching th bight or any part of a rope to a hook, &c. Fonr two bights, twist them in opposite directions, aiY. pass the hook through the loops. A weight maj now be hung to either part of the rope. There arei several cat’s paws, but this is the commonest. Fig. $8. Fig. 29. The Sheepshank or Dogshank (Fig. 28) ex- plains itself. It is used for shortening ropes when 480 KNOTS AND SPLICES. A is undesirable to cut them to the length required. It comes apart again when the strain is removed. A Blackwall Hitch (Fig. 29), simple as it is, is a safe way of hanging a weight from a hook. The greater the weight the tighter the end is jammed against the hook, though there is no knot in it. The neatest join for two ropes is the Reef Knot, or Right or True knot. Twist the ends as in Fig. 30, then make an overhand knot as in Fig. 31. If the latter is twisted in the right direction, the ends will lie close as in Fig. 32; if not, they will stick out sideways. When this happens the knot is useless, and is called a “ granny knot,” or false knot. Neat as the true reef knot is, it is only suited for small ropes with no great strain on them : under much strain it jams and is difficult to undo. To Yl M e| a Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34. Fig. 33. join large ropes, hold one in the left hand as at a in Fig- 331 then work the other through in the direc- tion of the arrow. This is the Common or Sheet Bend, or Weaver’s Knot. The reef knot is that used to join the ends of each pair of “ reef points ” in reefing a sail. Of course joining the two ends of a rope together is the same as joining two separate ropes. The weaver’s knot is easy to undo, especi- ally if made as in Fig. 34. Fig. 35 is a Carrick Bend, for joining two cables for towing ships, &c. ; but a bowline bend is more general. A permanent junction between two ropes should Fig. 36. Fig. 37. always be made by splicing. Fig. 36 shows the com- mencement of a Short SPLrCE. — Open out or unlay the strands, and “ crutch ” or inter-lock the ends (tightly, not loosely as in the drawing); take any strand, a, pass it over the opposing strand next before it, f, and stick it in between that and the next, e (which must be lifted up by a pointed piece of wood or iron called a marlingspihe). Pass it under e and up be- tween e and d. Treat all six strands in a similar manner. If great strength is required, pass them all a second time. When the ends reappear, untwist each into yams ; cut out half of each yarn ; twist up the yams again ; then pass the six reduced strands once more, and cut off the ends. This is to taper the splice , to make it more sightly (Fig. 37.) If the description seems obscure, try it as you read: the principle is to embed or burrow each strand of a into the substance of B and vice versa. Splicing large ropes is very hard work. An Eye Splice (Fig. 38) is easily made by any one who has mastered the short splice, the difference being that you have only the strands of one rope to work in amongst the strands of its own “ standing part.” Both these splices should be parcelled and served if exposed to wet. Fig. 39. Fig. 38. Fig. 40. The Long Splice is stronger and more elegant than the short splice, and must be used if the rope has to run through pulleys, &c., as it does not in- crease its thickness. Unlay a much greater length of each rope than is shown in Fig. 36 ; inter-lock or “crutch” the strands as before. Now untwist a still further — for several whole turns along its own rope a, which will then consist, so to speak, of two strands and a vacancy. Into the vacant space left by the removal of a lay the corresponding strand f t of the opposite rope (Fig. 36); twist / tighter as you lay it in A, for part of its length is now com- posed of two strands of its own, b and c, and one of its neighbor’s, f. At the point where the untwist- ing of a ceases — and where, of course, the laying in of f ceases also — join a and f; cut off all but a few inches of each; untwist them, and cut off about one- fourth of the yams from each. Tie the reduced KNOTS AND SPLICES. 4*1 strands with an overhand knot (as in Fig. 39), which must be coaxed into the vacant place as neatly as possible; beyond the knot reduce a and f by another fourth; pass the end of a over f and the end of f over a , and each under the two next strands (Fig. 40): when you have well stretched the rope, cut off the ends where they appear. Sometimes the two are reduced by half before knotting; sometimes the extreme end is reduced to a fourth, and “ stuck ” once more. In the same way work one of a’s strands — say b — into the rope b , untwisting d to make room for it, and joining them like a and /. You will now have e and c to dispose of. Reduce them, and tie their ends together like the others, but at the original point of junction, without laying them into either rope: your three pair of strands will now be united at three different points in the rope, some distance apart, and there will be no material increase of thickness. A Grommet — (see engraving in the article on Sailing) — is a rope ring made by unlaying one strand from a rope. Form a bight of the required size at one end, and work the loose end twice round it, fol- lowing the natural crevices of the strand. You will now have a solid three-strand rope in the form of a ring, and a pair of ends to join. Join them by anj overhand knot, first tapering them, and “ stick ” the ends just as in a long splice. Sailors have many ornamental knots for finishing the ends of ropes, to prevent the strands from sep- arating: amongst the others are the Matthew Walker, the Single Wall, the Single Wall Crowned, the Double Wall, the Double Wall Double Crowned, the Single Diamond, the Double Diamond, the Stopper Knot, and others, which space does not admit of our de- scribing. All the knots and splices in common use we have given, and the reader may be sure that few pieces of stray information repay the trouble of learning — and practicing — better than 3 knowledge of the Art of Cordage. 48a A FULL RIGGED SHIP. A The foremast B Foretopmast C Foretop-gallantmast D Foretop-gallant-yard E Foretopsail-yard IF Fore yard G Mainmast H Maintopmast I Maintop-gallantmast J Maintop-gallant-yard K Maintopsail-yard L Main yard M Mizzenmast N Mizzentopmast O Mizntp. -gallantmast P Mizntp. -gallant-yard R Mizntp. -sail-yard Cross-jack yard S The gaff T The snanker-boom U Forechain, or channels V The main ditto W The mizzen ditto X The quarter galleries Y The chain or channel wales Z Main channel wales a Cutwater and figure- head b Fore-shrouds and rat- lines c Ditto topmast ditto d Top-gallant-shrouds e Top-gallant backstay f Topmast backstay f g g Topsail ties Main shrouds, &c., or main rigging i Ditto topmast ditto j Ditto top-gallant ditto K Ditto ditto backstay 1 Ditto topmast ditto m Mizzen shrouds n Ditto topmast ditto o Ditto top-gallant ditto p Ditto ditto backstay q Ditto topmast ditto r r r Mizzen, mizzen-top, and mizzen-top-gal- lant-stays s s s Main ditto ditto t t Stay tackles u u Fore and main-yard tackles v v v Fore, main, and miz- zentops (round tops) www Fore, main, and mizzen cross-trees xxx Fore, main, and miz- zen trucks y y Stun-sail, or stud- ding-sail, booms, on the fore and main yards i The jib-boom a Bowsprit 3 Spritsail-yard 4 Dolphin-strikers 5 Bobstays 6 Jib-boom, guys, and stays 7 Forctop-gallant-stay 8 Jib-stay 9 Foretopmast-stay 10 Forestay 11 ii ii Lifts of the fore, main, and mlz zet yards 12 12 12 Ditto ditto top sail yards 13 13 13 Ditto ditto, top gal lant-yards 14 14 Fore, main, and mi* ntp. -gallant braces 15 15 Ditto ditto dittf topsail-bracer 16 16 Fore-braces 17 17 Main-brace? 18 18 Cross - jack - ya r braces 19 Topping-lift 20 Vangs 21 Signal halyards 22 Peak or gaff halyards 23 Foot-ropes 24 Fore, main, and mizzei. royals HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES. 4*3 LL girls have not their whole time engrossed by their teachers ; and most have spaces of holiday — either they are at school and come home for the vacation, or the governess goes to visit her friends, or the whole family goes to the sea-side, and there is a general relaxa- tion, or there are sojourns with friends and a suspen- sion of lessons. And in pro- cess of time, governesses cease to educate them, and they are left to educate themselves. In the school-room it is necessary to teach the rudiments of many things, without which, in these days, it would hardly be possible to pass in the crowd. Therefore, much must there be acquired for which there is no natural bent. The unmathe- matical must learn arithmetic, enough at least, to cast up accounts ; the unmusical ought to learn the first rules of music; the unhistorical must know the outlines of the events of the world ; those with no turn for lan- guage must acquire French enough to understand, and not mispronounce the phrases they meet ; and what is least congenial is necessarily hammered in with the most pains, and forms the best discipline. However, in the voluntary studies of which we are speaking, taste is the safest guide, for it gener- ally indicates what you best can excel in. No, the superlative is not quite right, for the safest guide is what your parents may wish you to improve in, or what may help your brothers and sisters most. Many a brother is encouraged to face his holiday task or preparation for an examination by a sisl working with him, and what she acquires in th way, for pure love, is of use to her throughout her life. But where there is no inducement of this kind, it is the wisest way, in all cases of long holidays, to resolve upon spending a certain time every day upon some solid occupation. It is a very good rule not to take up a story-book in the forenoon, or till a cer- tain portion of useful reading has been gone through. It is the only way, we believe, to avoid being either dull, vacant, or frivolous, or what may lead to any or all of these — desultory. The way to have the most enjoyment is to have some real study to “ break one’s mind upon,” and give a sense of duty done — some reasonable pursuit to engage the lively interest of eye, ear, and hand, occupy leisure moments, and afford wholesome zest and delight to all the amuse- ments of mind and body that may offer. The study may be of many kinds. Some young ladies will take delight in pursuing their fractions, working cube root, learning algebra or Euclid, and feeling new ideas delight them when they perceive how algebra and geometry work into one another. Such tastes, however, look very frightful to others, and for their sakes we will not pursue the subject farther than to say that those who have these lik- ings will have special comprehension, and therefore enjoyment, of astronomy and other branches of phys- ical science that cannot be appreciated at all with- out some knowledge of mathematics. Everybody learns some astronomy — at least as much as is con. nected with school-room geography ; but, beyond this, every person ought to try to understand some- thing of that wonderful mechanism and order which, above all things, seems to expand the mind to some idea of the vastness of the power and wisdom of the Creator. HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES. #84 But without making astronomy a study , it is a se- rious loss not to make it a pursuit — we mean so far at to learn to know the changes of the moon, and tc distinguish a planet from a star ; to observe enough mt to inform one’s neighbors “ that we have seen the comet beautifully,” when we have been looking at J upiter, whom we might have seen every night for a month. It is a great loss of pleasure not to know the constellations, and every one can learn these with a very little attention, by tracing the stars they have observed either on the celestial globe or upon maps. The love and delight one thus wins for the glorious hunter Orion — our Lady’s Distaff, as the North calls it — the Pleiades like “ fireflies in a golden net,” the grand, glittering Vega, the Lion’s red heart, the little diamond-twinkling Dolphin — all returning in their seasons like dear old friends — are not to be thrown away out of mere indifference and inattention to some of the most glorious works of the Maker of all things. We have said that astronomy may be a study or may be a pursuit. This would be the case with al- most everything worth doing at all. The thorough- going generally turn their amusement into a study by their resolution really to go to the bottom of things, and understand the principle. Truly, they only find that “ the mystery is gone farther ; ” but they have learned to wonder at the mystery, which they will never be able to do without study. The maid-servant who tells the child to fling away its handful, for it is only nasty littering moss,” sees no mystery, while the botanist sees marvels inexpli- cable. While, however, you are a little busy “ scholar,” as the census calls you, you will generally find pur- suits quite enougli for your brain. Collections of flowers, shells, minerals, fossils, coins — all, if prop- erly arranged in accordance with some easy guide- book, will lead you through much interesting knowl- edge to the threshold of sciences that you may pur- sue to some purpose when your time is more your own. The collections should be always well sorted and kept in good order, without which they become absolute rubbish — a burden to the proprietor, a nuisance to everybody, and such an exasperation to the housemaids and the authorities, that they will probably be confiscated, and the whole pursuit quashed, perhaps never to be resumed. Collecting is delightful work ; only, as you grow past child- hood, it is just as well, before beginning a collection, to ask, “ Is this a rational thing ? ” There is much to be said in favor of foreign postage stamps, and of autographs (except that collectors get hardened into importuning perfect strangers for them) ; but every one now laughs at the old mania for amassing used English queen’s heads, and in a dozen years people will be wondering what was the pleasure of finding in how many different ways the letters of the alpha- bet can be twisted together on the top of a sheet of note-paper. Some collections will have served to give you interest in the studies they are connected with, will make you enjoy your walks, see with your eyes, and read with an object. If you have a brother in a fit of chemistry, he will probably make you help him, and you had better learn to under- stand his intentions, and the, principles on which he works; or, if not, “The Chemistry of Creation,” and other like books, should be read, both to fill your mind with wonder at the marvelous things of this earth, and to give you clear and accurate knowl- edge, so that you may not fall into absurd blunders about gases, etc. One class of minds delights chiefly in these pres- ent tangible things ; there is another class which is more interested in men than in things ; and of course there are also many, and these the more ac- tive spirits, which have room for both. It is most advisable that part of the day’s deeper reading should be historical. Those who really can- not bring themselves to care about things past, nor remember them, may perhaps more profitably spend their time over what they do care about ; but this is not common among educated people, because there is so much in their daily lives that requires a refer- ence to the past. Scarcely an ornament do they see but has a Greek or Gothic model ; they are sur- rounded with pictures of historical scenes ; the fields, houses, towns, or ruins around them have wit- nessed the great events that still influence our lives. It must be a very callous mind that does not heed all this ; and besides, how great is the enjoyment of thinking about great characters and gallant men of old ! If you never read anything except about lit- tle boys and girls, how they tore their frocks and were put in the corner, and the like, your mind will grow down to them, and you will think Leonidas guarding 7'hermopylae, or Cornelia showing her jewels, or Bruce baffling the bloodhounds, only HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES. 485 stupid things, never to be thought of out of lesson- time ; and you may end by being like the lady who thought “ Plutarch’s Lives ” very entertaining, till she found they were all true, when they at once grew stupid ! But one thing let us advise you, and that is, don’t keep to small books. It is quite a mistake to be afraid of a big book, and think it must be dry. You are set to read abridgments in the school-room, be- cause you must there learn the framework in as small compass as possible, and of course it is very likely to be dull and dry ; but go to the places where the abridgments are taken from, and there you will find that the people have room to spread out and seem to be alive, so that we can care about them. You should also try to read the real great poems. Some you have learned in fragments in the school- room ; but there is no time there to let you really get acquainted with them. You should read a trans- lation of the “ Iliad ” and “ Odyssey,” which you can enjoy quite young ; Tasso and Dante you may, we hope, one day read in Italian ; but you should es- pecially aspire to Shakespeare and Spenser so soon as ever you are thought old enough to be trusted with them. The earlier and the better you know both them and Milton, the greater will be your en- joyment of them, and the better your taste. It is the same with Scott and Southey. There is something specially engaging to young minds in the chivalrous freshness and animated life of Scott, his ringing verses, and high spirit of honor ; and so, too, the noble sentiments and beautiful self-devotion throughout Southey’s “ Roderick,” and the wild beauty and strange adventure in his“ Thalaba ” and “ Kehama,” will make them very charming reading to you ; and it is much the best way to read poems like these while you are young and have time, before you get whirled off by the literature of the day. Languages are in general so much the chief study in the school-room, that they would hardly come under the class of what a young lady would work at alone, unless, indeed, she has not the usual amount of lessons required of her. Except the picking up of Latin to help a brother, very little had better be done in that way before the schooling has ceased. Then, it may be feared, it is too much the usual habit to make very little use of what has been acquired with so much trouble. It is not always easy to get foreign books, and nobody ever thinks of looking at the rows or French memoirs and histories, with tarnished gold backs, in the drawing-room book-case. Perhaps the French master has said “ they are old French,” and set his pupil to read the “ Recueil ,” with which he is most familiar. So she never becomes acquainted with the beautiful, idiomatic, carefully studied French that prevailed before the Revolution; and as, quite rightly, her mother will not let her read a modern French novel till she has heard its character, that language, the most familiar of all, remains useless, excepting if she goes abroad. Now, French is particulary well suited to history and biography ; and any good li- brary will supply you with long lists of books that will furnish very useful reading — Capefigue, Thierry, Sandeau,and many another among the moderns, to say nothing of the crowds of most entertaining memoirs of older date. Or the beautiful journals of Eugenie de Guerin should be read by all ; while, among lighter books, Souvestre’s are nearly all sure to be safe reading ; and besides these we might mention Feval’s “ F£e des Greves,” Lady Georgiana Fuller- ton’s “Comtesse de Bonneval,” Mme. Reybaud’s “ Cabaret de Gaubert,” as thoroughly interesting and unexceptionable. German ought likewise to be kept from dropping out of use, which it is extremely disposed to do, al- though universally learnt. It is best to get lists of German books from trustworthy friends ; or failing these, you are always on safe ground with history. Fouque’s exquisite tales are despised by German masters, as not being in perfect language ; but those who read for the sake of beauty and poetic ideas, should assuredly not neglect the more celebrated of these. Either German or Italian is sometimes omitted in the school-room, and thus affords a field of enterprise for after-study. The great Italian poet will furnish you with years of study, when once you have worked your way to him ; and Italian, too, owns the most high-minded of modern novels — “ I Promessi Sposi," which ought not to be read till the first difficulties of the language are mastered. We must not, however, be understood to urge the study of either of these languages. Neither of them is absolutely necessary to the education of an Amer- ican lady. What we do urge is the habit of disci- plining the mind to a daily habit of exertion. And this is infinitely more necessary after the age is past 486 HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES. in which hours and tasks are prescribed for you. The first impulse is to shake yourself free from re- straint, and idle, trifle, or amuse yourself merely by way of feeling your liberty ; but by the time this has gone on a few months, unless some fresh excite- ment has carried you off, you will feel a great tedium, and yet a disinclination to exert yourself, which you would not have felt when your habits of application were not disused. Try, then, to look forward to going on with some- thing for yourself, or with a sister or friend. There ought to be each day one short interval of study re- quiring close accuracy — such as may be found in grammar, logic, mathematics ; and another space of steady reading, to inform the mind and keep up the power of attention ; and probably likewise some ac- complishment to be worked up, such as music or drawing. These, and whatever besides may please you, are likely to hinder you from becoming frivo- lous and unsettled, and to afford you infinitely more pleasure than “ all play and no work.” Young girls of your own age, when visiting you, will often be well pleased to join in some such occupation, and the day will thus have a sort of ballast, besides that the very passage you have read together will ever after seem illuminated by the talk that it occasions. A friendship will thrive far better on substantial food shared together, than on nothing but trifles. Nay, we believe that nonsense has not the power to be vigorous and merry without sense from which to rebound ; it certainly can hardly be wholesome or innocent. Girls have lately found out a very pleasant way of supplying the stimulus that is apt to be wanting on leaving the school-room, by forming themselves into little societies for improvement. Essay So- cieties is the generic title, but they generally have a private one of their own, such as the Kitten Club, the Querists, Spinsters, and the like. Essay So- cieties is hardly a good name, for few women are ca- pable of writing essays at all, and certainly not under twenty ; and it is better that the subject should be such as can be elucidated by intelligent diligence, instead of by knowledge of the world, such as only can be gained by experience. Let us, then, suppose the society to be called the Querist Company. The members should not be too diverse in age. Eighteen and fifteen, or eight- een and five-and-twenty, can work together very well, but hardly fifteen and five-and-twenty, and in general a girl in the school-room has not time for such ex- tra work. The exceptions are when there are no regular lessons, or at least comparatively few, and a girl, taught by a father or mother, can obtain free access to books, but wants motive and direction in making use of them. Otherwise the members should be all girls “ come out,” that is, with their educa- tion left to themselves. They should be in some degree known to one another, the more intimate the better for the interest and liveliness of the affair. Some are cousins living at a distance from one an- other, others friends in the same neighborhood ; but to be well known to at least two members is a good rule, or the society loses its coherence and privacy. It is well to have a head and referee. The Querists have secured a cousin of some of the parties, who, as the chief querist, queerest of all, as they say, goes by the official name of Columbine. The Kitten Club, on the other hand, make one of their mem- bers, in rotation, into “ Grimalkin,” and commit the management to this ruling power for the time being, making her dispense the questions, and decide which is the best answer. The questions or subjects are propounded by the Querists in rotation, two a month. More have been tried, but it was found that no one had time to attend to more than two questions ; indeed, the chief reason for sending out two is that there may be a choice between them. The questions are submitted to Columbine before they are sent round ; each member receives hers at the beginning of the month, and returns her replies at the end to Columbine, who either chooses out the best, or, when two or three bring in varieties of in- formation, selects these, writes a letter explaining the grounds of the choice, and sends them to the nearest member, who passes them to the next, and so on round the whole party. The best answers are carefully preserved in the archives of the society, and are sometimes made quite ornamental by the drawing members of the club. A few questions shall be mentioned as specimens. Write a short life of St. Ambrose. Describe thecourseandinfluenceof the Gulf Stream. Translate into verse or prose, Uhland s “Schloss am Meer.’ Collect the passages of poetry that best describe the song of the nightingale. HOME STUDIES FOR YOUNG LADIES. 487 What celebrated horses are mentioned in history ? Parse and give the derivation of the words in the lines — “ Mountains on whose barren breast The laboring clouds do often rest.” Which king do you think was most correctly termed Great, and why ? How does the story of “ Quentin Durward ” de- part from history ? What is the difference between genius and talent ? Write a story to illustrate the saying that every tloud has a silver lining. Give an account of the American forest-trees. These are such questions as the Querists put to one another. In answering, the rule is that there must be no direct assistance from elders in the family, except in suggesting books ; and books, though freely consulted, must not be copied, except in making acknowledged quotations. The authoritiei consulted are written at the foot of the paper; Much information is thus gained and put together in a very pleasant manner, and it is well worth com- paring the various opinions, or the different infor- mation that each can obtain. 488 ARCHITECTURE. ) RCHITECTURE, or the art of planning and raising edifices, appears to have been among the ear- liest inventions. The first habitations of men were such as nature afforded, with but little labor on the part of the occupant, and sufficient to supply his simple wants — grottoes, huts, and tents. In early times, the country of Judea, which is mountainous and rocky, offered cavernous retreats to the inhabitants, who accordingly used them instead of artificial places of shelter. From various passages in Scrip- ture, it appears that these caves were often of great extent, for, in the sides of the mountain of Engedi, David and six hundred men concealed themselves. In the course of time, art was employed to fashion the rude cavernous retreats, and to excavate blocks by which rude buildings were compiled in more convenient situations. The progress of architecture, however, from its first dawn, differed in almost every different locality. Whatever rude structure the climate and materials of any country obliged its early inhabitants to adopt for their temporary shelter, the same structure, with all its prominent features, was afterward kept up by their refined and opulent posterity. From the cause now mentioned the Egyptian style of building had its origin in the cavern and mound ; the Chinese architecture, with its pavilion roofs and pointed minaret, is moulded from the Tar- tar tent ; the Grecian is derived from the wooden cabin ; and the Gothic from the bower of trees. It is evident that necessity as much as choice or chance led to the adoption of the different kinds of edifices. After mankind had learned to build houses, they commenced the erection of temples to their gods, and these they made still more splendid than private dwellings. Thus architecture became a fine art, which was first displayed on the temples, afterward on the habitations of princes and public buildings, and at last became a universal want in society. Traces of these eras of advancement in the art of erecting buildings are found in various quarters of the globe, especially in Eastern countries, where the remains of edifices are discovered of which fable and poetry can alone give any account. The most re- markable of these vestiges of a primitive architecture are certain pieces of masonry in the island of Sicily, as well as in some other places, called the works of the Cyclops, an ancient and fabulous race of giants, mentioned by Homer in his Odyssey. By whom these walls were actually erected is unknown. Of the progressive steps from comparative rude- ness to elegance of design, history affords no certain account, and we are often left to gather facts from merely casual notices. The most ancient nations known to us, among whom architecture had made some progress, were the Babylonians, whose most celebrated buildings were the temple of Belus, the palace and the hanging gardens of Semiramis ; the Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splen- did buildings ; the Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and Sarepta, were adorned with equal magnificence ; the Israelites, whose temple was con- sidered as a wonder of architecture ; the Syrians ARCHITECTURE. 489 and the Philistines. No architectural monument of these nations has, however, been transmitted to us ; but we find subterraneous temples of the Hindoos, hewn out of the solid rock, upon the islands Ele- phanta and Salsetta, and in the mountains of Elora. These temples may be reckoned among the most stupendous ever executed by man. The circuit of the excavations is about six miles. The temples are 100 feet high, 145 feet long, and 62 feet wide. They contain thousands of figures, appearing, from the style of their sculpture, to be of ancient Hindoo origin. Every thing about them, in fact, indicates the most persevering industry in executing one of the boldest plans. EGYPTIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE. All the architectural remains of ancient times sink into in- significance when compared with those of Egypt. The obe- lisks, pyramids, temples, palaces, and other structures of this country, are on the grandest scale, and such as could only have been perfected by a people considerably advanced in refine- ment. The elementary features of Egyptian architecture were chiefly as follows : 1. Their walls were of great thickness, and sloping on the outside. This feature is supposed to have been derived from the mud walls, mounds, and caverns of their an- cestors. 2. The roofs and covered ways were flat, or without pediments, and composed of blocks of stone, reaching from one wall or column to another. The principle of the arch, although known to the Egyptians, was seldom if ever employed. 3. Their columns were numerous, close, short, and very large, being sometimes ten or twelve feet in diameter. They were generally without bases, and had a great variety of capitals, from a simple square block, ornamented with hieroglyphics or faces, to an elaborate composition of palm-leaves, not unlike the Corinthian capital. 4. They used a sort of concave entab- lature or cornice, composed of vertical flutings or leaves, and a winged globe in the center. 5. Pyramids, well known for their prodigious size, and obelisks, composed of a single stone, often exceeding seventy feet in height, are structures peculiarly Egyptian. 6. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone, and sculptures in outline of fabulous deities and ani- mals, with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this style of architecture. The main character of Egyptian architecture is that of great strength with irregularity of taste. This is observable in the pillars of the temples, the parts on which the greatest share of skill has been lavished. The preceding figures are examples. In these columns we may notice that sturdiness is the pre- vailing characteristic. The design has been the support of a great weight, and that without any particular regard to propor- tion or elegance, either as a whole or in parts. When assem. bled in rows or groups, the columns had an imposing effect, because, from their height and thickness, they filled the eye and induced the idea of placid and easy endurance. In Fig. 5, which represents the exterior of a temple, this simple and imposing character is conspicuous. GRECIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE. From Egypt, the architectural art spread to Greece, where it passed from the gigantic to the chaste and elegant. The period in which it flourished in the greatest perfection was that of Pericles, about 440 before Christ, when some of the finest temples at Athens were erected. After this, it declined with other arts, and was carried to Rome, where, however, it never attained the same high character. Before describing the vari- ous orders of Grecian and Roman architecture, it will be ad- vantageous to explain the terms ordinarily employed in refer- ence to the component parts of buildings. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. The front or fajade of a building, made after the ancient models, or any portion of it, may represent three parts, occu- pying different heights : The pedestal is the lower part, usually supporting a column ; the single pedestal is wanting in most antique structures, and its place supplied by a stylobate ; the stylobate is either a platform with steps, or a continuous pedestal, supporting a row of columns. The lower part of a finished pedestal is called the plinth ; the middle part is the die, and the upper part the cornice of the pedestal, or surbase. The column is the middle part, situated upon the pedestal or stylobate. It is commonly detached from the wall, but is some- times buried in it for half its diameter, and is then said to be engaged. Pilasters are square or flat columns attached to walls. The lower part of a column, when distinct, is called the base ; the middle, or longest part, is the shaft ; and the upper or ornamented part, is the capital. The swell of the column is called the entasis. The height of columns is meas- ured in diameters of the column itself, taken always at the base. The entablature is the horizontal continuous portion which rests upon the top of a row of columns. The lower part 17 #9o ARCHITECTURE. of »he entablature is called the architrave or epistylium. The middle part is the frieze , which, from its usually containing sculpture, was called zophorus by the ancients. The upper or projecting part is the comice. A pediment is the triangular face produced by the extremity of a roof. The middle or flat portion inclosed by the cornice of the pediment is called the tympanum. Pedestals for statues, erected on the summit and extremities of a pediment, are called acroteria. An attic is an upper part of a building, terminated at top by a horizontal line instead of a pediment. The different mouldings in architec- ture are described from their sections, or from the profile which they present when cut across. Of these, the torus is a convex moulding, the section of which is a semi-circle, or nearly so ; the astragal is like the torus, but smaller ; the ovalo is convex, but its outline is only the quarter of a circle ; the echinus re- sembles the ovalo, but its outline is spiral, not circular ; the scotia is a deep concave moulding ; the cavetto is also a con- cave, and occupying but a quarter of a circle ; the cymatium is an undulated moulding, of which the upper part is concave and the lower convex ; the ogee or talon is an inverted cyma- tium ; the fillet is a small square or fiat moulding. In archi- tectural measurement, a diameter means the width of a column at the base. A module is half a diameter. A minute is a sixtieth part of a diameter. In representing edifices by drawings, architects make use of the plan, elevation, section, and perspective. The plan is a map or design of a horizontal surface, showing the ichno- graphic projection, or groundwork, with the relative position of walls, columns, doors, etc. The elevation is the ortho- graphic projection of a front or vertical surface ; this being represented, not as it is actually seen in perspective, but as it would appear if seen from an infinite distance. The section shows the interior of a building, supposing the part in front of an intersecting plane to be removed. The perspective shows the building as it actually appears to the eye, subject to the laws of scenograp'nic perspective. The three former are used by architects for purposes of admeasurement ; the latter is used also by painters, and is capable of bringing more than one side into the same view, as the eye actually perceives them. As the most approved features in modern architecture are derived from buildings which are more or less ancient, and as many of these buildings are now in too dilapidated a state to be easily copied, recourse is had to such initiative restora- tions, in drawings and models, as can be made out from the fragments and ruins which remain. In consequence of the known simplicity and regularity of most antique edifices, the task of restoration is less difficult than might be supposed. The groundwork, which is commonly extant, shows the length and breadth of the building, with the position of its walls, doors, and columns. A single column, whether standing or fallen, and a fragment of the entablature, furnish data from which the remainder of the colonnade, and the height of the main body, can be made out. Grecian temples are well known to have been constructed in the form of an oblong square or parallelogram, having a col- onnade or row of columns without, and a walled cell within. The part of the colonnade which formed the front portico was called the J>ronaos, and that which formed the back part the posticus. There were, however, various kinds of temples, the styles of which differed ; thus, the prostyle had a row oi columns at one end only ; the amphiprostyle had a row at each end ; the peripteral had a row all round, with two inner ones at each end ; and the dipteral had a double row all round, with two inner ones at each end, making the front three columns deep. The theater of the Greeks which was afterward copied by the Romans, was built in the form of a horseshoe, being semicir- cular on one side and square on the other. The semicircular part, which contained the audience, was filled with concentric seats, ascending from the center to the outside. In the mid- dle or bottom was a semicircular floor, called the orchestra. The opposite, or square part, contained the actors. Within this was erected, in front of the audience, a wall, ornamented with columns and sculpture, called the scena. The stage or floor between this part and the orchestra was called the pros - cenium. Upon this floor was often erected a movable wooden stage, called by the Romans pulpitum. The ancient theater was open to the sky, but a temporary awning was erected to shelter the audience from the sun and rain. ORDERS. Aided, doubtless, by the examples of Egyptian art, the Greeks gradually improved the style of architecture, and orig- inated those distinctions which are now called the “ Orders of Architecture.” By this phrase is understood certain modes of proportioning and decorating the column and its entabla- ture. They were in use during the best days of Greece and Rome, for a period of six or seven centuries. They were lost sight of in the dark ages, and again revived by the Italians at the time of the restoration of letters. The Greeks had three orders, called the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthan. These were adopted and modified by the Romans, who also added two others called the Tuscan and Composite. The Doric Order. — This is the earliest of the Greek orders, and we see in it a noble simplicity on which sub- sequent orders were founded. One of the most correct examples is that given in Fig. 6. The shaft of the Doric column had no base, orna- mental or otherwise, but rose directly from the smooth pavement or stylobate. It had twenty flutings, which were superficial, and separated by angular edges. The perpendicular outline was nearly straight. The Doric capital was plain, being formed of a few annulets or rings, a large echinus, and a flat stone at top called the abacus. The architrave was plain ; the frieze was inter- sected by oblong projections called triglyphs, di vided into three parts by vertical furrows, and or namented beneath by gutter, or drops. The spaces between the triglyphs were called metopes Fig. 6. and commonly contained sculptures. To have a just idea of the Doric, therefore, we must go back to the pure Grecian era. The finest examples are those of the temple of Theseus and the Parthenon (Fig. 7) at Athens. The Parthe- non, which is now a complete ruin, has formed a model in modern architecture. Tt was built by the architect Ictinus, during the administration of Pericles, and its decorative sculp- In the CapitoI. a.t Albany, tower of Charlemagne 12™ Century. mm Jj.vore fitcrxc ryrj'^/sc Co. iiuiuiiiniiii b3miM ARCHITECTURE. 491 Fig. 7.— Facade of the Parthenon. tures are supposed to have been executed under direction of Phidias. The platform or stylobate consists of three steps, the uppermost of which is 227 feet in length and IOl in breadth. The number of col- umns is eight in the portico of each front, and seventeen in each flank, besides which there is an inner row of six columns, at each end of the cell. The Ionic Order. — In this order the shaft begins to lengthen, and to possess a degree of ornament, but still pre- serving a great degree of simplicity of outline. In the best examples, as represented in Fig. 8, the column was eight or nine diameters in height. It had a base often com- ; — posed of a torus, a scotia, and a second torus, with intervening fillets. This is called the Attic base. Others were used in different parts of Greece. The capital of this order consisted of two parallel double scrolls, called volutes, oc- cupying opposite sides, and supporting an abacus, which was nearly square, but moulded at its edges. These volutes have been consid- ered as copied from ringlets of hair, or per- haps from the horns of Jupiter Ammon. The Ionic entablature consisted of an architrave and frieze, which were continuous or unbroken, and a cornice of various successive mouldings, at the lower part of which was often a row of den- tels, or square teeth. The examples at Athens of the Ionic order were the temple of Erec- theus, and the temple on the Ilissus, both now destroyed. Modern imitations are common in public edifices. The Corinthian order. — This was the lightest and most highly decorated of the Grecian orders. The base of the column resembled that of the Ionic, but was more compli- cated. The shaft was often ten diameters in B height, and was fluted like the Ionic. The cap- ital was shaped like an inverted bell, and cov- ered on the outside with two rows of leaves of : the plant acanthus, above which were eight pairs of small volutes. Its abacus was moulded and concave on its sides, and truncated at the cor- ners, with a flower on the center of each side. The entablature of the Corinthian order resem- bled that of the Ionic, but was more complicated and ornamented, and had, under the cornice, a row of large oblong projections, bearing a leaf or scroll on their under side, and called modillions. No vestiges of this order are now found in the remains of Corinth, and the most legitimate example at Athens is in the choragic monument of Lysicrates. The Corinthian order was much Fig. 9. employed in the subsequent structures of Rome and its col- onies. The finest Roman example of this order is that of Fig. 8 - three columns in the Campo Vaccina, at Rome, which are com- monly considered as the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator. Caryatides. — The Greeks sometimes departed so far from the strict use of the orders as to introduce statues, in the place of columns, to support the entablature. Statues of slaves, heroes, and gods, appear to have been employed occasionally for this purpose. The principal specimen of this kind of architecture which remains, is in a portico called Pandroseum, attached to the temple of Erectheus at Athens, in which stat- ues of Carian females, called Caryatides, are substituted for columns. ROMAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE. Roman architecture possessed no originality of any value , it was founded on copies of the Greek models, and- these were modified to suit circumstances and = tastes. The number of orders was augmented by the addition of the Tuscan and Composite. Tuscan order. — This order is not unlike the Doric, and is chaste and elegant. As represented in Fig. 10, the shaft had a simple base, ornamented with one torus, and an astragal below the capital. The proportions were seven diameters in height. Its entablature, somewhat like the Ionic, consisted of plain running surfaces. The Composite order. — Of this there were various kinds, differing less or more either in the ornaments of the column or in the entablature. The simplest of this hybrid order was that which we represent in Fig. n, which may be observed to combine parts and proportions of the Doric, the Ionic, and the Tuscan. The temples of the Romans sometimes resembled those of the Greeks, but often differed from them. The Pantheon, which is the most perfectly pre- erved temple of the Augustan age, is a circular building, lighted only from an aperture in the dome, and having a Corin- thian portico in front. The amphitheater differed from the theater, in being a completely circular or rather elliptical build- ing, filled on all sides with as- cending scats for spectators, and leaving only the central spac‘, called the atena, for the com- batants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. The aque- ducts were stone canals, supported on massive arcades, and conveying large streams of water for the supply of cities. The triumphal arches were commonly solid oblong structures orna- mented with sculptures, and open with lofty arches for pas- sengers below. The edifice of this kind most entire in the present day is the triumphal arch of Constantine, at Rom^ represented in Fig. 13. Fig. 10. Fig. ix. _ Fig. ii. #9 2 ARCHITECTURE. The basilica of the Romans was a hall of justice, used also as an exchange or place of meeting for merchants. It was lined on the inside with colonnades of two stories, or with two tiers of columns, one over the other. The earliest Christian churches at Rome were sometimes called basilica, from their possessing an internal colonnade. The monumental pillars were P ,G - * 3 - towers in the shape of a col- umn on a pedestal, bearing a statue on the summit, which was approached by a spiral staircase within. Sometimes, however, the column was solid. The t hernia, or baths, were vast structures, in which multitudes of people could bathe at once. They were supplied with warm and cold water and fitted up with numerous rooms for purposes of exercise and recreation. ITALIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE. After the dismemberment of the Roman empire, the arts degenerated so far that a custom became prevalent of erecting new buildings with the fragments of old ones, which were di- lapidated and torn down for the purpose. This gave rise to an ir- regular style of building, which con- tinued to be imitated, especially in Italy, during the dark ages. It consisted of Grecian and Roman details, combined under new forms, and piled up into structures wholly unlike the unique originals. Hence the names Graeco-Gothic and Rom- anesque architecture have been given to it. After this came the Italian style, which was pro- fessedly a revival of the classic styles of Greece and Rome, but adop ed to new manners and wants— a kind of transition from ancient to modern times. Its great master was Andrea Palladio, a Venetian (bom 1518 — died 1580). There is considerable variety and beauty in the foliate and other enrichments of an architectural character in many struc- tures in Italy, but very little ornament enters into the colum- nar composition of Italian architecture. Friezes, iustead of being sculptured, are swollen ; the shafts of columns are very seldom fluted, and their capitals are generally poor in the ex- treme ; mouldings are indeed sometimes carved, but not often ; rustic masonry ill-formed festoons, and gouty balustrades, for the most part supply the place of chaste and classic orna- ments. THE CHINESE STYLE. The ancient Tartars and wandering shepherds of Asiaappear to have lived from time immemorial in tents, a kind of habita- tion adapted to their erratic life. The Chinese have made the tent the elementary feature of their architecture ; and of their style any one may form an idea, by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon common China ware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. A Chinese portico is not unlike the awnings spread over shop windows in summer time. The veranda, sometimes copied in dwelling-houses, is a structure of this sort. The Chinese towers and pagodas have concave roofs, like awnings, projecting over their several stories. A repre- sentation of this barbaric style of erection is given in Fig. 15. Such structures are built with wood or brick ; stone is seldom employed. THE SARACENIC, MOORISH, AND BYZAN- TINE STYLES. The Arabs, or Saracens, as they are more usually called, and the Moors, introduced into Spain certain forms of architecture which differed considerably from the Grecian in appearance, though founded on its re- mains in Asia and Africa. The chief peculiarity of this architecture was the form of the arch ; the Saracens are understood to have made it of greater depth than width, thus constituting more than half a circle or ellipse, and therefore ui.philosophical and comparatively insecure (Fig. 16) ; while the Moorish style was principally distinguished by arches in the form of a horse-shoe or a crescent. We associate with these styles another, which arose at Constantinople, called the Byzantine, likewise formed on the remains of Grecian art, and partaking of a slightly Eastern character. It became known in western Europe along with the Lombard, another degener- ate Grecian style, about the ninth and tenth centuries. SAXON STYLE. This style commenced at the establishment of Christianity among the Saxons in the sixth century, and is called Saxon, from its having prevailed during the reigns of the Saxon and Norman kings in England. GOTHIC OR POINTED STYLE. The term Gothic is a modern error, which, being now im- possible to correct, is suffered to remain as the generally dis- tinguishing appellation of the kind of architecture possessing pointed arches. This style originated in Germany about ito ARCHITECTURE. 493 middle of the thirteenth century, and was zealously pursued as the leading fashion for ecclesiastical structures all over Europe. Executed by a class of skilled artisans, who wandered from country to country, the finest specimens of the pointed style are the cathedrals of Strasburg, Cologne, and Antwerp, and the splendid abbeys of Melrose and Westminster. In this fanciful and picturesque style of architecture, the slender columns, always united in groups, rise to a lofty height, resembling the giants of the grove, in whose dark shade the ancient Teuton used to build his altar. In the obscure depth of the dome, the mind is awakened to solemn devotional feelings. When the circular arch totally disappeared in 1220, the early English style commenced. The windows of this style were at first very narrow in comparison with their height ; they were called lancet-shaped, and were considered very elegant ; two or three were frequently seen together, connected by dripstones. In a short time, however, the windows became wider, and di. visions and ornaments were introduced. Sometimes the same window was divided into several lights, and frequently finished at the top by a light in the form of a lozenge, circle, trefoil, or other ornament. About the year 1300, the architecture became more orna- mental, and from this circumstance received the name of the decorated English style, which is considered the most beauti- ful for ecclesiastical buildings. The transition from the decorated to the florid or perpendic- ular style was very gradual. Ornament after ornament was added, till simplicity disappeared beneath the extravagant ad- ditions ; and about the year 1380, the architecture became so overloaded and profuse, that it obtained the title of florid, which by some persons is called the perpendicular, because the lines of division run in upright or perpendicular lines from top to bottom, which is not the case in any other style. DEFINITIONS OF PARTS. North Transept Nub Choir. South Tranaopl. Gothic architecture being for the most part displayed in ecclesiastical edifices, it may be of service to explain the usual plan of construction of these buildings. A church or cathedral is commonly built in the form of a cross, having a tower, lan- tern, or spire, erected over the place of intersection. The part of the cross situ- ated toward the west is called the nave. The op- posite or eastward part is called the choir, and within this is the chancel. The transverse portion, forming the arms of the cross, is called the transept, one limb being called the northern and the other the southern transept. Generally, the nave is larger than the choir. If the nave, choir, and transepts be all of the same dimensions the form is that of a Greek cross. When the nave is longer than the other parts, forming a cross of an ordinary shape, the edifice is said to be in the form of a Latin cross. The different open parts usually receive the name of ailes or aisles from a word signi- fying a wing ; the nave or largest open space is called the main aisle. Originally, the floors of all such edifices were open and unencumbered with fixed pews or seats, and as the floors were ordinarily of mosaic or tesselated pavement, the effect was ex' ceedingly grand. The roofing of Gothic churches is of stone, in the form of groins , in which the arches are poised with in- tersecting points, and the whole skillfully adjusted so as to bear on the side rows of pillars. Any high build- ing erected above the roof is called a steeple ; if square topped, it is a tower ; if long and acute, a spire ; and if short and light, a lantern. Towers of great height in proportion to their diameter are called turrets. The walls of Gothic churches, on which the outer strain of the roof arches ulti- mately rests, require to be of great strength ; and the impart- ing this necessary degree of resistance without clumsiness is the glory of this style of architecture. The plan adopted is to erect exterior buttresses (Fig. 18). These rise by gradations from a broad basis to narrow pointed pinnacles, and placed opposite the points of pres- sure, secure, without the slightest appearance of clumsiness, the gen- eral stability of the building. Slant- ing braces, which spring from the buttresses to the upper part of the roof, are called flying buttresses ; such, however, are not always re- quired in those modern edifices in which the roof is of wood and lead. The summit or upper edge of the wall, if straight, is called a parapet ; if indented, a battlement. Gothic win- dows were commonly crowned with an acute arch ; they were long and narrow, or, if wide, were divided into perpendicular lights by mullions. The lateral spaces on the upper and outer side of the arch are spandrelles ; and the ornaments in the top, collectively taken, are the tra- cery. An oriel, or bay window, i* a window which projects from the general surface of the wall. A wheel, or rose window, is large and circular. A corbel is a bracket or short projection from a wall, serving to sustain a statue or the springing of an arch. The Gothic term gable indicates the erect end of a roofj and answers to the Grecian pediment, but is more acute. N-ORMAN, TUDOR, AND MODERN GOTHIC. Throughout England may be seen many aged castles, some 194 ARCHITECTURE. still in a state of good preservation, but the greater number in ruins, and occupying, with their picturesque remains, the sum- mit of a rising ground or rocky precipice. These castles are of a style which prevailed during the feudal ages in Europe, and was brought to this country by the Normans, who erected them as fastnesses, into which they might retire and oppress the country at pleasure. The feudal castles in England, like those on the Rhine, consisted for the most part of a single strong tower or keep, the walls of which were from six to ten feet thick, and the windows only holes of one or two feet square, placed at irreg- ular intervals. The several floors were built on arches, and the roof was flat or battlemented, with notches in the parapet, from which the inhabitants or retainers of the chieftain might defend themselves with instruments of war. The accommo- dations for living were generally mean, and what would now be called uncomfortable. Around or in front of the main tower tntre was usually a court-yard, protected by a high wall, and the arched entra ice was carefully secured by a falling gate or portcullis. Outside, there was in many cases a regular wet ditch or fosse. Castles of greater magnitude consisted of two or more towers and inner buildings, including a chapel and offices for domestics, and stables for horses and other animals. Some of them were on a great scale, and possessed consider- able grandeur of design. As society advanced and civil tranquillity was established, these military strengths gradually assumed a character of greater elegance and less the appearance of defense. The wet ditch disappeared, and was superseded by a lawn or shrub- bery. Instead of the draw-bridge and portcullis, there was a regular approach and gate of ordinary construction. The win- dows became larger, and were fitted with glass frames, and stone was abandoned for the greater comfort of wooden floors. Instead, also, of a bare region around, in which no foe might lurk, gardens were established, and a long avenue of trees led to the front of the modernized mansion. In some instances, the pepper-box turrets at the upper corners of the building remained. Of the class of structures that sprung up in this period of transition, which we may refer in England to the fifteenth and sixteenth, and in Scotland to the seventeenth centuries, there are several highly interesting remains. These edifices of the nobility and gentry were no longer called cas- tles ; they took the name of halls, and as such had attained so great a pitch of magnificence in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, as to have subsequently given a name to a new style — the Tudor ox Elizabethan. Latterly, and with no very distinct reference to any particular period, this remarkable fashion of building has been pretty generally called the old English style of architecture. One of the best existing speci- mens of the Tudor era of architecture is Iladdon Hall in Derbyshire, the property of the Duke of Rutland. MODERN BRITISH ARCHITECTURE. During the sixteenth century, an extraordinary effort was made in Italy to restore the purity of Grecian architecture; and in this attempt Palladio was followed by the not less emi- nent Michael Angelo Buonarotti, who, at an advanced age, in 1546, undertook the continuation of the building of St. Peter’s at Rome, a work on which the greatest splendors of the Italian style are lavished. Into England, this revived taste for the Grecian was introduced at the beginning of the seven- teenth century by Inigo Jones, to whose contemptuous obser- vations on the German or pointed style the term Gothic has been traced ; and after his decease, the Grecian, or more prop- erly the Italianized Grecian, was perpetuated on a scale still more extensive by Sir Christopher Wren. The edifices erected by this great master are characterized by the finest taste, and his spires in particular are models of elegance. The greatest work of Wren was St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, in which the Italian is seen in all its glory. The eighteenth century was an era of decline in architec- tural taste. Every other style merged in that of a spiritless and often mean Graeco-Italian, out of which the architects of the nineteenth century have apparently had a difficulty to emerge. Latterly, there has been a revival in England of a purer kind of Grecian, and also, as we have already said, of old English, and the Gothic or pointed style, and in most in- stances with good effect. It is only to be lamented that, by the manner in which state patronage is distributed in this branch of the fine arts, some of the largest and most expensive structures — Buckingham Palace and the National Gallery, for example — have been erected on the poorest conceptions of the Grecian style, and with a general effect far from pleasing. In Paris, there now exist some modern structures after correct Grecian models, which cannot be too highly praised ; we would, in particular, instance the building called the Madel- eine, the Bourse, and the interior of the church of St. Gene- vieve, which are exceedingly worthy of being visited by young and aspiring architects from Britain. Of the superb buildings springing up on all sides of this vast continent, it is unnecessary to speak. While those already in existence, not- ably in Washington, are admirable copies of the great Greek and Roman periods, the so-called Queen Anne is now the especial craze. FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 495 WHY NOT TEACH YOURSELF FRENCH ? ^LPHyVBET /ND pRONUJ^CI^TIOJ^. many languages as a man knows, so many times is he a man. This system of self-teaching has been devised for the purpose of inducting the beginner me- thodically. He has but to apply himself, and the language will come to him by de- lightfully imperceptible degrees. Let him try it at all events ! The French Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, as follows : French Alphabet. Name. Pronunciation. A a ah is pronounced like a in the English word “ father.” B b bay as in English. C c say c before e and i, is pronounced like s ; be- fore a, o, u, and before a consonant c sounds like k. D d day as in English. E e ai e, Z, ai, ei, are pronounced like a in the English word care. Ff eff as in English. G g jay before e and i it sounds like j. H h aash is generally silent. 1 i ee pronounced like e in the English word me. J j jee is pronounced like s in the word pleasure. K k kah as in English. L l el as in English. Mm m as in English. N n n as in English. 0 o o o, au, eau, axe pronounced like o. PP pay like the English, but is often mute at the end of words. Qq ku is pronounced like A R r air is like the English rin run. S s ess sounds like the English s, sometimes like z. T t tay is like the t in the English word lent. U u eeyu is pronounced like “eeyu ; ” it must be heard from a Frenchman. Eu, oeu, are pro- nounced like u in much. V V vay is like the English v. X x eeks is pronounced as in English. Yy egrec is pronounced like e in the English word Zm zed is pronounced like a soft s. ACCENTS. The French language has three accents; the acute, thus /; the grave, thus e ; and the circumflex, e. The circum flex accent simply denotes the elision of a silent (generally an “ s ”) after it, thus tete, originally written teste; depot for depost, etc. The acute and grave accents belong exclusively to the letter “ e" ; an accented e must have the acute accent, if at the end of word, as cafd ; or followed by a pronounced syllable, as mdtal; a grave accent when followed by a silent syllable, as mere, litvre. The grave accent is used on the a of the adverb la ( there and its compounds voilct, etc. ; but it is thus employed merely to distinguish it from the article la (the), and not for any effect in pronunciation. VOWELS. The pronunciation of the following vowels requires most care : ou, is pronounced like oo in the English word look, 0, au, eau, are pronounced like o. a , is pronounced like a in the word father, e is pronounced like e in the word better. Before mm or net, it is pronounced like ah ; as femme, pronounced fchm j solennel, solahnell, etc. u is the most difficult letter to pronounce, for there is n« corresponding sound in the English language ; it sounds like the German it, like eeyu, and it ought to be carefully imitated from a French person. eu, oeu, are pronounced like u in the English word much. /, <*, at, ei, are pronounced like a in the English word care. 1, y, are pronounced like e in the English word me. The nasal sounds, am, an, em, en, un, oin, are equally dif- ficult to pronounce, and these ought to be heard and imitated from a Frenchman. RULE. As every educated person knows French, those who study without a master, ought, when an opportunity occurs, to ask the pronunciation of a difficult word ; by such means, the learner will arrive at the correct pronunciation, which no •cription in words is capable of conveying. FRENCH SELf-TAUGHT. m The definite Article is “ le " before a masculine noun, and “ la ” before a feminine noun; they are both written “ p” before a noun commencing with a vowel or silent “ h. n The indefinite Article is “ un ” masculine, and “ une” feminine. The Universe. English. French. Pronunciation. God Dieu Deeyu the world le monde leh maund the sky le del leh seeyel the sun le so lei! leh sohleyl the moon la lune lah lune a star une Ptoile une aitoahl the air P air l’air the earth la terre lah tayr the water F eau l’o the fire le feu leh feuh the sea la mer lah mare an island une He une eel a lake un lac ung lahc a stream un feuve ung fleuhv a river une riviere une reeveeare the animals les animaux laiz aneemo the metals les mdtaux lai maito the gold I’or 1‘orr the silver 1' argent l’arjang the iron le fer leh fayr the steel I'acier l’asseay the copper le cuivre leh cweevr the tin I'etain l’aitang Man and the Parts of the body. man the body the head the face the foiehead the eye the eyes the nose the ears the chin the beard the mouth the lips the tooth the tongue the neck the shoulders the arm the hand the fingers the nails the chest the heart the knee the leg the foot the boner P homme le corps la tile le visage le front Tail les'~'yeux le nez les oreilles le mento?i la barbe la bouche les llvres la dent la langue le cou les^/pa nks le bras la main les doigts les^ongles la poitrinl le cceur le genou la jambe le pied lesT "" os l’omm leh cor lah tait leh veesaje leh frong l’ile laiz eeyeu leh nay laiz ohraill leh mauntong lah barb lah boosh lai layvr lah dong lah laungh leh coo laiz aipole leh brah lah mang lai dcnah laiz aungl lah pouahtreen leh keuhr leh jenoo lah jahmb leh peeay laiz a Food and Drink. English. French. Pronunciation- the bread le pain leh pang the flour la farine lah fareen meat de la viande de la veeaund roast meat du rod du rotee beef du boeuf du beuhf veal du veau du vo mutton du mouton du mootong deh l’anyo lamb de r agneau pork du pore du pork bacon du lard du lar ham du jambon du jahmbong the soup la soupe lah soop rice du nz du ree eggs des^ceufs daiz euh salad de la salade deh lah salade mustard de la moutarde deh lah mootard salt du set du sel oil de Phuile deh l’weel vinegar du vinaigre du veenaigr pepper du poivre du pouahvr butter du beurre du beuhr cheese du fromage du fromahje the breakfast le dPjeuner leh dayjeuhnai the dinner le diner leh deenai the supper le souper leh soopai hunger la faim la fahng thirst la soif lah souaf water de P eau deh l’o wine du vin du vang beer de la biere deh lah beeair milk du tail du lay tea du thP du tay du jenyavr gin du genilvre brandy de P eau de vie deh lo deh vee a coat The Dress. un surtout ung syuretoo a cloak un manieau ung maunto a waistcoat un gilet ung jeelay the trousers la culotte la kyulot the braces les bretelles lai bretell the cap le bonnet leh bonnay the hat le chapeau leh shapo the comb le peigne leh peine gloves des gants dai gang a ring une bague une baag a watch une montre une mongtre the stocking le bas leh bah the boots les bottes lai bot the bootjack the slippers le tire-botte leh teer bot les pantoufles lai pauntoofl the shoes les ^ouliers lai soolvai a shirt une chemise une shemeeze a pocket handker- chief un mouchoir ung mooshouab the clothes brush la brosse lah bross the umbrella le parapluie leh paraplwee tie parasol le parasol leh parasol a table House Utensils. une table une tahbl a chair une chaise une shayse an arm-chair un fau/euil ung fotayle a looking-glass un tniroir ung mcerouahr a clock une horloge une orloje a trunk un coffre ung cofr a box une botte une bouaht the bed le lit leh lee FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 497 English. French. Pronunciation. the counterpane la couverture lah coovairtyure a pillow un oreiller un oraylyai the sheets les drops de lit lai drah deh lee llie mattress le mate las leh matlah the plate I’assiette l’assyet the candlestick un chandelier ung shaundelyai the lamp tine lampe une laump a spoon tine citiller une eweelyair a fork tine fourcketle und forrshet a knife tin couteau ung cooto a cup tine tasse une tass a saucer la soucoupe lah soocoop the tablecloth la nappe lah nap the towel tin essuie-main ung esswee mang a glass un verve ung vair the tea-pot la thpiere Relations. lah taiyare the family la famille lah fameel the husband le mari leh maree the wife la Jemrne le pere lah fam the father leh pare the mother la mire lah mare the child V enfant l’ongfong the son le fils leh feess the daughter la fille lah feel the brother le fir ere leh frare the sister la sceur lah seuhr the uncle Poncle l’oncle the aunt la tante lah taunte the cousin le cousin leh coosang the marriage le matiage Occupations. leh mareeahje an occupation un mdtier ung maytyai a workman un artisan ung arteesong a baker un houlanger ung boolongjai a miller un meunier ung meuhnyai a butcher un boucher ung booshai a brewer un brasseur ung brasseuhr a tailor un tailleur ung talyure a shoemaker un cordonniet ung cordonyai a smith un forgeron ung forjehrong a saddler un sellier ung selyai a carpenter un menuisier ung mennweesyai a mason un mafon ung massong a bookbinder un relieur The Town. ung relleeuhr the town la ville lah veel the bridge le pont leh pong the tower la tour lah toor the gate la porte lah port the street la rue lah ru the market le marchp leh marshay the building le bdtiment leh bahteemong the townhouse Phdtel de ville l’otel deh veel the theatre le thPdtre leh tayahtr the post-office la paste lah post the church PPglise l’aygleeze the cathedral la cathPdrale lah cataydral the school PPcole l’aycol the prison la prison lah preesong the exchange la bourse lah boorse the palace le palais leh pallay the hotel PhStel 1’otel the inn Pauberge l’obayrje the public house le cabaret leh cabbaray the coffee room le cafd leh caffay The House. English. French. Pronunciation. the house la maisoti lah maysong the door la porte lah port the lock la serrure lah serrure the key la clef lah clay the bell la sonnette lah sonnet the staircase Pescalier l’escallyai the drawing-room i la salle lah sal the dining-room la salle-a-mangcr lah sal-ah-monjai the room la chambre lah shaumbr the bed-room la chambre-a-coucher lah shaumbr-ah-c shai the window la fenctre lah fennaitr the wall la paroi lah pahrouah the kitchen la cuisine lah eweezeen the roof le toil leh touah the cellar la cave lah caav the garden le jardin Animals. leh jardang an animal un animal un aneemal a horse un cheval ung sheval a donkey un due ung ahn the dog le chien leh sheeang the cat le chat leh shah the rat le rat leh rah the mouse la souris lah sooree an ox un bceuf ung beuh a cow une vache une vash a calf un veau ung vo a sheep une brebis une brebbee a lamb un agneau un anyo a pig un cochon un coshong the hare le likvre leh leeayvr a monkey un singe ung sangj a wolf un loup ung loo a bear un ours un oors a lion un lion ung leeong an elephant un PIPphant un aylayfong a tiger un tigre Birds. ung teegr a bird un oiseau un woiso a cock un coq un cock a hen une poule une pool a chicken un poulet ung poolay a swan un eigne ung seen a goose une oie une ouah a duck un canard ung canar a lark une alouette une allooet a nightingale un rossignol ung rosseenyoi the swallow P hirondelle l’eerongdel the sparrow le moineau leh mouano the raven le corbeau leh corbo the crow la comeille lah cornayl the parrot le perroquet leh perrokay the eagle Paigle l’aygl Fishes and Insects. a fish un poisson ung pouassong a pike un brocket ung broshay a salmon un saumon ung somong a carp une carpe une carp an eel une anguille une onggheel a trout un truite une trweet a herring un hareng ung harrong oysters des huttres daiz weetr a crab teste e'erevisst une aycreveete 498 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. English. French. Pronunciation. a turtle une tortue une tortyu a whale une baleine une ballayn a serpent un serpent ung sairpong a frog une grenouille une grenooeel a worm un ver un vair an insect un insecte un angsect a spider une araignde une arraynyai a moth une teigne ung taine a fly une mouche une moosh a gnat un moucheron ung moosherong a bee une abeille une abbail the honey le mi el leh meeyel a wasp une gulpe une gape a butterfly un papillon Vegetables. ung pappillyong beans des fives day faive peas des pois dai pouah cabbage des ckoux dai shoo cauliflower des choux-fleurs dai shoo fleuhr carrots des betteraves dai betrahve asparagus des asperges daiz aspairj spinach des epinards daiz aipeenar radishes des radis dai raddee celery du cdleri du selree a melon un melon ung mellong cucumber des concombres dai congcongbr Trees and Flowers. a tree un arbre un arbr a branch une branche une braungsh a leaf une feuille une file an apple une pom me une pomm a pear une poire une pouar a plum une prune une pryun a oherry une cerise une serreeze a nut une noix une nouah a currant de la groseille de lah grozale a gooseberry de la groseille verte deh lah grozale verte a strawberry une praise une fraize a chestnut un matron ung marrong the oak-tree le chine leh shane the fir-tree le pin leli pang the birch le bouleau leh boolo the willow le saule leh sole a flower une Jleur une fleuhr a rose une rose une rose a pink un osillct un ileyai a tulip une tulipe une tyuleep a lily un lis ung lee a violet une violette une veeolet a bouquet un bouquet The School. ung bookay a school P dcole l’aycol the teacher le maitre leh maytr the book le livre leh leevr the paper le papier leh papyai a pen une plume une plyume an inkstand une encrier un ongereeai the ink P encre l’ongkr the pencil le crayon le crayong a letter une lettre une lettr an envelope une cnveloppe une ongvellope Time and Seasons. the time le temps le tong a minute la minute lah meenyute an hour une heure une eur English. French. Pronunciation. a quarter of an hour un quart-cT heure ung kar d’eur half an hour une demie-heure une demmy eur the day le jour leh joor the morning le matin leh mattang noon le midi leh meedee the afternoon Pa pres -midi l’apray meedee the evening le soir leh souahr the night la nuit lah nwee a year un an un ong a month un mois ung mouah January ianvier jongveeay February 'fpvrier fayvreeay March mars marse April avril avreel May mai may June juin jyuang _ July juillet jweelyai August aodt oo September septembre septaumbr October octobre octobr November novembre novaumbr December ddcembre daysaumbr a week une semaine une semmane a fortnight quinze jours kanze joor Monday lundi lungdee T uesday mardi mardee Wednesday mercredi mayrcredee Thursday jeudi jeuhdee Friday vendredi vongdredee Saturday samedi samdee Sunday dimanche deemaunshe spring le printemps leh prangtong summer PM l’aytay autumn Pautomne l'otonn winter Phiver l’eevare The Country. the country la campagne lah caumpaine the village le village leh veelaj the hut la cabane lah caban the soil le sol leh sol the meadow le prt ! leh pray the barn la grange leh graunj the mill le moulin leh moolang the cattle le bdtail leh baytale the herds le troupeau leh troopo the shepherd le berger leh bayrjay the mountain la montagne lah montaine the hill la collinc la colleen the dale la vallPe lah vallay the wood le bois leh bouah the forest la foret lah forray the road le chemin leh shemmang the high-road le grand-chemin leh grong shemm; the rail-road le chemin de fer leh shemmang i fare a mile une mille une meel the waterfall la cascade la cascad the fisherman le pecheur leh paysheur the huntsman le chasseur leh shasseuhr Nations. an American un A mdricain un Amayreecang a German un Allemand un Almaung Germany PA llemagne f. l’Almaine a Dutchman un Hollandais ung Hollaunday Holland la Hollande lah Hollaund a Belgian un Beige ung Belj Belgium la Belgique lah Beljeek FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 499 English. French. Pronunciation. i Swiss un Suisse nng Sweess Switzerland la Suisse lah Sweess an Hungarian un Hongrois ung Hongrwah Hungary la Hongrie la Hongree an Englishman un Anglais un Aunglay England P A ngleterre f. l’Aungltare an Irishman un Irlandais un Eerlaunday Ireland V Irlande f. l’Eerlaund a Scotchman un Ecossais un Aycossay Scotland PEcosse f. l'Aycoss a Dane un Danois ung Danouah Denmark le Danemarc leh Danmark a Swede un Su/dois ung Swaydwah Sweden la Sukde lah Swayde a Russian un Russe ung Russe Russia la Russie lah Russee a Spaniard un Espagnol un Espanyol Spain P Espagne f. l'Espaine a Frenchman un Franfais ung Fraungsay F ranee la France lah Fraungse an Italian un Italien un Eetalyang Italy Fltalie f. Adjectives. l’Eetalee poor pauvre pohvr rich riche reesh clever prudent prudong stupid stupide stupeed sharp aigu aygu blunt cbtus obtu clean p>opre propr dirty sate saal hard dut dure soft mou moo strong fort fore weak faible fabl well sain sang ill malade mallad lean maigre maygr thick gros gro fat gras gra thin mince mangee polite poli polee impolite malhonnite mallonnate false faux fo deep pro fond profong wide large larj narrow dtroit aytrouah round rond rong square carrd carray short court coor long long long flat plat pla warm chaud sho cold froid frouah fresh frais fray ripe mdr mure dry sec sec sour aigre aygr sweet doux doo bitter amer amare hungry affami affammay thirsty altM altayray heavy pesant pezong light l/ger layjai wet humide umeed content content congtong happy heureux eureu gay gai gay sad triste treest useful utile steel English. French. Pronunciation. strange dtrange aytraunj pretty joli jolee ugly laid lay dark sombre sombr open ouvert oovare disagreeable de'sagre'able dayzagrayabl proud fier feeare arrogant arrogant arrogong cowardly Idche lahsh courageous courageux coorrajeu faithless perfide pairfeed innocent innocent Verbs. innosong to eat manger maunjai I to drink boire bouahr to be thirsty avoir soif avouahr souaf to be hungry avoir faim avouahr fang to breakfast dPjedner dayjeunai to dine diner deenai to sup souper soopai to lay the tablecloth mettre le couvert metr leh coovare to serve servir sareveer to carve trancker traunshai to smoke fumer fumai to sneeze dtemuer aytairnuai to cough tousser toossai ■ — * - to think penser paungsai to reflect rdfle'chir rayflaysheer to speak parler parlai to say dire deer to repeat r/pdler raypaytai to explain declarer dayclarrai to be quiet se taire seh tare to chat causer cosay to tell raconter raccongtai to ask demander demaundai to answer r/pondre raypongdr to reply rdpliquer raypleekai to be mistaken se tromper seh trompai to object objecter objectai to doubt douter dootai to affirm a firmer affeermai to prove prouver proovai to assure assurer assurai to deny tiier neeai to maintain soutenir sooteneer to dispute disputer disputai to consent consentir congsaunteei to approve approuver approovai to praise louer looai to admire admirer admeerai to blame bldmer blahmai to believe croire crouahr to know savoir savouahr not to know ignorer eenyorai to imagine imaginer eemajeenal to compare comparer compahrai to imitate imiter eemeetai to forget oublier oobleeai to remember se souvenir seh soovenneet to wish, to will vouloir voulouahr to desire ddsirer dayseerai to wish souhaiter sooaytai to love aimer aimai to flatter flatter flattai to embrace embrasser aumbraasaj to hope espdrer espayrai to rejoice rdfouir tayjooeer -.00 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. English. French. Pronunciation. to give donner donnai to thank remerciar remmairceeai to esteem estimer esteemai to honor konorer onorai to despise mjpdser maypreezai to hate hair haheer to offend offenser offongsai to insult insuller angsuhltai to quarrel quereller kerrellai to swear jurer jurai to punish punir puneer to beat batlre batre to weep pletirer pleuhrai to sigh soupircr sooperai to regret regretter regret tai to repent se repenlir seh repaunteer to excuse excuser excusai to pardon pardonner pardonnai to revenge venger vaungjai to joke railler raeellyai to laugh rire reer to live vivre veevr to feel sentir saunteer to touch toucher tooshai to taste goiiter gootai to see voir vouahr to hear entendre auntaundr to grow croitre crouahtr to go alter allai to go out sortir sorteer to return retoumer retoornai to meet rencontrer rauncongtrai to follow suivre sweevr to run courir coo reer to jump sautcr sotai to fall tomber tombai to dance danser daungsai to play jouer jooai to ascend monter mongtai to descend descendre dessaundr to sit down s'asseoir sassouahr to lie down se coucker seh cooshai to rest se reposer seh repozai to sleep dormir dormeer to dream never rayvai to awake s'eveiller sayvailyai to get up se lever seh levvai to dress s’ habiller s’abbeelyai to draw tirer teerai to show montrer mongtrai to present presenter praysauntai to take prendre praundr to accept accepter acceptai to refuse refuser reffusai to receive recevoir ressevouahr to spoil gdter gahtai to throw jeter jettai to lose perdre pairdr to look for chercher shairshai to find trouver troovai to hide cacher cashai to cover couvrir coovreer to uncover ddcouvrir daycoovreer to carry porter portai to bring apporlct apportai to travel voyager vwoiajai to depart parti r parteer to arrive ar river arreevai to ring the bell sonner sonnai English. French. Pronunciation to open ouvrir oovreer to go in entrer auntrai to buy acheter ashtai to sell vendre vaundr to pay payer paiyai to lend prete> praytai to borrow emprunter aumpruntai to return rendre raundr to repay remboursct raumboorsai to exchange { hanger chaungjai to pack up empaqueter aumpacktai to unpack ddpaqueter daypacktai to steal voler volai to study dtudier aytudeeai to learn apprendre appraundr to read lite leer to calculate compter congtai to write dcrire aycreer to sign signer seenyai to seal cacheter cashtai to explain expliquer expleekai to translate traduire tradvveer to begin commencer commaunsai to continue continuer congteenuai to finish finir feeneer to work travaillcr travvaeelyai to paint peindre pahndr to draw dessiner desseenai ,i - .... to stitch coudre coodr to spin filer feelai to wash laver lavai to cook cuire cweer to roast rbtir roteer to boil bouillir booeelyeer to weigh peser pezai to build bdtir bahteer to sow semer semmai to pluck cueillir kileyeer to plant planter plauntai to reap moissonnet mouahssonnai Adverbs. at first d’abord d’abor previously auparavant oparravang afterwards ensuite aunsweet together ensemble aunsaumbl at last enfn aunfang where oh oo here id eesee there lb lah elsewhere aillcttrs aeellyure above dessus dessu below dessous dessoo within dedans deddong without dehors dehor everywhere partout partoo nowhere nulle part nule par up en haul aung ho down en has aung bah anywhere quelque part kelkeh par already ddja dayjah often souvent souvong sometimes quelquefois kelkehlouah in future h r avenir ah l'avneer always toujours toojoor never jamais jammay soon bientdt beeangto FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 501 English. French. Pronunciation. immediately aussitSt osito late tard tar eirly t6t to at present a present ah praysong quickly vile veet at once tout de suite too deh sweet afterwards puis pwee yesterday hier yare yesterday evening hier au soir yare o souahr to-day aujourct hui ojoordwee to-morrow demain demmang to-morrow morning demain matin demmang mattang to-morrow evening demain soir demmang souahr the day after to. ■ aprls-demain appray demmang morrow enough assez assay too much trop tro little peu peuh much beaucoup bocoo very iris, fort tray, fore more plus plu less moins mouang at least au moins o mouang thus si see nearly presque pressk about environ aungveerong all tout too altogether tout-h-fait toot-ah-fay only seulement seuhlmong well bien beeang better mieux meeyw so much the better tant-mieux tong meeyw bad Inal mal worse pis pee rather plutot pluto without doubt sans doute song doot indeed en effet aun effay on the contrary au contraire o congtrare scarcely h peine ah pane perhaps peut-elre put-aitr all at once tout-a-coup toot-ah-coo not at all point du tout pouang du too not yet pas encore paz auncore nothing rien reeang nothing at all rien du tout reeang dee too with, near chez, auprls shay, opray near prls pray in, within dans, en dong, aung before avant awong behind derri'ere derreeare below sous soo over sur sure against vers vare far from loin de louang deh on the side of ii coll de ah cotay deh opposite vis-il-vis veez-ah-vee round about a u tour de otoor deh instead of au lieu de o leeyu deh in the midst of au milieu de o millyu de on this side en defa de aung-dessah de on the opposite side au-dela de o-dellah-deh out of hors hor after aprls appray with avec avvec since depuis deppwee between entre, parmi aungtr, parmec without sans song for pour poor through, by par par dgainst con t re congtr luring pendant paundong English. or either — or neither — nor also but however yet if if not if only even if although that is as except that for because why and therefore consequently Conjunctions. French. ou ou — ou tti — ni aussi mais cependani pourtant si si non pourvu que quand mo me quoique ' c'est-a-dire coniine outre que car parceque pourquoi el ainsi par consequent Pronunciation. oo oo—oo nee — nee ossi may seppaundong poortong see see nong poorvu keh kaung meym couak sait-ah-deer comm ootr keh car parsk poorkouah ai angsee par congsaycong The definite Article is rendered by “ le ” before a masculin* noun, and by “ la ” before a feminine noun, as le plre, th* father ; la mire, the mother. The plural for both genders it “ les,” as : les pores, the fathers ; les mires, the mothers. MASCULINE. Singular. Plural. Nom. le (leh) plre, the father les (lay Yplres, the fathers Gen. du (du) plre, of the father des (day) plres, of the fathers Dat. au (o) plre, to the father aux (o) plres, to the fathers Acc. le (leh) plre, the father les (lay) plres, the fathers FEMININE. Nom. la mire, the mother les mires, Gen. de la mire, of the mother des mires, Dat. it la mere, to the mother aux mires, Acc. la mire , the mother les mires. the mothers of the mothers to the motherr the mothers Declension of a word beginning with a vowel or a silent " hP Singular. Nom. I'hommc, the man Gen. de Ikomrne, of the man Dat. h I'homme, to the man Acc. r homme, the man Plural les homines, des hommes, aux hommes, les hommes, the men of the men to the men the men 502 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. Indefinite Article. Masculine. Nom. un jardin , a garden Ge«. d'un jardin, of a garden Dat. & un jardin, to a garden Acc. un jardin, a garden Feminine. une ville, (T une ville, d une ville, une ville, a town of a town to a town a town Declension of Proper Names. Nom. Paris, Paris Louise, Louisa Gen. de Paris, of Paris de Louise, of Louisa Dat. h Paris, to Paris h Louise, to Louisa Acc. Paris, Paris Louise, Louisa Adjectives. The French adjectives are placed either before or after the noun, as : le bon pire, the good father — la bonne mere, the good mother un bon gartjon , a good boy — une jeune Jille, a young girl une table ronde, a round table — du lait chaud, warm milk Comparison of Adjectives. grand, great —plus grand , greater — le plus grand, the greatest petit, small — plus petit, smaller — le phis petit, the smallest bon , good — meilleur, better — le meilleur, the best mauvais, bad — pire, worse — le pire, the worst petit, little — moindre, less — le moindre, the least Obs. "Than” following the comparative is always translated by “ que : " II est plus poli que son frlre — he is more polite than his brother Numeral Adjectives. Pronunciation, one, un ung two, deux deuh 3 trois trouah 4 quatre kahtr . 5 cinq sahnk 6 six seece 7 sept set 8 huit wheet 9 neuf neuf 10 dix deece 11 onze ongz 12 douze dooze 13 treize trayz 14 quatorze katorz 15 quinze kangz 16 seize sayz 17 dix-sept dee-set 18 dix- huit deez- wheet 19 dix-neuf deez-neuf 20 vingt vahng 21 vingt-et-un vahnt-eh-ung 22 vingl-deux 23 vingt-trois 24 vingt-quatre 25 vingt-cinq 26 vingt-six 27 vingt-sept 28 vingt- huit Pronunciation. 29 vingt-neuf 30 t rente traunt 40 quarante karaunt 50 cinquante sahnkaunt 60 soixante soassaunt 70 soixante-dix 71 soixante-et-onze 72 soixante-douze 73 soixante-treize 74 soixanie-quaiorze 75 soixante-quinze 76 soixante-seize 77 soixante-dix-sept 78 soixante-dix-huit 79 soixantc-dix-neuf 80 quatre-vingt katr-vahng 81 quatre-vingt-un katr-vahntung 82 quatre-vingl-deux 83 quatre-vingt-trois 84 quatre-vingt-quatre 85 quatre-vingt-cinq 86 quatre-vingt-six 87 quatre-vingt-sept 88 quatre-vingt-huit 89 quatre-vingt-neu / 90 quatre-vingt-dix 91 quatre-vingt-onze Pronunciation. 92 quatre-vingt-douze 93 quatre-vingt-treize 94 quatre-vingl-quatorze 95 quatrc-vingt-quinzc 96 quatre-vingt-seize 97 quatre-vingt-dix-sept 98 qualre-vingt-dix-huit 99 quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 100 cent saung 101 cent-et-un saunt-eh-ung 1 10 cent dix saung-deece 120 cent vingt saung-vahng 130 cent trent 200 deux cents Pronunciation. 300 trois cents 400 quatre cents 500 cinq cents 600 six cents 700 sept cents 800 huit cents 900 neuf cents 1000 mi lie meel 2000 deux mille 3000 trois mille 10.000 dix mille 20.000 vingt mille a million, un million ung meelyong Ordinal Numbers. the first, le premier leh premyai second. le second leh zeggong third. le troisieme leh trouazzeeame fourth, le quatribne leh kattreeame 5 th, le cinquihne le sixieme leh sahnkeeame 1 1 6th, leh seeceeame (* 7th, le septieme leh setteeame a 8th, le h uitilme leh wheeteeame 9 th, le neuvihne leh neuveeame tt 10th, le dixibne leh deezeeame tt nth, le onzieme leh ongzeeame tt 12th, le douzilme leh doozeeame 13th, le treizieme leh trayzeeame it 14th, le quaiorzibne leh kattorzeeame 15th, le quinzi'cme leh kahngzeeame 16th, le seizihne leh sayzeeame 17th, le dix-septihne leh deessettiame it 18th, le dix-huitieme leh deez-wheeteeame “ 19th, le dix-neuvibne leh deezneuveeame “ 20th, le vingtihne leh vahnteeame 1 1 21st, le vingt-et-unihne leh vahng-eh-uneeame lt 30th, le trentikme leh traunteeame tt 40th, le quarantieme leh karaunteeame t i 50th, le cinquantibne le soixantihne leh sahnkaunteeame 60th, leh souahssaunteeame * 70th, le soixa n te-dixiem e leh souahssaunt-deezee ame « 80th, 90th, le quatre -vingtihne le quatre-vingt-dixihne leh kattr-vaunteeame tt 100th, le centihne leh saunteeame ioooth, le millihne leh milleeame the last, le dernier leh dareneeay Pronouns. J' (jeh) I tu (tu) thou te (teh) thee il (eel) he elk (el) she Nous (noo) we VOllS (voo) you vous (voo) you ils (eel) they elks (el) they tnoi (mouah) me toi (touah) 1 thee Mas. vion (mong) 1 my Fern. ma (mah) my Mas. ton (tong) | , thv Fern ta (tah) l r in y son (song) j 1 his sa (sah) j 1 her notre (notr) our votre (votij your leitr (leur) their qui (kee) who, wl quoi (couah) what, tl quel (kel), 1 le quel ? which ? nous lui (noo) us (Iwee) him Plural - mes (may) my it \ - tes (tay) thy “ I J- ses (say) his, heJ it 1, that nos VOS leurs (no) our (vo) your (lcu-r) their que (keh) what FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 503 avoir — to have INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. 4 voir, to have ; avoir eu PARTICIPLES. Ayant, having ; eu, ayant eu, INDICATIVE MOOD. Past. to have had. had having had Present. Future. I shall have thou shalt have he shall have we shall have you shall have they shall have I shall have had thou shalt have had he shall have had we shall have had you shall have had they shall have had J’aurai tu auras il aura nous aurons vous aurez i/s auront Future anterior. J’aurai eu tu auras eu it aura eu nous aurons eu vous aurez eu i/s auront eu I have thou hast he has she has we have you have they have J’ai tu as it a etle a nous avons vous avez its (tiles) ont Jay tu ah eel ah el ah nooz avong vooz avai eels ont I should have thou shouldst have he should have we should have you should have they should have Conditional. Present. J'aurais tu aurais il aurait nous aurions vous auriez its auraient I had thou hadst he had we had you had they had I had thou hadst he had we had you had they had I have had thou hast had he has had she has had we have had you have had they have had I had had thou hadst had he had had we had had you had had they had had I had had thou hadst had he had had we had had you had had they had had Imperfeet. J’avais tu avais il avait nous avions vous aviez ils avaient Past definite. feus tu eus il eut nous eiimes vous elites ils eurent Perfect. J’ai eu tu as eu il a eu elle a eu nous avons eu vous avez eu ils ( elles ) ont eu Pluperfect. J avais eu tu avais eu il avait eu nous avions eu vous aviez eu ils avaient eu Past anterior. feus eu tu eus eu il eut eu nous cAmes eu vous eAtes eu ils eurent eu Javay tu avay eel avay nooz aveeong vooz aveeay eels avay Jew tu ew eel ew nooz eum vooz eut eels eur Jay ew tu ahz ew eel ah ew el ah ew nooz avongz ew vooz avayze ew eels ont ew Javayz ew tu avayz ew eel avait ew nooz aveeongz ew vooz aveeayze ew eels avait ew Jeus ew tu eus ew eel eut ew nooz euras ew vooz euts ew eels eurt ew Conditional. Past. I should have had f aurais eu thou shouldst have tu aurais eu had he should have had il aurait eu we should have had nous aurions eu you should have had vous auriez eu they should have had ils auraient eu Have let us have have (ye) imperative mood. aie ayons ayez SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. That I may have Que fait that thou mayst have que tu aies that he may have qu’il ait that we may have que nous ayons that you may have que vous ayez that they may have qu’ils aient Imperfect. That I might have Que j’eusse that thou mightst que tu eusses have that he might have qu’il eAt that we might have que nous eussions that you might have que vous eussiez that they might have qu’ils eussent Perfect. That I may have had Que j’aie eu that thou mayst have que tu aies eu had that he may have had qu’il ait eu that we may have que nous ayons eu had that you may have que vous ayez eu had that they may have qu’ils aient eu had Joray tu orah eel orah nooz oreng vooz oray eels orong Joray ew tu orahs ew eel orah ew nooz orongz ew vooz orayze ew eels oront ew Joray tu oray eel oray nooz oreeong vooz oreeay eels oray Jo rays ew tu orays ew eel orait ew nooz areeongz ew vooz oreeayze ew eels orait ew ay avong ayay keh jai keh tu ai keel ai keh nooz ayong keh vooz ayay keels ai keh jeuss keh tu euss keel eu keh nooz eussyong keh vooz eussyay keels euss keh jai ew keh tu aiz ew keel ait ew keh nooz ayongz ew keh vooz ayayz ew keels ait ew 504 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. Pluperfect. That I might have Que f eusse eu keh jeuss ew had that thou mightst que tu eusses eu keh tu euss ew have had that he might ha qu'il edteu keel eut ew had that we might have que /sous eussions eu keh nooz eussyongs had ew that you might have que vous eussiez eu keh vooz eusseyaz ew had that they might have qu'ils eussent eu keels eusst ew had The Auxiliary Verb “ etre,” to be. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Past, dtre (aitr) — to be ; avoir dtd (avoahr ettay) — to have been Participles. dtant (ettang)— being ; dtd (ettay) — been ayant dtd (ayaunt ettay) — having been INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. I am Je suis Jeh swee thou art tu es tu ay he is il est eel ay she is elle est el ay we are nous sommes noo som you are vous lies vooz ait they are its ( dies ) sonl Imperfect. eel song I was f dtais Jettay thou wast tu dtais tu ettay he was il It ait il ettay we were nous dtions nooz ettyong you were vous dtiez vooz ettyay they were ils dtaient Past definite. eels ettay I was Je fus Je fu thou wast tu Jus tu fu he was il fut eel fu we were nous fdmes noo fume you were vous fdtes voo fute they were ils furent Perfect. eel fure 1 have been f ai dtd Jai ettay thou hast been tu as III tu ah ettay he has been il a dtd eel ah ettay she has been elle a I/e el ah ettay we have been nous avons dtd nooz avongz ettay you have been vous avez dtd vous avayze ettay they have been ils (dies) out ltd Pluperfect eels ont ettay T 1 i.id been J'avais ltd Javayz ettay thou hadst been tu avais dtd tu avayz ettay he had been il as 'ait dtd eel avait ettay we iiad been nous avions did nooz avyons ettay you had been vous aviez dtd vooz avyayz ettay they had been ils avaient dtd eels avait ettay Past anterior. I had been feus dtd Jeuz ettay thou hadst been tu eus dtd tu euz ettay he had been il eut dtd eel eut ettay we had been nous etimes dtd nooz eums ettay you had been vous elites dtd vooz eutes ettay they had been ils eurent did Future. eels eurt etay I shall be Je serai Je serray thou shalt be tu seras tu serrah he shall be il sera eel serrah we shall be nous serous noo serrong you shall be vous serez voo serray they shall be ils seront Future anterior. eel serong I shall have been J'aurai dtd Joray ettay thou shalt have been tu auras did tu orahs ettay he shall have been il aura dtd eel orah ettay we shall have been nous aurons dtd nooz orongz ettay you shall have been vous aurez dtd vooz orayz ettay they shall have been ils auront dtd eels oront ettay Conditional. Present. I should be Je serais Je serray thou shouldst be tu serais tu serray he should be il serait eel serray we should be nous serious noo serreeong you should be vous seriez voo serreeay they should be ils seraient Conditional. Past. eel serray I should have been f aurais did Joray s ettay thou shouldst have been tu aurais etd tu orays ettay he should have been il aurait dtd eel orait ettay we should have been nous aurions d/e nooz oreeongr ettay you should have been i vous auriez dtd vooz oreeayz ettay they should have been ils auraient dtd eels orait ettay IMPERATIVE MOOD. Be — sois let us be — soyons be (ye) — soyez souah swoiyong swoiyay That I may be that thou mayst be that he may be that we may be that you may be that they may be SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. Que je sois que tu sois qu'il soil que nous soyons que vous soyez quits soient Keh jeh souah keh tu souah keel souah keh noo swoiyong keh voo swoiyay keel souah Keh jeh fusse keh tu fusse keel fu keh noo fussyong keh voo fussy ay keel fusse That I might be that thou mightst that he might be that we might be that you might be that they might be Imperfect. Que jc fusse que tu fusses qu'il flit' que nous fussions que vous fussiez quits fussent be FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 505 Perfect. That I may have Que faie /t/ been that thou mayst have que tu aies /t/ been that he may have qu'il ait /t/ been that we may have que nous ayons /t/ 1 been Ithat you may have que vous ayez /t/ I been that they may have qu’ils aient /t/ * been Keh j’ai ettay keh tu aiz ettay keel ait ettay keh noo zayongz ettay keh voo ayayz ettay keels ait ettay Pluperfect. That I might have Que feusse St/ Keh jeuss ettay been that thou mightst que tu cusses /t/ keh tu euss ettay have been that he might have qu’il edt /t/ keel eut ettay been that we might have que nous eussions /te keh nooz eussyons been ettay that you might have que vous eussiez /t/ keh vooz eussyaze been ettay that they might have qu’ils eussent /tS keels eussent ettay been Regular Verbs. The Infinitives of verbs in the French language have the four •following terminations : er — as in: donner, ir — as in : finir, oir — as in : recevoir , re — as in : vendre. to give, to finish, to receive, to sell. Participles. Donnant (donnong), giving donn/, given ay ant donn/, having giv? INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. SIMPLE TENSES. Absolu. I give J‘ donne tu donnes il donne nous donnons vous donnez ils donnent Imperfect. I gave J‘ donnais tu donnais il donnait nous donnions vous donniez ils donnaient Past definite. I gave Je donnai tu donnas il donna nous donndmes vous donndtes ils donnirent Jeh don tu don eel don noo donnong voo donnay eel don Descriptive. Jeh donnay tu donnay eel donnay noo donnyong voo donnyay eel donnay Narrative. Jeh donnay tu donna eel donna noo donnahme voo donnahte eel donnaire COMPOUND TENSES A nt/rieur. I have given J’ai donn/ tu as donn/ il a donn/ nous avons donn/ vous avez donn/ ils ont donn/ Pluperfect. I had given. pavais donn/ tu avais donne il avail donne nous avions donn/ vous aviez donn/ ils avaient donne Past anterior I had given feus donne tu eus donn/ il eut donne nous edmes donne vous edtes donn/ ils eurent donn/ All that precedes this infinitive termination is called the “ root" of the verb. Verbs which only change their terminations and not their roots are called ‘‘ regular Verbs,” those which change their roots “irregular Verbs.” The Verbs ending in “ oir” are all irregular, and the French language, therefore, has in reality only three regular Conjuga- tions. The first Conjugation ends in “ er." The second Conjugation ends in “ ir.” The third Conjugation ends in “ oir.” The fourth Conjugation ends in “re." The past Participle is formed by adding to the root of the first Conjugation an “ /,’’ to that of the second an to the fourth an “ u, as : Donn-er , to give — donne, given. Fin-ir , to finish — fini, finished. Vend-re, to sell — vendu, sold. The Four Conjugations. FIRST CONJUGATION. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Past. Donner (donnay). to give avoir donn/, to have given Future. I shall give Je donnerai tu donneras il donnera nous donnerons vous donnerez ils donneront Present. I should give • Je donnerais tu donnerais il donnerait nous donnerions vous donneiiez ils donneraient Present. That I may give Que je donne que tu donnes qu’il donne que nous donnions que vous donniez qu’ils donnent Future. Jeh donnerai tu donnera eel donnera noo donnerong voo donneray eel donnerong Conditional. Jeh donneray tu donneray eel donneray noo donnereeong voo donnereeay eel donneray SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Keh jeh don keh tu don keel don keh noo donnyong keh voo donnyay keel don Future anterior. I shall have given faurai donn/ tu auras donn/ il aura donn/ nous aurons donn / vous aurez donn/ ils auront donn/ Past. I should have given f aurais donn/ tu aurais donn/ il aurait donn/ nous aurions donn/ vous auriez donne ils auraient donne Past. That I may have given. Que faie donne que tu aies donn/ qu'il ait donn/ que nous ayons donnt que vous ayez donn/ quits ayent donn/ FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 506 Que je donnasse Keh jeh donnass que tu donnasses keh tu donnass qu'il donndt keel donnah que nous donnassions keh noo donnass- yong que vous donnassiez keh voo donnassyay Imperfeet. That I might give quits donnasscnt SIMPLE TENSES. Absolu. I finish Je finis tu finis it finil nous finissons vous finissez its finissent Imperfect. I finished Je finissais tu finissais it finissait nous finissions vous finissiez its finissaient Past definite. I finished Je finis tu finis it finit nous fintmes vous pintles its finirent keel donnass IMERATIVE MOOD. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Je feenee tu feenee eel feenee noo feeneessong voo feeneessay eel feeneess Descriptive. Jeh feeneessay tu feeneessay eel feeneessay noo feeneessyong voo feeneessyay eel feeneessay Narrative. Jeh feenee tu feenee eel feenee noo feeneem voo feeneet eel feeneer Pluperfect. That I might have given Que feusse donnd que tu eusses donnd qu'il edt donnd que nous eussions donnd que vous eussiez donnd qu’ils eussent donnd COMPOUND TENSES. A ntdrieur. I have finished J'ai fini tu as fini it a fini nous avons fini vous avez fini its ont fini Pluperfect. I had finished J'avais fini tu avais fini il avait fini nous avions fini vous aviez fini ils avaient fini Past anterior. I had finished J'eus fini tu eus fini il eut fini nous e times pint vous elites. fini ils eurent fini Future. I shall finish Je finirai tu finiras il finira nous finirons vous finirez ils finiront Present. I should finish Je finirais tu finirais il finirait nous finii ions vous finiriez ils finiraient Present. That I may finish Imperfect. That I might finish Future. Jeh feeneeray tn feeneera eel feeneera noo feeneerong voo feeneeray eel feeneerong Conditional. Jeh feeneeray tu feeneeray eel feeneeray noo feeneereeong voo feeneereeay eel feeneeray SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Future anterior. I shall have finished J'aurai fini tu auras fini il aura fini nous aurons fini vous aurez fini ils auront fini Past. I should have fin ished Jaurais fini tu aurais fini il aurait fini nous aurions fini vous auiiez fini ils auraint fini Past. That I may have fin- ished. Pluperfect. That I might have finished Que je finisse Keh jeh feeneess Que j'eusse fini que tu finisses keh tu feeneess que tu eusses fini qu'il finit keel feenee qu'il eilt fini que nous finissions keh noo feeneess- que nous eussions fini yong que vous finissiez keh voo feeneessyay que vous eussiez pint qu'ils finissent keel feeneess qu’ils eussent fini IMPERATIVE MOOD. Finis (feenee), finish finissons (feeneessong), let us finish qu'il finisse (keel feeneess), finissez (feeneessay), finish ye let him finish qu'ils finissent (keel feeneess) t let them finish THIRD CONJUGATION. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Past. Recevoir (ressevouahr), to receive avoir requ, to have received Participle. Recevant (ressevong), receiving re(u (ressu), received ayant re(u, having received Donne (don) Qu’il donne (keel don), let him give give thou donnons (donnong) let us give donnez (donnay), give ye qu’ils donnent (keel don), let them give SECOND CONJUGATION. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. finir (feeneer), to finish Past. avoir fini (feenee), to have fin- ished Participles. finissant (feeneesong), finishing fini, finished ayant fini, having finished Que je finisse Keh jeh feeneess Que j’aie fini que tu finisses keh tu feeneess que tu aies fini qu’il finisse keel feeneess qu'il ait fini que nous finissions keh noo feeneessee- que nous ayons fini ong que vous finissiez keh voo feeneesseeay que vous ayez fini qu'ils finissent keel feeneess qu'ils aient fini FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 507 SIMPLE TENSES. Absolu. I xeceive Je refois tu refois il refeit nous recevons vous recevez ils refoivent Imperfect. I received Je recevais tu recevais il recevait nous recevions vous receviez ils recevaient Past definite. I received Je ref us tu ref us il refut nous ref Ames vous rcftites ils refurent Future. I shall receive Je recevrai tu recevras il recevra nous recevrons vous recevrez ils recevront Present. I should receive Je recevrais tu recevrais il recevrait nous recevrions vous recevriez ils recevraient Present. That I may receive Que je refoive que tu refoives qu'il refoive que nous recevions que vous receviez quits recoivent Keh jeh ressuce keh tu ressuce keel ressu keh noo ressussyong keh voo ressussyay keel ressusse Que j’eusse rcfu que tu eusses rcfu qu'il eAt refu que nous eussions rcfu que vous cussiez reft quits eussent refu INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Jeh ressouah tu ressouah eel ressouah noo ressevong voo ressevay eel ressouahve Descriptive. Jeh ressevay tu ressevay eel ressevay noo ressevyong voo ressevayy eel ressevay COMPOUND TENSES. A ntdrieur. I have received J' ai rcfu tu as refu il a refu nous avons refu vous avez rcfu ils ont refu Pluperfect. I had received J" avais refu tu avais refu il avail refu nous avions refu vous aviez refu ils avaient refu Imperfect. That I might receive Que je refusse que tu re fusses qu'il ref At que nous refussions que vous refussiez qu'ils rcfussent IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pluperfect. That I might havl received Refois (ressouah), receive thou Recevons (ressevong), let us receive recevez (ressevay), receive ye qu'il refoive (keel ressouahve), qu’ils refoivent (keel res- let him receive souahve),let them receive FOURTH CONJUGATION. Narrative. Jeh ressu tu ressu eel ressu noo ressume voo ressute eel ressure Future. Jeh ressvray tu ressvrah eel ressvrah noo ressvrong voo ressvray eel ressvrong Conditional. INFINITIVE MOOD. Past. to sell. A voir vendu, to have sold Participle. Vendant (vatr.dong) selling Vendu (vaundu), sold ayant vendu, having sold Past anterior. I had received feus refu tu eus refu il eul refu nous eA?nes refu vous eAtes refu ils eurent refu Future anterior. I shall have received J'aurai refu tu auras refu il aura refu nous aurons refu vous aurez refu ils auront refu Present. Vendre (vaundr). SIMPLE TENSES. A bsolu. I sell Je vends tu vends il vend nous vendons vous vendez ils vendent INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Je vong tu vong eel vong noo vaundong voo vaunday eel vaund COMPOUND TENSE& A ntdrieur. I have sold J ai vendu tu as vendu il a vendu nous avons vendu vous avez vendu ils ont vendu Jeh ressvray tu ressvray eel ressvray noo ressvreeong voo ressvreeay eel ressvray SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Keh jeh ressouahve keh tu ressouahve keel ressouahve keh noo ressvyong keh voo ressvyay keel ressouahve Past. I should have re- ceived Jaurais refu tu aurais refu il aurait refu nous aurions refu vous auriez refu ils auraient refu Past. That I might have received Que faie refu que tu aies refu qu’il ait refu que nous ayons refu que vous ayez refu qu’ils aieni refu Imperfect. I sold Je vendais tu vendais il vendait nous vendions vous vendiez ils vendaienl Past definite. I sold Je vendis tu vendis il vendit nous vendimes vous vendites i/s vendirent Descriptive. Jeh vaunday tu vaunday eel vaunday noo vaundyong v»o vaundyai eel vaunday Narrative. Jeh vaundee tu vaundee eel vaundee noo vaundeem voo vaundeet eel vaundeer Pluperfeet. I had sold J’avais vendu tu avais vendu il avait vendu nous avions vendu vous aviez vendu ils avaient vendu. Past anterior, I had sold feus vendu tu eus vendu il eul vendu nous eAmes vendu vous eAtes vendu ils eurent vendu 508 FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT Future. I shall sell Je vendrai tu vendras il vendra nous vendrons i ous vertdrez • its vendront Present. I should sell Je vendrais tu vendrais il vendrait nous vendrions vous vendriez ils vendraient Present. That I may sell Que je vende S7?.;6~5 tsj6~£ jTi'li T 2yG~t> English. Tell me I f you please Have the goodness Yes, Sir Yes, Madam Yes, Miss No. Sir French. Dites-moi S’il vous plait Ayez la bontd Oui, Monsieur Oui, Madame Oui , Mademoiselle Non, Monsieur Pronunciation. Deet mouah See voo play Aiyai lah bongtai Wee, Mosseeu Wee, Madamm Wee, Madmouazel Nong, Mosseeu English. No, Madam No, Miss Will you tell me I thank you Do you speak English ? French ? I do not speak French I speak it a little I understand I do not understand Do you understand ? Give me some bread some meat some wine some beer Bring me some coffee some tea some milk some butter some cheese Thank you French. Non , Madame Non , Mademoiselle Voulez-vous me dire Je vous remercie Parlez-vous anglais ? franqais ? Je ne parle pas fran- (ais Je le parle un peu Je comprcnds Je ne comprends pas Comprenez-vous ? Donnez-moi du pain de la viande du vin de la bilre A pportez-moi du cafl du thl du lait du beurre du fromage Merci Pronunciation. Nong, Madamm Nong, Madmouazel Voolai voo meh deer Jeh voo remmairsee Parlai-voo aunglai ? fraunsai ? Jeh neh pari pah fraunsai Jeh leh pari ungpeuh Jeh comprong Jeh neh comprong pah Comprenr-- -voo Donnai-m. ■ ah du pa\ r de lah veeaund du vang de la beeare Apportai-mouah du caffay du tay du lay du beur du fromaje Mairsee Meeting. Good morning Bon jour Bong joor How do you do ? Comment vous portez- Commong voo por v vous ? taivoo Very well Trls-bien Tray beeang I am very well Je me porte fort bien Jeh meh port fore beeang How is your father? Comment se porte Commong seh port Monsieur votre mosseeu votr phe ? pare ? How is your mother? Comment se porte Commong sell port Madame votre Maddam votr mire ? mare ? She is not well Elle ne se porte pas El neh seh port pah bien beeang Elle est malade El ai mallad Il est bien malade Eel ai beeang mallad Elle est'~'enrh untie El ai taunreemay She is ill He is very ill She has a cold I must go Good bye Farewell Your servant I wish you a good morning Good evening Sood night I wish you good night. My compliments to your father 1 will not fail Il faut partir Eel fo parteer Auplaisir O playzeer Adieu Adieu Votre serviteur Votr sairveeture Je vous souhaite le Jeh voo sooato leh bon jour bong joor Bon soir Bong souar Bonne nuit Bon nwee Je vous souhaite une Jeh voo sooate une bonne nuit bon nwee Salucz Monsieurvo- Salluai mosseeu votr ire plre de ma part pare deh mah par Je n’y manque rai J eh nee maunkrai pas pah Visits. There is a knock It is Mrs B. I am very glad to see you On frappe Cest Madame B. Je suis charm! vous voir Ong frap Sai Maddam B. de 3c swee sharmai deh voo vouahr FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 509 English. Pray, be seated What news is there? Good news Do you believe it ? I believe it I don’t believe a word of it I think so I think not Who told you ? It is no such thing Have you heard from home ? The postman brought me a let- ter this morning They write sad news Will you stay and dine with us ? No, thank you I cannot stay I must go You are in great hurry I have a great deal to do. French. Asseyez-vous, je vous prie Que dit-on de nou- veau ? De bonnes nouvelles Le croyez-vous ? Je le crois Je n'en crois pas un mot J‘ crois que oui Je crois que non Qui vous t'a dit? II n’en est rien Avez-vous refu des nouvelles de chez- vous ? Le facteur in' appor- ta une lettre ce matin On ni Icrit de mau- vaises nouvelles Voulez-vous rester a diner avec nous ? Merci Je ne peux pas res - ter II Jaut que je men aille Vous etes bien pres- sl Jai bien des ckoses a Jaire Pronunciation. Assayai voo jeh voo pree Keh deet-ong deh noovo ? Deh bon noovel Leh erwoyai voo ? Jeh leh croua Jeh nong croua paz ung mo Je croua queh wee Je croua queh nong Kee voo lah dee ? Eel non ai reeang Avai voo ressu dai noovel deh shai voo? Leh facter mappor- tah une lettr seh mattang Ong maycree deh movaze noovel Voolai voo restai ah deenai avec noo ? Mairsee Jeh neh peuh pah restai Eel fo keh jeh mon aheel Vooz ait beeang pres- sai Jay beeang dai shoez ah fare Expressions of Surprise. What! Is it possible ? Who would have believed it ! Indeed It is impossible That cannot be Comment ! Serail-il possible ? Qui I aurait cru ! Commong ! Serrait-eel posseebl? Kee loray cru ! En vlritl Ong vereetay Cela est impossible Slah ait amposseebl Cela ne se peut pas Slah neh seh peu pah I am astonished at it Jen suis bien ItonnI Jong swee beean aitonnai Voo meh surepren- nay C’est incroyable Sait angcrwoyable Cela est inoui Slah ait inwee J’en suis fdchl Jong swee fashai Jen mis dlsoll Jong swee daizolai You surprise me Vous me surprenez It is incredible It is unheard of I am sorry for it I am quite vexed about it What a pity ! It is a great pity It is a sad thing Quel dommage ! C’est bien dommage Cela est bien Jdcheux It is a great misfor- Cest un grand mal- tune heur I am very glad Je suis bien aise I am very glad of it J'cn suis Jort aise It gives me great joy Jen ai bien de la joie How happy I am Que je suis heureux I wish you joy I congratulate vou on it Je vous jJlicite J‘ vous en Jais mon compliment Kel dommaje Say beeang dommaje Slah ah beeang fa- sheu Sait ung grong mai- ler Je swee beean aze Jong swee fort aze Jon ay beeang deh lah jouah Keh jeh sweeze heu- reu Jeh voo faileeseet Jeh vooze ong fay mong complee- mong Anger and Blame. English. He is very angry French. II est bien en colire I am in a bad temper Je suis de mauvaise kumeur She is furious about Elle en est Jutieuse it Hold your tongue Taisez-vous You are very wrong Vous avez bien tort What a shame ! How could you do so ? I am ashamed of you For shame 1 You are very much to blame His patience is tired out Don’t answer Quelle honte ! Comment avez-vous pu Jaire cela ? Vous me Jaites honte Fi done ! Vous etes bien a bld- mer La patience lui Ichappe Ne rlpliquez pas Pronunciation. Eel ai beean ong ( l lare J eh swee deh mo\ 8 humeure El on ai fureeuze Taizay voo Vooze avai beeang tor Kel haunt ! Commont avai voO pu fare sla ? Voo meh fate haunt Fee don ! Vooze ait beean ah blahmai Lah passyaunce lwee aishap Neh raipleekai pah Age. How old are you ? Quel dge avez-vous ? I am twenty-two J’ai vingt-deux ans I shall soon be thirty J’ai bientdt trente He looks older I did not think you were so old She is at least sixty How old is your un- cle? He is nearly eighty Is he so old ? It is a great age He begins to grow old II parait plus dgl Je ne vous croyais pas si dge Eille a au moms soi- xante ans Quel dge peut avoir Monsieur votre oncle ? II a h peu pres qua- tre-vingt ans Est-il si dgl que cela ? C’est un grand dge II commence h vieil- lir Kel ahje avai voo? Jay vahng-deuh ong Jay beeangto traunt ong Eel paray pluze ahjai Jeh neh voo erwoyai pah see ahjai El a o mooang soo- assaunt ong Kel ahje peut avouar Mosseeu votr auncl Eel ah ah peu pray kahtr vangs ong Ait eel see ahjai keh sla Sait ung graund ahje Eel commaunce ah veeailyeer [To ask Questions. What do you say ? Que dites-vous ? Kedeetvoo? Do you hear me ? AE entendez-vous ? Mauntaundai-voo ? I don’t speak to you Ce n'est pas d vous Snay paz ah voo keh que je parle jeh pari Do you understand Me comprenez-vous ? Meh comprenay me ? voo ? Listen Ecoutez Aicootai Come here Approchez — venez Aproshai — Vennayz- ici eesee What is that ? Qu’est-ce que cela ? Case keh sla ? Why don’t you an- Pourquoi ne rlpon- Poorcouah neh rai swer? dez-vous pas ? pondai voo pah? What do you mean ? Que voulez-vous Keh voolai voo deer] dire ? Don’t you speak Ne parlez-vous pas Neh parlai voo pah French? Jran(ais? Fraunsay? Very little, sir Bien peu , Monsieur Beeang peuh, mos- seeu 51© FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. English. French. Pronunciation. Do you know Connais sez-vous Connaissai voo mos- Mr. H ? Monsieur H. ? seeu H. I know him by sight Je le connais de vue Jeh leh connay 'deh vu I know him byname Je le connais de nom Jeh leh connay deh nong What do you call Comment appelez Commont applai voo that ? vo us cela ? sla ? What does that Quest-ce que cela Case keh sla veuh mean ? veut dire ? deer ? What is that good A quoi cela est-il Ah couah sla ait eel for? bon ? bong? Morning. What o’clock is it? Quelle heure est-il? K .1 eur ait-eel ? It is near eight II est prh de huit Eel ai pray deh weet heures eur Light the fire Faites du feu Fate du feuh I am going to get up Je vais me level Jeh vay meh levvay Get me some hot Allez me chercher de Allai meh shairshai water I'eau chaude de lo shode Make haste Ne soyez pas long- Neh swoyai pah temps longtong How have you slept ? Comment avez-vous Commont avai-voo dormi ? dormee ? Did you sleep well ? A vez vous bien dor- Avay-voo beeang mi ? dormee Very well, thank you Trh-bien, je vous Tray beeang, jeh voo remercie remmairsee Not very well Pas trh-bien Pah tray beeang I never woke all J' ai dormi totit tPun Jay dormee too dong night somme som I could not sleep Je nai pas pu dor- Jeh nai pah pu dor- mir meer I never closed my Je n’ai pas femid Jeh nai pah fairmay eyes I ceil lile I have been up this II y a une heure que Eel ee ah une eur hour je me suis levl keh jeh meh swee levai You are an early Vous etes matinal Vooz ait matteenal riser I generally rise early Je me leve ordinaire- Jeh meh lave ordee- ment de bonne naremongdeh bon heure eur Breakfast. Breakfast is ready Le dejeiiner est pret Is breakfast ready? Come iO breakfast Does the water boil? This water has not boiled Is the tea made ? Shall I put f'me green tea in the tea-pot Very little That is enough Some rolls Do you drink tea or coffee ? Le dljeilner est-il pret ? V enez dljeilner L’eau bout elle Cette eau n'a pas bouilli Le thl est-il fait ? Mettrai-je du thl vert dans la thd- ilre ? N’en mettez que trh- peu Cela est assez Des petits pains Prenez-vous du the on du cafli Leh daijeunay ai pray Lehd aijeunay ait eel pray ? Vennay daijeunay Lo boot-el ? Set o na pas booeel- lee Leh tay ait-eel fay ? Mettray-je du tay vair dong lah tai- yare Nong mettay keh tray peu Sla ait assay Day pettee pang Prennay-voo du tay oo du caffay ? English. This cream is sour Will you take an egg? These eggs are hard We want another egg-cup Give me the salt Pass me the butter This butter is not fresh Bring some more Give me a spoon Is the coffee strong enough ? We want more cups Take some more sugar A piece of toast Cold meat The table cloth The sugar basin Chocolate A knife This knife is blunt We have done break- fast You can take away the things French. Pronunciation Cette creme s' est Set crame sait agree agrie Voulez-vous manger Voolay-voo maunjay un ceuf? un uf? Ces ceufs sont durs Saze euf son dure II nous faut un au- Eel noo fote un otr tre coquetier coktyai Donnez-moi le sel Donnay mouah leh sel Passez-moi le beurre Passay mouah leh beur Ce beurre n'est pas Seh beur nai pa frai frais Allez-nous en cher- Allay-nooz ong shair- cher a’ autre shai dotr Donnez-moi une Donnay mouah une cuiller cweelyare Le cafl est-il assez Leh caffay ait eel as- fort ? say fore ? II nous manque des Eel noo maunk day lasses tass Prenez encore du Prenaze auncore du sucre Une rdlie De la viande froide La nappe Le sucrier Du chocolat Un couteau Ce couteau ne coupe pas Nous avons fini de dljedner Vous pouvez desser- suer Une rotee De lah veeaund frouad Lah nap Leh sucreeay Du shocolah Ung cooto Seh cooto ne coop pas Nooz avong feenefl deh daijeunay Voo poovai dessair veer Ordering Dinner. Have you ordered Avez-vous commande Avai-voo commaun diner? le diner ? dai leh deenai ? Show me the bill of Montrez-moi la carte Mongtray mouah lah fare carte What soup will you Quelle soupe vous Kel soup voo sair- have ? servirai-je ? veeraije ? Maccaroni soup De la soupe au maca- Deh lah soup o mac- roni aroni Have you any roast- vez-vous du bauf Avay-voo du beuf beef? r6ti? rotee? Not to-day Pas aujourd’ kui Paz ojoordwee We have very fine Nous avons de trh- Nooz avong deh fish bon poisson tray bong pouahs- song Fried soles Des soles f rites Day sole freet A dozen of prawns Une douzaine de sali- Une doozane deh ceques salleecok What wines will you Quel vins Monsieur Kel vang Mossee* have? dlsire-t-il ? dayzeer-t-eel ? Let us see Voyons Vwoiyong Have you the best A vez-vous des vins Avai-voo day vang wines ? fins ? fang ? Here is the list En void la lisle Ong vwoysee lah leest We shall dine at six Nous dinerons h six Noo deenerongs ah o’clock heures scece eur Be punctual Soyez exacte Swoyaiz exact What shall I help Que vous servirai-je ? Keh voo sairveen you to ? aije ? FRENCH SELF-TAUGHT. 511 English. French. Will you take some Voulez-vous un peu soup ? de soupe ? No, thank you Merci bien Willingly Trh-volontiers Help yourself Servez-vous Well done, if you Bien cuit, s’il vous please plait It is excellent II est excellent Do you take pepper? Mangez-vous le poi- vre? Cayenne pepper Le poivre rouge Here are spinach Void des epinards et and brocoli Peas Cauliflower Artichokes Potatoes The mustard pot Change the plates des brocolis Des petits pois Du choufleur Des artichauls Des potnmes de terre Le moutardier Changez les assiettes Give me a clean fork Donnez-moi une fourchette propre Are you hungry ? I am hungry You don’t eat Are you thirsty ? I am very thirsty A vez-vous faim ? J’ai faim Vous ne mangez pas A vez vous soif? J’ai bien soif I am dying of thirst Je meurs de soif Take a glass of wine Prenez un verre vin Bring me a glass of Appoilez-moi un water verre d’ eau fraiche Give me something Donnez-moi & boire to drink This wine tastes of Ce vin sent le bou- de the cork It is flat A cork-screw chon II est Iventl Un tire-bouchon Pronunciation. Voolai-vooz ung peu deh soup ? Mairsee beeang Tray volontyai Sairvai voo Beeang cwee, see voo play Eel ait exeellong Maunjai voo leh pou- ahvr Leh pouahvr rouge Vouasee daiz aipee- nar ai day brocolee Day pettee pouah Du shoofleur Daiz arteesho Dayz pom deh tare Leh mootardyai Shaunjai laiz assyett Donnay mouah une foorshet propr Avay-voo fang? Jay fang Voo neh maunjay pa Avay voo souaf? Jay beeang souaf Je meur deh souaf Prennaze ung vair de vang Apportay-mouah ung vair do frashe Donnay mouah ah bouahr Seh vang song leh booshong Eel ait aivauntai Ung teer booshong Tea is quite ready They are waiting for you I am coming The tea is verystrong Pour out the tea Bring a saucer Where are the sugar- tongs ? Ring, if you please Tea. Le thl est tout pret On vous attend Leh tay ai too pray On vous attong Me void Le thl est trh-fort Versez le thl Meh vwoysee Leh tay ai tray fore Vairsay leh tay Apportez une sou- Apportaze une soo- coupe coop Oil sont les pinces ? Ou song lay pangce ? s’il vous Sonnay, see voo play Sonnez, plait A little more milk Encore un peu de lait Auncore ung peu deh lay What will you take ? Que prendrez-vous ? Keh praundray voo ? English. A slice of bread and butter Hand the plate Will you take some cake ? A small piece Make more toast Make haste This is excellent tea The tea-tray The milk-jug A set of tea-things Have you finished ? Take another cup No, thank you Brown bread White bread Stale bread New bread French. Une beurrle. — une tarline de beurre Passez Fassiette Voulez-vous du ga- teau ? Un petit morceau Failes encore des rSties Depechez-vous Voila cf excellent thl Le cabaret Le pot au lait Un service A vez-vous dlja fini ? Prenez encore une tasse Merci bien Du pain bis Du pain blanc Du pain rassis Du pain frais Pronunciation. Une beurray. — Une tarteen deh beui Passay lassyett Voolay voo du gahto ? Ung pettee morso Fates auncore day rotee Daypayshay voo Vwoyla dexcellong tay Leh cabbaray Leh pote o lay Ung sairveece Avay voo dayja fee nee Prennaze auncore une tass Mairsee beeang Du pang bee Du pang blong Du pang rassee Dupang fray Evening. It is late 11 est tard It is not late II n’ est pas tard What o’clock is it ? Quelle heure esl-il? It is still early II est encore de bonne heure Are you tired ? Etes-vous fatigul? Not at all Point du tout Not much Pas beaucoup It is only ten II nest que dix heures It is time to go to II est F heure de se bed coucher Is my room ready ? Ala chambre Go and see Draw the curtain A blanket est-elle pret ? Al/ez-voir Fermez cerideau Une couverture de laine Good night Bon soir I wish you a good Je vous souhaite une night bonne ntiit I am sleepy J’ai sommdl Are you sleepy ? A vez-vous sommeil ? Eel ay tar Eel nay pa tar Kel eur ait-eel ? Eel ait auncore deb bon eur Ait voo fateegay ? Pouang du too Pa bocoo Eel nay keh deeze eur Eel ai leur deh seh cooshay Ma shaumbr ai’ -el prate? Allay vouahr Fairmay seh reedo Une coovairture deh lane Bong souahr Jeh voo sooate une bon nwee J’ay sommail Avay voo sommail ? A good vocabulary will now enable the student to progress, and this, with the writing and exercises, will make the diligent student master of the language. 512 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. ^LPHyVBET /ND pRONU^CIATIOJM. The German Alphabet consists of the following 26 letters : English German Name Pronunciation. Character. Character. of the letter. A a 31 a ah as a in “ part,” “ far.” B b 23 b bay as in English. C c G c tsay as c in “ cure ” if before a, 0, u, a consonant or when final. “ Ch” is pron. like the “ ch” in the Scotch word “ loch.” D d £> b day as in English. E e 6 e ay j as a in “ name ” when long, 1 as e in “ tgll ” when short. F f ff S f ft ef as in English. G g ® 9 gay as g in “ go.” 11 h £ b hah like h in “ horse.” I i 3 t e as i in “ fit.” J i 3 i yot as y in “ yes.” K k k f kah L 1 S l el M m 501 m em N n Oo 91 n O 0 en 0 - as in English. P P 9 b pay Q q £> 9 koo R r 91 r err S s © a f es as s in “sin” — sch is pron. like sh in “ ship.” T t £ t tay as t in “ table. St (®t) s-tay U u U u OO as 00 in 4 ‘ stool. V v 23 » fow as f in “ far.” W w 2B n> vay as v in “ very.” X X X r iks as x in “ fox.” Y y 31 b ypsilon as y in “ system.” Z z 3 1 tset as ts in “ fits.” Simple Vowels are: 0, t, t, 0, u. Compound Vowels ; St pronounced as a in “ fate.” (B “ like eu in the French word “ feu," or u in “ much.” oi “eeyu,” or like u in the French word “ sure.” ' The last two have no exact corresponding sound in the Cnglish language — Let a native pronounce it for you. and you will easily catch the sound. Masculine ber dar Feminine bie dee Neuter ba3 is the German Article, das Every German substantive is written with a capital letter. GOLDEN RULE: Always learn the Gender of the Substantive. Observation. In the first part of this book, the German has been printed in the English characters to facilitate its reading, but as most German books are printed in the German characters, that type has been adopted for the second part, and must there )« studied. h English. The earth the fire the water the rainwater the stream the sea the weather the summer weather the winter weather the wind the rain the storm the hail the frost the summer the winter the snow the ice the thunder the morning the day The Earth. German. die Erde das Feuer das Wasser das Regenwasser der Strom die See das Wetter das Sommerwetter da6 Winterwetter der Wind der Regen der Sturm der Hagel der Frost der Sommer der Winter der Schnee das Eis der Donner der Morgen der Tag Pronunciation. dee airday das feuer das vasser das regenvasser dar storm dee say das vetter das sommervettef das vintervetter dar vind dar regen dar stoorm dar hahgel dar frost dar sommer dar vinter dar shna das ice dar donner dar morgen dar tag GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 513 English. German. Pronunciation. the midday der Mittag dar mittag the night die Nacht dee nacht the moon der Mond dar mond the sun die Sonne dee sonna the star der Stern dar starn the light das Licht das licht the year das Jahr das yahr The Human Body. The arm der Arm dar arm the beard der Bart dar Dart the blood das Blut das bloot the bosom der Busen dar boosen the breast (chest) die Brust dee broost the eye das Auge das owgay the ear das Ohr das ore the chin das Kinn das kin the eyebrows die Augenbrauen dee owgenbrowen the elbows der Elbogen dar elbogen the fist die Faust dee fowst the finger der Finger dar finger the flesh das Fleisch das flyshe the foot der Fuss dar foos the hair das Haar das har the hand die Hand dee hand the right hand die rechte Hand dee rechtay hand the left hand die linke Hand dee linkay hand the heart das Herz das harz the hip die Hiifte dee heeyuftay the knee das Knie das knee the lip die Lippe dee lippay the underlip die Unterlippe dee oonterlippay the upperlip die Oberlippe dee oberlippay the neck der Nacken dar nacken the nose die Nase dee nazay the mouth der Mund dar moond Relations. The father der Vater dar fater the grand-father der Grossvater dar grosfater the step-father der Stiefvater dar steeffater the fatherland das Vaterland das faterland the mother die Mutter dee mootter the brother der Bruder dar brooder the sister die Schwester dee shwester the uncle der Onkel dar onkel the aunt die Tante dee tantay the nephew der Neffe dar neffay the niece die Nichte dee nichtay the girl (maiden) das Madchen das madchen the man der Mann dar nia.: the young man der junge Mann dar joongay man the old man der alte Mann dar altay man the wife (woman) das Weib das vyb the bride die Braut dee browt the widow die Wittwe dee vitvay the widower der Wittwer dar vitver the guest der Gast dar gast the neighbor der Nachbar dar nachbar the friend der Freund der froind Nutriments. The beer das Bier das beer the glass das Glas das glas the flask (bottle) die Flasche dee flashay the bread das Brod das brod English. German. Pronunciation. fresh bread frisches Brod frishes brod the butter die Butter dee bootter fresh butter frische Butter frishay boottei the cheese der Kase dar casay the honey der Honig dar honig the milk die Milch dee milch the buttermilk die Buttermilch dee boottermilch the oil das Oel das eul the fish der Fisch dar fish the flesh (meat) das Fleisch das flyshe the wine der Wein dar vine old wine alter Wein alter vine the punch der Punsch dar poonch the rum der Rum dar room the water das Wasser das vasser the salt das Salz das saltz the pepper der Pfeffer dar pfeffer the salad der Salat dir salat the soup die Suppe dee sooppay the beefsteak das Beefsteak das beefsteak the pudding der Pudding dar poodding the coffee der Kaffee dar kaffay the tea der Thee dar tay the chocolate die Chokolade dee chocoladay the lemonade die Limonade dee limonaday Town and Country. House and Garden The house das Haus das house the garden der Garten dar garten the land das Land das land the market der Markt dar markt the street die Strasse dee strassay the church die Kirche dee keerchay the post die Post dee post the bank die Bank dee bank the theater das Theater das tayater the hospital das Hospital das hospital the coffeehouse das Kaffeehaus das kaffayhouse the palace der Palast dar palast the haven (harbor) der Hafen dar hafen the door die ThUr dee teeyur the bed das Bett das bet the mattress die Matratze dee matratzay the oven der Ofen dar ofen the glass das Glas das glass the beerglass das Bierglas das beerglass the wineglass das Weinglas das vineglass the stool (chair) der Stuhl dar stool the field das Feld das feld the dale (valley) das Thai das taal the wood (forest) der Wald dar vald the bush der Busch dar boosh the heath die Haide dee liiday the hill der Htigel dar heeyugel the mill die MUhle dee meeyullay the corn das Korn das korn the straw das Stroh das shtro. The Professions and Trades. The baker der Backer dar becker the bookbinder der Buchbinder dar boochbindef the book das Buch das booch the doctor der Doktor dar doktor the hat der Hut dar hoot the hatter der Ilutmacher dar hootmacher the shoe der Schuh dar shoe GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 3*4 English. German. Pronunciation. the shoemaker der Schuhmacher dar shoemacher the beard der Bart dar bart the barber der Barbier dar barbeer the glass das Glas das glass the glazier der Glaser dar glaser the nail der Nagel dar nagel the saddle der Sattel dar sattel the saddler der Saltier dar sattler the mill die Miihle dee meeyullay the miller der Muller dar meeyuller the master der Meister dar miceter dancing tanzen tanzen the dancingmaster der Tanzmeister dar tanzmiceter the post die Post dee post the postmaster der Postmeister dar posmiceter to ride reiten riten the ridingmaster der Reitmeister dar ritemiceter the school die Schule dee shoolay the schoolmaster der Schulmeister dar shoolmiceter the smith der Schmid dar shmit the smithy die Schmiede dee shmiday the nailsmith (nail- tier Nagelschmid dar nagelshmit maker) the goldsmith der Goldschmid dar goldshmit the coppersmith der Kupferschmid dar koopfershmit the weaver der Weber dar vayber the king der Konig dar keunig the prince der Prinz dar prints the baron der Baron dar baron the officer der Officier dar offeezeer the soldier der Soldat dar soldat the pope der Papst dar papst the archbishop der Erzbischof dar erzbishof ,the bishop der Bischof dar bishof The jacket The Clothing. die Jacke dee yackay the shoe der Schuh dar shoe the hat der Hut dar hoot the brush die Blirste dee beeyurstay the hairbrush die Haarblirste dee harbeeyurstay the frock (coat) der Frack dar frak the wool die Wolle dee vollay the stick der Stock dar stock the cravat die Cravatte dee cravate the purse die Borse dee beursay the cap die Kappe dee kappay the ring der Ring dar ring The Quadrupeds. The hound (dog) der Hund dar hoond the cat die Katze dee katzay the rat die Ratte dee rattay the mouse die Maus dee mouse the swine (pig) das Schwein das shvine the hare der Hase dar hazay the roe das Reh das ray the ox der Ochse dar ocksay the bull der Bulle dar boollay the cow die Kuh dee koo the calf das Kalb das kalb the sheep das Schaf das shaf the lamb das Lamm das lam the fox der Fuchs dar fooks the wolf der Wolf dar volf the bear der Bar dar bear the elephant der Elephant dar elcfant the camel das Kameel das camale Birds, , Fishes, and Insects. English. German. Pronunciation. The swan der Schwan dar shvan the falcon der Falke dar falkay the goose die Gans dee gans the stork der Storch dar storch the snipe die Schnepfe dee shnepfay the raven der Rabe dar rabay the lark die Lerche dee lerchay the crow die Krahe dee krayay the nightingale die Nachtigal dee nachtigal the cuckoo der Kuckuck dar kookook the swallow die Schwalbe dee shvalbay the finch der Finke dar finkay the sparrow der Sperling dar sperling the fish der Fisch dar fish the carp der Karpfen dar carpfen the herring der Hering dar hering the eel der Aal dar aale the frog der Frosch dar frosh the worm der Wurm dar voorm the spider die Spinne dee spinnay the oyster die Auster dee ouster the crab der Krebs dar kreps the flea der Floh dar flo the fly die Fliege dee fleegay the bee die Biene dee beenay the wasp die Wespe dee vespay the snail die Schnecke dee shneckay Minerals and Metals, etc. The gold das Gold das gold the silver das Silber das silber the copper das Kupfer das koopfer the iron das Eisen das isen the tin das Zinn das zin the steel der Stahl dar staal the zinc das Zink das zinc the bronze die Bronze dee bronze the diamond der Diamant dar deeamant the pearl die Perle dee parelay the coral die Koralle dee corallay the marble der M armor dar m armor the gypsum der Gyps dar gyps the lime (clay) der Lehm dar lame the chalk der Kalk dar calk the coal die Kohle die coalay the earth die Erde dee airday the sand der Sand dar sand the stone der Stein dar stine Ships and Shipping. The ship das Schiff das shiff the boat das Boot das boat the ship of the line das Linienschiff das leenee-enshiff the fisherboat das Fischerboot das fisherboat the anchor der Anker dar anker the deck das Deck das deck the flag die Flagge dee flaggay the mast der Mast dar mast the foremast der Vordermast dar fordermaft the sail das Segel das saygel the strand der Strand dar strand the rudder das Ruder das rooder the net das Netz das nets the lading (freight) die Ladung dee ladung English. the freight the coast the cliff the downs the haven the ground the storm the fleet the frigate White red blue brown gray green yellow orange purple violet Old young new great good rich cold warm long high full cool near hard light wild fat fine mild deep fresh ripe unripe bitter small wide open loud right wise blind unwell hot thick neat thin broad round false sour hollow sharp flat GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 515 German. Pronunciation, die Fracht dee fracht die Kiiste dee keeyustay die Klippe dee klippay die Dunen dee deeyunen der Hafen dar hafen der Grund dar groond der Sturm dar stoorm die Flotte dee flottay die Fregatte dee fregatay Colors. weiss vise roth rote blau blou braun brouwn grau grou grim greeyun gelb gelb orange orange purpur poorpoor violett veeolet Adjectives. alt alt jung joong neu noi gross gross gut goot reich riche kalt kalt warm varm lang lang hoch hoch voll fol klihl keeyul nahe naay hart hart leicht licht wild vild fett fett fein fine mild mild tief teef frisch frish reif rife unreif oonrife bitter bitter schmal shmal weit vite offen offen laut lout recht recht weise visay blind blind unwohl oonvole heiss hise dick dick nett net dlinn deeyuun breit brite rund roond falsch falsh sauer sour hohl hole scharf sharf Each flach English. To eat to drink to dream to wash to comb to go to speak to laugh to think to learn to bathe to break to bite to cost to hear to help to give to make (do) to do to ride to say to send to seek Verbs. German. essen trinken traumen waschen kammen gehen sprechen lachen denken lernen baden brechen beissen kosten horen helfen geben maclien thun reiten sagen senden suchen Pronunciation essen trinken troymen vashen kammen gayen shprechen lachen denken lernen baden brechen bisen costen heuren helfen gayben machen toon riten sagen senden soochen , Tie most Necessary Woris ilici * Deviate from tie English. Vj The World and its Elements. God Gott got the Creator der Schopfer dar sheupfer Nature die Natur dee natoor the sky der Himmel dar himmel the world die Welt dee velt the air die Luft dee Jooft the cloud die Wolke dee volkay the storm das Gewitter das gevitter the lightning der Blitz dar blitz the rainbow der Regenbogen dar raygenbogen the fog der Nebel dar naybel the river der Fluss dar floos the brook der Bach dar bach the lake der See dar zay the sea das Meer das mare the tide die Fluth dee floot the ebb die Ebbe dee ebbay the shore das Ufer das oofer the mountain der Berg dar berg the meadow die Wiese dee veesay the forest der Wald dar vald The body the skin the face the head the forehead the tongue the tooth The Human Body. der Korper dar kurper die Haut dee hout das Gesicht der Kopf die Stirn die Zunge der Zahn das gesicht dar kopf dee steem dee zoongay dar zaan 516 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. English. German. Pronunciation. the stomach der Magen dar maagen the voice die Stimme dee stimmay the hearing das Gelior das geheure the sight das Gesicht das gesicht the taste der Geschmack dar geshmack the feeling das Gefiihl das gefeeyul the mell der Geruch dar gerooch the neck der Hals dar hals the back der Rticken der reeyucken the leg das Bein das bine Relations. The woman die Frau dee frou the boy der Knabe dar knabay the girl das Madchen das madchen the child das Kind das kind the old man der Greis dar grice the parents die Eltern dee eltern the father-in-law der Schwiegervater dar shveegavrfater the mother-in-law die Schwiegermutter dee schveegayrmoot- ter the brother-in-law der Schwager dar shvaager the cousin der Vetter dar fetter the aunt die Tante dee tantay the marriage die Heirath dee hirath the wedding die Hochzeit dee hochzit. Nutriments. The meal die Mahlzeit dee malzite breakfast das Fruhsttlck das freeyuhsteeyuck dinner das Mittagessen das mittagessen the refreshment die Erfrischung dee erfrischoong supper das Abendbrod das abendbrode boiled meat gekochtes Fleisch gekochtes flishe roast meat Braten braaten beef Rindsfleisch rindsflishe roast-beef Rinderbraten rinderbraaten veal Kalbfleisch kalbflishe calves-liver Kalbsleber kalbslayber veal-cutlets Kalbscoteletten kalbscotlett mutton Hammelfleisch hamelflishe a leg of mutton eine Hammelkeule inay hamelskoylay pork Schweinefleisch shvinayflishe ham Schinken shinken bacon Speck speck a sausage eine Wurst inay voorst vegetables Gemtise gemeeyusay a pie eine Pastete inay pastatay an omele‘ ein Eierkuehen ine eyerkoochen cake Kuchen koochen cheese Kase casay eggs Eier eyer Hock Rheinwein rhinevine Port-wine Portwein portvine Sherry Xereswein xeresvine Eating Utensils. The eating das Essen das essen the drinking das T rinken das trinken the table-cloth das Tischtuch das tischtooch the napkin die Serviette dee serviette the plate der Teller dar teller the knife das Messei das messer English. German. Pronunciation. the fork die Gabel dee gaabel the spoon der Loffel dar leuffel the vinegar der Essig dar essig the mustard der Moslrich dar mostrich the cup die Tasse dee tassay the dish die Schlissel dee sheeyussel The Sea. The Ocean der Ocean dar oatsayan the Baltic die Ostsee dee ostsay the North-Sea die Nordsee dee nordsay the channel der Kanal dar canal the island die Insel dee insel the shore die Kiiste dee keeyustay the waves die Wellen dee vellen the tide die Fluth dee floot the rock der Fels dar fels the beach die Seekliste dee saykeeyustay the navy die Marine dee mareenay the vessel das Schiff das shiff the steamer das Dampfboot das dampfboat the man-of-war das Kriegsschiff das kreegsshifif the merchant vessel der Kauffahrer dar kowffaarer the rudder das Ruder das rooder the rigging das Takelwerk das tackleverk the cabin die Kajilte dee cayutay the stern das Hintertheil das hintertile the bow der Bug dar boog the main-top der Mastkorb dar mastkorb the oar das Ruder das rooder the rope das Tau das tou the captain der Kapitan dar capiten the boatswain der Bootsmann dar boatsman the sailor der Matrose dar matrosay the cabin-boy der Schiffsjunge dar schiffsyunga the pilot der Lootse dar loatsay the light-house der Leuchtthurm dar loychtoorm the harbor der Hafen dar hafen Time and Seasons. A century ein Jahrhundert ine yarhoondert the year das Jahr das yar the month der Mon at dar monat the week die Woche dee wochay the day der Tag dar tag the hour die Stunde dee stoondav half-an-hour eine halbe Stunde inay halbay stoonda# the minute die Minute dee minutay the second die Sekunde dee secoonde the seasons die Jahreszeiten dee yaresziten spring Frllhling freeyuling summer Sommer sommer autumn Herbst harebst winter Winter vinter January Januar yanooar February Februar febrooar March Miirz mayrz April April apreel May Mai my June Juni yoonee July Juli yoolee August August owgoost September September September October October October November November november December December dctzembcr GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 517 English. German. Pronunciation. the days of the week die Wochentage dee vochentagay Sunday Sonntag sontag Monday Mon tag monetag Tuesday Dienstag deenstag Wednesday Mittwoch mittvoch Thursday Donnerstag donnerstag Friday Freitag fritag Saturday Sonnabend sonabend a holyday ein Feiertag ine firetag Christmas Weihnachten vinachten Easter Ostern ostern Whitsuntide Pfingsten pfingsten the morning der Morgen dar morgen noon Mittag mittag the afternoon der Nachmittag dar nachmittag the evening der Abend dar abend the night die Nacht dee nacht midnight Mitternacht mitternacht sunrise Sonnenaufgang sonnenowfgang sunset Sonnenuntergang sonnenoontergang The Town. The city die Stadt dee stadt the suburb die Vorstadt dee forstadt the gates die Thore dee toray the edifice das Gebaude das geboiday the tower der Thurm dar toorm the cathedral der Dom dar dome the church-yard der Kirchhof dar keerchhof the town hall das Rathhaus das raathouse the arsenal das Zeughaus das zoyghouse the mint die Mtinze dee meeyunzay the custom house das Zollhaus das zollhouse the library die Bibliothek dee bibleeotake the university die Universitat dee ooniversitate the exchange die Bbrse dee beursay the prison das Gefangniss das gefengniss the square der Platz dar platz the lane die Gasse dee gassay the bridge die Brtlcke dee breeyuckay the monument das Monument das monooment the dining-room das Speisehaus das spysayhouse the public house das Bierhaus das beerhouse the shop der Laden dar laaden The House. The bell die Glocke dee glockay the knocker der Klopfer dar klopfer to open bflfhen eufnen the servant die Magd dee magd the staircase die Treppe dee treppay the room das Zimmer das tzimmer the drawing-room das Putzzimmer das pootstzimmer the sitting-room das Wohnzimmer das vohntzimmer the dining-room das Esszimmer das estzimmer the sleeping- room das Schlafzimmer das shlaftzimmer the kitchen die Kilche dee keeyuchay the cellar der Keller dar keller the window das Fenster das fenster the stove der Ofen dar ofen the chimney der Kamin dar kameen the looking-glass der Spiegel dar speegel the table der Tisch dar tish the chair der Stuhl dar stool rhe armchair der Armstuhl dar armstool the carpet der Teppich dar teppich English. German Pronunciation. the chest of drawers die Kommode dee commoday the sofa das Sopha das sofa the candlestick der Leuchter dar loychter the candle das Licht das licht the lamp die Lampe dee lampay the wick der Docht dar docht the oil das Oel das eul to light anziinden anzeeyuenden the bed das Bett das bet the counterpane die Bettdecke dee bettdeckay the sheets die Bettiicher dee betteeyuche? the pillow das kopfkissen das kopfkissen the basin das waschbecken das vashbecker the soap die Seife dee sifay the towel das Handtuch das handtooch warm water warmes Wasser varmes vasser cold water kaltes Wasser kaltes vasser hot water heisses Wasser heyses vasser to wash waschen vashen the comb der Kamm dar kam to comb kammen kemmen Fruits, Trees, and Flowers. The apple der Apfel dar apfel the apple-tree der Apfelbaum dar apfelbowm the pear die Birne dee beernay the pear-tree der Birnbaum dar beernbowm the plum die Pflaume dee pflowmay the plum-tree der Pflaumenbaum dar pflowmenbowm the cherry die Kirsche dee keershay the chestnut die Kastanie dee kastanyay the peach der Pfirsich dar pfeersich the apricot die Apricose dee apreecosay the orange die Apfelsine dee apfelseenay the lemon die Citrone dee citronay the grape die Weintraube dee vinetrowbay the nut die Nuss dee nooss the walnut die Wallnuss dee valnooss the currant die Johannisbeere dee yohanisbaray the gooseberry die Stachelbeere dee stachelbaray the raspberry die Himbeere dee himbaray the blackberry die Brombeere dee brombaray the strawberry die Erdbeere dee erdbaray the oak die Eiche dee ichay the beech die Buche dee boochay the poplar die Pappel dee papel the lime die Linde dee linday the ash die Eshe dee eshay the fir die Tanne dee tannay the willow die Weide dee viday the rose die Rose dee rosay the pink die Nelke dee nelkay the tulip die Tulpe dee toolpay the lily die Lilie dee leeleeay the violet das Veilchen das filechen the lilac der Flieder dar fleeder the lily of the V; alley das Maibliimchen das mybleeyumche* Animals, Birds, Fishes, and Insects. The horse das Pferd das pfayrd the colt das FUllen das feeyullen the donkey der Esel dar aysel the goat die Ziege dee tzeegay the dog der Hund dar Hoond the pig das Schwein das shvine 518 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. English German. Pronunciation. the duck die Ente dee entay the pigeon die Taube dee towbay the cock der Hahn dar haan the chicken das Htihnchen das heeyunchen the wild boar der Eber dar ayber the stag der Hirsch dar heersch the chamois die Gemse dee gemsay the rabbit das Kaninchen das caneenchen the eagle der Adler dar adler the hawk der Habicht dar habicht the pheasant der Fasan dar fasan the bat die Fledermaus dee flaydermouse the partridge das Rebhuhn das rebhoon the peacock der Pfau dar pfow the lobster der Hummer dar hoommer the pike der Hecht dar hecht the perch der Barsch dar barsh the salmon der Lachs dar lacks the trout die Forelle dee forellay the snake die Schlange dee shlangay the ant die Ameise dee amisay the butterfly der Schmetterling dar shmetterling The Dress. The clothes die Kleider dee klider the coat der Rock dar rock the trowsers die Hosen dee hozen the pocket die Tasche dee tashay the buttons die Knopfe dee kneupfay the dressing-gown der Schlafrock dar shlafrock the slippers die Pantoffeln dee pantofeln the drawers die Unterhosen dee oonterhosen the stockings die Strumpfe dee streeyumpfay the shirt das Hemd das hemd the braces die Hosentrager dee hozen trayger the waistcoat > die Weste dee vestay the boot der Stiefel dar steefel the boot-jack der Stiefelknecht dar steefelknecht the cap die Mutze dee meeyutzay the glovas die Handschuhe dee handshooay the handkerchief das Taschentuch das tashentooch the watch die Uhr dee oor the umbrella der Regenschirm dar raygensheerm the purse die BSrse dee borsay the brush die Btirste dee beeyurstay the comb der Kamm dar kam the apron die Schtirze dee sheeyurzay the fan der Facher dar fecher the dress das Kleid das klide the petticoat der Unterrock dar oonterrock the stays der Schntlrleib dar shneeyurlibe the veil der Schleier dar shlier the powder der Puder dar pooder the soap die Seife dee zifay the tooth-powder das Zahnpulver das tzaanpoolver The voyage Traveling, die Seereise dee zayreyzay the traveler der Reisende dar reyzenday the road die Landstrasse dee landstrassay the rail -load die Eisenbahn dee isenbaan the station die Station dee statzion the train der Zug dar tzoog the engine die Maschine dee masheenay the carriage der Wagen dar vaagen the departure die Abreisc dee abreyzay English. German. Pronunciation. the arrival die Ankunft dee ankoonft the passport der Pass dar pass the inn (hotel) der Gasthof dar gasthof the landlord der Wirth dar veert the waiter der Kellner dar kelner the bill die Rechnung dee rechnoong the interpreter der Dolmetscher dar dolmetsher the luggage das Gepack das gepeck the trunk der Koffer dar coffer the carpet-bag der Reisesack dar rizayzack Of Writing. The paper das Papier das papier the writing-paper das Schreibpapier das shribepapeer the writing die Schrift dee shrift the sheet der Bogen dar bogen the pen die Feder dee fayder the steel pen die Stahlfeder dee staalfayder the penknife das Federmesser das faydermesser the inkstand das Tintenfass das tintenfas the ink die Tinte dee tintay the pencil der Bleistift dar blystift the scissors die Scheere dee shay ray the seal das Petschaft das petshaft the sealing-wax derSiegellack dar seegellack the wafer die Oblate dee oblaatay the ruler das Lineal das leenayal the letter der Brief dar breef the note das Billet das bilget the envelope das Couvert das coovayrt the date das Datum das datoom the direction die Adresse dee adressay the post die Post dee post Countries and Nations. The country das Land das land the native land das Vaterland das faterland the state der Staat dar staat the empire das Reich das riche the kingdom das Konigreich das keunigriche Europe Europa Europa the European der Europaer dar Europayer America Amerika America the American der Amerikaner dar Amerikaaner Asia Asien Azien Africa Afrika Afrika the East Indies Ostindien Ostindien the West Indies Westindien Vestindien the United States die Vereinigten Staa- ■ dee vereinigten st«a ten ten Brazil Brasilien Brazilien England England England the Englishman der Englander dar Englender Ireland Irland Eerland the Irishman der Irlander dar Eerlender Scotland Schottland Shotland the Scotchman der Schotte dar Shottay France Frankreich Frankrich the Frenchman der Franzose dar Frantzosay Germany Deutschland Doytshland the German der Deutsche dar Doytshay Holland Holland Holland the Dutchman der Hollander dar Hollender Austria Oesterreich Osterrich the Austrian der Oesterreicher dar Osterri«her Prussia Preusseu Proyssea GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 519 English. German. Pronunciation. the Prussian der Preusse dar Proyssay Russia Russland Roossland the Russian der Russe dar Roossay Sweden Schweden Shvayden the Swede der Schwede dar Shvayday Denmark Danemark Danemark the Dane der Dane dar Daynay Switzerland die Schweiz die Shvitze the Swiss der Schweizer dar Shvitzer Italy Italien Italyen the Italian der Italiener dar Italiayner Spain Spanien Spanyen the Spaniard der Spanier dar Spaneeare Greece Griechenland Greechenland the Greek der Grieche dar Greechay Turkey die Tiirkei dee Teeyurki the Turk der Ttirke dar Teeyurkay the Jew der Jude dar Yooday the Persian der Perser dar Perzer Trade. The merchant der Kaufmann dar kowfman the shop der Laden dar laaden the counting-house das Comptoir das congtwor the merchandise die Waare dee vaaray the wholesale mer- • der Grosshandler dar grosshendler chant the retailer der Kleinhandler dar klinehendler the correspondent der Correspondent dar correspondent the stock das Lager das laager the daybook das Journal das joornal the ledger das Hauptbuch das howptbooch the cash-book das Kassabuch das cassabooch the invoice die Factur dee factoor the bill of exchange der Wechsel dar vechsel the remittance die Rimesse dee rimessay the acceptance das Accept das accept the payment die Bezahlung dee betzaaloong the receipt die Quittung dee quittoong the buyer der Kaufer dar koyfer the seller der Verkaufer dar ferkoyfer the debtor der Debitor dar daybeetor the creditor der Creditor dar credeetor Cardinal Numbers. One ein, eins ine, ines two zwei tsvi three drei dri four vier feer five filnf feeyunf six sechs zex seven sieben zeeben eight acht acht nine neun noyn ten zehn tsane eleven elf elf twelve zwolf tsvelf thirteen dreizehn dreytsane fourteen vierzehn feertsane fifteen fiinfzehn feeyunftsane sixteen sechszehn zexstsane seventeen siebenzehn zeeben tsane eighteen achtzehn achttsane nineteen neunzehn noyntsane twenty zwanzig tsvantzig English. German. Pronunciation. 21 ein und z*vanzig ine oond tsvantzig 22 zwei und zwanzig tsvi oond tsvantzig 23 drei und zwanzip- dri oond tsvantzig 30 dreissig dritzig 40 vierzig feertzig 50 fiinfzig feeyunftzig 6o sechszig zechstzig 70 siebenzig zeeben tzig 8o achtzig achtzig 90 neunzig noyn tzig 100 hundert hoondert 101 hundert und eins hoondert oond ines 102 hundert und zwei hoondert oond tsvi 200 zwei hundert tsvi hoondert 300 drei hundert dri hoondert 400 vier hundert feer hoondert 500 filnf hundert feeyunf hoondert 600 sechs hundert zex hoondert 700 sieben hundert zeeben hoondert §00 acht hundert , acht hoondert 900 neun hundert noyn hoondert 1000 tausend towzend 2000 zwei tausend tsvi towzend 3000 drei tausend dri towzend 10000 zehn tausend tsane towzend a million eine Million inay milleeown 1859 ein Tausend, acht ine towzend acht Hundert neun und hoondert noyn fiinfzig oond feeyunftzig Ordinal Numbers. the first der Erste dar ayrste ii 2d “ Zweite “ tsvitay t * 3d “ Dritte “ drittay U 4th “ Vierte “ feertay ii 5th “ Fiinfte “ feeyunftay * < 6th “ Sechste “ zexte ii 7th “ Siebente “ zeebentay it 8th “ Achte “ achtay < i 9th “ Neunte “ noyntay ii 10th “ Zehnte “ tsanetay ( i nth “ Eilfte “ elftay it 1 2 th “ Zwolfte “ tsvelftay it 13 th “ Dreizehnte “ dreytsanetay a 14th “ Vierzehnte “ feertsanetay a 15th “ Fiinfzehnte “ feeyunftsanetay >( 16th “ Sechszehnte “ zechtsanetay < < 17 th “ Siebenzehnte “ zeebentsanetay a 1 8th “ Achtzehnte “ achtsanetay tt 19th “ Neunzehnte “ noyntsanetay n 20th “ Zwanzigste “ tsvanzigstay < * 2ISt “ Ein und Zwan- “ ine oond tsvan- zigste tsigstay it 22d “ Zwei und Zwan- “ tsvi oond tsvan- zigste tsigstay t < 23d “ Drei und Zwan- “ dri oond tsvan- zigste tsigstay tt 30th “ Dreissigste “ drysigstay i < 40 th “ Vierzigste “ feertsigstay it 50th “ Flinftzigste “ feeyunftsigstay tt 60 th “ Sechszigste “ zechtsigstay 1 1 70th “ Siebenzigste “ zeebentsigstay ti 80th “ Achtzigste “ achtsigstay 1 1 90th “ Neunzigste “ noyntsigstay ti 100th “ Hundertste “ hoondertstay a 101st “ Hundert und “ hoondert oond erste ayrstay it 200th “ Zweihundertste “ tsvi hoondertstay n 300th “ Dreihundertste “ dri hoondertstay it 1000th “ Tausendste “ towzendstay 18 5 20 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. Collective Numbers. English. German. Pronunciation. A pair ein Paar ine paar a dozen ein Uutzend ine dootsend. a. score Zwanzig tsvantsig firstly erstens ayrstens secondly zweitens tsvitens thirdly drittens drittens the first time das Erstemal das ayrstaymal the second time das Zweitemal das tsvitaymal once einmal inemal twice zweimal tsvimal three times dreimal drymal singly einfach inefach double doppelt doppelt threefold dreifach dryfach fourfold vierfach feerfach one sort einerlei inerlye two sorts zweierlei tsvierlye ten sorts zehnerlei tzanerly Adjectives. Small klein kline narrow enge engay low niedrig needrig beautiful schon sheun handsome hiibsch heeyubsh ugly hasslich hesslich bad schlecht shlecht easy leicht leicht heavy schwer schvare soft weich veich true wahr vaar short kurz koorts far weit vite sweet SUSS seevuss hollow hohl hole blunt stumpf stoompf delicious kostlich keustlich disagreeable honest polite obliging kind prudent stupid ridiculous reasonable happy unhappy unangenehm ehrlich hoflich gefallig gUt'g klug dumtn lacherlich vernUnftig gliicklich unglUcklich oonangenaym ayrlich heuflich gefellig geeyutig kloog doom lecherlich ferneeyunftig gleeyucklich oongleeyucklich glad satisfied froh zufrieden fro tsoofreeden Yes \ j a { ja wohl active thatig tatig indeed in der That rude grob grobe truly wahrlich proud stoltz stolts certainly gewiss bold kUhn keeyuhn surely sicherlich strong stark stark only nur weak schwach shvach some etwas attentive aufmerksam owfmerksam nothing nichts clever geschickt geshickt much viel mild gelind gelind quite ganzlich sick krank krank very sehr pale blass blass so so healthy gesund gezoond thus also poor arm arm how? wic ? empty leer lare no •iein light hell hell not nicht dark dunkci doonkel but nur English. dry wet dirty cheap clean tired angry merry To breakfast to dine to sup to arrive to depart to meet to be tired to be sleepy to excuse to understand to believe to know to write to read to pronounce to pronounce well to translate to recollect to forget to promise to expect to converse to express to explain to tell to call to weep to recommend to receive to send to buy to pay to order to furnish to sell to reply German. trocken nass schmutzig billig rein mttde bose lustig Verbs. frtihstucken speisen zu Abend essen ankommen abreisen treffen mude sein schlafrig sein entschuldigen verstehen glauben wissen schreiben lesen aussprechen gut aussprechen ubersetzen sich errinnern vergessen versprechen erwarten unterhalten ausdrucken erklaren sagen rufen weinen empfehlen empfangen schicken kaufen bezahlen bestellen liefern verkaufen antworten Adverbs. Pronunciation. trocken nass shmootsig billig rine meeyuday beusay loostig freey ust eey ucken speyzen tsoo abend essen ankommen abieizen treffen meeyude seyn shlafrig seyn entshooldigen farstayen glowben vissen shriben layzen owssprechen goot owssprechea eeyubersetsen sich erinnern fargessen farsprechen arvarten oonterhalten owsd reeyukea arklayren zaagen roofen vinen empfaylen empfangen shicken kowfen betsaalen bestellen leefern farkowfen antvorten yah yah vole in dar tate vaarlich gayviss zicherlich noor etvas nichts feel gehntzlich zare zo alzo vee ? nine nicht noor GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. 521 English. German. Pronunciation. enough genug genooch scarcely kaum kowm all ganz gants almost beinahe bynaey here hier heer there da da where wo vo in herein herine out heraus herows then denn den now jetzt yetst soon bald bald till bis bis seldom selten zelten since seit zite ever immet immer never nie nee oft oft oft already schon schone to-day heute hoytay yesterday gestem gestem late spat spate why? warum ? varoom ? because weil vile if wenn ven perhaps vielleicht feelleycht above Prepositions- , fiber eeyuber about urn oom after nach nach against gegen gaegen before vor for of von fon over fiber eeyuber since seit zite for ffir feeyur from von fon in in in near nahe nahay under unter oonter up auf owf with mit mit Conjunctions. and und oond also auch ouch even sogar sogar or oder oder nor noch noch yet doch doch because weil vile that dass das therefore daher dah&r Affirmative Phrases. English. German. Pronunciation, It is true (Ed i fl tnabr Es ist var It is so (Ed id fo Es ist zo I believe it 3d) fllautf rd Ich glowbay e: I think so 3d) bcitfe cd Ich denkay es I say yes 3d) fagc fa Ich zaagay yah I say it is 3d) fage cv ill Ich zaagay es ist I am certain 3d) bin gctDig Ich bin gayviss I am certain of it 3d) bin bcffcn going Ich bin dessen gay- viss You are right ©ie baben 9Ied)t See haaben recht You are quite right ©te baben ganj SRccbt See haaben gants recht I know it 3* tncifj cd Ich vice es I know it well 3d) tucij) cd gcnau Ich vice es genow I know him 3d) fcnne t!)n Ich kennay een I know it positively 3d) It' d ft cd ft.bcr Ich vice es sicher I promise it 3d) serfprcdje cd Ich versprechay es I promise it to you 3d) vcrfpredie ed dynen Ich versprechay es eenen I give it 3d) gcbe cd Ich gaybay es I give it to you 3d) gcbe cd 3bnen Ich gaybay es eenen I will give it to you 3d) U)tU ed 3()»en gcben Ich vill es eenen gayben You are wrong t Nine Ich zaagay nine Ich zaagay es ist nicht Es ist nicht so Es ist nicht var Ich zaagay nichts Ich vill nichts zaagen Ich haabay nichts Air ist nicht heer Ich haabay es nicht Air hat es nicht Veer haaben es nichi Eer habt es nicht Air zaagtay nine Hat air nine gezaagF Hat air nichts g& zaagt ? Ich haabay nicht gc- heurt Ich haabay es nlch» geheurt Zee haaben doorchi ows ooruwdit 522 GERMAN SELF-TAUGHT. English. Who? Who was it ? What is it? Who is it ? Did you say it ? Interrogative Phrases. German. Pronunciation. fficr? 2Ber rear ed ? 2Bad i|l cd? 2Ber ifl cd ? ©agtcn ©ie ed ? What are you doing ? 2Bad tl)un ©te? What is he doing ? SBad tf)ut cr ? Tell me ©agen ©ie mir Will you tell me ? Vare ? Vare var es ? Vas ist es? Vare ist es ? Zaagten zee es ? Vas toon zee? Vas toot air? Zaagen zee meer How are you ? How is he ? What for ? Why? Why do you ask ? Why shall I go? SQBoIIcrt ©ie mir fagen? Vollen zee meer zaa- gen? 2Bie gcbtd ? SBte gcbtd ibm ? SBofitr? SfBarunt ? ffiarunt fragett ©te ? SBarum foil id) geben? Vee gates ? Vee gates eem ? Vofeeyur ? Varoom ? Varoom fraagen zee ? Varoom zoll ich gayen ? Why do you speak ? SBarum fprcd)ctt ©ie ? Varoom shprechen zee? Why are you silent ? 20arum fcbreetgen ©ie? Varoom shvigen zee ? Why did you go ? ffiarum gtngen ©ie ? Is it ready? Sjledfertig? Have you heard ? £abcn ©ie gebort? Do you hear? ^>oren ©te ? Where ? 2Bo ? Where is it ? 2Bo ifl eS ? Where is he? SBoiflcr? Where is she ? 2Bo ifl fie ? Where are you ? 2Bo finb ©ie? Where are you 2Bo gel)en ©ie bin? Varoom gingen zee ? Ist es fartig ? Haaben zee geheurt ? Heuren zee ? Vo? Vo ist es ? Vo ist air ? Vo ist zee ? Vo zind zee ? Vo gayen zeen hin? going t Where do you come 2Bo tommcn ©ieber? from ? Where were you ? ©o rearm ©ie? What? 2Bad? What is it? SfBadijfed? What is that ? 2Bad ifl bad? What time is it ? ©ad ifl bie Brit? What o’clock is it? SBicriel Ul)r ifl cd? What have you ? ©ad babcn ©ie? What do you say ? ©ad fagen ©ie? What did you say? ©ad fagtcn ©ie? What do you mean ? ©ad mcinett ©ie? What do you want ? ©ad reoflcn ©ie? What will you do ? ©ad rooQen ©ie tbun? Vas vollen zee toon ? Vo commen zee hare ? Vo varen zee ? Vas? Vas ist es? Vas ist das ? Vas ist dee tsite ? Veefeel oor ist es? Vas haaben zee ? Vas zaagen zee ? Vas zaagten zee ? Vas minen zee ? Vas vollen zee ? Imperative Phrases. Come away ! H’ommen ©ic fort! Kommen zee fort ! Come here ! Jtommcn ©ie bierber ! Kommen zee heer- hare ? Go there ! ®cben ©ie bortbin! Gayen zee dorthin ! Come back 1 Hommen ©ie juritcf ! Kommen zee tsoo- reeyuck ! Go on ! ■ ©eben ©ie reciter! Gayen zee viter ! Sit down ! ©cfccn ©ie fid) ! Setsen zee zich ! Stand still ! ©tebcn ©ie fiill I Stayen zee still ! Wait ©arten ©ie Varten zee Wait for me ffiartcn ©ie auf mid) Varten zee owf mich Wait a little ©artcti ©ie cin recnig Varten zee ine vaynig Make haste 5Wad)cn ©ie fcbncll Machen zee shnel Be quick SSccilcn ©ic ftd) Bayilen zee zich Follow me ffolgcn ©ie mir Folgen zee meer Follow him Solgen ©ic ibm Folgen zee eem Tell him ©agen ©ie ibm Zaagen zee eem Call him fRufen ©ie ii)n Roofen zee een Speak ©prcd)cn ©ie Shprechen zee Eat dffen ©te Essen zee English. German. Pronunciation. Drink Srinfcn ©ie Trinken zee Hear fporen ©ie Heuren zee Hear me •jireren ©ie micb Heuren zee mich Look at me ©eben ©ie micb an Zayen zee mich an Look at him ©eben ©ie ibn an Zayen zee een an Begin gangen ©ie an Fan gen zee an Continue Sabrcn aben ©ie e ©itte Yes, Sir Yes, Madam No, Sir No, Madam No, Miss Do you speak German ? English ? or French ? I do not speak Ger- man I speak it a little I understand I understand it but I do not speak it 3a, mein £>err 3a, fWabam 9iein, mein fberr 91cin, miabant 9fcin, mein ffraulein ©predjen ©ie beutfcb ? citglifd) ? obcr franjoflfd) ? 3Wil4 Milch some cheese Safe Kaysay I thank you 34 banfe Sbnen Ich dankay eenen Good morning Good day Good afternoon How do you do? How are you? Very well I am very well Pretty well Tolerably How is your father? How is your mother ? I am not well I am unwell She is not well He is not well She is ill He is very ill She has a cold I have the toothache I must go I am going now It is time to go Good bye Farewell I wish you a good morning Meeting. ©uten IWorgen ©uten Sag ©utcrt 9?a4mittag SBie gebt’d ? SBie beftnben ©ie fid) ? ©el)r tnobl 3$ beftnbe mid) fef)t roofjl 3temlid) wobl ©o jicmlid) SBie bcftnbet fid) 3br •5>crr Slater? SBie befinbet fi4 3bre Srrau fWutter? 34 bin niebt rooljl 34 bin unmobl ©ie ifl nid)t tvobl (Er ifi niebt tpobl ©ie ifl franf (Er ifl febr franf ©ie bat fid> erfdltet 34 babe Babnmeb 34 mug geben 3d> flebe jefyt (Ed ill 3cit ju geben Seben ©ie mol)! Slbieu 34 rounfdjc 3bnett einen guten IWorgen Good evening ©uten SIbenb Good night ©ute 9ta4t I wish you good 3d) tt>itnfd)e 3^nen night gute SSadjt My compliments at IKeine (Empfcblungen home ben 3btigen Gooten morgen Gooten tag Gooten nachmittag Vee gaytes Vee befinden zee zich ? Zare vole Ich befinday mich zare vole Tseemlich vole Zo tseemlich Vee befindet zicheer har fater ? Vee befindet zich eerefrow mootter? Ich bin nicht vole Ich bin oonvole Zee ist nicht vole Air ist nicht vole Zee ist krank Air ist zare krank Zee hat zich airkeltet Ich haabay tsaanvay Ich moos gayen Ich gayay yetst Es ist tsite tsoo gayen Layben zee vole Adeeu Ich veeyunshe eenen inen gooten mor- gen Gooten abend Gootay nacht Ich veeyunshe eenen gootay nacht Minay empfayloon ■ gen dan eeregen A Visit. There is a knock (Ed flopft Es klopft It is Mr. A. (Si ifl fberr 91. Es ist har A. It is Mrs. B. (Si ifl OTabarn S3. Es ist madam B. I am glad to see you 3d) freue mid) ©ie ju Ich froyay mich zee feben tsoo zayen Pray be seated Sitte fe)jcn fie fid) Bittay zetsen zee zich English. German. Pronunciation. What news is there ? Good news Do you believe it ? I don’t believe a word of it I think so SBad giebtd 9?cueS? ©ute 9Ia4ricbtcn ©laubcti ©ie ed ? 3d) glaube fern SBort bason 3d) bettfe (glaube) fo I think not Who told you ? It is true It is not true I doubt it Have you heard from home ? The postman brought me a letter to-day Sad news 3d) benfe niebt 2Ber bat ed Sbnen ge= fagt? (Si ill mabr (Si ifl nid)t mabr 3d) bcjtreifle ed •£>abcn ©ie son -Smitfe gebort ? Ter 93rieftrager bradjtc mir beute einen Sricf ©d;led)te 9?adirid)ten Will you dine with 5BoHen ©ie mit ttnd us ? fpeifen ? No, thank you SFetrt, id) banfe Sbnen I cannot stay 3d) fann niebt bleiben I must go 34 mug geben You are in a great ©ie fiub in groger (Eile hurry I have a great deal 34 babe sir! ju tbun. to do Vas geebts noyes? Gootay nachrichten Glowben zee es ? Ich glowbay kine vort dafon Ich denke (glowbay) zo Ich denke nicht Var hat es eenen ge zaagt ? Es ist var Es ist nicht var Ich betsviflay es Haaben zee von howsay geheurt ? Dar breeftrayger braclitay meerhoy tay inen breef Shlechtay nachrich- te>n Vollen zee mit oons spizen ? Nine, ich dankay eenen Ich kann nicht bliben Ich moos gayen Zee zind in grosser ilay Ich haabay feel tzoo toon Expressions of Joy. What ! SBad ! Is it possible ! 3(1 cd mogli4 ! Can it be ! EEann ed fein ! How can it be pos- SBie fann ti moglkb sible ! feint Who would have be- 2Ber tsiirbe bad ge» lieved it ! glaubt baben ! Indeed ! SBivfli4 ! It is impossible (Ed ifl unmogli4 That cannot be (Si fann niefct fein I am astonished at it 34 tsunbere mi4 bar» itber You surprise me ©ie itberraf4en mi4 It is incredible (Ed ifl mtglaubli4 Vas ! Ist es meuglich ! Kan es zine ! Vee kan es meuglich zine ! Var veeyurday das geglowbt haaben ! Virklich ! Es ist oonmeuglich Es kann nicht zine Ich voonderay mich dareeyuber Zee eeyuberrashen mich Es ist oonglowblich Of Sorrow and Joy. I am sorry I am very sorry What a pity It is a great pity It is a sad thing It is a misfortune It is a great mis- fortune I am glad I am glad of it (Si tbut mir leib (Ed tbut mir febr leib SBie f4abe (Ed ifl febr f4abe (Ed cine traurige ©a4e (Ed ifl ein Unglitcf (Ed ifl ein groped Un= flliicf (Si ifl mir lieb 34 freue mi4 baritber I am very glad (Ed ifl mir febr lieb It gives me pleasure orcn ©ie mid) ? Heuren zee mich ? 3d) jprcd)e mil Sbnen Ich sprechay mil uid)t eenen nicht SScrfleben ©ie mid) ? Fershtayen zee mich: Sbren ©ie Jfommen ©ie bierber ©ad til bad ? Sntmorten ©ie ©arum antmorten ©ie ntd)l ? ©ad meinen ©ie ? ©ad meinen ©ic bamit ? 3d) iscrmutbe ©ie fpre* d)en beutjd) ©cl)r mcntg, mein £err Hennen ©ie mid) ? itenncn ©ie jberrn •§> ? 3d) fenne tjjn 3d) fenne il)n ntd)t 3d) fenne ©ie 3d) fenne ibu non 5In= feben 3d) fenne ibn bei Diamcn (Sr ijl mtr mobl bcfannt ©ie ncitncn ©ie bad ? Heuren zee Konimen zee heer hare Vas ist das? Antvorten zee Varoom antvorten zee nicht ? Vas minen zee? Vas minen zee da- mit ? Ich fermootay zee shprechen doytsh Zare vanig mine hare Kennen zee mich ? Kennen zee ham H ? Ich kennay een Ich kennay een nicht Ich kennay zee Ich kennay een von anzane Ich kennay een by naamen Air ist meer vole be- kant Vee nennen zee das? ©ic bnfit bad auj Vee histe das owl IDeutfd) ? Doytsh ? 2Bte bcigt bad auj Vee histe das ow$ (Engtifd? ? ©ad Ijcigt bad ? ffioju ijl cd gut ? (Sd ijl ju nidjtd gut 3fi cd gut ? 3ft cd fd)Iccbt ? 3|1 cd epbar ? 3fi cd tvinfbar 9 Sfi cd fd)»n ? 3(1 cd jtifcb? English ? Vas histe das? Votsoo ist es goot ? Es ist tsoo nidits goot Ist es goot ? Ist es shlecht? Ist es esbar ? Ist es trinkbar? Ist es sheun ? Ist es fnsh ? An early morning Early It is a fine morning What o’clock is it ? It is nearly eight Light the fire Light a candle Morning. Sin frubcr fKorgcn grid) (Ed t|l eiu fdjcncr fWor. gen ©ad ijl tie tttjr? (Ed ijl ttal)e ad)t ltl)r Siiubcn ©le bad genet an Sunbcn ©le ciit Cidit an I am going to get up 3d) trill mtfficbcn Get me some hot Sringcn ©ie mit ctioad water beiped SBaffcv Some cold water (Etmad failed ©affer Some spring-water Qrtmod Srinfmaffer Make haste 5/Iad)cn ©ic fdjncH Ine freeyuer morgen Freeyu Es ist ine sheune* morgen Vas ist dee oor ? Es ist naay acht oou Tseeyunden zee daa foyer an Tseeyunden zee ina liclit an Ich vill owfstayen Bringen zee meet etvas hises vasser Etvas kaltes vasser Etvas trinkvasser Machen zee shneJ AGRICULTURE. 525 jGRICULTURE is the art of cultivating the ground, and of obtain- from it the product nec- essary to sustain animal life. The change from a state of nature, in which the hu- man race must have first lived, to the pastoral, or to any high mode of living, must have been gradual, the work, perhaps, of ages. The race was doomed to toil, and necessity soon sharpened the power of invention. The agriculture of a people must be influenced by the cli- mate and natural features of the country. Formerly its progress largely depended on the density of the population, but now, the iron horse and the giant steamer bear away the product of the farm, and the results of the labor of a few are reaped by the many, hundreds and thousands of miles away. This vast continent has been justly called the granary of the world. We shall now see how an infinitesimally small portion of it should be worked so as o enable the toiler to become the bread-winner, how the farm may be managed so as to produce the all-mighty dollar. In selecting a farm, or entering upon the cultiva- tion of one already in possession, the farmer should, first of all, turn his attention to an investigation of the various soils of which its surface is composed. All soils adapted to agricultural purposes are com- posed of two classes of substances — organic and in- organic. The inorganic parts are derived from the decay of animal and vegetable matter. The organic part of the soil is generally called vegetable mold, but scientific writers designate it as humus. To be fertile, a soil must contain a considerable portion of this organic matter. More than fifty per cent, cf humus , however, in a moist soil has an injurious effect, rendering it what is called sour. Of the various soils several distinct classifications may be made. It will be well, at the outset, to con- sider them all as embraced in two grand classes — heavy or light. The distinction indicated by these terms is familiar to every farmer. He knows, too, that it is a predominance of clay which constitutes a soil heavy, and that an excess of sand or gravel makes a soil what is called light. Heavy soils, also often denominated cold and wet, are dis- tinguished for tlicir affinity for water, their tenacity, their soft- ness when wet, and their hardness when dry. They are ad- mirably adapted to wheat, oats, Indian corn, and the various grasses ; hence they are sometimes styled grass lands, and are generally susceptible of being made highly productive. Light soils are easily cultivated, friable, dry, and warm ; but their porousness renders them liable to drouth and exhaus- tion. They are particularly adapted to rye, barley, buckwheat, and the tap-rooted plants. Soils are chiefly made up of what are sometimes called the three primitive earths — silex (including sand and gravel), clay, and lime. As either of these predominates, it gives its pecu- liar character to the soil, whence we have the arrangement into three grand classes — sandy, clayey, and rimy soils. I. Sandy Soils . — A soil containing not less than seventy per cent, of sand may be considered sandy, in the sense in which the term is here used. 526 AGRICULTURE. 2. Clayey Soils. — Clay with a mixture of not more than twenty per cent, of sand forms a clayey soil. 3. Limy Soils. — Limy or calcareous soils are those in which lime, exceeding twenty per cent., becomes the distinguishing characteristic. Calcareous soils may be either calcareous clays, calcareous sands, or calcareous loams, according to the proportions of clay or sand that may be present in them. 4. Loamy Soils. — Loamy soils are intermediate between those denominated sandy and those with predominant clayey characteristics. There are sandy loams, clayey loams, calcare- ous loams, and vegetable loams. 5. Marly Soils. — Soils containing lime, but in which the proportion does not exceed twenty per cent., are sometimes called marly. 6. Alluvial Soils. — Soils made up of the washings of streams are called alluvial. They contain portions of every kind of soil existing in the surrounding country, and are generally loamy and very fertile. 7. Vegetable Molds. — When decayed vegetable and animal matter or humus exists in so great a proportion as to give the predominant character to a soil, it sometimes receives the name of vegetable mold. 8. Subsoils. — The stratum or bed on which a soil immedi- ately rests is called the subsoil. Subsoils, like soils, may be either silicious, argillaceous, or calcareous. ANALYSIS OF SOILS. Chemical analysis shows that the organic parts of a soil are composed or carbon , oxygen , nitrogen , and hydrogen. The in- organic parts of a fertile soil, in addition to the silex, clay, and lime, of which we have already spoken, contain smaller quantities of magnesia, potash, soda, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, oxyd of iron, and oxyd of manganese. All these are essential to independent fertility. To ascertain the percentage of sand which a soil may con- tain, dry a quantity thoroughly ; weigh it ; boil it in water ; stir it in a convenient vessel, and when the sand has settled pour off the liquid, which will hold the fine clay, etc., in sus- pension ; after doing this a few times, nothing will remain in the bottom of the vessel but nearly pure sand, which may be dried and weighed, and the quantity will show whether the soil be sandy, loamy, or clayey. Any considerable quantity of lime in a soil is readily detected by pouring upon it a little muriatic acid, which may be ob- tained at any apothecary shop. So soon as this acid comes in contact with lime, if there be any, a brisk effervescence will take place, owing to the bubbling up and escape of carbonic acid gas. 1. Texture of Soils. — Considered in reference to texture, a soil may be described as essentially a mixture of an impalpa- ble powder with a greater or smaller quantity of visible par- ticles of all sizes and shapes. Now, although the visible particles are absolutely essential, their effects are, as it were, indirect ; the impalpable powder alone exerting a direct in- fluence upon vegetation, by entering into solution with the water and acids with which it comes in contact ; for plants are incapable of taking in solid matter, however minutely divided ; and it is in a liquid or gaseous form only that their food can be received. From this it will be readily understood how a soil may possess all the elements of fertility and yet be barren, on account of seme of these elements being locked up in it, as it were, in an insoluble condition. The stones and smallet visible portions of the soil are gradually but constantly crumb- ling down under the action of air, moisture, and other chemi- cal agents, thus adding, from year to year, new impalpable matter to the soil. The greater the proportion of this impal- pable matter, all other things being equal, the greater will be the fertility of the soil. Soils must also be examined in reference to their consistency or tenacity, which is nothing more than the strength with which their molecules or particles are bound to each other by what is called, in the language of natural philosophy, the at- traction of cohesion. Clayey soils have the greatest degree of consistency, and sandy soils the least. Both extremes are unfavorable, a medium in this respect agreeing best with vegetation. 2. Depth of Soil. — A deep soil has not only the advantage of giving the roots of plants a wider range and a greater mass of food, but it retains moisture better in seasons of drouth, and is not so readily saturated in rainy weather. For the tap- rooted plants, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, etc., depth of soil is particularly important. 3. Colors of Soils. — The brown and red soils are generally the best. They are termed warm, and are mostly loamy and fertile. Yellow and gray indicate clayey soils, which are cold in their nature. Black generally indicates peat or deep vegeta- ble mold. Dark-colored earths absorb heat more rapidly than others, but they also allow it to escape with equal readiness. 4. Humidity of Soils. — Too great moisture is not less in- jurious to a soil than extreme dryness. The proper medium should be sought, and where land is too wet, thorough under- draining should be practiced. 5. Lnfuence of Subsoils. — A subsoil of clay beneath a clayey soil is unfavorable ; but beneath a sandy soil it is beneficial, especially if deep plowing and subsoiling be resorted to for the purpose of improving the latter. On the same principle a sandy or gravelly subsoil is desirable under clayey soils. A calcareous or limy subsoil is beneficial to both clayey and sandy soils. 6. Position and Form of Surface. — Sandy soils are most fertile when flat and situated lower than the surrounding country. On the declivities of hills, such soil is of less value, as it is liable to become parched by drouths and washed away by rains. Clayey soils, on the contrary, especially where the subsoil is impermeable, are favorably situated when on a hill- side. Southern and eastern exposures are favorable to early vegetation, and in a cold climate or with a clayey soil are very desirable for many crops. 1. Lm proving Clayey Soils. — One of the principal defects of clayey soils, especially where they rest upon a subsoil of the same nature, is the excess of water which is held in them. The only effectual way, in a majority of cases, to get rid of this is by thorough underdraining. Open drains or ditches, though less effectual, are useful. In some cases “ water fur- rows.” terminating in some ravine or ditch, serve a very good purpose. AGRICULTURE. 527 Lime is exceedingly useful as an ameliorator of clayey soils. Gypsum or plaster of Paris, ashes, coarse vegetable manures, straw, leaves, chips, etc., are also very useful, adding new materials to the soil, and tending to separate its particles and destroy their strong cohesion. Jn cold climatfs, plowing clayey lands in the fall, and thus exposing them to the action of the frosts and snows, has a beneficial effect. At the South, where there is little frost, and frequent and heavy rains occur during the winter, the effect of fall plowing is very injurious. Clayey lands must never be plowed when wet. Where a clayey soil rests upon a sandy subsoil, its improve- ment is easier, as deep plowing, by which a portion of the subsoil is turned up and mixed with the soil, soon modifies it very sensibly. 2. Improving Sandy Soils. — Sandy soils require a treatment in most respects the reverse of that applied to clayey soils. Lime and gypsum, which render clayey soils more friable, increase the adhesiveness of sandy soils, and when cheaply obtained furnish a profitable dressing. Ashes may also be ap- plied with great benefit, as may vegetable manures and vege- table mold. Sandy soils are plowed to the greatest advantage when wet, and are improved by the frequent use of a heavy roller. Pasturing sheep upon them is very beneficial. Gravelly soils (except calcareous gravels) are more difficult of improvement than sandy soils, and are most profitably ap- propriated to pasturage. Sheep will keep them in the most useful condition of which they are capable. 3. Improvement of Vegetable Soils. — Soils composed mainly of humus or vegetable mold, should be drained from all ex- cess of water. Then the hommocks, if any, must be cut off, dried, and burned, and the ashes spread over the surface ; after which sand, fine gravel, ashes, air-slaked lime, and barn-yard manure should be liberally added. 4. Management of Subsoils. — In subsoil plowing a common plow goes first and is followed in the same furrow by the sub- soil plow, which thoroughly breaks up the subsoil to the depth of from twelve to sixteen inches, without displacing it. At subsequent plowings portions of this subsoil are turned up by allowing the common plow to run more deeply than before ; but care should be taken not to bring it up too rapidly or in too large quantities. Subsoil plowing should be repeated once in five or six years; going each time a little deeper than before, till the greatest practical depth is attained. Subsoil plowing is not applicable, however, to all lands. Where the subsoil is loose and leachy, consisting of an excess of sand or gravel, it is not only unnecessary but positively in- jurious. The gradual mixing of the subsoil with the soil which re- sults from subsoil plowing is especially beneficial to lands which have been for a long time under cultivation, and have become partially exhausted. Where underdraining is required, it should precede the subsoiling, and the surface of the drains should be sufficiently below the surface not to be disturbed by the subsoil plow. With the exception we have noted, where the subsoil is loose and leachy, subsoil plowing, though expensive, will most cer- tainly “ pay,’’ as experience has amply proved. HE productive power of soils subjected to cultivation is gradually exhausted by the process. Some of the alluvial lands of Virginia produced large annual crops of corn and tobacco for more than a cen- tury, without any return being made to them for the elements of fertility abstracted , but these lands are now nearly valueless. The average yield, per acre, of the cultivated lands of the State of New York has decreased considerably since 1844, when the records on which these tables are founded were commenced. In corn the decrease is nearly four bushels per acre ; in wheat nearly two bushels ; and in potatoes, partly owing to the rot, no doubt, twenty-two and a half bushels. These are instructive facts, and should cause the farmer to pause and reflect. Both the organic and inorganic parts of plants are made up from their food, which must of course con- sist of both organic and inorganic materials. The former are obtained partly from the soil and partly from the air ; the latter come exclusively from the soil. A fertile soil must therefore contain, in suf- ficient quantity and in an available form, all the con- stituents of plants ; and to maintain its fertility under cultivation, these constituents must be supplied in the form of manures so fast as they are taken up by the crops produced. I. VEGETABLE MANURES. Vegetable manures are not so energetic in their action as those of animal or mineral origin, but their effects are more durable ; and the wise agriculturist will avail himself largely of the cheap means of ameliorating his soil which they afford. 1. Green Crops. — Plowing in green crops, such as clover spurry, sainfoin, buckwheat, cow-peas, turnips (sown thickly/, Indian corn, etc., is one of the best modes of renovating and sustaining a soil. Worn-out lands, unsalable at ten dollars an acre, have by this means, while steadily remunerating their proprietors by their returning crops for all the outlay of labor and money, been brought up in value to fifty dollars an acre. For the Northern States red cloverhas been found best fitted for a green manure ; but in particular cases some other crop may be used with greater advantage. At the South, the cow« AGRICULTURE. 5 *« pea (which is no pea, but a bean) is considered the best | fertilizer. Clover and most broad-leaved plants draw largely for their sustenance from the air, especially when aided by the applica- tion of gypsum. By its long tap-roots, clover also draws much from the subsoil. The proper time to turn in most plants used as green manure | is at the season of blossoming. The same effects follow the plowing of grass lands, and turning under the turf ; and the thicker and heavier the sward the better. 2. Straw , Leaves, etc. — Straw, leaves, hay, are usually ap- plied to the lands after they have either been worked over by animals and mixed with their manures, or composted with other substances and decomposod ; but clayey soils are bene- fited by their application in an undecayed state. Potato-tops or haulm ; bean haulm ; weeds, pulled before they have seeded, and all kinds of vegetable refuse, are readily decomposed by the addition of a small quantity of animal sub- stances or lime, and should be carefully composted. 3. Sea-weed. — Sea-weed and pond-weed form valuable ma- nures. The former is particularly rich in the substances most needed by our crops. 4. Cotton Seed. — At the South, cotton seed is much used as a manure, and is very valuable for that purpose. It is applied at the rate of from eighty to a hundred bushels per acre. It may be sown broadcast and plowed in during the winter, when it will rot before spring, or it may be left in heaps to heat till its vitality is destroyed, when it may be thrown upon the corn hills and covered with the hoe or plow. 5. Turf , Muck , llui, etc. — Rich turf, full of the roots of the grasses and decayed vegetable matter, is valuable as an absorbent of animal or other manures in compost heaps. Mix- ing it with lime, and leaving it several weeks to decompose, is a good preparatory process. Swamp muck, pond mud, and the scourings of old ditches, are exceedingly rich in vegetable matter, and are all exceed- ingly useful as manures. II. ANIMAL MANURES. These comprise the flesh, blood, hair, bones, horns, excre- ments, etc., of animals. They contain more nitrogen than vegetable manures, and are far more powerful. I. Stable Manures. — The standard manure of this country is that from the stable and barn-yard. The principal varieties are those of the ox. the cow, the horse, and the sheep. Of these, that of the horse is the most valuable in its fresh state, but is very liable, as ordinarily treated, to loose much of its value by fermentation ; that of the sheep comes next ; while that of the cow is placed at the bottom of the list, because the enriching substance of her food goes principally to the forma- tion of milk. That of the ox is better. All the urine, as well as the solid excrements of animals, should be carefully preserved. The urine of three cows for one year is worth more than a ton of guano, which would cost from fifty to sixty dollars. Various methods of preserving and applying it will suggest themselves to the intelligent farmer. Stable manures should be sheltered from the sun and rain, and fermenting heaps so covered with turf or loam as to prevent the escape of the fertilizing gases. Plaster, as in the case of urine, will aid in retaining the ammonia. 2. Hog Manure. — The manure of swine is strong and valu- able. Swamp muck, weeds, straw, leaves, etc., should be thrown into the sty in liberal quantities, to be rooted over and mixed with the dung. In this way from five to ten loads of manure per annum may be obtained from a single hog. 3. The Afanure of Towls, etc. — The manure of hens, turkeys, geese, ducks, and pigeons should be carefully collected and preserved. Professor Norton says that three or four hundred pounds of such manure, that has not been exposed to the rain of sun, is equal in value to from fourteen to eighteen loads of stable manure. 4. Cuano. — Of its value as a manure there can be no doubt ; but circumstances must determine whether in any given case it can profitably be purchased and applied at the prices at which it is held. In applying guano, care should be taken that it do not come in contact with any seed, as it might destroy its vitality. 5. Fisk Manures. — These are available near the sea-coast only, where they furnish an important source of fertility, which should not be neglected. The flesh of fish acts with great energy in hastening the growth of plants. It decomposes rapidly, and should be at once plowed under, or made into a well-covered compost heat. 6 Tlesh, Blood, Fair, etc. — Dead animals, the blood and offal irom slaughter-houses, are among the most powerful of fertilizers — equal to guano and the other costly manures. Every animal that dies should be made into compost at once. Hair, woolen rags, leather shavings from the shoe-shops, and all other refuse animal matters, should be carefully pre- served and composted, as they make very rich manure. 7 Bones. — The value of bones as a manure is just beginning to be appreciated in this country. They unite some of the most efficacious and desirable organic and inorganic manures. Bones make a cheap as well as a rich manure, and no thoughtful farmer will suffer one to be wasted about his house. III. MINERAL MANURES. 1. Lime. — Lime is applied to land in three different states — as quick-lime, slaked lime, and mild or air-slaked lime. To cold, stiff, newly drained land, especially if there exist in it much of acid organic compounds, it is best to apply quick, lime or caustic hydrate (slaked lime), as it will have a more energetic effect in ameliorating it. On light soils mild or air- slaked lime is considered most beneficial. It is best to apply lime frequently and in small quantities, so as to keep it near the surface and always active. 2. Marls. — In true marl the principal clement of fertility is the lime which it contains ; but its value is increased by the greater or less proportion of magnesia and phosphoric acid which are usually combined with it. A valuable mineral fertilizer generally called marl, but which contains comparatively little lime, abounds in parts of New Jersey and Delaware. Its effects upon the light sandy soils of New Jersey is very striking indeed. 3. Gypsum. — Gypsum, or plaster of Paris, is a sulphate of AGRICULTURE. 5 2 9 rime, and has been found one of the cheapest and most powerful fertilizers derived from the mineral kingdom. On grass lands it is best to sow it in damp weather or while the dew is on. Sow broadcast at the rate of a bushel to the acre. Seed potatoes may be wet and rolled in plaster before planting with decided advantage ; and we know of no better way of applying it to corn than to give the seed a coat before putting it in the ground. 4. Common Salt , etc. — Common salt, as an ingredient in compost, is of great service. As a top dressing for grass lands — especially these of a loamy texture — it is invaluable. Mixed with wood ashes and lime, in the proportion of one bushel of salt to three of ashes and five of lime, it constitutes a very energetic manure for Indian com. A very useful and energetic mixture is made by the following simple process : “ Take three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of salt in as little water as will dissolve it, and slake the lime with it. If the lime will not take up all the brine at once — which it will if good and fresh burned— turn it over and let it lie a day and add a little more of the brine ; and so continue to do till it is all taken up.’’ Brine which has been used for salting meat or fish is still more valuable than that newly made, as it contains a portion of blood and other animal matter. Whenever refuse nitrate of potash — that is, common salt- peter — or refuse liquid in which it has been dissolved for pickling meat, can be procured, it should be carefully pre- served and mixed into a compost heap. 5. Ashes. — Ashes compose the entire inorganic parts of plants. Returned to the soil, they may again be taken up by the growing vegetation. Their great usefulness as a manure is evident and undisputed. Leached ashes have lost some of their value, being deprived of the greater portion of their potash and soda, but are still very useful as manures. Coal ashes are less valuable than wood ashes, but are by no means to be neglected by the farmer. Soot is exceedingly valuable as a manure, and the small quantity produced should be carefully saved. IV.— MANAGEMENT OF MANURES. T. Fermentation. — That great loss takes place when manure ferments uncovered by some absorbent of the fertilizing gases is clear to every observer and thinker. See to it, then, that all fermenting manure is covered with turf, muck, charcoal dust, sawdust, or plaster, to take up and retain the ammoniacal gases as they arise. 2. Digging over Manures. — The frequent digging over of barn-yard manure, practiced by some farmers, while it pro- motes decomposition, also leads to great waste. 3. Hauling Manure in Winter.— The opinion is now gain- ing ground that, when it can be conveniently done, the best way to secure to the land the greatest possible benefit from stable and barn-yard manure is to draw them at once, so fast as they are produced, to the fields where they are to be used, and either spread them at once or deposit them in heaps so small that no putrefactive fermentation will take place. In many cases, manures may be hauled in the winter with great economy, as the labor of the teams and hands is in less demand elsewhere. 4. A Caution. — Never mix quick-lime with any animal manure, as it will greatly deteriorate the manure. 5. Burying Manure. — Here again doctors disagree. Some advocate burying manure very deeply, others slightly, and still others would leave it upon the surface. The best gen- eral rule, we believe, is to mix it so thoroughly as possible with every part of the soil. The roots will then be sure to find it. A few crops — onions and some of the grasses, for instance — must find their nutriment near the surface, as the roots do not extend deeply ; for these a tr.p dressing may be best. 6. Importance of Texture. — Far more important than the mere presence of fertilizing ingredients, or even the chemical condition of those ingredients, in many cases, is their mechan- ical texture and degree of pulverization. Hence it may be reasonably believed that the general introduction and free use of pulverizers, as the most effective harrows, clod-crushers, and subsoilers, assisted by tile-draining, may be of greater benefit to the whole country' than the importation of a million tons of guano. V.— COMPOSTS. Let nothing that is capable, when decomposed, of furnishing nutriment to your growing crops be permitted to go to waste about your premises. A compost heap should be at hand to receive all decomposed refuse. The best basis for this heap is well-dried swamp muck ; but where this is not readily obtained, procure rich turf scraping from the roadside, leaves and surface soil from the wood lands and the sides of fences, straw, chips, corncobs, weeds, etc., aiding the decay of the coarser materials by the addition of urine or the lime and salt mixture mentioned in the previous section. Let this be com- posted with any animal matter found about the premises, or in the vicinity. VI.— IRRIGATION. Irrigation is manuring by means of water. “The manner of irrigation must depend on the situation of the surface and the supply of water. When it is desirable to bring more water on to meadows than is required for saturating the ground, and its escape to the fields below is to be avoided, other ditches should be made on the lower sides, to arrest and convey away the surplus water.” Irrigation contributes to the growth of plants in several ways. “ The advantages of irrigation are so manifest that they should never be neglected, when the means for securing them are within economical reach. “The increase from the application of water is sometimes fourfold, when the soil, the season, and the water are all favorable, and it is seldom less than doubled. “ Light, porous soils, and particularly gravels and sands, are the most benefited by irrigation.” AGRICULTURE. *3© a hi Ha q a) f (^rops . 1 kaiaaaiaaaaaiaaiaiiaiiaiiaaiaaaaaaaaaaiaiaiaaani UPPOSE the farmer to have a soil which requires, as almost all soils do, the appli- cation of manure to render it fertile. He adds a good coating of manure, and then takes off a crop of corn or wheat. This crop will carry away the largest part of the phosphates that were added in the manure. In most cases, therefore, a second crop of the same kind would not be so good as the first ; and the third would be still less. There yet remain, how- ever, from the manure, considerable quantities of other substances, which the grain crops did not so particularly require, such as potash and soda. With this a good crop of potatoes, turnips, or beets may be obtained ; and after this there is probably still enough lime, etc., left to produce an excellent crop of hay, if the ground be seeded down with another crop of grain of a lighter character than Indian corn or wheat. We perceive, then, that any good rotation must be founded upon the principle that different classes of crop« require different proportions of the various substance- which are present in soils, and in the nu- merous fertilizers which are applied for the purpose of enriching them. Thus the crops may be made to succeed each other with the least possible injury to the soil, and with the greatest economy in the use of manures. It would be useless to recommend here any par- ticular system of rotation as best ; for that must be determined by experience in each section of country, under the various circumstances of climate, location, and value of crops. Attention may, however, be again called a the fact that there are several dis- tinct classes of crops, considered with reference to the substances which they take from the soil, and that these classes of crops should bear a part in every system of rotation. The principal of these are grain crops, root crops, and grass crops. •ff DRAINING.-^ r.Tr tOROUGH drainage implies covered. drains, and it is to the advantage of these mainly that we now desire to call the reader’s attention ; although open ditches and water-furrows are very useful in certain situations. The principal benefits of a system of covered drains are succinctly and clearly stated in the following — “TEN REASONS FOR UNDERDRAIN- ING. “ i. It prevents water which falls from resting on or near the surface, and renders the soil dry enough to be worked or plowed at all times. “ 2. By rendering the soil porous or spongy, it takes in water without flooding in time of rain, and gives it off again gradually in time of drouth. “ 3. By preventing adhesion and assisting pulver- ization, it allows the roots to pass freely through all parts of the soil. “ 4. By facilitating the mixture of manure through the pulverized portions, it greatly increases its value and effect. “ 5. It allows water falling on the surface to pass downward, carrying with it any fertilizing substances (as carbonic acid and ammonia), until they are arrested by the absorption of the soil. “ 6. It abstracts in a similar manner the heat con- tained in falling rains, thus warming the soil, the water discharged by drain-mouths being many de- grees colder than ordinary rains. “ 7. The increased porosity of the soil renders it a more perfect non-conductor of heat, and the roots of plants are less injured by freezing in winter. “8. The same cause admits the entrance of air, facilitating the decomposition of enriching portions of the soil. “9. By admitting early plowing crops may be sown early, and an increased amount reaped in cou sequence. AGRICULTURE. “ io. It economizes labor, by allowing the work to go on at all times without interruption fron sur- plus water in spring, or from a hard-baked soil in summer.” CONDITIONS REQUIRING DRAIN- AGE. The '"onditions from which arise the principal causes of mischief to undrained land are thus stated by Munn in “ The practical Land-Drainer : ” “ i. Where water has accumulated beneath the surface and originated springs. “ 2. Where, from the close nature of the sub- strata, it cannot pass freely downward, but accumu- lates and forms its level or water line at a short dis- tance below the surface ; and “ 3. Where, from the clayey or close texture of the soil, it lies on the surface and becomes stag- nant.” Farmers are apt to consider land in which the second condition mentioned exists, to be too dry to need draining, yet it is cold and sour, late in spring, apt to bake hard in summer, and very liable to suf- fer from early frosts in autumn. There is no remedy but underdraining. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. 1. Preliminary . — The first thing to be done is to examine the field to be drained and determine the plan of drainage best adapted to effect the object in view, and the materials which may most economically be used in constructing the drains. 2. Draining Springy Soils . — Where the wetness to be reme. died results from springs having their source in higher grounds above the field to be drained, the desired result is generally attained by making one or more drains across^ the declivity about where the low grounds of the valley begin to form, thus intercepting or cutting off the springs. These transverse drains must be connected with others made for the purpose of conveying the water collected in them into some brook, ravine, or other outlet which may be near. 3. Direction of Drains. — In cases characterized by either of the other conditions specified in the previous section, parallel drains should be cut directly up and down the inclination of the field , and emptying into a main cross drain at the lower side. 4. Depth and Distance Apart . — The experience of some of the most extensive drainers, both in this country and in Europe, seems to indicate, however, that for very heavy, clayey soils, from two and a half to three feet in depth and from twelve to thirty feet apart generally produce the most satisfactory results. More poroqs and friable soils may be successfully drained at greater depth and distance. S3 1 5. Materials and Construction. — The ditch excavated must be furnished with a permanent duct through which water may at all times pass freely off. This maybe constructed of various substances — brushwood, straw, turf, clinkers from furnaces, wood, brick, stone, and tiles of burned clay. Of these, stone and tiles in their various forms, when they can be procured, are the only materials which we can unconditionally recom* mend. Brushwood Drains. — Where no better materials are avail- able, these will be found, while they last, quite effective, and they are far more permanent than might be supposed. Stone Drains. — In reference to their mode of construction, stone drains are of various kinds. The simplest form is that in which the ditch or cutting is filled to the depth of nine or ten inches with small stones, covered with inverted turf, shav- ings, or something of the kind. The stones should be about the size of a hen’s egg. Where larger ones are used, the earth is apt to fall into the cavities, or mice or rats make their bur- rows there, and the drain becomes choked. The water should find its way into the drain from the sides, and not from the top. In making stone drains in swampy or very soft ground it is sometimes necessary to lay a plank or slab on the bottom before putting in the stones, to prevent them from sinking before the soil shall become dry enough to be firm. Tile Drains. — The first form of tile drain used was arched and made to rest on a sole or flat tile laid under it ; but the more modern tile pipes are to be preferred, as they are smaller, cheaper, and more easily laid. Those with an oval bore are considered better than those with a round one. The tiles are, of course, placed in the bottom of the ditch, which must be smooth and straight. They are simply placed end to end and wedged a little with small stones, if necessary, and the earth packed hard over them. The water very readily finds its way through the pores of the niaterial and at the joints. Collars or short outer tiles are sometimes used to go over the joints, to secure them against getting displaced. An inch pipe is sufficient for most situations. The drains should be connected at the upper end of the field by a small drain running at right angles with them. It should be of the same depth as the other drains. WILL UNDERDRAINING PAY? This depends on circumstances. If naturally good under- drained land can be obtained in your neighborhood for from $15 to $20 per acre, it would not pay in all probability to ex- pend $30 per acre in underdraining low, wet, or springy land ; but in all districts where land is worth $50 per acre, nothing can pay better than to expend from $20 to $30 per acre in judicious underdraining. The labor of cultivation is much reduced, while the produce is generally increased one-half, and is not unfrequently doubled, and it must be remembered that the increase is net profit. In reference to tile -pipe drains, it must be remembered that the ditch may be much narrower than when stones are used, thus making a considerable saving in the expense oi digging. AGRICULTURE. t T 3 * VARIOUS KINDS OF FENCES. 1. Stone Fence. — Wherever there is plenty of stone, and especially where loose stones abound and must be removed before the land can be properly cultivated, stone fences are the best and most economical that can be constructed. Where stone is not very abundant, a combination of stone and rail fence is often economically constructed. A substan- tial foundation of stones is laid, reaching two or two and a half feet above ground, in which posts are placed at proper distances, with two or three bar holes above the wall, for the insertion of an equal number of rails, which for convenience should be put in when the posts are set. 2. The Zig-zag or Worm Fence. — In large portions of our country, where there is a superabundance of timber and economy of space is of little importance, the common zig-zag or worm fence of the West and South is probably the most economical that can be erected. 3. Post-and rail Fences. — As timber becomes somewhat more valuable, it ceases to be economical to use it so lavishly as the worm fence requires, and the post-and-rail fence takes its place. This is, in many respects, the best of all the wooden farm fences. The best timber for posts in the order of its durability is red cedar, yellow locust, white oak and chestnut, for the Northern and Middle States. In some cases boards may be economically substituted for rails, and firmly nailed to suitably prepared posts. ! 4. The Sunken Fence. — The sunken fence or wall consists of a vertical excavation on one side, about five feet in depth, against which a wall is built to the surface of the giound. The opposite side is inclined at such an angle as will preserve the sod against sliding, from the effects of frost or rain, and is then turfed over. 5. Iron Fences. — Wire and other forms of iron fence are now in extensive use. Where there is a deficiency of both timber and stone, the wire fence is probably the best and most economical that can be made. No ordinary domestic animal will break through fences of considerably less than one-quarter inch wrought wire, while still larger sizes may be uned with the same facility if required. The bright or hard wire i. now generally used. Another style of iron farm fence is called the “ Corrugated Flat Rail Fence.” It is in some respects preferable to the round rail or wire, being visible at a greater distance and less liable to sagging. 6. Hurdle Fence. — The hurdle, or light, movable fence, is formed in short panels, and firmly set in the ground by sharp- ened stakes at the end of each panel, and these arc fastened together. This is a convenient addition to farms where heavy green crops of clover, lucem, peas, or turnips are re- quired to be fed off in successive lots by sheep, swine, or cattle. It is variously constructed of wood or iron, and is much less expensive than might be supposed. 7. Hedges. — The live fence, almost universal in England, is still an experiment here. There have been a few successes and many failures in the cultivation of hedges. The causes of failure have been various — a wrong choice of trees, the dryness of our climate, lack of experience in planting, neglect of proper after cultivation and pruning, etc. But the few ex- amples of complete success which may be pointed out prove conclusively that, under proper and easily attainable condi- tions, live fences are perfectly practicable in this country, and in some parts of it they are doubtless economical. When well kept they are certainly very beautiful. The soil for a hedge row must be deeply plowed or spaded, and if poor, manured a little. Evergreens make the handsomest hedges ; and although less stout, yet by shutting out of sight are usually quite safe. The Norway fir is the fastest grower — the hemlock most beautiful, and the best of any for the shade of trees ; the growth is, however, rather slow. It shears finely, and its interior is dense. The Norway fir also does well on these points. At the South we should choose the single white Macartney rose for general cultivation ; although the Cherokee rose, when properly treated, the evergreen thorn, the honey locust, the jujube, and the Spanish bayonet (Yucca gtoriosa) all form effi- cient and beautiful hedges. A really good and perfect hedge should form a rounded pyramid, branching out broadly and close to the ground, and tapering up either sharply or obtuse, as the taste of the culti- vator may determine. This is a fundamental principle in all hedging, and unless it is secured at the outset by proper trim- ming, it can never be done afterward. I11T Tl (T r-ni ililSlMMi A Faru\ XiT\plemer\ts. 4&S m uilil I mini History does not inform us when plows were first used ; but there are traces of them in the earliest of all written authori- ties — the Bible. One of the best of the improved harrows is the hinge har> row. This harrow may be folded double, or separated into two parts, for the convenience of transportation or other pur- pose. Either half may be lifted for any purpose while the im- plement is in motion ; and the easy and independent play of the parts up and down upon the hinges enables the instrument to adapt itself to the surface of the ground in all places, so that whether going through hollows, or over knolls or ridges, it is always at work, and every tooth has an operation upon the soil. The Geddcs harrow and the Hanford harrow, triangular In AGRICULTURE, $3# shape, are also excellent implements ; and for light grounds, free from stones and other obstructions, the Scotch or square harrow serves it purpose admirably. THE CULTIVATOR. This is a useful implement for stirring the soil and killing weeds. It saves a great deal of hard labor ; but must not be allowed to usurp the place of the plow where deep cultivation is required. THE HORSE HOE. Allied to the cultivator is the horse hoe in its various forms. “ Knox’s patent has four teeth. The forward one is simply a coulter, to keep the implement steady and in a straightforward direction ; the two sides or middle teeth are miniature plows, which may be changed from one side to the other, so as to turn the earth from the rows at first weeding, when the plaits are small and tender, or toward them in later cultivation, at the option of the operator ; the broad rear tooth effectually dis- poses of grasses and weeds, cutting off or rooting up all that come in its way. It is a thorough pulverizer of the surface, sifting the earth and weeds through its iron prongs or fingers in the rear, leaving the weeds on the surface to wilt and die, and the ground level and mellow. For hoeing carrots, tur- nips, etc., where the rows are narrow, the side teeth are taken out, and the rear tooth, with the forward one as a director to guide the instrument, hoes and mellows the ground between the rows very perfectly.” THE FIELD ROLLER. No good farmer will omit this useful implement from his list. In spring there is frequently great advantage in rolling lands recently sowed to grain and grass, as the earth that has been raised by the frost, exposing the roots of plants, is re- placed by the operation, with benefit to the growing crop. The roller is particularly beneficial on light lands, of soil tco loose and porous to retain moisture and protect the manure from the effects of drying winds and a scorching sun, and too light to allow the roots of plants a firm hold in the earth. SEED SOWERS. Every farmer or gardener needs a seed-sower of some sort ; but one of the smallest and simplest of the many kinds manu- factured will serve the purpose of the majority of agricul- turists. THE HORSE RAKE. The utility of this simple implement is not fully realized, we are sure, or it would be more generally employed. A horse- rake is not an expensive implement, and every farmer should have one. The old revolver is perhaps the best for general use. MOWERS, REAPERS, ETC. Of the expensive labor-saving agricultural implements, like the mower, the reaper and the thresher, it does not fall within our purpose to speak, further than to recommend our readers to avail themselves of the grand economies which they afford, whenever they can, by combinations with their neighbors for joint ownership of such machines, or by employing those kept for the purpose of being hired out. A little farm well tilled ; A iitue Darn well tilled ; A little wife well willed. The first requisite in all undertakings of magnitude is to “ count the cost.” The importance of possessing the means of doing everything at exactly the right season cannot be too highly appreciated. Admitting that the farm is already purchased and paid for, it becomes an object to know what else is needed and at what cost, before cultivation is commenced. If the buildings and fences are what they should be, which is not often the case, little immediate outlay will be needed for them. But if not, then an estimate must be made of the intended improvements, and the necessary sum allotted for them. Size of Farms. — The cultivator will perceive in part the advantages of moderately-sized farms for men in moderate cii- cumstances. The great disadvantage of a superficial, skim- ming culture is obvious with a moment’s attention. Take the corn crop as an illustration. There are a great many farmers whose yearly product per acre does not exceed an average of twenty-five bushels. There are other farmers who obtain gen- erally not less than sixty bushels per acre, and often eighty to ninety-five. Now observe the difference in the profits of each. The first gets 250 bushels from ten acres. In doing this he has to plow ten acres, harrow ten acres, mark out ten acres, find seed for ten acres, plant, cultivate, hoe, and cut up ten acres, besides paying the interest on ten acres, worth from three to five hundred dollars. The other farmer gets 250 bushels from four acres at the farthest ; and he only plows, plants, cultivates, and hoes, to obtain the same amount, four acres , which from their fine tilth, and freedom from grass and weeds, is much easier done, even for an equal surface. The same reasoning applies throughout the farm. Be sure, then, to cultivate no more than can be done in the best manner, whether it be ten, fifty, or five hundred acres. But let me not be misunderstood. Large farms are by no means to be objected to, provided the owner has capital enough to perform all the work as well as it is now done on the best farms of small size. Laying out Farms. — This department is very much neg lectcd. Many suppose that this business is very quickly disposed of , that a very few minutes, or hours at most, will enable a man to plan the arrangement of his fields about right. But this is a great error. Even when a farm is of the simplest form, on a flat, uniform piece of ground, many things are to be borne in mind in laying it out. In the first place we all know that the fencing of a moder- ately sized farm costs many hundred dollars. It is very de- sirable to do it well, and use at the same time as little mate. 534 AGRICULTURE. rial as possible. To do this much will depend on the shape of the fields. A certain length of fence will inclose more land in the form of a square than in any other practical shape. Hence fields should approach this form as nearly as possible. Again, th# disposition of lanes is a matter of consequence, so as to avoid unnecessary length and fencing and occupy the least quantity of ground. In laying out a farm with a very uneven surface or irregular shape, it would be best to draw, first, a plan adapted to smooth ground, and then vary in size and shape of the fields, the dis- tance of the lane from the center, its straightness, etc., accord- ing to the circumstances of the case. Fences. — The kind of fence used, and the materials used for its construction, must depend on circumstances and localities. A good fence is always to be preferred to an imperfect one ; though it will cost more, it will more than save that cost, and three times the amount in vexation besides, by keeping cattle, colts and pigs out of fields of grain. Gates. — Every field on the farm should be entered by a good self-shutting and self-fastening gate. Let the farmer who has bars instead of gates, make a trial of their comparative con- venience, by taking them out and replacing them without stop- ping as often as he does in one year on his farm, say about six hundred times, and he cannot fail to be satisfied which is the cheapest for use. Buildings. — These should be as near the center of the farm as other considerations will admit. The buildings should not, however, be too remote from the public road, and a good, dry, healthy spot should be chosen. The bam and outbuildings should be of ample extent. The bam should have space for hay, grain, and straw. It is a mat- ter of great convenience to have the straw for littering stables housed and close at hand, and not out of doors, under a foot of snow. There should be plenty of stables and sheds for all domestic animals. A small, cheap, movable horse-power should belong to every farm, to be used in churning, sawing wood, driving washing machine, turning grindstone, cutting straw, and slicing roots. There should be a large root-cellar under the bam, into which the cart may be dumped from the outside. One great objection to the culture of roots in this country — the difficulty of winter keeping — would then vanish. Both bims and house cellars should be well coated, on the bottom and sides, with water-lime mortar, which is a very cheap and effectual way to exclude both water and rats. Choice of Implements. — Of those which are much used, the very best only should be procured. A laborer who, by the use of a good hoe for one month, can do one quarter more each day, saves, in the whole time, an entire week’s labor. Choice of Animals. — The best of all kinds should be selected, even if costing something more than others. Not "fancy" animals, but those good for use and profit. Cows should be productive of milk, and of a form adapted for beef ; oxen hardy, and fast working ; sheep, kept fine by never selling the best ; swine, not the largest merely, but those fattening best on least food. A Berkshire at 200 pounds, fattened on 10 bushels of corn, is better than a “ land pike ” of 300, fattened •n so bushels. Soils, and their Management. — Soils are of various kinds as heavy and light, wet and dry, fertile and sterile They all require different management in a greater or less degree. Heavy soils are often stronger and more productive than light ; but they require more labor for pulverization and till- age. They cannot be plowed when very wet, nor so well when very dry. Sandy and gravelly loams also contain clays, but in smaller quantity ; so that they do not present the cloddiness and ad- hesiveness of heavy soils. Though possessing, generally, less strength than clay soils, they are far more easily tilled, and may be worked without difficulty in wet weather. They do not crack or break in drouth. Indian corn, ruta-bagas, and some other crops, succeed best upon them. Sandy soils are very easily tilled, but are generally not strong enough. When made rich, they are fine for some succulent crops. Peaty soils are generally light and free, containing large quantities of de- cayed vegetable matter. They are made by draining low and swampy grounds. They are fine for Indian corn, broom corn, barley, potatoes, and turnips. They are great absorbers, and great radiators of heat ; hence they become warm in sunshine and cold in clear nights. For this reason they are peculiarly liable to frosts. Crops planted upon them must, consequently, be put in late, after spring frosts are over. Corn should be of early varieties, that it may not only be planted late, but ripen early. Each of these kinds of soil may be variously improved. Heavy soils are much improved by draining ; open drains to carry off the surface-water, and covered drains, that which settles beneath. Heavy soils are also made lighter and freer by manuring ; by plowing under coatings of straw, rotten chips, and swamp muck ; and, in some rare cases, by carting on sand, though this is usually too expensive for practice. Subsoil plowing is very beneficial both in wet seasons and in drouth ; the deep, loose bed of earth it makes, receiving the water in heavy rains, and throwing it off to the soil above, when needed ; but a frequent repetition of the operation is needed, as the subsoil gradually settles again. Sandy soils are improved by manuring, by the application of lime, and by frequently plowing in green crops. The great art of saving and manufacturing manure consists in retaining and applying to the best advantage those soluble and gaseous portions Probably more than one-half of all the materials which exist in the country are lost, totally lost, by not attending to the drainage of stables and farm-yards. This could be retained by a copious application of straw ; by littering with sawdust, w'hen saw-mills are near ; and more especially by the frequent coating of yards and stables with AGRICULTURE. 535 dried peat and swamp muck, of which many parts of our States furnish inexhaustible supplies. Our limits do not admit of many remarks on the principles of rotation. The following courses, however, have been found among some of the best adapted to our State : I 1st year — Corn and roots, well manured. 2d year — Wheat, sown with cloverseed ; I5lbs. an acre. 3d year — Clover, one or more years, according to fer- tility and amount of manure at hand. II. 1st year— Corn and roots, with all the manure. 2d year — Barley and peas. 3d year — Wheat, sown with clover. 4th year — Clover, one or more years. III. 1st year — Corn and roots, with all the manure. 2d year — Barley. 3d year — Wheat, sown with clover. 4 th year — Pasture. 5th year — Meadow. 6th year — Fallow. 7th year — Wheat. 8th year — Oats, sown with clover. qth year — Pasture or meadow. The number of the fields must correspond with the number of the changes in each course, the first needing three fields to carry it out, the second four, and the third nine. As each field contains a crop each, in the several successive stages of the course, the whole number of fields collectively comprise the entire series of crops every year. Thus, in the list above given, there are two fields of wheat growing at once, three of meadow and pasture, one of com and roots, one of barley, one of oats, and one in summer fallow. Operations in the Order of Time. — The vital consequence of doing everything in the right season is known to every good farmer. In reviewing the various items which are most immediately essential to good farm management, some of the most obvi- ous will be — capital enough to buy the farm and to stock it well ; to select a size compatible with these requisites ; to lay it out in the best manner ; to provide it well with fences, gates, and buildings ; to select the best animals and the best implements to be had reasonably ; to bring the soil into good condition, by draining, manuring, and good culture ; to have every part under a good rotation of crops, and every operation arranged so as all to be conducted systematically, without clashing or confusion. An attention to all these points would place agriculture on a very different footing from its present condition in many places and with most farmers. The busi- ness then, instead of being repulsive, as it so frequently is to our young men, would be attended with real enjoyment and pleasure. — But in all improvements, in all enterprises, the great truth must not be forgotten, that success is not to be expected with- out diligence and industry. We must sow in spring and cul- tivate well in summer if we would reap an abundant harvest in autumn. I. THE EDIBLE GRAINS. INDIAN CORN — Zea Mays. The principal varieties of Indian corn in extensive use for field culture in the United States are the Big White, Big Yel- low, Little White, Little Yellow, and Virginia Gourd Seed (yel- low and white). Of each of these there are many sub- varieties. The King Philip, or Brown Corn, a very early and small grow- ing but productive variety, is much approved in the more North- ern States ; and Peabody’s Prolific or Tillering Corn, said to be a wonderfully productive sort, is adapted to the Southern and Middle States ; but it has not yet been extensively tested. In the selection of varieties, choose for general planting those that have been proved in your own vicinity, as the best sort of one locality may prove inferior in another. For trial, get new sorts from a more northern latitude, especially where earliness is particularly desirable. The best soil for corn is a rich loam, but good crops are produced, with proper manuring, on light, sandy land. A strong clay, or a poor, wet soil will not produce a good crop. Corn is a gross feeder, and, except on very light, sandy soils, fresh, unfermented manure is best for it. Ashes may be added or applied as a top dressing, with great advantage, also the salt and lime mixture. The after culture of Indian com may mostly be performed with a light plow and a good cultivator. It should be com- menced soon after the plants show themselves above ground, but deep culture of every kind should be discontinued after the roots have spread through the soil, as they cannot be dis- turbed without great injury. Hilling or heaping the earth about the plants is an absurd and injurious process, which, instead of helping to support them, as many suppose, greatly weakens the stalks, by destroying cr covering up the prop- roots with which nature has supplied them. Corn should be perfectly dried in the field, husked, and stored in an airy loft, or in a properly constructed granary or crib. 1 The proper selection and saving of seed is of great import- ance. It should be selected in the field from the earliest and largest ears of the most prolific stalks. In this way astonish- ing improvements in a variety may be gradually made. WHEAT — Triticum of species. Botanists describe about thirty species of wheat and somej hundreds of varieties. The species mainly cultivated in the' United States are the Winter Wheat and the Spring Wheat in their numerous varieties. In your choice of varieties it is best to be governed, as in the case of Indian corn, by the experience either of yourself or others. Depend upon known and tried sorts till, by exper> 53® 4.6KZCTTLTU1Ui ments on. « smalt scale, you are satisfied that you have ob- tained something better. *' Wheat thrives best on a strong, clayey loam, but many light and all calcareous soils, if in a proper condition, will give a good yield The soil should be deep, and well pulverized with the plow and the harrow. Underdraining and subsoil plowing add greatly to the amount of the crop. “ Select seed that is free from the seeds of weeds and from smut, if this be possible ; but in any event it is well, previous to sowing, to wash it in a strong brine made of salt and water, taking care to skim off all light and foreign seeds. If the grain be smutty, repeat the washing in another clean brine, when it may be taken out and intimately mixed with about one twelfth of its bulk of pulverized quicklime. “ Wheat is subject to the attack of the Hessian fly if sown too early in the fall, and again the ensuing spring, there being two annual swarms of the fly, early in May and September. W^en thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the mag- gots or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of much avail. Occasionally other flies and sometimes wheat worms, commit great depredation. There is no effectual remedy known against any of these marauders, beyond roll- ing. brushing, and harrowing.” The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and finger. Repeated experiments have demonstrated that wheat cut at this time will yield more in measure, of heavier weight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing before storing or threshing. .Spring wheat should be sown as early as the ground will admit. The best crops are raised on land that has been plowed the previous fail, and sown without additional plow- ing, but harrowed-in thoroughly. RYE — Secaie Cereale This plant will flourish on soils too poor or too destitute of lime for wheat. It has taken the place of wheat in many por- tions of the country, where repeated crops of the latter have ex- hausted the soil of some of the requisite elements for its growth. The best soil for it is a rich, sandy loam, but it grows freely on the lightest sandy and gravelly soils that are capable of sustain- ing any kind of vegetation. The directions for the preparation of soil ami seed, and for cultivation, harvesting, etc., are the same as for wheat, but it is sometimes sown among standing corn and hoed in, the ground being left as level as possible. So soon as the corn is matured it is cut up by the roots and removed to the sides of the field, when the ground is thor- onghly rolled. TKE OAT —Avena Sativa. This grain will grow on any soil, and in almost any climate. I, is affected less by disease, and has fewer insect enemies than most of the cereals. The wire worm, however, occa- sionally proves destructive to it, when sown on fresh sod. The remedy in this case is to turn over the sod late in the fall, just before the severe winter frosts. There are many varieties and sub-varieties of the oat. The heaviest oat cultivated in the United States is the Im- perial ; and it is preferred by many to all others. It is bright and plump, and yields a large proportion of nutritive matter. It has proved very productive in the Northern and Middle States. But the variety most cultivated is the common White Oat, which is hardy and a good bearer. The only oat that will mature with certainty in the Southern States is the Egyptian. It is found, hardy, and moderately productive. It is sown in autumn. On most soils rolling is beneficial. BARLEY —Hardeum of species. In Europe this grain ranks next to wheat in importance ; but it is much less extensively cultivated in the United States. A loam of medium consistency, between light and heavy, is best for it. Barn-yard manures must never be applied di- rectly to this grain. Steeping the seed twenty-four hours in a weak solution of saltpeter is beneficial. The roller is some- times applied to the field, when the plants are two or three inches high, with great benefit. It is of great importance to harvest barley at the proper time. RICE- Oryza Sativa. Rice probably affords f oor) for more human beings than any other plant. The varieties of rice most grown in South Carolina and Georgia, which have hitherto been the greatest rice-producing States of the Union, are the Gold-seed rice, the Guinea, the Common White, and the White-bearded. There are several other varieties, but generally inferior to the foregoing. The best are produced by careful cultivation on soils suited to this grain, and by a careful selection of seed. The method of cultivation pursued on th. rice lands of the lower Mississippi, as detailed by Dr. auwright, a practical planter, is as follows : •• The seed is sown broadcast about as thick as wheat, and harrowed-in with a light harrow, having many teeth ; the ground being first well plowed and prepared by ditches and embankments for inundation. It is generally sown in March, and immediately after sowing, the water is let on, so as barely to overflow the ground. The water is withdrawn on the second, third, or fourth day, or as soon as the grain begins to swell. The rice very soon after comes up and grows finely. When it has attained about three inches in height, the water is again let on, the top leaves being left a little above the water. Complete immersion would kill the plant. A fort- night previous to harvest the water is drawn off to give the stalks strength, and to dry the ground for the convenience of the reapers.” BUCKWHEAT —Polygonum Fagopyrum. Buckwheat is extensively cultivated in the United States, as it affords a flour which is much esteemed as an article of food. It will grow with considerable luxuriance on the poor- est land. When intended for seed it should be sown suffi- ciently early to allow the kernel to become perfectly ripe say from the middle of June to the first of July. Buckwheat is often used for plowing under as a green ma- nure. This can be done where the land is too poor to pro* AGRICULTURE. 537 duce clover for that purpose. When in flower, it should be first rolled, and then plowed in. MILLET — Panicum of species. The species generally cultivated for the seed is the P. mil- liaceum. As a forage crop, the German millet ( P . German- icum) is preferable, and is coming into extensive use, espe- cially at the West. II. HOW TO SHOCK GRAIN. Many a valuable harvest may be preserved from ruin by taking heed to the following hints : 1. Grain should be firmly bound in smaller sheaves than it is almost universally found. Loosely bound sheaves cannot be well shocked. They also admit more rain than tightly bound ones. 2. Two men can shock better and more advantageously than one. 3. Let the shocker always take two sheaves at a time, holding them with his elbow against his side, bringing the heads to- * gether with hands well spread upon them. Lift them as high as possible, bringing them with force, in as nearly a perpen- dicular position as can be, to the ground. Never make the second thrust , if the sheaves stand erect, for every one after the first, by breaking the butts, makes the matter worse. 4. Then let two persons bring down two sheaves each at the tame time , as before described, being extremely careful to keep them perpendicular. The form of shock at this * * * period may be represented thus : * * * 5. As lastly stated, two more each, thus : * * The reader will perceive we now have ten sheaves, * # ^ * forming a circle as nearly as can be. * ^ 6. While one man presses the head of the * # shock firmly together, let the other break, not bend, the two cap sheaves, and place them on, well spreading heads and butts. The main points are, to have grain well bound, sheaves made to stand in an erect position, and then to put cap sheaves on firmly, and every gust of wind will not demolish your work. Grain is usually shocked in this manner : One sheaf is made to stand alone, another is leaned against it, and another, some- times at an angle of forty-five degrees, “ to make them stand up,” until a sufficient number is thought to be leaned up. Now the probability is, that there is but one sheaf in the whole shock that has its center of gravity within its base ; as a matter of course, each depends on some other to hold it up. Consequently they twist ; and if the shock does not fall down before the hands get the next one up, it most certainly will during the first rain, just when the perpendicular position is most necessary. III. THE LEGUMES. THE KIDNEY BEAN -Phaseolus Vulgaris. The bush or dwarf kidney bean is frequently cultivated as a field crop. There are many sorts that may be profitably used for this purpose, but the Small White is generally preferred, as it is very prolific, quite hardy, will grow in light, poor soi\ and is more delicately flavored than the colored varieties; The Long White garden bean is also good. The bean succeeds best on a light, warm, and moderately fertile soil. A strong soil, or too much manure, induces a tendency to run to vine, without a corresponding quantity of fruit. Plant either in hills or in drills. If you have a sower, ot drill for putting them in, the latter is the best mode. The drills may be from two to three feet apart, the hills from eighteen inches to two feet each way. From five to eight plants are enough for a hill. They must be kept clear from weeds by the use of the hoe or cultivator ; but should be earthed up very slightly, if at all. The first of June is suffi- ciently early to plant them. They are sometimes planted with com, putting three or four beans in each hill. This may be done either at the time of planting the corn, or at the first hoeing. THE PEA — Pisum Sativum. The Marrowfat and Small Yellow peas are the sorts gener- ally used for field culture. The Marrowfat is the richer and better pea, and is to be preferred for good soils. The Small Yellow thrives on poorer soils, and is therefore, in some cases, more profitably cultivated. In some parts of the South a very prolific bush pea is cultivated and much esteemed for the table, both green and dry. Prepare the ground as for any other spring crop, by plow- ing and harrowing, and sow broadcast, at the rate of two or two and a half bushels to the acre. Cover them with the har- row or the cultivator, the latter implement being preferable, and smooth the ground by the use of the roller. The great enemy of the pea is the pea-weevil or pea-bug, which is too well known to require description. As a remedy, some recommend keeping the seed in tight vessels over one year. This plan, if universally adopted, would probably lead to the total extermination of this destructive insect ; but as this is not likely to be the case, the only practicable way to avoid its ravages is by late sowing. THE PEA-NUT — Arachis Hypogaa. This is a legume bearing its pods under the surface of ihe ground. It was originally brought from Africa. A North Carolina planter thus describes the mode of cultiva- tion : “So soon as the frost is out of the ground, the land is broken up, and about the middle of April laid off with the plow thirty-three inches each way ; two or three peas are then dropped in the crosses thus made. The plants are kept clean with hoes and plows until the vines cover the ground ; but n* dirt is put on the vines. In October they are dug with a rake or plow. Hogs are then turned into the field, and they soon fatten upon the peas left upon the ground. When the vines are left upon the land for the hogs to feed upon, there is no crop that improves the land so much." IV. ESCULENT ROOTS. THE POTATO — Solanum Tuberosum. In reference to the choice of varieties for planting, the best advice we can give will be simply a repetition of our recom* 538 AGRICULTURE. mendations in respect to several other plants : Choose such as have been well tested by yourself or others, and found adapted to the soil and purposes for which they are to be cultivated. Try your experiments with new sorts, on a small scale, and with close observation of the results. Experiment, also, if leisure serve, in the production of new varieties from the seeds found in the balls. A fair crop of potatoes maybe produced on almost any soil, properly manured and prepared and well cultivated, but a rich loam, of medium humidity, is best. If fresh or unfermented manures be used, they should be spread on the land, and plowed under, and not scattered in the drills or hills, as they are apt to injure the flavor of the potatoes. Lime, crushed bones, gypsum, salt, and ashes are excellent special manures for the potato. The soil should be made loose and mellow before planting. THE SWEET POTATO — Convolvulus Batatas, This is the potato of the South, and is much cultivated in the Middle and Western States. In its perfection, as it grows in South Carolina and the other extreme Southern States, it is the best of all the esculent roots. The varieties most cultivated are the Small Spanish, long, purplish color, grows in clusters, very productive, and of good quality ; Brimstone, sulphur-colored, long, large and excellent ; Red Bermuda, the best early potato ; Common Yam, root ob- long and large, the best keeper, and very productive. A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best for the sweet potato. The manure should be plowed in, and the ground well pulverized. A top-dressing of wood ashes is very bene- ficial. So soon as the tops are dead or touched by the frost, the crop should be gathered. Sweet potatoes are difficult to keep. THE TURNIP— Brassier Re fa. The varieties of the turnip are numerous. The flat Eng- lish turnip has been longest in cultivation, and still holds its place among most farmers as a field crop. It thrives best on new land and freshly turned sod, but will grow wherever In- dian corn can be raised. English turnips are often sowed among Indian corn at the last hoeing, producing, in many cases, a fair crop. The Ruta Baga or Swedes turnip is a far more valuable root than the English, but requires a little more attention in culti- vation. It will grow on a heavier soil, yield as good a crop, furnish a more nutritive root, and keep longer. The turnip is exposed to numerous depredators, of which the turnip flea-beetle is the most inveterate. It attacks the plant as soon as the first leaves expand, and often destroys two or three successive sowings. When the fly or bug is discov- ered, the application of lime, ashes, or soot, or all combined, should be made upon the leaves, while the dew or a slight moisture is on them. Harvesting should be deferred till the approach of severe frosts, and at the South the crop may remain in the ground till wanted in the winter. The Purple-Topped Swede, Skirving’s Swede, and Ash- croft’s Swede, are approved varieties. THE CARROT — Daucus Carota. The varieties mostly used for field culture are the Altring- ham, the Orange, and the White Belgian. The last-named is very productive, and, growing high out of ground, is more easily harvested than the other sorts ; but, on the other hand, it is considered below the others in nutritive value. It is very important to have both the soil and the manure for carrots free from the seeds of weeds and grasses ; the plants in the early stages of their growth are small and feeble, which makes it a slow and expensive process to eradicate the weeds, if abundant. Well manured sandy, or light, loamy soils are best adapted to the carrot crop. The ground should be deeply worked, and brought to a fine tilth before sowing the seed. THE PARSNIP — Pastinaca Sativa. The parsnip is one of the best of all our table vegetables, and is also excellent for cattle, sheep and swine. The leaves of both parsnips and carrots are good for cattle, either green or dried. THE BEE T — Beta Vulga ris. The varieties most in use for field culture are the Sugar beet and the Mangold-Wurzel, of both of which there are sevesal sub-varieties. Beets do well in any soil of sufficient depth and fertility, but they are perhaps most partial to a strong loam. If well tilled, they will produce large crops on a tenacious clay. We have raised at the rate of 800 bushels per acre, on a stiff clay, which had been well supplied with unfermented manure. The soil cannot be made too rich ; and for such as are adhesive, fresh or unfermented manures are much the best. The culture is similar to that of carrots and parsnips. V. THE GRASSES. The grasses cultivated for the food of animals are too nu- merous to admit of a description in such a work as this. We will speak briefly of a few of the leading species culti- vated among us, noting some of their peculiar excellences and adaptations. T I M OT H Y — Pkleum Pratense. Allen says : “ For cultivation in the northern portion of the United States, I am inclined to place the Timothy first in the list of the grasses. It is indigenous to this country, and flour- ishes in all soils except such as are wet, too light, dry, or sandy ; and it is found in perfection on the rich clays and clay loams which lie between 38° and 44 0 north latitude. It is a perennial, easy of cultivation, hardy and of luxuriant growth, and on its favorite soil yields from one and a half to two tons of hay per acre at one cutting.” It may be sown either in August or September with th«* winter grains, or in the spring. Twelve quarts of seed pet acre on a fine mellow tilth are sufficient ; and twice this quan- tity on a stiff clay. ” This is the Herds grass of New England. THE SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS — Pea Pratensis. This is one of the best of grasses, both for hay and for pas- ture. It is a native species, and is found almost everywhere, but does not grow in its greatest perfection north of the valley AGRICULTURE. S39 of the Ohio. It is seen in all its glory on the fertile soils of Kentucky and Tennessee. Every animal that eats grass is fond of it. The Roughish Meadow grass {P. trivialis) has the appear- ance of the smooth variety, but is rough to the touch, and pre- fers moist situations and clayey soils. This, also, is an excel- lent grass. RED TOP — Agrostis Vulgaris. A hardy and luxuriant species, much relished by cattie, but possessing only a moderate nutritive value. It is much culti- vated in some portions of New England and elsewhere ; but where better grasses will grow, this should be rejected. It is sometimes called Foul Meadow and Bent Grass. TALL OAT GRASS — A vena Elatior . An early and luxuriant grass, flourishing in a loamy or clayey soil, and making good hay. It grows to the height of four or five feet on good soils. It is well suited to pasture. THE FESCUE GRASSES— Pesluca of species. The Tall Fescue grass (F. elatior ), according to some exper- iments made in England, yields more nutritive matter per acre, when cut in flower, than any other grass cut either in flower or seed. It is an American grass, but has found less favor at home than abroad. The Meadow Fescne (F. pratensis) ; the Spiked Fescue (F. loleacea) ; the Purple Fescue {F. rubra) ; and the Floating Fescue ( F . Jluitans), are all indigenous grasses of fine qual- ities and great value. ORCHARD GRASS — Dactylis Glomerata. The Orchard or Cock’s Foot grass is excellent for shaded situations. It should be cut before it is ripe, and will furnish three or four crops a year. THE EGYPTIAN GRASS — Sorghum Halpense. A cane like grass which grows in profusion in some of the Southern States. It is a superior stock-sustaining plant ; but as it is difficult to remove when once imbedded in the soil, its introduction into cultivated fields is considered a great evil. GERMAN MILLET — Panicum Germanicum. This plant, known at the West as Hungarian grass, seems to have been introduced into Iowa by a Hungarian immigrant, and to have spread thence to other parts of the country. It had, however, been previously cultivated in small quantities under its proper name of German Millet. As a forage crop for the West at least, its value seems to be well proved. It has been less extensively tested at the East. THE CLOVERS — Trifolium of species. The Common Red clover ( T . pratense) is a hardy and easily cultivated species, of which there are several varieties. It grows luxuriantly on every well-drained soil of sufficient strength to afford it nutriment. Clover should be cut after having fully blossomed and as- sumed a brownish hue. Southern Clover ( T. medium ) is a smaller species than the common Red, and matures earlier. It succeeds better on a light soil than the latter, and should be sown more thickly. The White or Creeping clover ( T. repens ), of which there are several varieties, is a self-propagating plant, and adds greatly to the richness of many of our pastures, especially on clayey soils. It is very nutritious, and cattle, sheep, and horses are all fond of it. Dr. Darlington, of Pennsylvania, gives the following as the species of grasses most valuable in our meadows and pastures, naming them in the order of their excellence : I. Meadow or green grass {Poa pratensis). 2. Timothy (Pkleum pratense). 3. Orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata). 4. Meadow Fescue ( Festuca pratensis). 5. Blue grass {Poa eompressa). 6. Ray gass {Lolium perenne). 7. Red top {Agrostis vulgaris). 8. Sweet-scented vernal grass {Anthox~ anthum odoratum ). BROOM CORN — Sorghum Saccharatum. Broom com requires similar soil to Indian corn. A green sward turned over late in the fall is best. Well-rotted horse or sheep manure and wood ashes may be liberally scattered in the drills or hills. A situation not subject to early or late frosts should be chosen. Clayey lands are not suitable. FLAX — Linum Us it at is si mum. A deep, rich loam or alluvial soil is best for flax. The proper fertility should be secured by a surplus of manure ap- plied to a previous crop, as fresh manures are injurious to it. HEMP — Cannabis Sativa. This is a plant cf the nettle tribe, and came originally from India. The Russians are at present its chief cultivators ; but in our Western States, and especially in Kentucky, it is begin- ning to be widely raised. A rich loam or vegetable mold suits the hemp plant. The ground should be carefully prepared by plowing and harrow- ing till it is perfectly pulverized, smooth, and even. The seeds are sown broadcast at the rate of a bushel and a half to the acre, and plowed or harrowed in. Plowing is best on ground liable to bake. In Kentucky they sow any time from the first of April to the tenth of May. It is desirable to sow just before a rain. THE HOP —Humulus Lupulus. The hop is found growing spontaneously on the banks of rivers and brooks in various parts of this country. The best soil for the cultivation of hops is a sandy loam, rather low and moist, but they will grow on soils very differ, ent from this. New lands are to be preferred. If the land has been long in use, it should be dressed with a compost of alkaline manures, or, what is nearly equivalent, with fresh barn-yard manures, on a previously well-hoed crop, and made perfectly free from all weeds, and deeply plowed and harrowed. After gathering in the fall, the hops should be hilled or covered with compost, and all the vines removed. The fol- lowing spring, when the ground is dry, the surface is scraped from the hill and additional compost is added, when a plow is 54° AGRICULTURE. ran on four sides, as near as possible without injury to the plants. All the running roots are laid bare and cut with a sharp knife within two or three inches of the main root, and the latter are trimmed if spreading too far. It is well to break or twist down the first shoots, and allow those which succeed to run, as they are likely to be stronger and more pro- ductive. Cutting should be avoided, unless in a sunny day, as the profuse bleeding injures them. The poles will keep much longer if laid away under cover till again wanted the fol- lowing spring. Drying may be done by spreading the hops thinly in the shade, and stirring them often enough to pre- vent heating; but when there is a large quantity they can be safely cured only in a kiln. LAYING OUT ORCHARDS. We have often observed a good deal of inconvenience and perplexity in measuring off and laying out orchards, from a want of accuracy at the commencement. If the rows are begun crooked, stake after stake may be altered, without being able to form straight lines, and with only an increase of the confusion. If the first tree in a row of fifty be placed only six inches out of the way, and be followed as a guide for the rest, the last one will deviate fifty times six inches, cr twenty-five feet from a right line, even if the first error is not repeated. The most simple and convenient arrangement for orchards in all ordinary cases is in squares. The second mode of arranging trees is in the old quincunx form, which is nothing more than a series of squares laid off diagonally, and has no special advantage to recommend it ex- cept novelty. The hexagonal or modem quincunx possesses two important advantages. One is its more picturesque appearance, and its consequent fitness for proximity to ornamental plantations, and the other is its greater economy of space, as the trees are more evenly distributed over the ground. One principal reason why the hexagonal mode is so little adopted k the supposed difficulty in laying out the ground. j£ut, like many other apparent difficulties, it becomes very •imrde and easy when once understood. SOIL AND SITUATION. Downing says that strong loams, by which is meant loams with only just sufficient sand to render them friable and easily worked, are, on the whole, by far the best for fruit in this country. The trees do not come into bearing so soon as on a light, sandy soil, but they bear larger crops, are less liable to disease, and are much longer lived. Clayey loams, when well drained, are good, and trees growing on them are generally free from insects. It is difficult to give any precise rules in reference to aspect. Good orchards may be found in all aspects, but a gentle slope to the southwest is generally to be preferred to any other. Where fruit is very liable to be killed by late spring frosts, and the season is long and warm enough to ripen it in any ex- posure, planting on the north sides of hills is practiced with advantage. Deep valleys with small streams of water should be avoided, as the cold air settles down in such places, and frosts are apt to prove fatal ; but the borders of large rivers and lakes are favorable for orchards, as the climate is rendered milder by the presence of large bodies of water PLANTING AND CULTIVATING AN ORCHARD. The first thing is to prepare the ground by underdraimng (if it require it, as most land does), subsoiling, or trench plow- ing, harrowing, manuring, etc. Choose sound, healthy trees for planting, and set them out carefully. Apple trees should be thirty feet apart in orchard culture. Set the same kind in rows together. This will facil- itate the gathering of the fruit, and improve the appearance of the orchard. It is an indispensable requisite in all young orchards to keep the ground mellow and loose by cultivation, at least for the first few years, until the trees are well established. Fallow crops are best for orchards — potatoes, beets, carrots, bush beans, and the like ; but, whatever crops may be grown, it should be constantly borne in mind that the roots of the tree require the sole occupancy of the ground so far as they extend, and therefore that an area of more than the diameter of the head of the tree should be kept clean of crops, weeds, and grass. To keep the trees in a healthy bearing state, regular manur- ing is requisite. They exhaust the soil, like any other crop. Top-dressings of marl or mild lime may alternate with barn yard manure, muck composts, etc. To prevent the attacks of the apple-borer, place about the trunks early in the spring a small mound of ashes or lime. Nursery trees may be protected by washing the stems in May, quite down to the ground, with a solution of two pounds of potash in eight quarts of water- CATTLE. 541 VARIETIES OF CATTLE. HE Ox belongs to the fourth class of vertebrate animals, and is of the or- der Ruminantia. It is a ruminant, with hollow horns, which are directed sideways, and then twine upwards in form of a crescent. It is a large animal, with a broad muzzle, low stature, and stout legs. It is also distinguished by a fold of skin which hangs be- neath the neck, and is called the dewlap. The male and female of this species are respect- ively the Bull and the Cow. The young males are called Steers, and the females Heifers. Beef is the most useful product which the ox affords. The problem of utilizing the ox to the greatest extent simply consists in producing, as quickly and economically as possible, an animal excelling to the highest degree both in the quantity and quality of its meat. Care, therefore, must be taken particu- larly to develop those parts which furnish the joints which are most esteemed. The type of the ox best fitted for the butcher is that in which flesh surpasses bone in proportion, and in which the hinder parts are more fully developed even at the expense of the neck and shoulders ; for the latter joints furnish an inferior article of food, so that their reduction, if compensated for by an in- crease of the more valuable portions, must be a great desideratum. What, therefore, are the points by which we can discern when an ox approaches the butcher’s ideal ? The answer is, great width combined with depth and length. “ The deeper the animal is in the thorax, in pro- portion to its size — the closer it is to the ground, in vulgar terms ; added to this, the longer it is in body and rump ; and the thicker it is, or, as is com- monly said, ‘the better it is made up,’ the greater amount of clear meat it gives in comparison with its absolute or living weight, and the better it approaches to the desired type. ” There are certain accessory characteristics which must have their due importance, as likewise forming a prominent feature in the type of the ox which is intended for the butcher. It must have slenderly made bones, a fine head, skin supple and not too thick, moderate dewlap, thin and downy hair, calm visage, quiet and mild look. It may be regarded as a certainty that the ox which combines these and the former attributes possesses a special fitness for be- coming good beef. Next to meat, milk is the most valuable product with which this race furnishes us — a source of wealth 54* CATTLE. to the producers, for it is an article of universal con- sumption. Thus it may be easily understood how- important it is for the buyer to be able to distinguish, a priori , in the market, from certain outward signs, what are the milking qualities of a cow, and to be able to arrive at a correct conclusion, even in a heifer, whether she will be a good or bad milker. There are both good and bad milkers in every race ; the proportion, however, of each presents a certain constant character, by which some breeds may be recognized as possessing a decided milking superiority. Climate and nature of pasturage have also great influence on the lacteous qualities of dif- ferent races. The principal breeds of oxen and cows are the Shorthorn, Hereford and Devon ; and besides these we have the Sussex, the Longhorned, the Galloway, the Angus and the Kyloe. The Shorthorn is now undoubtedly the dominant breed. Originating in Teeswater, and carefully bred years before the existence of any herd-book recording descent, it soon reached the highest reputation for its early precocity and meat-pro- ducing qualities. The Herefords, another leading breed of cattle, character- ized by red body and white or mottled face, come almost as early to maturity as the shorthorn, and, attaining great weight, are certainly one of the best breeds. They have as great an antiquity as the shorthorn. As much as $5,000 have been given for a Hereford bull and cow ; and high prices are fetched still, though not so high as those of the shorthorn stock, for well-bred bulls and cows. The breed has now a herd-book of its own, and it is in the hands of as much enthusiasm and ability as has characterized the history of the shorthorns. For early maturity, and large size, accordingly, it now almost equals the shorthorn ; and for quality of me 3 t it probably excels it. The Devon . — The North Devon ox is a small animal, of a tight red color, without any white, with long yellowish horns, and a well-made symmetrical frame. Hardy, light and active, it is an excellent worker, and is worked in harness until five or six years old, and then fattened. The Sussex is a larger, coarser animal than the Devon, but otherwise resembles it. The Longhorned, a dairy breed, rather than one adapted for the feeding-house, is gradually disappearing from the mid- land and western counties, where it prevailed. The Kyloe, or West Highlander, adapted to the rough pastures of the districts where it is bred, is driven south to be fattened on English grazing-grounds, where it yields the very best of beef at four and five years old. It is characterized by long, upturned horns,' a shaggy coat of a yellow, dun, or black color, and well-made, compact little body. The Galloway, resembling a Kyloe without horns, with a less shaggy coat, is, when well bred, one of the best-made and most symmetrical of our breeds of cattle. It, too, is driven south in large numbers to be fattened, and yields excellent beef. The Angus, also a polled breed, of a red or black color, is a much larger animal, and when crossed with the pure-bred shorthorn breed, furnishes one of the best crosses for the feed- ing-stall that we have. Besides these, there are other sorts especially adapted to the dairy. Different Kinds of Cows. — The large kinds of cows are generally chosen where there are rich fertile pastures ; and no doubt the dominant breed throughout the country, both for in- door and outdoor feeding, is, as has been said, the shorthorn. This breed is divided into several varieties — the Holderness, Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, etc. The Yorkshire is thought to be the best for the dairy. These fine animals ap- pear to have descended from the Teeswater breed. There are a great many varieties of the large cows in this country that have been bred by shorthorn bulls. An excellent cross is common in the eastern counties between the best Suffolk cows and shorthorn animals of the best blood. They are good milkers, harmless, and very quiet, and consequently much approved of for pasture-feeding. Cows of this breed will pro- duce from ten to twelve pounds of butter per week each, when well managed ; and for butter dairying the quantity and quali- ty of cream produced is of greater importance than the quan- tity of milk. Cheshire Cows. — The Cheshire dairy farms are mostly stocked with a mixed breed of cows, between the Cheshire, Lancashire, and other crosses. Lancashire. — The Lancashire are distinguished by their long horns, deep fore-quarters, and long hair. They, as well as other long-horned cows, are said to give richer milk than polled cows, but not so much of it. Besides the milking prop- erties of a breed of cows, their hardy qualities must be thought of, where they are exposed to bleak situations ; and no doubt the long-horned Lancashire and other coarse-skinned animals are the most hardy. Devons. — The middle-horned breed of cows may include the Devons, the Herefords, and the Sussex. The two latter are the largest, but neither of them excel the best shorthorn in their produce of milk. The Devons are of a light red color, with yellowish colored horns, well made, and their milk is rich — or we should not have such rich Devonshire cream. Hereford. — The Hereford, next in size to the shorthorn breed, is a fine animal and a pretty good one for dairy stock, but better, perhaps, for fattening purposes. The Sussex do not differ much from the Herefords ; they are both of a darker color than the Devons, with horns of a moderate length, turn- ing up at the points, having wide hips and smallish bones. They are middling cows for the dairy. Galloway. — The polled Galloways are very nice animals for grazing purposes ; they are mostly black, well proportioned in form, and yield an average quantity of milk, when carefully used, for dairy purposes. Highland. — The Highland are not thought to be better milk- producers than the Galloways, but more hardy. Ayrshire. — The Ayrshire cow is a favorite in some places, but not preferred by cow-keepera Lu general. It io, however, 7NDIMM COR^H pEAT HARVLST. PURCHASING HORSER 33d- , CATTLE aj-THE DAIRY CATTLE. 543 ft good animal for the dairy, and almost equal to the Alderney in the richness of its milk. It has fine wrinkled horns, is larger than the Alderney, and somewhat like it in appearance. Its color is usually red and white. Shetland. — The Shetland cattle are very small, and inferior in shape to those of the Western Highlands. They are hardy, small consumers of food, and yield about two quarts of milk a day. Welsh. — The Pembrokeshire cow is small and hardy. It is fine-boned, with clean light head and neck, small yellow horn, good chine, long round barrel, thin thigh, and short fine legs, always in good condition if tolerably kept, and has a rich wave in her hair which ever denotes thriftiness of kind. Its pro- duce is from five to seven pounds of butter a week during the dairy season. Irish. — The Kerry cattle, in size and shape, resemble some of those from the Western Islands, of a high-bred deer-like shape, not so broad or so low in the leg as the native High- land Stots. These cattle are very hardy, being reared in a country of rocks and hills. Their properties are said to be that of giving the largest quantity of milk, which is also of the richest quality for the amount of sustenance they require. Alderney. — The little Alderney cow is a slender-made animal, not very well shaped, though admired for its deer-like mild face and fine bone ; it is mostly of a red and white color, with a mottled face. The Alderney gives the richest milk of any kind, and some of them have been known to produce ten and eleven pounds of butter a week of the finest quality. They are rather tender, and require to be well housed in the winter. Suffolh. — The Suffolk cow is believed to be the best of the polled breeds for the dairy where the pastures are not very rich. They are quiet, hardy, and suitable for upland fields. It is thought that the Dun-colored originally descended from the Galloway ; they do not, however, generally appear to be so uniformly well-shaped as the Galloway, although they have been vastly improved of late years by careful breeders. Various crosses between them and the Ayrshire, and other varieties, have increased the produce of the dairy in many places ; but it is believed that for large dairies, no cross is superior to that of the Suffolk cow and the shorthorn bull. Whichever breed is made choice of to improve the stock, both male and female should be of the best animals. By a first- class bull a hardy, well-informed, and abundant milk-producing cow is almost sure to produce valuable calves to bring up for the future supply of the dairy. THE COW AND CALF. Rearing Cow Stoch. — Where there is accommodation for rearing young cow stock, the best males and females should be selected for propagating a good breed. It would not do, how- ever, for thsoe who expect to make a profit by dairy-farming, to purchase animals at the fabulous prices of hundreds and thousands of dollars, such as we read of at the sales of first- class breeders. Very excellent animals can be found now of various breeds, and caives chosen from the best of them, though not very high in price, will be as good for dairy purposes as the most celebrated stock. A selection should be carefully made from mothers which are the best milkers, with full-size udders, wide rounded hips, straight backs, and broad chests, with small tapering legs ; and bulls with broad breast, project- ing a little before their legs, with neck rising from their shoulders, moderate-sized heads, flat, broad, straight backs, well filled up behind their shoulders and between their ribs and hips, with small straight legs and rounded bodies. Large sunken bodies are generally brought on by poor keep. Animals kept on straw and sedgy meadows only, while young, are usually disfigured by their bodies becoming unnaturally protruded. Watchfulness required. — When cows are expected to calve (at the end of forty weeks) they should be carefully watched night and day, and where the weaning of the calf is intended, it would be best for them to calve at the beginning of March, as they would then have the whole of the grass season before them. When the cow has had a protracted and difficult calv- ing-time, she will require careful treatment. In common natural cases she will soon be all right ; but in difficult cases brushing of the belly and loins with a wisp is serviceable — gentle walking exercise for a short time in fine weather is use- ful. Gruels and cordial drinks should also occasionally be given. The latter might consist of a quart of ale mixed w ith sugar or treacle, and diluted with water, to be given warm. She must have her warm water mixed with a little meal. Should fever intervene, it is best to send for the veterinary surgeon, and commit the case to his care. Cows after calving should be carefully fed with nutritious food, in small quantities often repeated ; and it is certainly best to give cooked or boiled food, as it prevents more gene- rally indigestion and flatulent colic. At all events, sweet and easily digested food should be given, or material injury may arise. Should the udder swell from excess of milk, or the in- capacity of the calf to draw it all away, frequent milking is requisite, and it should be hand-rubbed well, with frequent washings of warm water and soft soap, or with warm bran- water. The teats occasionally become sore ; the same applica- tions should be resorted to, and, in addition, a little lard, olive-oil, or even cream, should be gently rubbed on, particu- larly in cases of pustules arising, or scab. Calves will soon learn to drink from a pail ; but it is generally thought best to allow them to suck from their mothers for a few days, while the herdsman milks on the opposite side. The cow will give down her milk the better for it, and become reconciled to his milking her without the calf afterwards, if treated with gentle kindness. The calf should have new milk for a fortnight twice a day ; then skimmed milk mixed with oatmeal or linseed meal, boiled for half an hour, during another fortnight or three weeks. It will require about two gallons a day till it begins to eat well, which it will do when it is five or six weeks old, if some sweetj hay be given it daily, or some hay chaff with pulped mangold or swedes mixed with it. Skimmed milk, or whey mixed with a little linseed meal, will then do for its drink,* which may be ( continued till it is twelve weeks old, when it would live very * The milk may be taken from the quantity set up for buttei and oact skimmed after standing twelve hour*. 44 CATTLE. well on a pasture or on natural food. Some people wean calves almost entirely on linseed tea. Summer Treatment . — When the weather is warm and the flies become troublesome, they ought not to be left in their pasture without shade or shelter. If well shaded during the (lieat of the day, and supplied with pure water and some green food in their cribs, they will most likely continue to thrive ; but if left to be tormented with flies, huddled together in a corner of their pasture, or in a wet ditch, they will probably become unhealthy. It may here be remarked that, on first leaving the cow-house, the calf should be confined in a safe place in the yard or elsewhere for a day or two, until it becomes accus- tomed to the bright light of day, as on its first introduction it appears almost blind, and would be likely to run into danger. A change of pasture now and then is desirable, but calves should not be put into low wet meadows, as it is generally in such situations that they get diseased with a husky cough. As the fall approaches the grass will be less nutritious, it will then be necessary to give them some food in their yard or shed, such as pulped roots mixed with cut straw chaff, every night. A little salt mixed with their chaff is a good thing, and is believed by some people to prevent “ hove.” When frost begins they should not be turned into their pas- ture till nine or ten o’clock, or till it disappears. Their racks, cribs, and mangers, or whatever they feed or drink from, should constantly be kept clean, and the herdsman should be urged to feed and water them regularly, and to keep them well sup- plied with dry bedding. As winter approaches they would be best confined to the yard and shed, where, if well sheltered and fed regularly with a proper quantity of pulped roots, turnips or mangold, mixed with straw chaff spiinkled with a little salt, they will thrive fast enough till the spring, when they can return to their pastures, or be provided with green food ; they should be carefully treated as before recommended. The upland pastures are best for young stock. Some people allow heifers to have calves when only two years old, but they seldom (if ever) make such good cows as those that are left free till they are three years of age. Young stock brought up as here recommended will generally thrive fast, and be free from disease. Cost of Keep . — Cows are large consumers of food, and should not be stinted when in milk. Heifers will require nothing but green food in the dry summer months ; but as the winter ap- proaches they should be sheltered in a yard at night, and a little fresh barley or oat straw given them in their cribs ; whenever the pastures become injured by frost, both young and old cows require improved food in their sheds. A few Swedish turnips or mangold roots should then be given them, which, if pulped and mixed with sweet chaff (one-fourth hay), would be sufficient to keep them in healthy condition ; but this applies only to those that are not in milk. When within two months of calving, all cows should be dried, for, if not then dried, they will not produce so much milk the next year. They should afterwards have their food improved by an additional weight of roots with their chaff, which should be mixed in a heap over-night. By the morning it will be found to have heated a little, which im- parts a flavor that is much relished by the cows. Consumption of Food. — As was before remarked, “ cows are large consumers of food,” and no wonder that they should re. quire an abundance, to enable them to supply so rich a sus- tenance for mankind, as well as to support themselves. Where there are no good dry pastures to provide them with plenty for their summer keep, they would do very well in a properfeeding- hoase (enclosed on the north and south sides) with a door at each end, if they were liberally supplied with green food, cut for them and put in racks : such as rye grass, clover, tares. It has been found that milk as abundant and butter quite as good have been produced by cows so fed, as by those which had the run of rich pastures. But where there are pastures it would be well to have the cows housed in hot weather, when insects are troublesome ; or else they will be worried and heated and unable to feed, and will fall off in their produce of milk. A large cow will consume a cwt. of green food per day. When green food is scarce, as is generally the case at the end of a dry summer, a little linseed-cake or bean-meal, mixed with cut chaff (one third hay), should be given them to keep up the produce of milk, lest part of the best season for dairying should be lost by its failure. It is not good economy to feed cows on much uncut hay, for they would consume and spoil a cwt. a day, if fed entirely on it. Much less expensive and more natural condiments can be made by a mixture of bean, barley, maize, or linseed- meal, and other produce of the soil by cow-keepers them- selves. Milk Dairies . — When cows are kept only for the purpose of producing a large quantity of milk, brewers’ grains are given them, with a small portion of hay, for ruminating purposes. On this they do tolerably well, but it will be found to their advan- tage if about three or four pounds of bean-meal be mixed with the grains for each cow per day. Winter Food . — In winter and spring, Swedish turnips, man- gold, and other root crops would be found mere economical food than the grains, meal, and hay last mentioned. A bushel of pulped roots mixed with about fourteen pounds of cut chaff, one-third hay, and given them twice a day, would be found sufficient to satisfy a moderate-sized cow, but they should not be stinted or confined to any quantity if they are found to require more. Cabbages, carrots, and parsnips are very good food for milch cows if given in moderate quantities with other food. It is important that all roots should be freed from earth before pulping, or given to the cows, otherwise it would impart an unpleasant flavor to the cream. When cows are fed on pulped roots, with cut chaff, a peck or two of malt-dust (“ combs”) would be a nice addition, as it would give a zest to the mixture. A sufficient quantity for the whole herd should be put into a heap about twelve hours before it would be wanted, when it would be found to have acquired a little warmth and a fragrant smell, which would give the cows a greater relish for it. A change of green or succulent food appears to promote the secretions of the system, and to give stimulus to their action Such as would injure the flavor of milk should be avoided. White turnips and cabbages will do this, if given without a good supply of other food with them. THE HORSE. 545 in the interior of Asia and in South America. But both the horses of the Tartars and those of La Plata are descended from the domesticated animals, and can scarcely be called wild in the ordinary accepta- tion of the term. From their constant state of liberty, and their roving habits, in order to obtain food and water, they are inured to fatigue, and can bear an enormous amount of long-continued fast work, with- out failing under it, and without that training which the domesticated animal must have. The walk and the gallop are the horse’s natural paces, and all others are acquired ; but nothing can exceed the fiery ani- mation and elegance of movement of the free horse ; and in these two paces art has done nothing to im- prove his form, except, perhaps, in slightly increasing the speed of the latter. In all countries, and in every age, the horse feeds upon grain or grass, though it is said that in Arabia he is occasionally supported upon camel’s milk, when food such as he usually lives upon is not to be had. It may be useful to specify the terms employed to describe the principal parts of the horse. These details will not prove altogether superfluous, as some of the words we are about to explain not unfrequently occur in conversation. The two parts of the head of the horse which cor- respond to the temples in a man are above the eyes. The eyes themselves have a loose crescentiform fold of the conjunctiva at the inner angle, often errone EARLY HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE HORSE. HE Early History and Origin of the Horse is wrapped in obscurity and fable, and we really know little or nothing of it, except that we have to believe that he first came from Asia, like man, and, according to the Mosaic account, all other animals now existing ; and that he was used in Egypt _ more than 1600 years before Christ. But with the history of the horse we shall not encumber this book, which might be enlarged to an enormous extent if this department were entered into at length. Suffice it, then, to discuss the present condition of the horse, and its more recent origin, in addition to his general habits. The Habits of the Horse, in all countries, and of all varieties, are pretty much alike. Wherever he is at large, he is bold, but wary, and easily taking note of the approach of man, to give him as wide a berth as he possibly can, or rather show him a clean pair of heels. Wild horses exist to the present day 54<> THE HORSE. ously called membratm nictitans , but it neither per- forms its office or possesses its muscular apparatus. The orbit, which is formed of seven bones, four cranial and three facial, contains the globe of the eye, on the inner angle of which is situated the haw. The eye-pits are deep indentations which lie between the eye and the ear, above the eyebrows on each side. The face is the front of the head from the eyes to the nostrils ; this part corresponds to the upper part of a man’s nose. This name is, however, generally applied to that portion that surrounds the curl or centre on the forehead from whence the hair radiates. The neck of the horse is designated by the word crest ; it is comprised from one end to the other be- tween the mane on the upper side and the gullet on the lower. The fore-lock is the portion of the mane which is on the top of the head and falls over on the forehead between the eyes. The withers is the spot where the shoulders meet up above, between the back and the neck, at the point where the neck and the mane come to an end. The chest is that part which is in front between the shoulders and below the throat. The back commences at the withers and extend' all along the spine as far as the crupper. When the horse is fat, the whole length of the spine forms a kind of hollow which is said to be channeled. The space which is included within the ribs is called the barrel ; the name of stomach is also given to the lower part of the body which joins the os ster- num and the bottom of the ribs. The flanks lie at the extremity of the stomach and extend as far as the hip-bones. The tail is divided into two ] .rts : the stump or dock , and the hair. The upper part of the front leg of the horse is called the shoulder although it corresponds with the fewe-arra in a man j the fore-arm follows it lower down. The joint which is below the fore-arm is called the knee ; it corresponds to the place of the wrist in man, forms an angle turning inwards when the leg is bent. The shank forms the second portion of the fore- leg i it commences at the knee-joint, and corresponds to the metacarpus in man. Behind the shank is a tendon, which extends from one end to the other, and is called the back-sinew. The fetlock-joint is the articulation immediately below the shank. The fetlock itself is a tuft of hair covering a sort of soft horny excrescence, which is called the ergot. The pastern is the portion of the leg between the fetlock-joint and the foot. The coronet is an elevation lying below the pastern, and is furnished with long hair falling over the hoof, all round the foot. The hoofs form, so to speak, the nails of the horse, and consist of a horny substance. In order to describe the parts which make up the hind legs of the horse, we must go back to the haun- ches. Each of these contains the femur , and corre- sponds to the thigh of a man. It is, therefore, the thigh of the horse, which is joined on to the body, and bears the name of buttocks. It is terminated below and in front by the stifle which is the joint of the knee containing the knee-pan. It is situated be- low the haunch, on a level with the flank, and shifts its place when the horse walks. The highest part of the hind leg, which is detached from the body, is called the thigh, or gaskins, and corresponds to the leg of a man. It extends from the stifle and lower part of the buttocks down to the hock. The hock is the joint which is below the thigh, and bends forward. This joint represents the instep in a man : the hinder part of the hock, which is called the point of the hock, is the heel. Below the hock are the shank, the fetlock-joint, the pastern, and the foot, just the same as in the fore-legs. We will now say a few words as to the diversity of color in the coat of the horse, in order to fix the meaning of the terms which are generally employed to designate the various hues which the coat pre- sents. Bay is a reddish nut-brown color, with various shades. Dark bay horses are of a very dark brown, almost black, except on the flanks and tip of the nose, where they are of a reddish color. The golden , or light bay , is a yellow sun-light hue. Dappled bay horses have on their rumps spots of a darker bay than on the rest of their bodies. In bay horses the extremities, the mane, and the tail are always black. There are three kinds of black horses : the rusty black, which is of a brownish tinge, more or less con- spicuous in various lights ; the black, and the coal- black, which is the darkest of all. Dun-r olored horseSc of which there are severai THE HORSE. 547 shades, are of a yellowish-sandy hue ; the mane and tail of these are either white or black. Some of the latter have a black line along the vertebrae, which is called a mule s , or eel-stripe. Chestnut is a kind of reddish or cinnamon-colored bay. There are several shades of it, among which are the bright chestnut , which is the color of a red cow’s coat ; the co?nmon chestnut, which is neither dark nor bright ; the bay chestnut, which verges upon the red ; the burnt chestnut, which is dark, and nearly approaches black. Some chestnut horses have white manes and tails, others black. The roan is a mixture of red and white. Gray horses have white hair mixed with black or bay. There are several modifications of this color ; the dappled-gray, the silver-gray, the iron-gray, etc. Dapple-gray horses have on the back and other parts of the body a number of round spots, in some cases black in others of a lighter hue ; these spots are somewhat irregularly distributed. Gray horses as they increase in age become lighter in color, ulti- mately becoming white. Piebald and skewbald horses are white, with large irregular spots and stripes of some other color irreg- ularly arranged. The different kinds are distinguished by the color that is combined with the white, as the piebald proper, which are white and black ; the skewbald, which are white and bay ; the chestnut piebald, which are white and chestnut. The horses which have small black spots on a white or gray coat are called fiea-bitten, particularly preva- lent in India among Arabs. We have hitherto considered the wild and domestic horse in common, both as regards their structure and their color, in short, their outward appearance gen- erally, without noticing the different breeds, which must soon occupy our attention. But before we en- ter upon the study of the various equine races, it is necessary to give a short explanation as to the way in which the bit regulates the paces of the horse. By this we are led to speak of the construction of the mouth, a knowledge of which is most useful. The horse either walks, trots, gallops, or ambles. The paces of the horse are essentially modified by means both of the bit and spur. The spur excites a quickness of movement ; the bit communicates to this movement a due amount of precision. The mouth of the horse is so sensitive that the least movement or the slightest impression which it receives warns and regulates the motion of the animal. But to pre- serve the full delicacy of this organ, it is highly ne- cessary to treat tenderly its extreme sensibility. The position of the teeth in the jaw of the horsa affords to man the facility which exists in placing bit in its mouth, by which instrument this high- spirited and vigorous animal is broken in and guided. Let us, therefore, in the first place, study the arrange ment of its mouth. There are in each jaw six incisors, or fore-teeth, followed on either side by a tush, which is generally deficient in mares, especially in the lower jaw. Next comes a series of six grinders on each side in both jaws ; these teeth have a square crown, marked with four crescents, formed by the lamina of enamel which are embedded on them. Between the tushes and the grinders there is a considerable space called the bar , which corresponds to the angle of the lips ; and it is in this interval that the bit is placed. It is also by means of the teeth that we are enabled to know a horse’s age — a knowledge which is of the highest utility ; for a horse increases in value in pro- portion as he approaches maturity, again decreasing in worth as he becomes older. Up to nine years the age can be determined pretty accurately by means of the changes which take place in the teeth. The foal, at his birth, is usually devoid of teeth in the front of the mouth, and has only two grinders on each side in each jaw. At the end of a few days, the two middle fore-teeth, ox pincers, make their ap- pearance. In the course of the first month a third grinder shows itself, and in four months more the two next fore-teeth also emerge ; within six and a half or eight months the side incisives, or corner teeth, show, and also a fourth grinder. At this period the first dentition is complete. The changes which take place up to the age of three years depend only on the fore-teeth being worn away more or less, and the black hollows being obliterated gradually by contact with food. In thirteen to sixteen months the cavities on the surface of the pincers are effaced ; they are then said to be razed. In sixteen to twenty months the intermediate fore-teeth are likewise razed, and in twenty to twenty-four months the same thing takes place with the corner teeth. The second dentition commences at the age of two and a half or three years. The milk-teeth may be recognized by their shortness, their whiteness, and the construction round their base called the neck of 54 » THE HORSE. the tooth. The teeth which replace them have no necks, and are much larger. The pincers are the first to fall out and be replaced by new ones. At the age 'of from three years and a half to four years the in- termediate fore-teeth experience the same change, and the lower tushes begin to make their appearance. The corner teeth are also renewed when between four and a half to five years ; the upper tushes likewise pierce the gums, and about the same date the sixth grinder shows itself. A depression, or small hollow, may be noticed on the surface of the crown of the second growth of fore-teeth, just as in the milk-teeth, and these hol- \ows are gradually worn away in the same fashion. The pincers of the lower jaw lose their cavities when the horse is five or six years old ; the inter- mediate fore-teeth are the next to raze. The marks in the corner-tecth are obliterated at the age of seven or eight years. The process of destruction of the marks in the upper fore-teeth goes on in the same order, but more tardily. When all these various changes have taken place, the horse is looked upon as aged \ because the teeth no longer furnish any certain indications as to the age of the animal. Only approximate inferences can now be drawn from the length and color of the tusks, which become more and more bare and pro- jecting from the gum, etc. The domestication of the horse appears to date back to the very earliest period of his appearance on earth ; and as this animal adapts itself to every ne- cessity, every want, and every climate, its subjection has resulted in a considerable number of races, dis- tinguished by more or less prominent characteristics of shape, strength, temper, and endurance. Although generally intelligent, affectionate, and endowed with considerable powers of memory, these qualities in the horse are essentially modified by education and climate. And for the full development of his intelli- gence and his high qualities, it is requisite that man should be his companion and his friend, as well as his master, but never his tyrant. Under the whip of an unfeeling driver, the horse becomes brutalized, and rapidly degenerates, morally even more than physically. The attachment of the horse for those who treat it kindly is a well-known fact. The influence of memory on the horse is shown by the sense it retains of injuries and ill-treatment it , has suffered. Many a horse is restive with persons who have misused it, while perfectly docile with others, proving a consciousness of good and evil, and a natural insubordination against tyranny and injustice. PRESENT VARIETIES OF THE HORSE. The Arabian is still one of the most distinct varieties of this noble animal, and also one of the most prized, being eagerly sought for by Turks and Christians in Asia, Southern Russia, India, and even in Australia. In his native deserts he is still sometimes to be seen in a half- wild state, though most probably owned by some of the “ dwellers in tents ” peculiar to that re- gion. But it is the more domestic breed with which we have chiefly to do, and which is carefully preserved in a pure state by the chiefs of the various tribes, though it is supposed not so free from stain now as was formerly the case. The head of the Arab is the most beautiful model in nature, giving the idea of courage, tempered with docility and submission to man, better than any other animal, and even more so than the dog. It is seldom, perhaps, that so beautiful a frame exists ; but examples are not wanting of such a union of elegance with perfectly good and useful points. The length and muscularity of the fore-arm are also remarkable, and the setting on of the tail is peculiarly high — points which have generally been transmitted to our thorough-bred horses descended from Arabian blood. Many imported horses of this breed are exceedingly wicked and full of tricks, but in India, as a rule, he is quite the reverse. To the modern sportsman also he is valuable, because he faces the elephant and the tiger better than any other breed. In height he is generally a little under fifteen hands ; and in color either bay, black, or gray. It is said that there are three distinct breeds of Arabians even now — the Attechi, a very superior breed ; the Kadischi, mixed with these, and of little value ; and the Kochlani , highly prized, and very difficult to procure. If this is true, it may account for the very different results produced by breeding from modern Arabs and those introduced in the eighteenth century. The Barb is an African horse, of smaller size but coarser make than the Arabian, and evidently fed upon more nutritious food. As his name implies, his native land is Barbary ; but there 'is always great doubt about the particular breed to which imported horses belong, because they are carried con- siderable distances from their native plains, and are also even then much mixed in blood. It has frequently been said that the Barb is the progenitor of one root of the best English stock, and that the Godolphin Arabian, as he was called, belonged to this blood ; but the disputed point cannot possibly be settled, and there seems only one argument in favor of the supposition, founded upon his enormously high crest ; while his superior size, being 15 hands high, argues just as strongly in favor of Arab descent. But the Spanish horse is no doubt descended from the Barb, this breed having been carried into Spain by the Moors when they overran the country ; and, as the appear- ance of the Spanish horse is totally opposed to that of the de- scendants of Godolphin, it is a still stronger proof of his Arabian ancestry, or, at all events, an argument against his claim to Barbary as a native clime. THE HORSE. 549 The Dongola horse is another African variety, of a much larger size than either the Arab or the Barb, but more leggy. I am not aware that any of this breed have reached this country. The Persian is a small-sized horse, and quite as elegant as the Arabian, but not nearly so enduring. The Turkooman, again, is a larger breed, but without the elegance of form of the Arab and Persian. They are light in the barrel, and leggy, with coarse heads and ewe-necks ; yet they are endowed with very stout and lasting qualities, and they are said to travel very long distances without distress. This is only another instance of the oft-quoted adage, “ that the horse can go in all forms.” The Cossack horses are reared at liberty, and in large herds, and they were long said to be, in consequence of this fact, of unrivaled speed and stoutness. The Turkish horse is supposed to be nearly pure Arab, with a cross of the Persian and Turkooman. He is a very fine, high-spirited, and elegant horse. The East-Indian and Australian horses are of various mixed breeds, some being Arabs, some Persians, and others Turks and Barbs ; while others again are of English blood, but these degenerate rapidly, and though serviceable in crossing with the Arabian or the Barb, yet they cannot long be main- tained in their original purity without injury. The Belgian and Dutch horses for slow work are very serviceable. They are, however, most of them too heavy and lumbering for anything but machiners, and even in that de- partment they require care not to over-drive them. The Norman horse, again, is a much more hardy and com- pact animal. He is, however, gifted with an excellent con- stitution, and with legs and feet which will stand rattling to any extent. These horses are generally low and short-legged, as compared with the Belgians. The Spanish horse is much crossed with the Barb, and has the good head and neck of that breed, but coupled with a weak and drooping hind-quarter and a very light middle-piece. The shoulders and legs are, however, good. The American and Canadian breeds vary a great deal, and are made up of the original Spanish stock crossed with English, Arabian, and Barb importations. Climate, however, has done much for them ; and they have all the wiriness of frame and elasticity of muscle which their masters possess. As trotters they are unrivaled, and in endurance stand very high ; but they are not remarkable for beauty, though not showing any peculiarly unsightly points. Some of the best breeds of horses have been imported by us, especially in Virginia, where Tranby, Priam, and many others have done good service. Our importers have always been careful to select sound as well as stout blood, and have not hesitated to invest large sums in order to procure it. The English Thorough-bred. — England is indebted to the Stuarts for the first great improvement made in the breed of her horses, James I. and Charles I. having introduced the Arabian blood, and Charles II. laying the foundation of her present breeds by importing several mares (called Royal Mares, from their master), to which may be traced the celebrated horses of the latter end af the last century, and some of her 19 best modern breeds. Numerous Eastern horses were also imported at various times. The Thorough-bred horse is intended for racing only. The height of the race horse varies from 15 hands to 16 J hands, or even 17 hands; but the general height of our best horses is about 15 hands 3 inches. The head and neck should be characterized by lightness, which is essential to this department. Whatever is unneces- sary is so much dead weight, and we know the effect of 7 lbs. in impeding the horse over a distance of ground. Now 7 lbs. are easily bestowed upon a neck which may differ in at least 20 or 30 lbs. between the two extremes of lightness and exces- sive weight. Thus, it may be considered as indubitable that whatever is met with in the head and neck, which is not necessary for the peculiar purposes of the race horse, is so much weight thrown away, and yet it must be carried by the horse. Such is the general character of this part ; but, in detail, the head should be lean about the jaw, yet with a full development of forehead, which should be convex and wide, so as to contain within the skull a good volume of brain. Sup- posing this fullness to exist, all the rest of the head may be as fine as possible ; the jaws being reduced to a fine muzzle, with a slight hollowing out in front, but with a width between the two sides of the lower jaw where it joins the neck, so as to allow plenty of room for the top of the windpipe when the neck is bent. The ears should be pricked and fine, but not too short ; eyes fu 1 and spirited ; nostrils large, and capable of being well dilated when at full speed, which is easily tested by the gallop, after which they ought to stand out firmly, and so as to show the internal lining fully. The neck should be muscular and yet light ; the windpipe loose and separate from the neck — that is, not too tightly bound down by the fascia , or membrane of the neck. The crest should be thin and wiry, not thick and loaded, as is often seen in coarse stallions, or even in some mares. Between the two extremes of the ewe- neck and its opposite there are many degrees, but for racing purposes we should prefer, of the two, the former to the latter; for few horses can go well with their necks bent so as to draw the chin to the bosom ; but here, as in most other cases, the happy medium is to be desired. The body , or middle-piece, should be moderately long, and not too much confined between the last rib and the hip bone. So long as the last or back-ribs are deep, it is not of so much importance that they should be closely connected to the hip- bone, for such a shape shortens the stride ; and though it en- ables the horse to carry great weight, yet it prevents him from attaining a high rate of speed. The back itself should be muscular, and the hips so wide as to allow of a good develop ment of the muscular department. The withers may rise gently, but not too high, with that thin razor-like elevation which many people call a good shoulder, but which really has nothing to do with that part, and is only an annoyance to the saddler, who has to prevent its being pinched by the saddle. The chest itself should be well developed, but not too wide and deep : no horse can go a distance without a fair “ bellows- room;”but, supposing the heart to be sound and of good quality, the amount of lung will suffice which maybe contained in a medium- sized chest : and %U above that is wasted, and if 55 ° THE IIORSE. extra weight. If the chest be too wide, it materially affects the action of the fore-legs, and, therefore, in every point of view, theoretically and practically, there is a happy medium between the too great contraction in this department, and the heavy, wide, lumbering chests sometimes seen even in the thorough- bred race horse, especially when reared upon rich, succulent herbage, more fitted for the bullock than the Eastern horse. In the formation of the hips , the essential point is length and breadth of bone for muscular attachment, and it matters little whether the croup droops a little, or is pretty straight and level, so that there is a good length from the hip to the haunch-bone ; the line between which two points may either be nearly horizontal, or form a considerable angle with the ground ; but still in both cases it should be a long line, and the longer it is the more muscular substance is attached to it, and the greater leverage will the muscles have. The fore-quarter , consisting of the shoulder, upper and lower arm, and leg and foot, should be well set on to the chest ; and the shoulder-blade should lie obliquely on the side of that part, with a full development of muscle to move it, and thrust it well forward in the gallop. Obliquity is of the greatest importance, acting as a spring in taking off the shock of the gallop or leap, and also giving a longer attachment to the muscles, and in addition enabling them to act with more leverage upon the arm and leg. The shoulder should be very muscular, without being overdone or loaded, and so formed as to play freely in the action of the horse. The point of the shoulder, which is the joint corresponding to the human shoulder, should be free from raggedness, but not too flat ; a certain degree of development of the bony parts is desirable, but more than this leads to a defect, and impedes the action of this important part. The tipper arm , between this joint and the elbow, should be long, and well clothed with muscles ; the elbow set on quite straight, and not tied to the chest ; the lower arm muscular and long; knees broad and strong, with the bony projection behind well developed ; legs flat, and showing the suspensory ligament large and free ; pasterns long enough without being weak ; and the feet sound, and neither too large nor too small, and unattended with any degree of contraction, which is the bane of the thorough-bred horse. The hind-quarter is the chief agent in propulsion, and is therefore of the utmost consequence in attaining high speed. It is often asserted that the oblique shoulder is the grand re- quisite in this object, and that it is the part upon which speed mainly depends, and in which it may be said to reside. This is to some extent true, because there can be no doubt that with K loaded shoulder high speed is impracticable ; for, however powerfully the body may be propelled, yet when the fore- quarter touches the ground, it does not bound off again as smartly as it ought to do, and the pace is consequently slow. For the full action of the hind-quarter two things are neces- sary, viz. : — first, length and volume of muscle ; and secondly, length of leverage upon which that muscle may act. Hence, all the bones comprising the hind-quarter should be long, but the comparative length must vary a good deal, in order that the parts upon which the muscles lie may be long, rather than those connected with the tendons, which are mere ropes, and have no propelling power residing in them, but only transmit that which they derive from the muscles themselves. Thus, the hips should be long and wide, and the two upper divisions of the limb — viz., the stifle and lower thigh — should be long, strong, and fully developed. By this formation the stifle-joint is brought well forward, and there is a considerable angle! between these two divisions. The hock should be bony and^ strong, free from gum or spavin, and the point long, and so set on as to be free from weakness at the situation of curb. Io examining the hind-quarter to judge of its muscular develop ment, the horse should not be looked at sideways, but his tail should be raised, and it should be ascertained that the muscles of the two limbs meet together below the anus, which should be in fact well supported by them, and not left loose, and. as it were, in a deep and flaccid hollow. The outline of the outer part of the thigh should be full, and in ordinary horses the muscle should swell out beyond the level of the point of the hip. This fullness, however, is not often seen to this extent in the thorough-bred horse until he has arrived at mature age, and is taken out of training. The bones below the hock should be flat and free from adhesions ; the ligaments and tendons fully developed, and standing out free from the bone ; and the joints well formed and wide, yet without any diseased enlarge- ment ; the pasterns should be moderately long and oblique ; the bones of good size ; and lastly, the feet should correspond with those already alluded to in the anterior extremity. The totality of these points should be in proportion to one another — that is to say, the formation of the horse should be " true.” He should not have long, well-developed hind-quar- ters, with an upright, weak, or confined fore-quarter. Nor will the converse serve ; for, however well formed the shoulder may be, the horse will not go well unless he has a similar formation in the propellers. It is of great importance, there- fore, that the race horse should have all his various points in true relative development, and that there shall not be the hind- quarter of a long racing-like horse with the thick, confined shoulder which would suit a stride less reaching in its nature. THE COLOR, SKIN, HAIR, ETC. The color of the thorough-bred horse is now generally bay, brown, or chestnut, one or other of which will occur in ninety- nine cases out of a hundred. Gray is not common, but some- times appears. Black also occasionally makes its appearance, but not more frequently than gray. Roans, duns, sorrels, etc., are now quite exploded, and the above five colors may be said to complete the list of colors seen on the race-course. Sometimes these colors are mixed with a good deal of white, in the shape of blazes on the face, or white legs and feet ; or even both may occur, and the horse may have little more than his body of a brown, bay, or chestnut. Most people, however, prefer the self color, with as little white as possible ; and nothing but the great success of a horse’s stock would induce breeders to resort to him if they were largely endowed with white. Gray hairs mixed in the coat, as in the Venisons, are rather approved of than otherwise ; but they do not amount to a roan, in which the gray hairs equal, or even more Ilian that, the other color mixed with them. The texture of the coat and skin is a great proot of high THE HORSE. 55 1 breeding, and in the absence of the pedigree would be highly regarded ; but when that is satisfactory it is of no use descend- ing to the examination of an inferior proof; and therefore, except as a sign of health, the skin is seldom considered. In all thorough-bred horses, however, it is thinner, and the hair more silky than in common breeds ; and the veins are more apparent under the skin, partly from its thinness, but also from their extra size and number of branches. This network of veins is of importance in allowing the circulation to be carried on during high exertions, when, if the blood could not accu- mulate in them, it would often choke the deep vessels of the heart and lungs ; but, by collecting on the surface, great relief is afforded, and the horse is able to maintain such a high and long-continued speed as would be impracticable without their help. Hence, these points are not useful as a mere mark of breed, but as essential to the very purpose for which that breed was established. The mane and tail should be silky and not curly, though a slight wave is often seen. A decided curl is almost universally a mark of degradation, and shows a stain in the pedigree as clearly as any sign can do. Here, however, as in other cases, the clear tracing of that all-powerful proof of breeding will up- set all reasoning founded upon inferior data. The setting on of the tail is often regarded as of great importance, but it is chiefly with reference to appearances ; for the horse is not de- pendent for action or power upon this appendage. The various breeds of Wagon horses are exceeding numer- ous. Most of the larger and heavier breeds of these animals are crossed with the Flemish horses, and are thereby rendered heavier and more capable of moving heavy weights, which their bulk and readiness to try a “ dead pull ” render them well adapted for. Carriage horses are either ponies, gig horses. Brougham horses, or coach horses ; being gradually larger and heavier from one end to the other of the line, which begins at the size of a small pony and extends up to the carriage horse of 1 7 hands. Ponies are of various breeds, some of which are of wonderful powers of endurance, with good symmetry and action, and with never-failing legs and feet. In general soundness they far excel the larger varieties of the horse, for which there is no accounting, as they are much more neglected and frequently very ill-used. A broken-winded pony, or a roarer, is a very uncommon sight, and even a lame one is by no means an every-day occurrence. Some are good trotters and yet bad gallopers, and they are consequently as well fitted for harness work as they are unfitted for hunting. The Shetland Pony is the least of the species, and often widen 1 hands. These ponies are very quick and active, and will walk, canter, and gallop, with good action, but seldom trot welL THE STABLE-YARD AND ITS OCCUPANTS. Stable. — Every one will prefer to have the stables near his house, if not on his own premises ; in either case, if they are already built, he must do the best he can with them. Old buildings are for the most part very defective, badly drained, and badly ventilated. This must at once be remedied, r.iiri way generally be done at a moderate expense, which will u.. amply repaid by the improved health and comfort of the horses. New stables are better, but they also frequently require alteration. Aspect. — When about to build a stable, the first considera- tion will naturally be the selection of a site. We need not insist on the advantages of a southerly aspect : they are almost self-evident. The stables will be much more cheerful, and much warmer, and enable the groom to avail himself of every gleam of sunshine to open the windows and thoroughly venti- late the interior. Unfortunately it is not always possible, from the disposition of the ground and premises, to manage this. However, let it be borne in mind that such is the best, the west the next best, and the north-east the very worst. It should not be forgotten, also, that a thorough drainage is one of the most important points, and every natural slope of the land should be taken advantage of in this respect. Drainage. — Having settled the site and the plans of the stables, to which we w ill refer further on, the first works to be provided for will be the drainage, for these will have to be carried out simultaneously with the foundations. The drains will be of two sorts, which should be kept as far away from one another as it is possible to manage : first, those connected with the drainage of the interior of the stables ; second, those in- tended to carry away the surface-water and collect the rain- water from the roofs, etc. Sewers. — There are four conditions which are to be re- garded as indispensable in the construction of all drains from all buildings whatsoever. These conditions are : Firstly, that the entire length of drain is to be constructed and maintained with sufficient declivity toward the discharge into the cesspool, to enable the average proportion and quantity of liquid and solid matters committed to it to maintain a constant and un- interrupted motion, so that stagnation shall never occur. Secondly, that the entire length of the drain is to be constructed and maintained in a condition of complete impermeability, so that no portion of the matters put into it shall accidentally escape from it. Thirdly, that the head of the drain shall be so efficiently trapped that no gaseous or volatile properties or products can possibly arise from its contents. And, fourthly, that the low extremity of the drain or point of communication with the cesspool shall be so completely and durably formed, that no interruption to the flow of the drainage or escape shall there take place, and that no facility shall he offered for the upward progress of the sewage in case of the cesspool becoming surcharged. For most purposes a fall of 2\ inches in ten feet will be sufficient, and the drain should be of 3-inch glazed stoneware pipes (4 inches for w.c.), with carefully-made socket-joints laid in the direction of the current, and cemenred. For the head of the drain we w#uld recommeno 'f»e oell-trapped horse pots, which are to be had at ah stable-turnishing ironmongers, taking care that they arc sufficiently large and of good strong quality. The cesspool for sewage should be well away from the tank provided for the reception of the rain-water, and well puddled with clay on the outside and cemented inside. Precaution should also be further taken that a^ sewage drains should b« 55 2 THE HORSE. laid below the rain-water drains, so that, in case of any acci- dental defects, no matter will, by any possibility, taint the water supply. Rain-water Drains. — These will subdivide themselves into two : those laid to collect the drainage of yard, etc., and which may be common pipes laid dry, and leading to an ordinary cesspool made of bricks laid without mortar, where the water will collect and gradually lose itself; the others connected with the down pipes from roofs, and leading to a rain-water tank. These should be laid with the same care as the sewer drains: the tank constructed in the same way, with an overflow pipe to lead to cesspool just mentioned. Plans. — The plan of the building will vary very much according to the aspect, disposition of land and other premises, and other local circumstances. These should be very carefully studied, and the plans well matured, as the success of the building will greatly depend on the disposition of its various parts. We will lay down as one of the first principles, that no stall should be less than 6 feet wide by io feet long, no loose box less than IO feet square, and no stable less than IO feet high from floor to ceiling. Passage in rear of stalls 5 feet wide. The doors should be wide and high, and hung in two heights, with fanlight over {4 feet by 7 feet at least), that the horses may go in and out freely without a chance of knocking them- selves about. The light should be full, as tending greatly to the cheerful- ness of the interior. The sashes, also, should be hung on centers in their height, as the most advantageous method for ventilation. Ventilation. — To complete the ventilation, the only further requirements will be an opening in the ceiling — not im- mediately over the horses, but in the rear over the passage — fitted with an ornamental ventilating grating, to be shut and opened at will, leading to an air-flue laid between the joists, and conducting the foul air from the stables to the outside through an ornamental perforated air brick or iron grating. A similar ventilating grating, to regulate the admission of fresh air, will only be necessary where the doors and windows are small, and fit very accurately. Paving. — The materials for paving should be of the hardest quality, on good sound ballast or concrete foundation. Any absorbent materials must be rejected. The paving of boxes and stalls should be laid with a regular gentle slope to the drain, which should always be in the center. Irrespective of other advantages, the horses stand on the level, and take their rest more comfortably. Partitions. — The partition for stalls will be match-lined both sides, and about 4 feet 2 inches in rear, with a ramp, and rising to 6 feet 2 inches toward the mangers ; with iron pillar at the end next passage, with rings for pillar reins. Sometimes, also, the match-lining will be carried through in a level line, and by a cast iron the ramp form ornamental panel. For loose boxes the boarding will be from 5 feet to about 5 feet 4 inches high at most, with a 2-feet ornamental iron panel- ing over Mangers. — The best mangers are those containing hay- rack. corn-manger, and water-trough in one, and we more specially recommend that preference should be given to gal. vanized iron. The wall over the manger should be match-boarded to the height of partitions, and lined with iron hoop bands, sheet zinc over the joints of match-lining, or enameled tiles, to prevent horses biting at it when being cleaned. The manger will have two rings for halter reins, and a ring and galvanized chain fitted in wall over same. Harness-Room. — This should be at least 10 feet square, 1 and have in it a fireplace fitted with range with boiler attached. A handy supply of hot water will be found most advantageous in the management of the stables, and we need not point out the necessity of a fire for drying the rugs, horse-cloths, saddles, harness, etc., in winter-time. This room should be fitted with convenient hooks and brackets for the hanging and cleaning of harness. These are of all sorts of designs, in which individual taste will be the best guide. Hay-Loft and Corn-Chamber. — In most stables, in addi- tion to the coachman’s rooms, there are a corn chamber and hay- loft over the table. The former is generally boarded off, lined all round with sheets of zinc or tin to keep out the vermin, and the door is provided with a lock, of which the coachman keeps the key, and gives out at stated times the corn for so many horses for so many days. By this means he keeps a check upon the consumption, and prevents waste and pilfering ; both of which are more likely to occur when the supply is un- limited and easy of access. When there is not a regular corn- chamber, one must either be made or a large bin provided, and the oats bought from the corn-chandler as required, in quanti- ties of two or three quarters at a time, as many as the bin will contain, which will be found a more expensive proceeding. Hay, from being bulky, is almost invariably stowed away in the loft, which should hold at least half a load ; it must be stored away carefully, and nothing allowed to run about or play on it. Hay will keep good and sweet for some time, if in a dry place and not meddled with. If the loft be large enough, it will be found better and cheaper to buy a load at a time ; if not, or the loft be damp, a smaller quantity must suffice. Stable Utensils. — Under this head is included all that is used in dressing the horse, and in cleansing the yard and stable. The pitchfork is used to shake up the straw of which the horse’s bed is made ; to remove all that becomes soiled and dirty ; and, in general, to set it fair and straight. The handle should be kept clean, and the prongs bright. The shovel removes the smaller particles, and the scrapings of the stable-yard. The besom, or broom, is used to sweep out the stable after the damp soiled litter has been removed, and to keep the yard neat and clean. Those made of birch are the best. A manure basket to take up the droppings. This should be done before trodden about, to keep the straw clean, and the stable sweet. The stable pail should be made of strong oak, bound with iron, and neatly painted. A sieve, to cleanse the oats and chafl of all dust and small stonaa. THE HORSE. 553 A quartern and a half-quartern measure, to measure out the oats, beans, chaff, etc., for each horse’s feed. The currycomb. — Horses of the present day are so much better bred than formerly, consequently their coats and skin are so much finer, there is now much less use for the currycomb, except to remove the dust from the body-brush. On very rough-coated horses it may occasionally be used, but no other should ever be touched with it. In summer it is absolutely unnecessary, and in these days of clipping and singeing, in the winter it is almost equally so. It must always be used lightly, or it will severely punish the horse, and on no account should the teeth be sharp, or more than | inch in length. The body-brush, or horse-brush as it is sometimes called, is, in the hands of a good groom, the most useful implement used in dressing the horse, as it thoroughly removes all dust and dirt, stimulates the skin, and imparts a gloss to the coat. The water-brush is to wash all dirt and mud from the feet and legs of the horse, and stains from his quarters, etc. The mane-comb, as the name implies, is to comb the mane and tail. It should be made of horn, have large teeth, and be used carefully and only occasionally, as in a general way a good brushing will answer the purpose without pulling out the hair. The picker is a blunt iron hook for removing the grit and stones from the horse’s feet. Some are made to fold up for the pocket. A good careful groom will always carry one of these. A sponge, too, is always necessary to dry the legs, etc., after washing, and for other purposes of cleanliness. Leathers and rubbers are also indispensable for drying the horse after work, and wiping him over after dressing. An oil-brush, and tin to hold the oil, to rub round the hoofs before leaving the stable to go to work. A wooden box for holding the stopping. A singeing -lamp and a pair of trimming-scissors are also necessary. To avoid loss and confusion, there should be a place for everything, and everything in its place, and all the utensils should be kept bright and clean. Clothing, etc. — Every horse standing in a stable must have a head-collar, with two reins long enough to go through the two rings fastened to the manger, and to reach the ground after being each atta.hed to a weight or block mad# of hard wood or iron, heavy enough to keep the reins from twisting or curling up, but not so heavy as to be a weight or strain upon the horse’s head as he moves it. When in a box, too, a head- collar is always handy on the quietest horse ; on a tricky or unruly animal it is absolutely necessary, as he can then be at any time easily secured without risk or trouble. Halters. — Two good web-headed hempen halters are also requisite in every stable, to lead the horse about without having to use the head-collar. Clothing. — There is a great variety of clothing, from the comparatively inexpensive to the most expensive in make and finish. These consist of blankets or rugs of different degrees of warmth and thickness according to the time of year, a roller, a suit of body-clothing, and a set of flannel bandages. The best material will be the cheapest in the end, as wearing so much longer than the cheaper kinds. The blanket or rug should be cut back at the top of the shoulder, with a projecting piece on each side coming round and meeting in the center of the chest, where they fasten with a buckle and strap. Each rug, too, should be bound with some strong material to prevent the edges tearing out. Two rugs will be found necessary for each horse. A suit of body-clothing may be made of various materials, but strong warm serge is best for winter, and a lighter kind for summer wear. It consists of a quarter-piece, hood and breast- piece, with roller to match. The roller must be well padded, to prevent bruising or injury to the back from pressure. In winter, in a warm stable, a heavy rug and the body- clothing will be found sufficient during the day, but at night the latter should be removed to keep it clean, and another rug substituted. The flannel bandages are put on after the horse has had his legs washed, to keep them dry and warm. They are also of great service in illness, to keep up the circulation and warmth in the extremities. In hunting-stables, where the horses must be occasionally sweated, it will be necessary to have two or three spare rugs and hoods in use for that purpose, and which should be carefully washed and dried. The price of clothing varies so much according to the quality and finish, it is diffi- cult to name any, but a respectable saddler will at any time give an estimate for the kind required. HOW TO PURCHASE A HORSE. In his choice of a horse the purchaser will of course be guided by whether he wants one for riding or driving purposes : if for the former, he will be particular that the shoulder lies well back, and if strong, not loaded at the top or points — that he has a good back, deep body, clean, flat, wiry-looking legs, and free from large splints, curbs, spavins, etc. ; that his feet are firm and of moderate size — neither large and flat, and therefore necessarily weak, nor strong and narrow like those of a mule. When a horse has natural feet of the latter description they are generally remarkably sound, and will stand a great deal of work ; but, as a rule, that shape is produced by internal disease, rendering the horse unsound when put to work. If for driving purposes, he need not be so particular about the shoulders ; for harness, they may be stronger, heavier, and more upright, as many make capital harness horses that are, from their formation, very uncomfortable to ride. Having met with one suitable for his purpose, the purchaser must not let a few dollars prevent him buying him, if rather more than the price to which he had proposed to go. THE HACK, OR RIDING HORSE. In selecting a riding horse much must depend upon the size and weight of the rider. The best and most useful size is from 15 hands to 15 hands 2 inches. The most fashionable colors are bay, brown, and dark chestnut. A really good riding horse, with good action and fine manners, is very difficult to find, as he must be good-looking, well made, sound, and tem- perate, with breeding substance, action and courage. His head should be lean, the eye bold and prominent, the muzzle small, with large nostrils. The neck should be good, and 554 THE HORSE. slightly arched to bend to the bridle, shoulders lie well back and strong, but not heavy and loaded at the points, the body deep and round, strong back and loin, with good deep quarters and good firm legs and feet. He must ride lightly in hand, walk pleasantly and safely, trot freely, with good action, and canter easily, yielding to the bit without pulling. He must carry the saddle well back behind the shoulders ; nothing is so uncomfortable or looks so badly in any description of riding horse as sitting on the top of the shoulders instead of behind them. The ptice will vary according to his action, manners, and appearance, as well as the weight he can carry. Many horses of this class are very fast and can trot up to twelve and fourteen miles an hour ; but if they do seven or eight miles pleasantly and well, they will be fast enough, as few men care to ride faster. The great defects to be avoided in purchasing a riding horse are : a loose weak neck — horses so formed invariably getting their heads up, and being very uncomfortable to ride ; low upright shoulders ; and twisted fore-legs — rendering the horse liable to hit either the inside of the knee or fetlock joint, which is very dangerous and likely to cause him to fall. A shy, nervous horse, too, should be avoided, as well as a hot, irritable one. Horses of a light chestnut color are very often so, and in company will not settle into any pace. Ten miles is a fair average day’s work. THE LADIES’ HORSE. A perfect ladies’ horse is of all descriptions the most difficult to find. So many good qualities, which, though desirable in all riding horses, may be overlooked in those for men, are here absolutely essential. Fine temper and courage, a light level mouth, and fine manners, are indispensable. He should be from 15 hands to 15 hands 3 inches high, with a good head and neck, fine oblique shoulders, rather long in the body, with a good back and loin, deep strong quarters, firm sound legs and feet. If the hind legs are rather bent, so much the better ; he will get them more under him, and consequently his paces will be easier — horses with straight hind legs invariably pitching most unpleasantly in the canter, which must be easy and ele- gant. As few ladies ride more than from 10 to 11 stone, includ- ing a 19 or 20 lb. saddle, and ease and lightness in action are indispensable, the ladies’ horse should be very nearly thorough- bred, if not quite so. He must walk well and freely, step lightly but sharply in the trot, with a rather long easy canter. He must be high-couraged and free, but at the same time docile and temperate. A slow, lazy horse is as objectionable and disagreeable to ride as a hot, irritable one. The latter will sometimes go quietly and temperately in the hands of a lady, though irritable and fidgety when ridden by men, owing to the easier, lighter pull on their mouths. From the position of the ladies’ seat and from the great length and incumbrance of the habit, it follows they cannot have the same power and control over the horse that men have, and accidents to them are more likely to be attended with dangerous results ; hence, greater care is necessary in selecting a horse for their use free from all tricks, nervousness, and vice. Many are called good ladies’ horses that have no other rec- ommendation than their being very quiet, which with very many will cover a multitude of faults. A few years since ladies rode no pace but the walk and can- ter, but lately the trot has become a favorite and fashionable pace ; consequently a safe, sharp, easy trot is now essential in all horses to carry a lady. The ladies’ hunter differs in some respects from the riding horse for the road or park ; he may be less showy and stronger. He must be eight or nine years old, have been well and regularly ridden to hounds for at least two or three seasons, and thoroughly understand his business ; not less than 1 5 hands 2 inches or more than 16 hands high, well above the weight he has to carry, well bred, and fast, but thoroughly quiet and temperate among other horses and at his fences, which he should take freely and cleverly, go well in the bridle without pulling, and turn readily with a motion of the hand. Allot, irritable, fretful brute, or one with a weak, loose neck, is uncomfortable enough for a man to ride, but it is absolutely dangerous to allow any lady to ride such a one on the road — to say nothing of riding him to hounds — however good he may be represented to be. The best colors for ladies' horses are bay, brown, dark chest- nut, or black. There is an old saying, that “ a good horse cannot be a bad color and though no purchaser should de- cline to buy one that is likely to suit him on account of color, those I have named are to be preferred. The price of horses differs so greatly, and depends so much on their make, style, and qualifications, that it is difficult to name an average one. THE HUNTER. In selecting a hunter it is necessary to bear in mind the country in which he is to be ridden. The points essential to a hunter are a lean head and neck, well set on to good oblique shoulders, a strong back and loin, wide hips, a deep body and back ribs, good muscular quarters, and gaskins well let down to the hocks, and clean, firm legs and feet. He must be temperate, with plenty of courage, and have a good mouth and manners. His size will vary from 15 hands 1 inch to 16 hands 2 inches, according to the weight he has to carry and the description of country he has to cross. From 15 hands 3 inches to 16 hands 2 inches is perhaps the best size for the flying grass countries, while from 15 hands I inch to 15 hands 3 inches will be found better and handier for the close deep country. THE CARRIAGE HORSE. These horses are bought by the principal dealers and job- masters at three and four years old, and are broken, driven, and matched by them for some time before they are fit for the carriage. They must be fully 16 hands high, with rather long rainbow neck, strong but oblique shoulders, deep round body, with long muscular quarters, carrying a good tail, clean flat legs, and good firm feet. Being kept more for show than work, grand stylish appearance and action are indispensable ; and from being generally loaded with flesh, unless the feet and legs are good, they will soon wear out. The great dafects to which carriage horses are liable, from their size and general formation, are — defect of the wind, either THE HORSE. 55S roaring or whistling; horses with long rainbow necks very fre- quently becoming so after a bad cold or an attack of influenza. All large horses, too, are more or less liable to their wind be- coming affected after illness. Inflammation of the feet is another common complaint with horses of this class. Loaded with flesh to improve their style and appearance, and with high action in addition to their weight — two great causes of inflam- matory attacks — they are very liable to this complaint, unless great care is taken to guard against it. Many carriage horses, too, have flat feet, rendering them doubly liable to an attack of this description ; in them the sole of the foot will sink, be- coming convex instead of concave. When such is the case, great care is requisite in shoeing, or the horse will not be work- ably sound. HORSES FOR LIGHT HARNESS. In this class may be included horses suitable for buggies, T-carts, light broughams, dog-carts, etc. They should be well- bred, neck rather long and arched, with good back and quarters, strong oblique shoulders, carry a good head and tail, and be of a generally showy and stylish appearance, with high grand action. Horses of this description are more fitted for the park and for show than for real work. COBS. The cob is a strong little horse, about 14 hands high, and of various descriptions. When well bred and good-looking, with action, they are not only very useful, but very valuable for carrying heavy and elderly men, as, being low, they are easy to get on and off. A good cob must have a good head, a strong but not heavy neck, good oblique and very strong shoulders, not loaded at the top or points, a deep round body, good loin and strong muscular quarters and thighs — short, flat, firm legs, and good round feet ; he should walk freely and well ; step sharp and high in the trot, and canter safely and freely ; if, in addition to these qualifications, he is quiet >nd does not shy or stumble, he is invaluable. The faults to be avoided in purchasing a cob are upright 6houlders, want of courage, and want of action. Particular attention must be paid to the shoulders — that they are well formed and oblique, many horses of this class having low, up- right shoulders, which renders them valueless as riding cobs, and useful only for harness purposes — nothing being so un- comfortable and looking so ugly as riding on the top of the shoulders instead of well behind them, which must necessarily be the case with straight, low shoulders. DEFECTS, DISEASES, AND FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED IN ALL HORSES. A loose , weak neck. — Horses so formed are extremely un- pleasant to ride ; they get their heads up, cannot see where Ihey are going, and it is impossible to feel their mouths. Twisted fore-legs. — Horses with this defect, when put to work, hit the inside of the fetlock joint, and very often under the knee as well. Both are highly dangerous, as the parts soon become swelled and sore from repeated blows, rendering the horse liable to fall. CaJ/ed hocks are very unsightly, but seldom cause lameness. Diseased eyes, from any cause, are sure to terminate in blindness. Slringhalt . — Catching up one or both the hind legs. When considerable, it renders the horse very unpleasant either to ride or drive. All bony enlargements of the joints , viz., spavin, ringbone, sidebones, etc., as causing lameness, very difficult and doubtful of cure. Laminitis, or inflammation of the laminae, generally result, ing in pumiced or convex soles of the feet. Corns , unless small, as, if not properly treated, they are very troublesome, often causing temporary lameness, and rendering the horse cramped in his action, and liable to fall. Chronic cottgh . — Frequently terminates in broken wind. Megrims . — An attack of giddiness, more or less violent, that frequently attacks some horses, rendering them for the time highly dangerous. Since condition has been better un- derstood, and horses are fed more on manger food and do not have so much hay, megrims are not so common as formerly. Fast, free horses are more liable to it than others. The cause is supposed to be determination of blood to the head. Navicular disease . — Lameness in the navicular joint, and incurable. An unnerved horse , as showing the horse’s feet are diseased. Many unnerved horses will with care do a great deal of work either on the road or in the field. It is a merciful operation by which many horses can work and move about with ease and comfort, that must otherwise have been destroyed, or lived in pain and misery to the end of their days. Roaring . — A disease of the respiratory organs, causing the horse to make a noise when put to any exertion. All enlargements of sinews and tendons , arising from break- ing down or violent strains, unless the horse has been properly fired for them, and is intended only for light, easy work, when he may stand. All horses that show any sort of vice, as rearing, kicking, running away, being restive, and shying badly, or are vicious in the stable. Such animals are highly dangerous to all, but par- ticularly so to the inexperienced. THE GROOM. There are several descriptions and classes of grooms em ployed in private stables. With the stud groom, for the breaking and training of thorough-bred horses, we have here nothing to do. The most important is the groom for the training and management of hunters. For this purpose he must be steady, respectable, and intelligent, and have had considerable experience ; for, as the hunter, to carry a man well and safely to hounds, must be very fit, it follows that the groom must understand not only how to prepare him, but when he is fit. STABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. In the morning the first thing the groom does on entering the stable, which must not be later than six o’clock, if the weather be warm and fine, will be to open the door and admit some fresh air; he will then give each horse a little water and a piece of hay ; having eaten which, he will put on the hood 55° THE HORSE. ana the watering-bridle, and take him out for exercise. While out, the helpers will separate the dry clean straw from the damp and soiled, removing the latter to the manure-heap. Thoroughly sweep and cleanse the floor of each stall and box, allowing the straw to remain turned up until the return of the horses, when it may be partly littered down again. Each horse will then have a feed of corn, and having eaten it, be well dressed, and his stall or box set fair. When one groom only is kept, or where the horses do a fair amount of work dur- ing the day, early exercise is impossible and unnecessary. In dressing the horse the first thing the groom does is to turn him round in his stall, fold the rug back from his neck and shoulders, then well and carefully brush his head, neck, and shoulders with the body-brush, cleaning it with the curry- comb as often as required. He is then turned back in the stall, the clothing removed, and his body, hind-quarters, and legs undergo the same careful and thorough brushing, care being taken to keep the brush clean with frequent use of the currycomb. He is next wiped all over with a damp wisp made of hay-bands, which entirely removes any remaining dust, and after being well wiped over with a linen rubber or wash-leather, his clothes are put on and secured by the roller. His eyes, nose, and anus are next sponged clean, his mane and tail carefully combed or brushed, first with a dry and then with a damp brush ; the feet are carefully picked out and washed, the legs wel. brushed, and if dirty or stained, well washed, and either rubbed dry or dried in flannel bandages. The stall is then set fair, and the horse is ready for use. With gray or light-colored horses, or that have white legs, the better plan will be to wash all stains off the quarters, etc., and to wash the legs with warm water and soap, rubbing the first dry and well bandaging the latter before proceeding to dress the horse, as by the time that operation is over the legs will be dry and the horse warm and comfortable. In the spring and autumn, when the horse is shedding his coat and the hair is broken and thin, the body-brush must be laid aside, the wisp and rubber being then quite sufficient for the necessary dressing. Before having the harness put on to go out, the horse must again be wiped over, his mane and tail brushed, and his hoofs rubbed round with the oil-brush. Some people object to the use of the oil-brush to the feet, and only have them done round with a wet brush. On returning to the stable after work, if he be clean and dry, his feet should be well picked out and washed, and he should again be well dressed and set fair. But if he returns hot and tired and wet and dirty, the best and quickest plan is to wash him all over with tepid water, scraping him imme- diately as dry as possible, clothing him up, and bandaging his legs above his knees and hocks with flannel bandages. If the weather be warm, he may be washed in the open air, and a light suit of clothes put on, to be replaced by fresh as soon as he is dry ; but in winter, and if it be cold, he must be washed in the stable, and a suit of warm clothing put on until he is dry, when it must be changed. By this means the horse will be got fresh and comfortable in a much shorter time and with less fatigue to himself than if the dirt and sweat were removed in any other way and he was rubbed (fry At seven o’clock, the horses that have not been out or dona but little work may again have their clothing removed and be wiped over, which must not be done when the horse is tired with work and has been once made fresh. They may then be fed, their heads let down, their feet stopped, and be shut up for the night. FEEDING. Horses should have the corn four times a day — at about seven, eleven, three, and seven ; and the hay twice— at night and in the morning. These times may be slightly varied to suit the convenience. The quantity of each must depend, as we have said, upon the size and description of the horse, and the amount of work required of him. A full-sized carriage horse will require at least five quarterns of corn, and about twelve or fourteen pounds of hay, daily. These horses, being kept for show and style rather than for work, are required to be full of flesh to give them a grander and more imposing appearance. Soiling is a term used for the feeding of horses on green food indoors. Turning out to grass is useful when the health is injured by long-continued hard work and dry food, or when the legs are sore, or the feet inflamed. EXERCISE AND WORK. Unless the weather is wet and bad, every horse, whether in* stall or box, is better for going out every day. The work of a carriage horse does not on an average exceed seven or eight miles. They are very often out for three or four hours in the day, but by far the greater part of the time they are standing about, while the occupants of the carriage are either shopping or making calls, etc. From their size and weight they are generally unfit for long journeys and hard work. The work of a hunter is to carry a man to hounds, and in order to render him fit to do so safely and well, he will require a great deal of exercise. Before the commencement of the hunting-season he will re- quire three hours’ steady walking and trotting exercise, with occasional sweats and strong gallops ; but afterwards, supposing he is ridden to hounds three days a fortnight, he will require but little fast exercise — from two to three hours a day good steady walking will keep most horses quite fit. The fair average day’s work for a hack or harness horse is nine or ten miles, in which case exercise is quite unnecessary. More harm and injury are done to horses by the grooms when at exercise than in any other way ; and unless the man can be fully depended upon, the less they are exercised the better Where the horse is only occasionally worked, exercise is of course absolutely necessary, not only to preserve him in health, but to keep him steady and from getting above himself. CLIPPING OR SINGEING. The best time to clip or singe a horse must depend principally upon the state of his coat. Some shed their coat so much earlier than others, while in some horses it is much thicker and coarser. About the end of September is the best time for singeing, and three weeks or a month later for clipping. THE HORSE. 557 Clipping requires much practice and very neatly doing to look well; it is far more difficult than singeing, and consequently is not so frequently used. The effect of both is the same — to shorten the long rough winter coat to the length of the short summer one, thereby preventing that extreme sweating which is always consequent on a long winter coat. It is performed with scissors and a comb. The former are generally curved, and of various sizes, to suit the different parts of the body of the horse for which they are used. Singeing is performed with a lamp made for the purpose, burning naphtha or some spirit of the same description, and which is passed lightly over the whole body till the hair is re- duced to the required length. It may be commenced as soon as the winter coat is partly grown, and must be repeated about every ten days or a fortnight till the coat is set and done grow- ing, by which means the coat will not only be kept short, but the hair will better retain the natural color. After Christmas, about once in three weeks will generally be found sufficient to keep down the long rough hairs. MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. This department of stable management is often sadly neg- lected by the groom, who is particular enough in every other respect ; but if his master is only a judge of skin and condition, he is too apt to leave the feet to take care of themselves. An examination of the shoes should be carefully made every morning when the horse comes in from exercise ; and if they are at all loose, or the clenches are too high, or the shoes are worn out, they should be renewed or removed at once. Every night the feet should be well brushed out, and the picker run round the shoe. If the horn is hard and dry, they should be stooped with cow-dung and tar, in the proportion of 3 to I, called “ stopping,” which ought always to be kept by the groom in a box for thepurpose, called the “stopping-box but it is seldom necessary to do this more than once or twice a week ; indeed, in most feet it will soften the horn too much if used more frequently. STABLE VICES. Stable vices may be considered to include the following long list of offenses against the code of laws made for the stabled horse, and enforced by the stablemen. They are: I, getting loose from the head-stall ; 2, Hanging back ; 3, Leaping into the manger ; 4, Turning round in the stall ; 5, Lying under the manger ; 6, Halter-casting ; 7, Casting in the stall ; 8, Kicking the stall-post; 9, Weaving; 10, Pawing; 11, Eating the litter; 12, Kicking at man : 13, Biting; 14, Crib-biting ; 15, Wind-sucking. Hanging back in the collar is an attempt to get free by burst- ing the throat-lash or collar-rein, and in some cases great force is applied in this way — so much so that many horses have broken their hips from the sudden giving-way of the halter, letting them back so that they fall over and injure themselves irremediably. The only cure is a strong chain and a head-stall that no force will break, after trying to burst which a few times, the horse will almost always desist. If the manger is not very firmly placed, another ring should be fixed in the wall by pierc- ing it and screwing a nut on at the back. The groom should likewise watch for the attempt, and well flog the horse, from behind immediately he sees him beginning. TRICKS AND VICES TO WHICH HOKSES ARE LIABLE OUT OF THE STABLE. Kicking is another dangerous, vicious habit. Like rearing, it may be cured by those who thoroughly understand horses, but even when perfectly quiet and manageable in their hands, such horses are never to be trusted with less experienced persons. Running away is another very dangerous fault. It may arise from vice or from the horse having been at some time very seriously alarmed. In the former case, a very sharp bit and great care may prevent it ; but in the latter, when the horse again becomes alarmed, nothing will stop him, as he is for the time in a state of madness. Bucking or Plunging is another dangerous habit. Sometimes it arises from vice and sometimes only from freshness, the horse being above himself from want of work ; in the latter case it is soon cured by putting him to daily steady work. Jibbing, either in saddle or harness, is a very dangerous vice, and is always the result of bad temper. In saddle the horse rears, kicks, and rubs the rider against anything in his way. He will go anywhere and rush anywhere but in the direction in which he is wanted to go. A good thrashing will sometimes cure him, but it is not always easy to do it, as the horse in- variably jibs in the most awkward and dangerous places in which to fight him. In harness the jibber will not start, he runs back, and if whipped or punished, will plunge and throw himself down. Such animals are quite unfitted for private use. Shying . — This bad habit may arise from timidity, defective eyesight, or bad temper. If from timidity, it can only be overcome by gentle usage and allowing the horse to pass the object without taking any notice of his fear beyond patting and encouraging him ; to chastise him is worse than useless and senseless. If it arise from defective vision, it will be in- curable, as it will be impossible for the animal to see objects otherwise than through a distorted medium. If it arise from vice, which is frequently the case, the horse must be made firmly but temperately to pass the object at which he shies ; having passed it, continue the ride ; do not return and pass it again and again, as that only irritates him ; and when he finds he is mastered, he will daily improve. HARNESS FOR SADDLE HORSES. This consists of saddles, bridles, breast-plates, and martin- gales. Saddles may be had of almost any size and weight. They may be made with either plain or padded flaps, according to the seat and fancy of the rider. Some prefer the former, and others the latter. For the generality of riders there cannot be a doubt that the padded flaps are by far the better, as they keep the knee more steadily in the proper place, prevent the leg flying backwards and forwards, if the horse jumps or plunges; while in hunting they are of very material assistance in taking THE HORSE. 55* a diop j’mirip, and also in steadying and recovering a horse when blundering or falling at a fence. The plain flaps have perhaps a smarter appearance, and a clever horseman may be able to ride as well on them as on the padded flaps, but that is almost all that can be said for them. The saddle should be of sufficient length and breadth that the weight of the rider may be pretty equally distributed over it, or the back of the horse will suffer, and saddle-galls be the result. The stirrups should not be small, for in the event of a fall, the foot is more likely to hang in them. All well-made saddles have spring bars, which should be occasionally oiled, that they may work easily, and release the stirrup-leather should such an accident occur. The stirrup-leather should be of the best, close and strong, not too heavy, or it will look clumsy. Every saddle requires two girths — which may either be of the ordinary kind of the same width, with a buckle at each end, or one broad, with two buckles at each end, which is put on first, and a second, about half the width only, over it, with one buckle at each end. After use, the lining of the saddle must be thoroughly dried in the sun or before the fire, and then well brushed, which will keep it soft and clean. This is particularly necessary with side-saddles. It is for want of this care and attention that so many horses have sore backs. When dirty, the saddle must be sponged clean, but not made more wet than is absolutely necessary ; after which a little soft soap rubbed on will preserve the leather soft and pliable, and prevent it cracking. In choosing a saddle, go to a first-rate maker ; he may be a little more expensive, but you will get a good article, that will wear three times as long as an inferior one, will fit the gene- rality of horses, will never get out of form, and will look well 1 to the last. The Breast-plate or Hunting-plate is used to keep the saddle in its place when hunting. It is also of great service on horses with short back-ribs, to prevent the saddle working back, which it is very likely to do. But on the road and in the field no lady should ride without one, as it will keep the side-saddle securely in its place, and prevent it turning round should the girth get loosened, or one break. The Martingale is used to steady the horse’s head, and keep it in its proper place. It is generally used on loose weak-necked horses, and though of service in the hands of the experienced, it is often dangerous when used by others, as being apt to catch on the bit or buckles of the bridle, and so cause serious accidents. The Bridle. — There is a great variety of bits suitable for different descriptions and tempers of horses, but it is impossible to describe them all in so limited a space. They all belong to one of two classes — the snaffle or the curb, and are of differ- ent degrees of severity and power. The Snaffle is a piece of steel with a joint in the middle ; it may be smooth and plain, twisted, or double-jointed. The smooth snaffle is the mildest form of bit there is, and, except just for exercise, few horses ride pleasantly in one. The twisted bit is sharper, and if drawn quickly backwards and forwards through the mouth, is very punishing The double-jointed is the most severe ; it is formed of two plain snaffles one above the other ; but the joints in each not being opposite each other, cause a sharper and more narrow pressure on the tongue and lower jaw. Very few horses ride well and pleasantly in a snaffle of any kind, as they all cause a horse to raise his head and open his mouth to take the pressure off his tongue. In addition to this there are the Chain-snaffle, which is a very light bit, and the Gag, used for horses that get their heads down. The Curb-bit is a lever that, by means of a curb-chain, acts upon the lower jaw, and may be made very easy or very severe according to the length of cheek or leverage, and the height of the port or arch in the center of the mouth-piece. It is very seldom used singly, but in conjunction with some kind of snaffle, when it forms a double-rein bridle, and is by far the most useful bit. All horses go better in it, when properly handled, than in any other; as by lengthening or shortening the curb-chain, and taking up or dropping the bit in the mouth, it can be made either less or more severe, to suit most horses. The Pelham is a curb and snaffle in one ; it is a curb-bit with a joint in the middle, instead of a port. It forms a double- rein bridle, and is very light and easy. Like saddles, the bridles should be of first-rate material and workmanship ; the bits sewn on to the head-pieces and reins, as being much neater and lighter than the buckles. The leather must be kept clean and pliable with soft soap, and the bits clean and bright with silver-sand and oil. HARNESSING AND PUTTING-TO. Harnessing. — In all cases the first thing to be done, after the horse is dressed, is to put on the collar, which is effected by turning the horse round in his stall, and slipping it over his head, with the large end upward. This inversion is required because the front of the head is the widest part, and is in this way adapted to the widest part of the collar, which, even with this arrangement, will in coarsely-bred horses hardly pass over the cheek-bones. Before the collar is put in its place, the hames are put on and buckled ; for if this was delayed until after it had been reversed, they would have to be held on while the hame-straps were being drawn together, whereas in this way their own weight keeps them in place. They are now reversed altogether, and the pad put in its place, before buckling the belly-band, of whffh the crupper is slipped over the tail by doubling up all the hair, grasping it carefully in the left hand while the right adapts the crupper. A careful exami- nation should always be made that no hairs are left under it, for if they are they irritate the skin, and often cause a fit of kicking. After the crupper is set right the pad is drawn forwards, and its belly-band buckled up pretty tightly ; the bridle is now put on, and the curb-chain properly applied ; the reins being slipped through the terrets and buckled on both sides, if for single harness, or on the outside only if for double, and the driving rein folded back and tied in the pad terret. Putting-to is managed very differently according to whether the horse is going in shafts or with a pole. If for shafts, they are tilted up and held there by one person, while the other backs the horse until he is under them, when they are dropped THE HORSE. 559 down, and the tugs slipped under or over the ends of the shafts, according to the formation of the tugs, some being hooks, and others merely leather loops. Care must be taken that they do not slip beyond the pins on the shafts. The traces are now attached to the drawing-bar, the breechen or kicking-strap buckled, and the false belly-band buckled up pretty tightly, so as to keep the shafts steady. In four-wheeled carriages it should be left tolerably loose when a breechen is used, to allow of this having free play. The reins are now untwisted from the terret, and the horse is put-to. For double harness, the first thing is to bring the horse round by the side of the pole, and put the pole-piece through the sliding ring of the hames, the groom holding it, or else buckling it at the longest hole while the traces are being put-to ; as soon as this is done, the pole-piece is buckled up to its proper length, each coupling- rein buckled to the opposite horse’s bit, the driving-reins un- twisted from the terret, and the two buckled together, and the horses are ready. The leaders of a tandem or four-in-hand are easily attached, and their reins are passed through the rings on the head of the wheelers, and through the upper half of the pad terret. Unharnessing is exactly the reverse of the above, everything being undone exactly in the same order in which it was done. The chief errors in either are — in double harness, in not at- taching the pole-piece at once in putting-to, or in unbuckling it altogether too soon, by which the horse is at liberty to get back upon the bars, and often does considerable damage by kicking. ORDINARY DRUGS USED FOR THE HORSE, AND THEIR MODE OF ADMINISTRATION The Action of Medicines, and the Forms in which they are gen- erly prescribed. ALTERATIVES. Alteratives are intended to produce a fresh and healthy ac- tion, instead of the previously disordered function. The pre- cise mode of action is not well understood, and it is only by the results that the utility of these medicines is recognized. 1. Stinking hellebore, 5 to 8 grs. ; powdered rhubarb, 2 t0 4grs. Mix, and form into a pill, to be given every night. 2. In Disordered States 0/ the Skin. — Emetic tartar, 5 oz. ; powdered ginger, 3 oz. ; opium, 1 oz. Syrup enough to form 16 balls; one to be given every night. 3. Simply cooling — Barbadoes aloes, 1 oz. ; Castile soap, rj oz. ; gin- ger, i oz. Syrup enough to form 6 balls ; one to be given every morning. 4. In strangles.— Barbadoes aloes, 1 oz. ; emetic tartar, 2 drms. ; Cas- tile soap, 2 drms. Mix. 5. Alterative Ball for General Use. — Black sulphuret of antimony, 2 to 4 drms. ; sulphur, 2 drms. ; niter, 2 drms. Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. 6. For Generally Defective Secretions. — Flowers of sulphur, 6 oz. ; emetic tartar, 5 to 8 drms. ; corrosive sublimate, 10 grs. Linseed meal mixed with hot water, enough to form six balls, one of which may be given two or three times a week. 7. In Debility of Stomach. — Calomel, 1 scruple ; aloes, 1 drm. ; cas- carilla. gentian, and ginger, of each in powder, 1 drm. ; Castile soap, 3 drms. Syrup enough to make a ball, which may be given twice a week, or every other night. ANODYNES. Anodyne medicines are given either to soothe the general nervous system, or to stop diarrhoea ; or sometimes to relieve spasm, as In colic or tetanus. Opium is the chief anodyne used in veterinary medicine, and it may be employed in very large doses. s. In Colie.— Powdered opium, X to 2 drms. ; Castile soap and cam- phor, of each 2 drms. ; ginger, 1)4 drm. Make into a ball with liquor- ice powder and treacle, and give every nour while the pain lasts. It should be kept in a bottle or bladder. 2. Anodyne Ball (.ordinary).— Opium, X to 1 drm. ; Castile soap, 2 to 4 drms. ; ginger, 1 to 2 drms. ; powdered aniseed, ^ to 1 oz. ; oil of carraway seeds, % drm. Syrup enough to form a ball, to be dissolved in a half-pint of warm ale, and given as a drench. 3. Anodyne Drench in Superpurgation , or ordinary Diarrhoea . — Gum arabic, 2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; dissolve, and then add oil of peppermint, 25 drops ; tincture of opium, 14 oz. Mix, and give night and morning, if necessary. 4. In Chronic Diarrhoea. — Powdered chalk and gum arabic, of each 1 oz. ; tincture of opium, X oz. ; peppermint water, 10 oz. Mix, and give night and morning. ANTISPASMODICS. Antispasmodics, as their name implies, are medicines which are Intended to counteract excessive muscular action, called spasm, or, in the limbs, cramp. This deranged condition de- pends upon a variety of causes, which are generally of an irritat- ing nature ; and its successful treatment will often depend upon the employment of remedies calculated to remove the cause, rather than directly to relieve the effect. It therefore follows that, in many cases, the medicines most successful in removing spasm will be derived from widely separate divisions of the materia medica, such as aperients, anodynes, alteratives, stimulants, and tonics. It is useless to attempt to give many formulas for their exhibition ; but there are one or two medi- cines which exercise a peculiar control over spasm, and I shall give them without attempting to analyze their mode of operation. 1. For Colic. — Spirits of turpentine, 3 oz. ; tincture of opium, 1 oz. Mix with a pint of warm ale, and give as a drench. 2. Spirits of turpentine, 3^ oz. ; tincture of opium, 1)4 oz. ; Barba, does aloes, 1 oz. Powder the aloes, and dissolve in warm water ; then add the other ingredients, and give as a drench. 3. Clyster in Colic. — Spirits of turpentine, 6 oz. ; aloes, 2 drms. Dis. solve in 3 quarts of warm water, and stir the turpentine well into it. 4. Antispasmodic Drench. — Gin, 4 to 6 oz. ; tincture of capsicum, 2 drms. ; tincture of opium, 3 drms. ; warm water, iX pint. Mix, and give as a drench, when there is no inflammation. APERIENTS. Aperients, or Purges, are those medicines which quicken or increase the evacuations from the bowels, varying, however, a good deal in their mode of operation. Some act merely by exciting the muscular coat of the bowels to contract ; others cause an immense watery discharge, which, as it were, washes out the bowels ; whilst a third set combine the action of the two. The various purges also act upon different parts of the canal, some stimulating the small intestines, whilst others pass through them without affecting them, and only act upon the large bowels ; and others, again, act upon the whole canal. There is a third point of difference in purges, depending upon their influencing the liver in addition, which mercurial purga tives certainly do, as well as rhubarb and some others, and which effect is partly due to their absorption into the circula- tion, so that they may be made to act, by injecting into the veins, as strongly as by actual swallowing, and their subsequent passage into the bowels. Purgatives are likewise classed, ac- cording to the degree of their effect, into laxatives, acting mild- ly, and drastic purges, acting very severely. APERIENTS FOR THE HORSE, COMMONLY CALLED PHYSIC. 1. Ordinary Physic Balls. — Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 8 drms. ; hard soap j6o THE HORSE. 4 drms. ; ginger, i drm. Dissolve In as small a quantity ofboiling water as will suffice ; then slowly evaporate to the proper consistence, by which means griping is avoided. а. A Warmer Physic Ball. — Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 8 drms. ; carbonate of soda, X drm. ; aromatic powder, 1 drm. ; oil of carraway, 12 drops. Dissolve as above, and then add the oil. 3. Gently Laxative Ball. — Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 5 drms. ; rhubarb powder, 1 to 2 drms. ; ginger, 2 drms. ; oil of carraway, 15 drops. Mix, and form into a ball, as in No. 1. 4. Stomachic Laxative Balls , /or Washy Horses. — Barbadoes aloes, 3 drms. ; rhubarb, 2 drms. ; ginger and cascarilla powder, of each 1 drm. ; oil of carraway, 15 drops ; carbonate of soda, ^X drm. Dissolve the aloes as in No. 1, and then add the other ingredients. 5. Purging Balls, with Calomel. — Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 6 drms. ; cal- omel, X to 1 drm. ; rhubarb, 1 to 2 drms. ; ginger, X to i.drm. Castile soap, 2 drms. Mix as in No. 1. б. Laxative Drench. — Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 4 drms. ; canella alba, 1 to 2 drms. ; salt of tartar, 1 drm. ; mint water, 8 oz. Mix. 7. A nother Laxative Drench. — Castor oil, 3 to 6oz. ; Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 5 drms. ; carbonate of soda, 2 drms. ; mint water, 8 oz. Mix, by dissolving the aloes in the mint water, by the aid of heat, and then adding the other ingredients. 8. A Mild Opening Drench.— Castor oil, 4 oz. ; Epsom salts, 3 to 5 oz. ; gruel, 2 pints. Mix. 9. A Very Mild Laxative. — Castor oil and linseed oil, 4 oz. of each ; warm water, or gruel, 1 pint. Mix. 10. Used in the staggers. — Barbadoes aloes, 6 drms. ; common salt, 6 »z. • flour of mustard, 1 oz. ; water, 2 pints. Mix. 11. A Gently Cooling Drench in Slight Attacks 0/ Cold. — Epsom salts, 6 to 8 oz. ; whey, 2 pints. Mix. 12. Purgative Clyster.— Common salt, 4 to 8 oz. ; warm water, 8 to 16 pints. ASTRINGENTS. Astringents are supposed to produce contraction in all living animal tissues with which they come in contact, whether in the interior or exterior of the body, and whether immediately ap- plied or by absorption into the circulation. But great doubt exists as to the exact mode in which they act ; and, as in many other cases, we are obliged to content ourselves with their effects, and to prescribe them empirically. They are divided into astringents administered by the mouth, and those applied locally to external ulcerated or wounded surfaces. 1. Astringent Wash /or the Eyes. — Sulphate of zinc, 5 to 8 grs. ; water, 2 oz. Mix. 2. Goulard extract, 1 drm. • water, 1 oz. Mix. 3. Astringent Remedies /or the Horse. For Bloody Urine. — Powdered catechu, X oz. ; alum, X oz. ; cascarilla bark in powder, 1 to 2 drms. Licorice powder and treacle, enough to form a ball, to be given twice 4 day. 4. For Diabetes.— Opium, X drm. ; ginger powdered, 2 drms. ; oak bark powdered, 1 oz. ; alum, as much as the tea will dissolve ; camo- mile tea, 1 pint. Mix for a drench. 5. External A stringent Powder /or Ulcerated Sur/aces. — Powdered alum, 4 oz. ; Armenian bole, 1 oz. 6. White vitriol, 4 oz. ; oxide of zinc, 1 oz. Mix. 7. Astringent Lotion. — Goulard extract, 2 to 3 drms. t water, X pint. 8. Sulphate of copper, 1 to 2 drms. ; water, X pint. Mix. 9. Astringent Ointment /or Sore Heels.— Superacetate of lead, 1 drm. ; terd, 1 oz. Mix. 10. Another for the same. — Nitrate of silver powdered, X drm. ; foulard extract, 1 drm. ; lard, 1 oz. Mix. BLISTERS. Blisters are applications which inflame the skin, and cause watery bladders to form upon it ; they consist of two kinds, one for the sake of counter-irritation, by which the original disease is lessened, in consequence of the establishment of this u-maiioa at a short distance from it. The other, commonly called "Sweating” in veterinary surgery, by which a discharge is obtained from the vessels of the part itself, which are in that way relieved and unloaded ; there is also a subsequent process of absorption in consequence of the peculiar stimulus applied. BLISTERS FOR HORSES. 1. Mild Blister Ointment (counter-irritant).— Hog’s lard, 4 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; powdered cantharides, 6 drms. Mix and spread. 2. Stronger Blister Ointment (counter-irritant). — Spirits of turpentine, i oz. ; sulphuric acid, by measure, 2 drms. Mix carefully in an open place, and add hog’s lard, 40Z. ; powdered cantharides, 1 oz. Mix and spread. 3. Very strong Blister (counter-irritant) — Strong mercurial ointment, 4 oz. ; oil of origanum, X oz. ; finely-powdered euphorbium, 3 drms. powdered cantharides, X 02 • Mix and spread. 4. Rapidly Acting Blister (counter-irritant). - Best flour of mustard, 8 oz., made into a paste with water. Add spirits of turpentine, 2 oz. ; strong liquor of ammonia, 1 oz. This is to be well rubbed into the chest, belly, or back, in cases of acute inflammation. 5. Sweating Blister.— Strong mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; oil of origa- num, 2 drms. ; corrosive sublimate, 2 drms. ; cantharides, powdered, 3 drms. Mix, and rub in with the hand. 6. Strong Sweating Blister ./or Splints , Ring-Bones , Spavins , etc. — Red iodide of mercury, 1 to iX drm. ; lard, 1 oz. To be well rubbed in the legs after cutting the hair short, and followed by the daily use of arnica, in the shape of a wash, as follows, which is to be painted on with a brush : tincture of arnica, 1 oz. ; water, 12 to 15 oz. Mix. 7. Tincture 0/ Iodine, which should be painted on with a brush daily, until it causes the cuticle to exfoliate. It may then be omitted for a few days, to be resumed after that interval. CAUSTICS. Caustics are substance which burn away the living tissues of the body, by the decomposition of their elements. They are of two kinds, viz. — first, the actual cautery, consisting in the application of the burning iron, and called Firing ; and, secondly, the potential cautery, by means of the powers of mineral caustics, such as potash, lunar-caustic, etc. Firing is used extensively upon horses for inflammation of the legs. A set of firing-irons is heated to a great heat, and, one at a time, are lightly applied across the limb, or in lines up and down, according to the nature of the disease. This excites a very great amount of swelling and inflammation, by which the mischief is often abated, and is followed also by a contrac- tion of the skin, which appears to act as a bandage in the weak state of the vessels of the legs which often occurs. The firing is generally followed by blistering, in order to keep up the inflammation, and at least three months must be consumed before the fired horse, if thoroughly operated on, will be fit for work. Strong solid caustics are as follows : — 1. Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it runs about in all direc tions, and little used in veterinary medicine. 2. Lunar-Caustic, or nitrate of silver, very valuable to the veterinary surgeon, and constantly used to apply to profuse granulations. 3. Sulphate of Copper, almost equally useful, but not so strong as lunar-caustic ; it may be well rubbed in to all high granulations, as in broken knees, and similar growths. 4. Corrosive Sublimate in powder, which acts most energetically upon warty growths, but should be used with great care and discretion. It may safely be applied to small surfaces, but not without a regular prac- titioner to large ones. It should be washed off after remaining on a few minutes. 5. Yellow Orpiment, not so strong as the corrosive sublimate, and may be uesd with more freedom. It will generally remove warty growths, by picking off their heads and rubbing it in. THE HORSE. Strong liquid caustics 6. Sulphuric acid, or nitric acid, may be used either in full strength or diluted ■with an equal quantity of water ; but it must be used with gTeat caution, as it destroys the skin rapidly. 7. In Canker of the Foot.— Quicksilver, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 2 oz. Mix in an earthen vessel, and when cold put into a wide glass bottle, and cork it. It may be mixed with lard, in the proportion of 1 to 3. 8. A similar application, which may be used alternately with the last. —Copper filings, X oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. Mix, and use in the same way. 9. Muriate of antimony, called butter of antimony ; a strong but rather unmanageable caustic, and used either by itself or mixed with more or less water. Mild solid caustics : — to. Verdigris, either in powder or mixed with lard as an ointment, in the proportion of 1 to 3. 11. Red precipitate, do., do. 12. Burnt alum, used dry. 13. Powdered white sugar. Mild liquid caustics 14. Solution of nitrate of silver, 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of distilled water. 15. Solution of blue Vitriol, of about double the above strength. 16. Chloride of zinc, 3 grains to the ounce of water. CHARGES. Charges are adhesive plasters which are spread while hot on the legs, and at once covered with short tow, so as to form a strong and unyielding support while the horse is at grass. 1. Ordinary Charge— Burgundy pitch, 4 oz. ; Barbadoes tar, 6 oz. ; beeswax, 2 oz. ; red lead, 4 oz. The first three are to be melted together, and afterwards the lead is to be added. The mixture is to be kept con- stantly stirred until sufficiently cold to be applied. If too stiff (which will depend upon the weather) it may be softened by the addition of a little lard or oil. 2. Arnica Charge.— Canada balsam, 2 oz. ; powdered arnica leaves, X oz. The balsam to be melted and worked up with the leaves, adding spirits of turpentine if necessary. When thoroughly mixed, to be well rubbed into the whole leg in a thin layer, and to be covered over with the Charge No. 1, which will set on its outside and act as a bandage, while the arnica acts as a restorative to the weakened vessels. This is an excellent application. CORDIALS. Cordials are medicines which act as warm temporary stim- ulants, augmenting the strength and spirits when depressed, and often relieving an animal from the ill effects of over-exer- tion. They act much in the same way on the horse and dog, but require to be given in different doses. 1. Cordial Balls.— Powdered carraway seeds, 6 drms. ; ginger, 2 Jrms. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops. Treacle enough to make into a ball. 2. Powdered aniseed, 6 drms. ; powdered cardamoms, 2 drms. ; powdered cassia, 1 drm. ; oil of carraway, 20 drops. Mix with treacle into a ball. 3. Cordial Drench. — A quart of good ale warmed and with plenty of grated ginger. 4. Cordial and Expectorant. — Powdered aniseed, X oz. ; powdered squills, 1 drm. ; powdered myrrh, iX drm. ; Balsam of Peru, enough to form a ball. 5. Licorice powder, X oz. ; gum ammoniacum, 3 drms. ; balsam of Tolu, iX drm. ; powdered squills, 1 drm. Linseed meal and boiling water, enough to form into a mass. DEMULCENTS. Demulcents are medicines which are used in irritations of the bowels, kidneys, and bladder. 1. Demulcent Drench .— ‘ Gum Arabic, X °z. ; water 1 pint. The whole to be given. 5 6 * 2. Linseed, 4 oz. ; water, 1 quart. Simmer tili a strong and thick do coction is obtained, and give as above. 3. Marshmallow Drench. — Marshmallows, a double handful ; water 1 quart. Simmer as in No 2, and use in the same way. DIAPHORETICS. Diaphoretics are medicines which increase the insensible perspiration. 1. In Hide-Bound . — Emetic tartar, iX drm. ; camphor, X drm. ; gin- ger, 2 drms. ; opium, X drm. ; oil of carraway, 15 drops. Linseed meal and boiling water, to form a ball, which is to be given twice or thrice a week. 2. In Hide-Bound (but not so efficacious). — Antimonial powder, a drms. ; ginger, 1 drm. ; powdered carraways, 6 drms. ; oil of aniseed, 20 drops. Mix as above. These remedies require exercise in clothing to bring out their effects after which the horse should be wisped till quite dry. DIGESTIVES. Digestives are applications which promote suppuration, and the healing of wounds or ulcers. 1. Digestive Ointment . — Red precipitate, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 3 oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; hog’s lard, 4 oz. Melt the last three ingredients over a slow fire, and, when nearly cold, stir in the powder. DIURETICS. Diuretics are medicii es which promote the secretion and discharge of urine, the effect being produced in a different manner by different medicines ; some acting directly upon the kidneys by sympathy with the stomach, while others are taken up by the blood-vessels, and in their elimination from the blood cause an extra secretion of the urine. In either case their effect is to diminish the watery part of the blood, and thus promote the absorption of fluid effused into any of the cavities, or into the cellular membrane, in the various forms of dropsy. 1 Stimulating Diuretic Ball for the Horse. — Powdered resin, sal prunelle, Castile soap, of each 3 drms. ; oil of juniper, 1 drm. Mix. 2. A more Cooling Diuretic Ball . — Powdered niter, X to 1 oz. ; cam- phor and oil of juniper, of each 1 drm. ; soap, 3 drms. Mix, adding lin- seed meal enough to form a ball. 3. Diuretic Powder for a Mash— Niter and resin, of each X to J oz. Mix. 4. Another more Active Powder. — Niter, 6 drms. ; camphor, iX drm. Mix. EMBROCATIONS. Embrocations or liniments are stimulating or sedative external applications, intended to reduce the pain and in- flammation of internal parts when rubbed into the skin with the hands. 1. Mustard Embrocation.— 'Best flour of mustard, 6 oz. ; liquor of am- monia, iX oz. ; oil of turpentine, iX ox. Mix with sufficient water t£ form a thin paste. 2. Stimulating Embrocation. — Camphor, X oz. ; oil of turpentine and spirits of wine, of each 1 oz. Mix. 3. Sweating Embrocation for VC ind galls, etc . — Strong mercurial oint- ment, 2 oz. ; camphor, X ox.; oil of rosemary, 2 drms. ; spirits of turpen- tine, 1 oz- Mix. 4. Another , but stronger .— Strong mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; oil oi bay, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, X oz.; powdered cantharides, X ox. Mix. 5. A most Active Sweating Embrocation . — Red iodide of mercury, X to 1 drm. ; powdered arnica leaves, 1 drm. ; soap lin i m ent, 2 os, Mix. THE HORSE. fi. This most be repeated until a buster is raised, which usually takes two or three applications. It may then be omitted tor a week. EMULSIONS. Emulsions are very useful in the chronic cough of the horse. 1. Simple Emulsion. — Linseed oil, a oz. ; honey, 3 oz. ; soft water, 1 pint , subcarbonate of potass, 1 drm. Dissolve the honey and potass in the water ; then add the linseed oil by degrees in a large mortar, when it should assume a milky appearance. It might be given night and morning. 2. Another more Active Emulsion. — Simple emulsion, No. 1, 8 oz. ; camphor, 1 dim. opium in powder, X drm. ; oil of aniseed, 30 drops. Rub the last three ingredients together in a mortar with some white sugar ; then add the emulsion by degrees. EXPECTORANTS. Expectorants excite or promote discharge of mucus from the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes, thereby relieving in- flammation and allaying cough. 1. In Ordinary Cough without Inflammation. — Gum ammoniacum, X oz. ; powdered squill, 1 drm. Castile soap, 2 dims. Honey enough to form a ball. 2 In Old Standing Cough (Stomach). — AoSafaetida, 3 drms. ; galba- num, i drm.j carbonate of ammonia, X drm.; ginger, iX drm, Honey enough to form a ball. 3. A Strong Expectorant 5 a//.— Emetic tartar, X drm. ; calomel, 15 grs. , digitalis, X drm. ; powdered squills, X drm. Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball, which is not to be repeated without great rare. FEBRIFUGES. Fever medicines are given to allay fever, which they do by increasing the secretions of urine and sweat, and also by re- ducing the action of the heart. 1. Fever Ball. — Niter, 4 drms. ; camphor, 1 dr. ; calomel and opium, of each 1 scruple. Lmseed meal and water enough to form a ball 2. Another.— Emetic tartar, \X to 2 drms. , compound powder of tra- gacanth, 2 drms. Linseed meal as above 3. Another. — Niter; 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 drms. Mix as above. 4. Cooling Mash. — Niter, 1 oz., may be given in a bran mash. 5. Cooling Drench.— Niter, 1 oz. ; sweet spiritsof niter, 20Z. ; tincture of digitalis, 2 drms. ; whey, 1 pint- CLYSTERS. Clysters are intended either to relieve obstructions or spasm Of the bowels, and are of great use. They may in the general way be of warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will be required in colic. They should be thrown up with the proper syringe, provided with valves and a flexible tube. 1. Turpentine clyster in colic, see Antispasmodics. 2. Aperient clysters, see Aperients. 3. Anodyne Clyster in Diarrhoea. — Starch, made as for washing,! quart ; powdered opium, 2 drms. The opium is to be boiled in water, and added to the starch. LOTIONS. Lotions are liquids applied to the external parts when in- flamed, and they act by reducing the temperature, and by giving tone to the vessels of the part. 1. Cooling Lotion in Stiffness from Bruises or Work . — Tincture of arnica, 1 drm.* spirits of wine, 7 drm. Mix and rub well into the parts, before the fire, with the hand. a. For Internal Canker . — Nitrate of silver, to grs. ; distilled water. 1 oz. Mix, and drop in every night. 3. Cooling Lotion for External Inflammation. — Goulard extract, t oz. ; vinegar, 2 oz. ; spirits of wine, or gin, 3 oz. ; water iX pint. Mix and apply with a calico bandage. 4. A not her, useful for l n flamed Legs or for Galled Shoulders 0* Back.— -Sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 4 oz. ; spirits of wine, 2 oz. tincture of arnica, 2 drms. ; water, X pint. Mix. 5. Lotion for Foul Ulcers. — Sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, X oz. ; water, 8 to 12 oz. OINTMENTS. Ointments are greasy applications, consisting of a powerful drug mixed with lard, or some similar compound, and thus applied to the sore ; they are generally more properly described under the several heads for which they are used. (See Astrin- gents, Anodynes, etc.) STIMULANTS. By this term is understood those substances which excite the action of the whole nervous and vascular systems ; almost all medicines are stimulants to some part or other ; as, for in- stance, aperients, which stimulate the lining of the bowels, but to the general system are lowering. On the other hand, stimulants, so called, excite and raise the action of the brain and heart. 1. Old ale, 1 quart ; carbonate of ammonia, X to 2 drms. ; tincture ol ginger, 4 drms. Mix, and give as a drench. 2 . For other stimulants, see Cordials. STOMACHICS. Stomacnics are medicines given to improve the tone of the stomach when impaired by bad management or disease. 1. Stomachic Ball.— Powdered gentian, X oz. ; powdered ginger, iX drm. ; carbonate ot soda, 1 drm. Treacle to form a ball. 2. Another.— CascarUla powdered, 1 oz. , myrrh, iX drm.; Castile soap, 1 drm. Mix, with syrup or treacle, into a ball. 3. Anotker. — Powdered Colombo X to 1 oz. , powdered cassia, 1 dnn.; powdered rhuDarD, 2 drms. Mix as in No. 2. TONICS. Tonics augment the vigor of the whole body permanently, whilst stimulants only act for a short time. They are chiefly useful after low fever. I. Tonic Ball. — Powdered yellow bark, 1 oz.; ginger, 2 drms.; carbo- nate of soda, X drm. Form into a ball with linseed meal and water. A nother. — Sulphate of iron, X oz. ; extract of camomile, 1 oz. Mix, and form into a ball. Another. — Arsenic, 10 grs. ; ginger, 1 drm. ; powdered aniseed, 1 oz. , compound powder of tragacanth, 2 drms. ; syrup enough to form a ball. It is a very powerful tonic. WORM MEDICINES. Worm medicines are given in order to expel worms, which they do partly from their specific action upon the worm itself, and partly by their purgative qualities, which all ought to pos- sess, or to be followed by medicines of that class. 1. Calomel, 1 to 2 drms. ; Barbadoes aloes, 3 to 6 drms.; ginger, a drm. ; soap, 3 drms. Mix. a. Worm Drench. —A pint of Hnseed oil every day. POULTRY. HEALTH AND CONDITION. A hen-house 6 or 8 feet square will do well for seven old fowls, or one large brood of chickens. More crowding will not lead to a good result ; so if the increase of the stock seems to render it neces- sary, consider means for housing the youngsters out of doors, in coops or by other contrivances, rather than overfill the houses. Fowls, even the tallest, live and breathe very near the surface of die ground ; and when the earth be- comes foul from having had live stock on it for some time, they cannot fail to inhale the malaria engen- dered by it. Human beings in such an atmosphere would fall in as great proportional numbers as do the fowls of the most unfortunate amateurs ; sanitary measures in their case stop epidemics, and they are the remedies to use with our fowls, or we must not look to have them prosperous and healthy. The most valuable sanitary measure for the fowls is to renew the surface of the runs by paring from time to time. Spring is a good time to do it, when the pared-off surface, rich with guano-like manure, is a valuable strong fertilizer. Duck and pigeon manure arc the strongest. Means must De taken to dry the runs, made pure by paring. Low damp ground should be drained Excellent runs may be made by paring the ground one spit deep, i. e., a foot, good measure, and filling in with a depth of nine inches of chalk and three of gravel. Sometimes, when paring would be too trouble- HE state of thriving pros- perity in Poultry so well known to connoisseurs as condition, is of such pri- mary importance that it may justly claim first at- tention. When fowls get ill and die, without any apparent cause, care- ful observation may generally trace it to one or other of a few fertile sources of evil to them. They have been overcrowded, they have had too much pamper- ing, or they have had too little care. All fatal faults in feeding come under one of the last two heads. If the apparent health and appearance of the fowls be not satisfactory, visit the hen-house after it has been some hours shut up at night, and if the air be offensive there need be no further quest after the cause of illness or other evil there may be among the living beings breathing its close atmosphere for many hours. The remedy should at once be applied by decreas- ing the number of fowls, and by giving increased ventilation. POULTRY. some, a sprinkle of lime over the surface will purify it, but the fowls should be kept off it until after rain. Where the fowls have extensive ranges the immedi- ate neighborhood of the houses only will need this cleansing process ; but the floors of the hen-houses require renewal from time to time. The kind of pampering which leads to over-feed- ing fowls, giving them dainties, such as meat, greaves, hemp-seed, Indian corn, and other fattening food, and keeping them too warmly housed, is a fertile source of ill-health. Poultry, to remain thoroughly healthy, and not to become unhealthily fat, should never have a grain more of food given than they can eat up at once with a hungry, healthy appetite ; they should not be fed too often, they should not have a variety of food given at the same time, and they should have to run for all the food they eat, and have it so thrown abroad that they shall have plenty of work, and consequently plenty of amusement, to find it. The well-being of fowls requires that they have regular care as well as judicious economical feeding, regular meals, a regular supply of water, and regular cleaning. The real care that they require is not pampering and superabundant, almost incessant, feeding, and sometimes the less they are run after the better they will thrive ; but the little care they need should be administered with regularity. This is the kind of care that will keep poultry in the perfect health and good looks which amateurs know so well, and so fully appreciate as good condi- tion. A fowl in good condition is free and bold in gait, brisk in movement, and bright in the eye. The plu- mage is full, firm, crisp, and glossy ; the bird feels firm in handling ; it is neither too lean nor too fat, and the comb is clear and bright in color, according to the season. When a bird is out of condition, in which case it will do no good service to its owner, it handles flabby, however fat it may be ; it is heavy and list- less in movement, often craves continually for food, and seems too lazy to wander far to seek any for it- self. The comb and eye lack brightness, but the plumage tells the tale most unmistakably ; it is dull, ruffled, and broken, sets away from the body, and either comes out with a touch, or adheres to the skin with unnatural tenacity, fixed by a kind of leprous scurfiness. A tendency to roup is often seen. ARRANGEMENT OF STOCK. 1 he cheapest way to get up a stock, allowing time and work for the matter, is to buy really first-class reliable eggs, from sellers of established character. We must neither expect all the eggs to hatch, all the chickens which are hatched to turn out especially good, nor find fault with the seller if this be not the case j for if he is honest he will tell you that when eggs are set at home, without the no small trial of a journey, the hatching of two out of three is a pretty good proportion, and a first-class pair from each brood is ample return for the out- lay, reckoning the value of the eggs at the usual price charged for eggs for setting, and the trouble of rearing. If it be wished to get a good stock together, without the de- lay of rearing chickens, it may be done by purchasing fowls. An old rooster should be mated with pullets, or a fine cock- erel of the year before with old hens. Good breeders consider it better to mate a one year old bird with young hens, than pullets with an old bird. In-breeding, i. e., breeding among relations, must be care- fully avoided. However fine the stock, it is altogether against the laws of good breeding to keep the pullets and the cock- erels, and go on year after year breeding from them without the introduction of fresh blood. Doing so will produce de- crease of size and weakly constitutions. In-breeding must, on no account, be carried beyond the first remove. The mother may be mated with her son, but the old game breeders did not consider the union of a rooster with the pullets bred from him nearly so good. In the purchase of stock, therefore, take care to get hens and roosters which are not related, either by buying from different persons, or by asking the person of whom you purchase for roosters and hens of different families, which most amateurs, and all dealers, are able to manage. It has not unfrequently happened that well-established, good stocks of fowls have been greatly injured by a carelessly in- troduced cross. When the introduction of fresh blood be- comes necessary, the stock with which to cross should be chosen with reference to the qualities most wanted, and great care is necessary to prevent the increase of present failings by it. The purity of the breed and its stamina must also be es- pecially considered ; for mongrel crosses, or a weakly consti- tution, may be introduced in one year, and may take a great many to eradicate. With regard to the number of hens to be allowed to run with one rooster, various opinions have been given ; but while ten or a dozen may form one group for the production of eggs for that of really fine chickens the number should be limited to four, or at most six. With four hens, almost all the eggs which are laid will prove productive of fine strong chickens, provided, of course, the stock birds are good. At the breeding season the breeding stock should most de- cidedly be confined to runs, if purity and precision in breed- ing be a desideratum ; and each family, consisting of a male bird and his harem, should be kept distinct. This separation from stock birds less to be depended upon than those which are selected, should be arranged before Christmas, and con- tinue until eggs are no longer wanted for setting, after POULTRY. 5 6 5 which they may have a fuller range, when the houses they have occupied will be valuable for other purposes. So particular have some game breeders been in that impor- tant point, purity of race, that they considered that the charac- ter of the chickens might be influenced by the hen that hatched them, and would set eggs only under the hen that laid them, or one of the same breed, saying that roosters lost pluck by being hatched by common hens. HOUSES. A simple construction is better for a hen-house than a very elaborate air-tight building ; for too confined air, while the fowls are at roost, makes the place offensive, and is more prone to engender disease than almost anything. Poultry amateurs would be much at a loss in their building operations, if they could not have that useful commodity, the patent felt roofing. It measures 32 inches wide, and is a cap- ital water-tight covering for a roof, or any other part of a hen- house ; it is like wood and brickwork to the builder of hen- houses, and cheap withal. About the cheapest regularly formed house may be made with it, stretched over a wooden frame, which should be rather stout, and well put together. The roof should be made of common boards, under the felt, which without that support is apt to bag, make hollows for water to lodge in, and become rotten in consequence. It nails most easily with iron tacks heated in a frying-pan ; when up it requires tarring and thickly sprinkling with sand, which should be repeated every year to make it durable. In sunny weather a felt house is apt to be hot, so that, to keep it refreshingly cool, as well as for appearance sake, it is a good plan to plant quick-growing trees round it. Tolerably stout wooden houses have done hundreds of am- ateurs excellent service. For the house to keep in good order, the wood should be well seasoned, and any amateur carpenter can put it up at small cost and trouble. Shape the house with a framework of battens. The lowest part maybe 5 feet high, and the roof should have a good pitch, both to throw off the wet, and to make it airy. The cheapest description of boards will do for the roof under the felt, and scarcely any wooden roof is good without that covering, from its being liable, after being swelled with wet, to crack with the heat of the sun, and so let in water. If it be entirely of wood, the boards can either be placed horizontally, with an overlap of at least an inch and a half, or vertically, edge to edge, with fillets of wood nailed over the joints. A cheap roof, yet one which is tolera- bly lasting, may be made by covering the boards with gas tar and coarse brown paper. Lay on a coat of tar, then the brown paper, lapping it over a full inch where the sheets meet, and finish with another coat of tar. When the wooden roof is to be covered with either felt or brown paper, there need be no overlap of the boards, but they may lie edge to edge, either from ridge to eaves, or across. The boards, too, for covering the framework of sides, back and front of the house, can go either upright or across, whichever will use the wood to the best economy. Eaves should project well, to carry off wet. If the boards are used rough, three-quarter inch planks will io, but if they are planed, inch deal will be required to make up for the w&ste. A hatch for the fowls to go in and out, with a door to slip down over it, should be made when the house is built ; some- times two on different sides are found very useful, in case of changes in the run, which can then be put to one side of the house, instead of the other, without further alteration. A more solid kind of house, as well as one which will be more costly, can be built with regular walls of brick, stone, rough stone, or earth. These may be more lasting, and the first three more secure from the attacks of vermin, but, of course, the cost both in material and labor will be greater. For a brick wall, what bricklayers call half a brick thick is sufficient, as very great strength is not required. A pattern of a few feet square, made by leaving out alternate bricks high up on the side of the house, which will admit air that will not be too cold, is a good means of ventilation, and of giving light also. Few amateurs would go to the expense of walls of hewn stone, but -in neighborhoods where rough blasted rock or stone is plentiful, and consequently cheap, it makes good walls, which come rather cheaper than brickwork. To be sufficiently solid and stable these walls should be rather over than under a foot thick, and the stones fitted together with judgment, to avoid interstices causing weakness, or great consumption of mortar, of which, however well the stones may be fitted, a great deal will be used. While building this kind of wall it should be brought to a level surface at the top every 16 inches or so, which gives the stone a look of order in the arrange*, ment, greatly improving the appearance, and also giving strength. All laminated stone, i. e., stone which has an ap- pearance of being formed in layers, should have these layers placed horizontally. Where building materials of most kinds are difficult to ob- tain, earth walls may be used with advantage, requiring, if the material be at hand, little outlay except labor. The proper earth is neither sand nor clay, but partaking of both. Clay, chalk, any calcareous earth, or sand, is bad for the purpose. The earlier in the season the building can be done the better, that it may have time to dry ; but a time must be chosen when the earth is sufficiently dry for working, and the coarser and bolder it is the better. A foundation of brick or stone must be used, which can be brought 9 inches above the surface of the ground, or less if preferred. The wall is made by ramming in the earth, supported during the process by a mold formed of two planks of inch board. These planks for a cottage or similar building should be 12 feet long and 20 inches wide, formed of two breadths, and strengthened with cross pieces strongly nailed outside ; but for a hen-house, sum- mer-house, or similar edifice of less importance, they might be shorter. Cross-bolts fix these planks together (two near each end), with as many inches between the two boards as the wall is to be thick, say 14 or 16 inches, and the bolts have large heads at one end to fix them, and eyelet holes and cross pegs at the other. Place the planks above the brick founda- tion, bolt them together, and fit bits of board into the ends, to prevent the building material running out there, the little boards fitting in between the top and bottom bolts, and mak- ing (with them) the mold into a sort of box. Then work the earth up well, a little at a time, mixing in cut straw or som# POULTRY, 5«« similar material'to make it bind ; and when it is used it should have just moisture enough to adhere together, under the pres- sure of the thumb and finger. Ram in no more at a time than will make an inch and a half when well rammed ; and the rammer, to do its work well, should be no more than an inch and a half wide. When the earth is well rammed down, as high as the mold will allow, draw out the cross-bolts, remove the planks, and fix the mold further on, the bolt at one end being fitted into the hole left by that at the other, only one end board being of course required. When each layer of the wall is completed the mold must be placed higher, fitting the bottom bolts into the holes left by the top ones, and after each course pour over the surface (to make the next course adhere, and also to give a nice appearance) a small quantity of thick grout composed of one-fifth lime and fourth-fifths earth. Before the wall dries the holes left by the bolts must be carefully filled up with mortar made of one-fourth lime and three-fourths earth. If the same mixture be used for the wall, it will dry almost like stone. A stout frame of wood must be fixed to shape the door, hatch and windows, and the building may have a smooth facing given to it of the mortar above named, or one made with more lime, or even a little cement. As a finish it may be washed with a mixture of lime and sharp sand, mixed in small quantities, and used while hot, which may easily be done by adding a knob of lime and the sand a little at a time, as it is used. The roofing for houses of regular walls, like those of brick, stone, or earth, should be slates or tiles. A slate or tile roof will be cold in winter and hot in summer unless it has a lining of some kind, for which any of the fol- lowing substances will do, unless a regular ceiling of plaster be preferred : felt nailed to the under side of the lafters, and tarred ; a kind of inner thatch of straw, kept in its place by laths nailed to the rafters ; stout brown paper oiled or painted and nailed to the rafters. Every hen-house should have a good wide door, as it may sometimes be useful to carry a hen-coop through it, especially in wet ungenial seasons ; and the door should be so placed, and so fixed on its hinges, that it will open back thoroughly. A window, too, is necessary, as light within is quite wanted, and it may not be advisable to fix the door open at all times in our climate. Perforated zinc, or close lattice, is good, and will give no more air than enough, except in very intense weather, when it may be covered with a bit of thin board or a sheet of brown paper. Give the hen-houses a good lime-washing at first, to prevent vermin making a settlement in the wood or small cracks to be found about, and lepeat it once a year at furthest. When the house is complete, with door and window for convenient access and ventilation, a hatch for the use of the fowls, a good firm floor, which can neither be too cold, too easily saturated with impurity, nor too facile a harbor for ver- min, and which can be kept clean without difficulty, all sweet from the hand of the whitewasher, it must be fitted with perches and nests. All heavy fowls should have the perch made of a fir pole, not less than 4 inches across. One pole sawed in halves will make two perches ; they should be about S feet, or a little more, from the ground, and 'hey should drop into sockets, so that they can be taken down to clean or lime- wash. Light active fowls often crave to soar higher for roosting, but heavy birds should on no account be allowed to do so. Almost anything, provided it be steady and clean, does for a nest. Some wild fowls like it to be secret and out of the way, but those that are tame and much noticed care little about that ; only take care that it stands firm (to provide against losses), and that it is filled with clean sweet straw or hay. Straw is best in warm weather, as hay is said to be heating, and consequently to encourage vermin. HOUSES AND RUNS. With regard to the size of the hen-house, the important point is that it should be sufficiently large for the air to keep pure and sweet when the fowls are shut up at night. A house of medium size, with a few fowls, is preferable to a large one with a great many. One favorite form for poultry houses, with many extensive amateurs, has always been ranges of houses, side by side, each having a run belonging to it. Another plan has been a circu- lar, octagonal, or square building, of large size, parted into several poultry houses, and with a run to each division, ar- ranged round the building. Every poultry run should have a shed. A felt roof on fixed supports, with a pitch from 4 feet at the back to 3 feet in front, will do. A little common boarding under the felt will make it very good, or a roof of feather-edged board will do exceed- ingly well. It should have a warm aspect ; under it should be spread fine dust in which the fowls may roll and cleanse their feathers gravel to give small stones, without which fowls can- not remain healthy, and lime rubbish, or lime in some shape for eggshell, without a due supply of which they will not lay well. Where the range is necessarily small, the important point is to have a small number of fowls in proportion to its size, and to clear off all supernumeraries before winter. Grass is ex- cellent for fowls, but it is impossible to keep a small run in grass, as the constant tramp and scratching of even half a dozen grown birds will make it bare. A well laid run, kept clean, will do for fowls, but a grass run is far preferable, if it can be managed. FEEDING. Perhaps there is no method of poultry feeding so injurious as throwing down a lot of food, from which they can fill their crops, scarcely moving from the spot where they stand. Fowls thus fed will grow fat internally, but they will not put on good firm meat and strong useful muscle, nor will they ac- quire stamina ar-d good constitutions. Good feeding rather requires good space, but if the run be small, it must be made the most of by throwing the food as far as can be, and making the fowls run the whole distance, as many times as possible. In a small run, where the green food must be given to the fowls, instead of their going afar to seek it for themselves, it is a good plan to tie up cabbage stumps and lettuces for them to pull at, rather than to throw them on the ground. POULTRY. 5 e 7 Three meals a day are quite enough lor any grown fowls ; those that have range enough to enable them to pick up much for themselves will do well with two. A good supply of clean pure water is as necessary as a reg- ular supply of food. Perhaps there is nothing better in which to give the water, than firm standing crockery pans. They should be placed a little sunk in the ground, very firm and steady, in some out-of-the-way corner, where the fowls are least likely to step into them or overturn them, washed thor- oughly inside and out once a day, filled once a day, and filled up whenever they require it Each pan should hold as much water as the fowls for whose use it is intended could consume in twenty-four hours, but it should be replenished oftener in case of accidents. The different kinds of food used in feeding poultry, are, grain of many varieties, the meal made from them by grind- ing, root and green vegetables, and meat, either given by hand, or found by themselves in the shape of worms, grubs, and such like. It is the best economy to buy food of the best equality, for poor or damaged things are dear at any price. The food, of whatever kind, should be fine of its kind, and in good condition. Worm-eaten corn, and meal which is full of mites, is deficient in nourishing properties and unwholesome. Next in importance to good food is good variety in diet. Animals need change of food, and always thrive iest and pro- duce best upon it. Barley, oats, wheat, buckw teat, Indian com, the meal made from all these, potatoes, lett ces, and all kinds of garden stuff offer a good variety, and may be yet further varied with rice, mangold, linseed, vetches, turnips, etc. A change, altered week about, has often been found to succeed. Barley is used as whole corn more than almost any other kind of food, and it is good, but the stock will not thrive on it or any other grain, without variation. Wheat is very nourishing, but rather too heating for poul- try which has not full liberty. Buckwheat makes an excellent change, and promotes lay- ing ; on the continent it is more used than any other grain. Fowls like it very much when they get used to it, but when it is strange they will sometimes overlook it on account of its dark color. Indian corn is good as an occasional change ; its fault is that it promotes internal fat rather than general plumpness, on which account it should be used with caution, and not for too long at a time. The diet of fowls should never, however-, De entirely ' Since their gizzards are made for getting nutriment from com, we do not think the use of it should be excluded, but they are omnivorous, and it is best to feed them at all times partly on soft food, i. e., meal, and such like, and partly on corn. If two meals a day are given, we would give one of meal and other soft food, and one of com ; if ..ee, one of com and two of soft food, generally, and sometime*, for a change, two of com and one of soft food. Meal of different kinds is the staple material for soft food. Perhaps the best of all is oats ground up, as already men- tioned. Barley meal is a good plain meal of moderate price, for common use, and one which the fowls always seem to relish well. Oatmeal is dearer. Good round Scotch oatmeal is excellent from its nourishing properties. Malt dust is said to be very nourishing and good. In buying meal, great care must be taken to get it good, as if it be old, stale, and mity, or made from bad corn, no stock can thrive upon it. It should be newly ground, from good com, and kept until used in a cool dry place. Potatoes are very good poultry food, in change with food of other kinds. The more mealy they are the better they are for food, so that if they are boiled they should be cooked in an iron pot, and put to dry after the water is strained from them. When they are given they may be broken to pieces, and scattered far and wide, like other food. For developing the mealiness, they may be better steamed than boiled, and yet better, by far, baked. In feeding young stock, take care that the food is thoroughly good and appetizing, fresh and well made. Satisfy hunger at every meal, leave time between the meals for hunger to re- turn, and never pamper appetite. If the chickens refuse to eat, they often know better what is good for them, than we do when we try to press or force them. As the chickens approach maturity they will eat enormously. Let them do so. Let them have as much exercise as you can give them, and plenty of food will not hurt them. If they be- come too expensive, eat them or sell them ; clear them off any way you can, and leave space at liberty for future use. All fowls, old and young, want green food. Giving them free access to grass is the best way of supplying it, and if we have not the opportunity we may give them turfs of grass in their runs. If the turfs are too large and heavy for the fowls to knock to pieces, they may be removed to a safe place and watered, and used again and again as often as the grass grows. Fresh cuttings of a lawn may be thrown into the runs, and will be relished. Lettuces may be given to fowls and ducks ; turnip greens are good for them, and cabbage leaves, and any refuse from the garden may be given, if grass, lettuce, or turnip greens are not to be had. In the absence of green, boiled roots are better than no vegetable food. Animal food also is necessary. That which they get foi themselves in the shape of worms, grubs, etc., is the best, and in its absence the want must be supplied with a little cooked meat, cut small. Forcing breeding — wheat, beans, peas and meat — may in- duce fowls to lay abundantly, but will not produce lastingly strong healthy fowls, and those thus fed will seldom either live out their natural term of life, or produce chickens of natural strength and stamina. EGGS AND HATCHING. Warm housing and abundant feeding make the hens lay early, provided they do not become too fat. Meat will bring them on to lay, and buckwheat, oats fried in fat, and brewers’ grains are all good stimulants. As the chicken season approaches, the best hens should be watched, that their eggs may be known, written on, and put POULTRY. aside in order, m they are kid. If any have imperfect shells, a smooth round mark on one side, an appearance of a grown up crack, a look of weakness anywhere, or any irregularity of shape, they had better be rejected for setting, as they would be little likely to hatch, and very likely to break in the nest before the term of incubation was up, thus doing harm by soiling the other eggs, and possibly inducing the sitter to be- come an egg-eater by the temptation of a cracked egg, too strong to be resisted. The eggs, until they are wanted for setting, may be arranged in a box, according to freshness, and kept in a place where they will be cool, if the weather be hot, and safe from the frost if the weather be severe. Eggs should on no account be stale when they are set, as, if they are, they will very likely not hatch, and if they do hatch the produce will be weakly. If the eggs are set at once, without becoming cold after they are laid, they will often hatch a day sooner. There is no doubt as to its being best for a hen to let her set once a year, or even twice, especially if she be a good layer, as the rest and good feeding she gets while she is on the nest and rearing her chickens, prove very restorative. If, however, it is necessary to break her of the wish to set, it may best be done by changing her to a grass run, where she can find no nest to take possession of, or coop her on the grass, out of sight of her favorite nest, and avoid overfeeding. If the broody hens are to be set, an appropriate place must be prepared for them. It never answers to let hens sit in the hen-house where other fowls are kept, as they will be contin- ually interfering with them, and interrupting their work. They must, therefore, be removed to some quiet place which they can have to themselves, and even then they will want watching until each one gets thoroughly established on her own nest, lest they squabble together. The place for the sit- ters should be warm in spring, and not excessively hot in summer, as heat occasions too much evaporation for the well- being of the eggs, and often besides makes the hen feverish and ill, and consequently restless, and apt to come off too often and to break or crack her eggs by fidgeting. A damp warm atmosphere is that which is most favorable to incuba- tion ; cold and dry heat are both bad. A box or basket well filled with clean straw, rammed down tight, a foot or more in thickness, under the hen at first, is good. Never use a nest, unless it be a hole in the earth, which has not a good massive thickness of straw under the hen ; for if her attention to her own arrangements displaces the straw, and leaves the eggs on the bare bottom of the nest, there is positively no chance of success. A good sod of turf, covered with grass or close heather, the size of the nest, fitted to the bottom of it, with a nest of straw over, makes a very good nest. Let every sitter have a clean new-made nest, as one taken from the hen-house, or which has been in use before, may be infested with insects ; and never let the same nest be used twice for setting without having it thoroughly cleaned, washed and filled with fresh straw. The nest should be quite full to the top, so that the hen may never run the risk of breaking the eggs by having to jump down upon them. When the sitting place and nests are duly prepared, tha sit- ters must be removed to them. Place them on the new nests, with not less than four nest eggs, or hard-boiled eggs, undei each, and cover them up, or hang things round them, so as to keep them in the dark, until they are settled to the new nests. Let them keep to the nest eggs until they have been off to feed once only in the day, and returned to the right nests steadily of their own accord. Then the eggs may be given to each, from nine to thirteen, according to the size, with some cer- tainty that the sitters will do well. It is a good plan to set two hens at once, and three are still better, as, if the broods are not large, they may be put together, or if any contretemps happen to one hen the eggs may be saved. If two broods be given to one hen to bring up, to save trouble, the second hen may be broken off from sitting, taking care to place her where she cannot hear the chickens ; it does not often answer to set a hen on a second time with fresh eggs. The requirements of the sitter are, fresh water, and a good meal of barley every time she leaves her nest to feed, which is generally once a Jay only, in the early part of the day. Bar- ley is better than barley meal dough, and a sitting hen is very hearty ; she will eat a good deal. It is best to let her come off of herself, and to know when she leaves her nest. Give her down plenty of food, without keeping her wait'ng for it, and see that she satisfies her hunger without molestation from other fowls, i id that she returns quietly to her eggs. Besides food and wa er, the sitting hen wants a little green food, stones to promote digestion, and dry dust in which to roll and cleanse her feathers. If sitters have not the opportunity of keeping themselves free from insects in the dust bath, they will get infested with chickens’ fleas, which torment them so that it becomes quite impossible for them to remain quiet, and they will often leave the nest and forsake the eggs. A good heap of dust, in which to roll, is almost as necessary to a sit- ting hen as her daily meal. After she gets thoroughly accus- tomed to the place and the nest, a run out of doors to pick up insects, and peck at grass, will do her good, care being taken to see that she goes back in due time. Some hens return to the nest in a very short time ; others remain off the great part of an hour. It is better not to allow them to wander too long or too far. The eggs ought to hatch the day three weeks from that on which they are set. Under favorable circumstances the chickens make their appearance the day before. The growing and expanding chicken does all the work of breaking the shell ; the sitter takes no part in it, but only giv^„ her genial warmth. As soon as she hears the chick within the shell her eye puts on a bright pleased look, by which anyone who watches hens closely, may know that the maternal instinct is gratified by the certainty of success, and her note changes to the pleased “took, took,” the mother’s call. The first sound within the shell is a soft tapping, occasioned by the first action of the lungs of the now fully formed chicken, expanding with the air gaining admittance to the air cavity at the broad end of the egg, through the pores of the shell. The chick, growing, expanding, and unfolding from the cramped closely-packed position in which it has grown, presses the tip of the beak against the shell with sufficient force to start it. Still expanding and unfolding, it extends the cracks which til* POULTRY. 5®9 little beak has made, until the shell opens completely into two unequal parts, and the little wet weakly chicken emerges ; then ‘.he mother’s warmth nourishes it into dryness and strength. When the chicken first comes out of the shell, the moist down lies close to the skin, each particle enveloped in a kind of sheath. As the down dries, it throws off these sheaths, which may be seen scattered over the nest, and expands into the soft full covering which clothes the young chickens in warmth and beauty. The next thing is, it wants to eat ; but this does not happen until it has been many hours hatched. It is best not to interfere with the mother and vex her by taking her chickens from her ; but as soon as the little ones are seen to pop out from among her feathers, a little sopped bread in a cup may be placed before her ; she will be hungry, and will eat herself, and will feed her little ones as soon as instinct tells her they require food. Offer her also a little water to drink, which she will often be very glad of. If the hatching is protracted, it is necessary sometimes to take the hen off, and look at the eggs, in case of untoward ac- cidents, such as a weakly chick falling to the bottom of the nest, unable to recover itself, or an unhatched egg getting firmly fixed inside an empty eggshell. This last is not very unfrequent, as some hens have a habit of systematically pack- ing away the eggshells, one in another, like market baskets, and sometimes push in an egg by mistake, when the chicken in it may be sacrificed. Hens which are so ill-tempered that they will not be touched without putting themselves in a tan- tram, had better be left on the nest undisturbed, as, if touched, they may do more mischief to the eggs and chickens than is likely to arise from accident. Give the hen food while you tidy the nest, if necessary, and remove the empty egg- shells. Keep the chickens which are hatched warm while this is done, let the hen go back, and when she is settled upon the eggs give her her chickens, putting them carefully, one by one, under her wings. Many hens are so good and quiet that you may raise them up and look under them, without taking them off, which is better. The nen should never be unnecessarily interfered with. On the day of hatching, get her off to feed at her usual time in the morning, and then once in eight or twelve hours will be often enough to go to her, to see how the hatching progresses; but do not take her off the nest as often as that, unless circum- stances render it necessary. The more the hatching is left to nature the better, but there are rare instances when fine chickens would be lost, it not a little helped out of the eggshell. At the end of the twenty-first day, put the eggs which re- main unhatched to the ear, give them a turn over, and if the inside flops, take them away. If any eggs seem good, put them under the hen again ; she will be more likely to hatch them in the night, when she sits down closer, than by day, when the early hatched chickens will be beginning to get ac- tive, and to move about around her in the nest. If it is wished to hatch a good many chickens, the eggs may be examined when they have been set a week, when, if there are many bad ones, two batches may be united, and new lots given to the other hens. Hold the eggs, one by one, against & circular hole, an inch and a quarter across, in a rather dark- ened place, with the sun shining outside. The chickens in the eggs, and the ramifications of veins inside the shells, will be plainly seen, and the eggs which have no chickens in them will show clear. So small an accident may interfere with the growth of the chicken in the egg, that unless more sitters are much wanted, I think it best to leave the nests undisturbed, except in taking away unmistakably bad eggs when they are known. REARING CHICKENS. When the hatching is done, the sooner the hen can be re- moved to a clean nest, free from vermin, the better. That which has been set in three weeks will have chickens’ fleas, encouraged and increased by the unusual warmth, and if the chickens remain in it, they will swarm to their soft down in a manner to preclude the comfort and health of the brood. As soon, therefore, as the eggs are all hatched, or found not likely to hatch, put the mother and her brood into a comfortable warm clean nest. An old clothes basket does as well as anything, for there should be plenty of room, or the chickens may get crushed. If the weather be cold, warm the straw before the fire fora few minutes, or warm it in the sunshine if there be any, that the latest hatched, some of them possibly scarcely dry, may not be chilled by the change ; and when the hen has settled down quietly, with her little ones under her, place food and water before her, that she may eat and feed her young family. The food thus early may be chopped eggs (shell and all), and bread crumbs, sop, oatmeal and barley meal mixed, dry and crumbly, and crushed com, giving now as later only one thing at a time. The drinking-pan should be shallow, that the chickens may not get wet by going into it, or turning it over ; and constantly replenished, that the old hen may not want. If the weather is mild and dry, the sooner mother and fam- ily can be placed on the gravel, out of doors, the better ; but at first it must not be for long at a time. They may be put down, with advantage to themselves, on the floor of a green- house, and if the hen can be allowed a roll in some dust in one corner, it will be good for her and for her chickens too. Under a shed, where the ground is clean dust, mixed with small stones, is a good place for cooping the hen for the first ten days or so, and she may after that be placed on the grass in dry weather, but not before the dew is off it. During a portion of each day she should be cooped where she and her little ones may enjoy a roll in dry dusty earth. In choosing a place for cooping the hen, care should be I taken that she can have the shelter necessary for comfort. When she is loose she can lead her chickens into the shade, or into the sunshine, or to warm nooks sheltered from cold winds, and it is cruel to confine her to one spot without consulting her wants in these matters. The imprisonment alone is quite bad enough for the poor hen to bear. In the kind of coop used, and in placing the coop, take care that there is ample and complete shelter from wet. When the wind is cold, place the coop where the hen and her chickens may be sheltered from its chilling influence. During the heat of the day, shade from the broiling heat of the sun is as necessary as shelter from wet and cold. It is good to attain these ends by moving the coops about three times a day, or as often as necessary. 57° POULTRY. If the brood is housed at night, the hen may brood them on the ground, if it be bare earth, not cold pavement. She may either have a little straw thrown down, or take the chickens into a large shallow firm-standing basket. The main thing is, whatever the bed be, let it be clean and sweet ; whether it be the earth or straw, let it be well cleaned every day, and re- newed when it becomes soiled. If two or more broods are put to roost in one hen-house, the old hens should be confined with coops, or they may interfere with each other, or injure each other’s chickens. The spite of hens towards chickens not belonging to therm must always be guarded against. The best way is, if it can be managed, to place the coops so that they cannot see each other. From the time the hen is cooped out, especially after the wing feathers begin to show, the chickens must be plentifully fed on good food, well varied. Rice pudding, made of rice, sharps, or Indian meal, and milk, and baked, makes excellent nourishing food, to which eggs and chopped meat, one or both, may be added. Rice, boiled, and rolled in sharps or Indian meal, instead of the pudding, is good. Other kinds of food are oatmeal and barley meal, mixed into a dry friable mass, canary seed, crushed oats, and crushed barley. These may be varied with cooked potatoes (baked are best), bread sopped in milk or in water (brown bread is preferable to white) and buckwheat. To get size, meat may be given every other day. They should have green food of some kind every day. Vary- ing the meals, and sometimes giving an entire change, feed the chickens constantly, as often as they get hungry, with as much food as they and the mother like, leaving none to get stale, waste upon the ground, and encourage hosts of sparrows. When they no longer eat eagerly, with a good appetite, throw no more down. At first, they will want a bit about every hour, and by degrees they will get hungry less often, until six meals a day will be enough. Chickens which are natched before the natural time — that is to say, before the nights become mild and the days sunny, and before the earth teems with insects which they can catch for themselves, and the absence of winch no meat will com- pensate — must have a little artificial warmth. Chickens hatched thus early must be fed after dark, as a fast from dark to daylight is too long. About ten o’clock at night put down a candle or a lantern, and place food and water before the hen, and the little ones soon get into the habit of expecting a meal at that time, and of making a good one. It is a mistake to feed chickens on plenty of excellent food for the first three weeks, and then to some extent leave them to take their chance. As the fledging advances, they require better and more nourishing food than they do while in the down. The call which the growth of the feathers makes on the resources of the chickens is attested by the wonderfully rapid growth which immediately commences as soon as they are fledged, and this increased rate of growth renders good feeding still no less necessary, and so on until growth is com- plete. About the best kind of coop is a wooden box, with a span roof (either 2 or 3 feet square, according to the space at com- mand, and the size of the stock kept), to give shelter and shade, with a run of wirework rather larger to place in front of it, to increase the range for the hen. She may make use of both and the chickens have full liberty, running in and out through the wirework. By the time the chickens are turned off by their mothers, it is generally necessary to clear them from the ground they have hitherto occupied, to make room for more young broods. It is far better if each brood can then have a house and run to itself. If so much room cannot be spared, care must, at any rate, be taken only to put together chickens of about the same age. A few chickens well bred, well accommodated, well cared for, and well fed, will turn out a pleasure and a credit ; a good many chickens crowded together, however carefully looked after and fed, will give a great deal of trouble, con- stant work, constant care, and constant disappointment, and make no commensurate return, either in satisfaction or profit. The difference between cockerels and pullets may some- times be detected while they are very young. In some the cock’s comb soon shows. In most kinds the arrangement of the first wing feathers is rounder and wider in pullets than in cockerels, whose first wing feathers come more to a point ; the pullets’ heads are often narrower and finer than the roosters, and they fledge earlier on the back, down the sides of the breast, and at the back of the head. In fine robust chick- ens it is sometimes difficult to pick out the cockerels and pul- lets until the back is partly feathered, when the pointed saddle hackle feathers soon begin to sprout ; the surest test of all. As the chickens approach maturity, good feeding must still be continued, supplying the place of the rice puddings, canary seed, and other young chicken dainties with abundant sup- plies of oatmeal, barley meal, and good corn, and using dis- cretion as to the supply of meat. The bits from the table may always be collected and divided among the chickens. As they approach maturity, too, they must be allotted to their destinations. The young birds which are picked out for the table may also be put to their destination. Plenty of exercise develops strength and firmness of muscle, and is good for chickens which have the duties of a long life before them ; i. e., a life which is long for chickens, four or five years cr so. For eat- ing we want tender, not strong, firm muscle ; therefore the chickens which are to be eaten need not have an extensive range. They may be made happy in a small run, and well fed with several meals a day of oatmeal and barley meal mixed, just so dry that the balls will fall to pieces when they are thrown down, and a little corn, with good supplies of clean fresh water. Those who like good chickens in natural condition may follow this plan, giving them for a little time before they are wanted rice boiled in water, in milk, or made into puddings, as for young chickens ; but those who like to fatten their fowls for the table can put them up in fatting coops. When they are put up, feed with moderation at first, as re- pletion then, or at any time, would retard the fatting process. As soon as they are reconciled to captivity, feed them on oat- meal three times a day. Milk for mixing the oatmeal is best; POULTRY. every meal must be given in a well scalded, clean trough • keep the coops supplied with clean water, and between the meals place gravel before them, for them to peck at, and a turf cf grass. Keen the coops scrupulously clean, give the first meal at sunrise, or thereabouts, and the last at roosting time, a-id the chickens will be ready to kill in about ten days jer a fortnight. As soon as they are fat enough they must be [killed, or they will become unhealthy. When one lot is I fatted, take down the fattening coops, scrub and limewash [them, and put them out in the air for a time before using ‘hern again. Those who wish to make fowls very fat by the unpleasant process of cramming, may either choose the finest and healthiest from the fatting coop, or any good fleshy young fowls. The food used is oatmeal, mixed stiff with milk, made up into boluses the size to be put down the chicken’s throat without danger oi choking it. To fatten more rapidly mutton suet may be boiled in the milk used to mix the oat- meal. The person employed in the cramming process opens the chicken’s beak, and puts six or eight boluses down its throat morning and evening. If it seem to wish for food at noon a little can be given it in the trough, which must be sup- plied also with water and gravel. Those which have been put up will be finished off in a week ; those which have to be fatted by the cramming will take fourteen or sixteen days. While they are fattening by either process they must be kept free from draft, as they will fatten all the better for being comfortably warm. Some persons kill fowls by bleeding them in the mouth ; I others wring their necks. The quickest and most merciful ! way is with a dexterous jerk to break the neck. FANCY VARIETIES. DORKINGS, SPANISH, AND COCHINS. The chief large fowls occupying the attention of fanciers are Dorkings, Spanish, Cochins, Brahmas, Malays, and Cr£ve- coeurs, and the other French breeds. Dorkings. — The chickens are delicate until they get into their feathers, and Dorkings of all ages are more subject to roup than most kinds. Unless they have a good or well- drained soil, or an extensive grass range, they do not lay well, and do not thrive well. On the other hand, they are excel- lent and economical for persons to keep who supply the markets, provided they possess facilities for keeping and rear- ing them with success, because they come forward early ; they make their growth early in life, may be fatted off, and cleared off early, and thus leave the ground at liberty soon, and en- able the owner to realize his returns in a short time. If Dorkings are kept, they must have great care in feeding, and perfect cleanliness. The stamina of the chickens may be im- proved by crossing with Brahmas, Cochins, or Game. The hens are good sitters, and attentive good mothers, and where the locality suits them, they are very good layers of nice, well-flavored, and rather large eggs. There are few kinds which vary more, as layers, than they. The white Dorking is the original type of the race It sn should have a square, plump, compact form, plumage of spot* less white, delicate white skin, white legs, which should t)A delicate, not coarse, five toes well developed, clear white of pale yellow beak, and a well-formed, full-colored rose-comb. Size is an important point, and one in which white Dorkings have sometimes failed, but which the careful introduction of fresh blood from time to time improves. The fifth toe on each foot is a matter of primary imports ice in all Dorkings, white and colored. Careful breeding has firmly fixed this property in the Dorking, and no fowl without it would have a chance of success at an exhibition, or of being purchased as a Dorking fowl anywhere. The fifth toe should be distinct and well developed on each foot ; a sixth is no merit. The legs must have no suspicion of feathering The colored Dorkings, like the white, must be plump made compact, and wide, with plenty of meat on the breast, short legs, and little offal. The comb may be single or rose, but all the combs in a pen must match well. The legs must De short, white, and delicate — i. e., not coarse in the scales. The plumage of colored Dorkings varies much, as may be expected in fowls which have been bred chiefly with reference to useful properties. Spanish. — Brilliant black plumage, bright scarlet combs and wattles, and distinct and clear white faces make these fowls very attractive, and they are among the oldest as well as greatest favorites of poultry lovers ; for early in this century, specimens which were at the time thought very choice, were brought to England from Holland. It seems probable that the kind may have been introduced into Holland from Spain, and taken up and improved by the keen Dutch fanciers, but now amateurs can find no vestige of the kind in the country which gives them their name. Spanish roosters, especially, have a tall, majestic carriage, and the kind have the merit of doing well, and looking hand- some and ornamental, if kept in a confined place, provided it be not overcrowded. They lay eggs which are very fine in size, but they are apt to be more woolly and less delicate in the white than those of many other fowls. Cold, especially if it be damp cold, spoils the appearance of the old birds, by injuring the combs and turning them black. The combs of the hens shrink very much, and lose their beauty, while they are moulting, or when they are laying. Spanish hens do not sit, so other sitters must be provided to hatch and rear the chickens ; and for this purpose it is best to choose Dorkings, if possible, or, at any rate, some kind which does not throw off the chickens early. Spanish chickens had better not be hatched very early in the season, as they fledge late, and are delicate until they get into feathers ; from March to May is the best time. The Minorca is a variety of the Spanish, which, although wanting in valuable fancy points, is a good-looking, useful fowl, large in size, better for the table than Spanish, and p good layer of fine large eggs. The Andalusian fowl is rather an attractive-looking bird ; in form and carriage much like the Spanish, and evidently of the same family, with plumage either of a uniform slate color, or slate shaded or laced with black, and showy, well-developed scarlet combs and wattles. It has been stated that they were yOULTRY. St* nrought from Andalusia, but some affirm that they have been Dred from the Spanish — an accidental sport. Cochins have the merit of being excellent layers. Good Cochin hens will lay every day, or two days out of three, until they want to sit ; and they have the merit of being good layers in the winter, when fresh eggs are rarities. The thing which most interferes with the production of eggs is the Cochin's constant habit of wanting to sit ; but if she is allowed to sit, she very soon lays again. Cochins are tame, docile, and manageable ; little children may tend them without a chance of getting hurt, and they are friendly among themselves. When the hens sit, we may do what we like with them, and they are kind mothers as long as their nice little hardy chickens require their care. We can keep Cochins where we can keep no other fowls, and make them profitable with no other drawback to counteract all their merits than a too-frequent wish to sit, and the character they have of not being good for the table, which any careful breeder might remedy to a great extent. Cochins, like all fowls that lay so many eggs, are rather greedy eaters, and they are very ready to fatten internally (hence often the shelless eggs, and two eggs a day); so that in feeding them care must be taken to feed moderately, and to avoid food of too fattening a nature. The fowls and the chickens will do well if fed and treated as recommended in the chapters on feeding and chicken-rearing. The dangerous time is from the time the wing-feathers are grown until the head is covered ; and then they want plenty of good nourishing food. They are nicest for the table at from five to seven or eight months old : as young chickens, they are not nearly so good, but are better fowls when nearer maturity. COCHINS, BRAHMAS, MALAYS, AND THE FRENCH FOWLS. White Cochins must, of course, be perfectly white in plu- mage, and shown very clean. Black Cochins have almost disappeared, on account of their incorrigible habit of moulting to a mixture of colored feathers among the black. The hens remain black, but the roosters almost invariably display a mixture of red or yellow after the first moult, if not before. Brahmas. — No one knows the original stock ; no one knows whence they came originally ; this is the accusation that is brought against the Brahmas, the best fowls we have ever had, as regards the number of useful properties they possess. The Brahmas are tame, docile, of a contented disposition, and almost as easy to keep in as the Cochins ; but they like a good range when they can get it, and make the most of it far more industriously. The pullets do not lay so early as Cochin pullets, but taking the year round, the Brahmas produce more eggs than Cochins do, from not wanting to sit so often. They are good sitters and mothers, lay early after hatching, and often tend their chickens for weeks after they begin to lay. They are good table lowls, being ready in putting on flesh, compact in make, full in the breast, juicy, and good in flavor. They should be large end heavy, of a free majestic bearing, removed alike from the waddle of the Cochin, and the upright carriage of the Malay, compactly made, not long in the leg or neck, wide and full in the breast, wide and deep in make ; legs are yellow and well feathered. The head is delicate in character, with a fullness over the eye which gives breadth to the top of the head, and a full clear eye. The tail is short and full. In color, Brahmas range from an almost white plumage, with more or less black penciling on the hackle, and black in the feathers of the tail and wings, to dark-gray plumage. Perfection in a light Brahma is a white surface, with well- marked hackle, wings and tail, and such uniform pearly-gray under color, that the feathers cannot ruffle without showing it. The Malay. Malays are great favorites with a few, but from their peculiar gaunt form they are by no means gen- erally liked or kept. They are large h " vy birds, with such hard close feathers that they are more bulky and weighty than they look. They are tall, with an upright gait ; the tail is droop- ing and small, with beautiful, but not long, sickle feathers. The thighs are remarkably long, strong, and firm, and the tarsi round, stout and yellow. Their head is snake-like, with great fullness over the eye, giving it a flattened form on the top. The Malay has a bold eye, a red skinny face, and a strong curved hawk-beak. The comb is short, small, very thick, and close to the head, resembling half a strawberry ; the wattles are very small, and the wings rather set up. The favorite colors are different shades of rich chestnut brown, or cinnamon. There are also black-breasted reds, black, and white. As fowls to keep, they have the great merit of doing well in any back-yard, and looking handsomer there than at a show. The hens are often pretty good winter layers. The eggs are of medium size, with tinted shells ; they are good in flavor and hatch well. The Malay hen is a good sitter and a good mother, that will hold her own, and defend her brood with her good strong beak, if necessary. The chickens are hardy little things, if well bred; but they fledge late, and look gaunt and ugly when half grown. Crevecceurs and some other French breeds fill up our list of large fowls. It is curious that the change from a more favorable to a worse climate should seem to affect the well-being of fowls detrimentally, in coming only across the Channel, as the Crevecceurs, La Fleche, and Houdans do, and not in coming half the circumference of the globe, as in the case of Cochins, Malays, and other Asiatics : but so it is. As far as I have had an opportunity of judging, importations from the farther side of Asia arrive here and do well from the time of their arrival ; but many who have had the French fowls have found the Crevecceurs more subject to roup than even the Dorkings, and the La FHche change from the good productive fowls, which I suppose they are in their own country, to but indifferent layers. The Cr^vecoeur, when it thrives, is an excellent fowl for the table, being square, plump-made, and large, ready to fatten easily (if in thorough health and good condition), compactly formed, and short in the leg. The hens are said to be good layers ; their eggs are very large, and they are not sitters. The chickens come to maturity early, and Mrs. F. Blair saya POULTRY. 573 the pullets often exceed the cockerels in size. They are evi- dently allied to the Polish, which are nice tame fowls to keep, but delicate in our damp chilly variable climate. For exhibi- tion, the color of cocks and hens should be unvarying black throughout, with metallic luster on the feathers, but to breed them so, requires great care as they are very apt to have a mixture of colored or white feathers. As in black Cochins and some other black fowls, it is easier to breed the pullets quite black than the cockerels. The crest is full, large, and globular, and in front of it is a comb in the form of two well defined pikes, and these horns sometimes grow large and spread into branches. The fowls are bearded, and the legs blue and short. The La Fleche is also a black fowl, with metallic luster, large and plump-made. It is good for the table, but the legs are long and dark — a great objection. The eggs are very large, but the hen does not produce well, and she is a non- sitter. The head is very peculiar, being graced with a comb in the form of upstanding spikes, in front of a dark-crest, a peculiar rising over the nostrils, large white ear-lobes, red face, and long red wattles. The plumage is very close and firm ; the tail large. The legs dark-blue or slate. The Houdan is the last of the French fowls which have gained a certain popularity among fanciers. It is compactly made, the body round and well-formed, the legs short, thick, and blue, or slate-colored, and five-toed. It is good for the table. HAMBURGHS. The Hamburgh family is a large one, including two totally distinct races of fowls, the Spangled and the Pencilled — Ham- burghs they are both called— but they are about as distinct as Cochins and Dorkins. Both kinds are divided into two — the Golden and the Silver, thus making four distinct classes at our shows. The Golden-Spangled Hamburghs, or Golden Pheasant Fowls, were very generally known by the last name until recent fancy dubbed them Hamburghs. They are good useful fowls to keep, and excellent layers, and non-sitters. The eggs are not large, but larger than those of the Pencilled Hamburghs. The fowls are pretty hardy, and easy to keep in condition, but the chickens are rather tender. They are nice plump fowls for the table, although small. In breeding them the parents should be ex- act in the marking and rich in color, the rooster darker than the hen : it is best for maintaining precision in marking and other points, to give the cock very few mates. It is well to avoid stimulating food, when giving it may in- duce precocious laying. A young fowl, be it pullet or cock- erel, should be well developed in firmness of bone, muscle, size, and furnishing, before it assumes the position of a pro- ductive adult, that it may turn out one which will do us good service for the natural term of its life. All the Hamburghs are inherently fond of liberty ; they want a good range, a trifle will not prevent their breaking bounds to obtain it for themselves, and their lightness and agility enable them to fly like sparrows. Silver-Spangled Hamburghs are the same as the Golden, in general properties. If there is any difference between them, the Silver are the stronger ; they are the best layers, and the eggs are rather the larger. Golden and Silver Pencilled Hamburghs. — The Pen- cilled Hamburghs are so distinct from the Spangled in some impoi :ant characteristics, that it seems wrong to include both under one general name. They are more fragile in form and constitution, and different in shape and in plumage, although all the Hamburghs agree in comb, and several other points before mentioned. The Pencilled fowls are known under the different names of Bolton Bays and Grays (the gold and silver), Chittiprats, Corals, Creoles, Dutch every-day layers, everlast- ing layers, and many others. THE POLISH AND THE VARIOUS CLASS. The Polish fowls are pretty, compactly-made fowls, rather under than over medium size ; for the Polish of the present time are decidedly smaller than these fowls used to be from twenty to thirty-five years back. The eggs, too, are smaller. This degeneracy may be the result of in-and-in-breeding, which may also account for their exceeding delicacy of consti- tution. Their beauty renders them great favorites ; they are mild- tempered, timid birds, loving a genial sunny spot, and much disliking to be handled. They are good layers of white eggs, which are large for the size of the hens, and for the table the flesh is white and tender, but the chickens are small for that purpose. The hens are non-sitters. All the Polish sub-varieties are decidedly fancy fowls, re- quiring and repaying great care on the part of the amateur. Silver-Spangled Polish. — The crest of the cock should be white streaked with black ; that of the hen white laced with black. The hackle of both cock and hen white streaked with black, and the wings accurately barred and laced. In the cock, the more the remainder of the plumage can be spangled the better, and the tail should be white, with a rich, well de- fined spangle at the end of each feather. In the hen, the re- mainder of the plumage should be accurately spangled, and the tail white, each feather spangled with black. The legs are blue, and the head free from comb or gills. Golden-Spangled Polish. — The ground color throughout is a rich golden-brown. The hackle of both cock and hen streaked with black, the wings barred and laced, the breast spangled, and the tails black, so well bronzed with the rich ground color of the plumage as to harmonize with it. If thera be a beard, a good mixture of the ground color is better than a prevalence of black. The top-knot, too, should be streaked in the cock and laced in the hen. Black feathers and white in the crest are faults, but the white feathers will come in both cocks and hens as they grow old. The original Spangled Polish fowl appears to have been a bird in character like our Polish, the ground color of the plumage of a rich golden-brown, with spangles of white and black united in each spot, and white legs. These and two other beautiful varieties are entirely or almost lost to us. BANTAMS. The distinguishing characteristics of the Sebright banla. besides their exactly-laced plumage, are diminutive beauty, 574 POULTRY. and jaunty, impudent carriage. Roosters of a year old should not exceed 21 oz. in weight, nor hens 18 oz. ; and some advo- cate much smaller size still. Smallness of size is an important point in all Bantams, so that the smaller they are the better. To gain this point they are generally bred late in the season, sometimes very late, but seldom earlier than July. Many £1 ive been so dwarfed as to interfere with their reproductive <) lalities, and the breeders have had recourse to larger speci- mens as home stock-birds, reserving the very small ones for exhibition and for show. To breed productive stock- turds the in-breeding, which favors small size, must be 8uoided. The proud gait of the Sebright is like that of the far.tail pigeon; the head and tail are held erect until they almost touch each other ; the wing is not closely packed away, but is allowed to droop with jaunty gallantry ; the body is plump, and the breast protuberant. The head should be small and delicate, with a welltformed, firmly-set-rose-comb, close to the head, exactly in the center, with a well-defined pike, a little turned up at the end. The legs should be blue. The rooster must have no hackle on neck or saddle, and no sickle feathers in the tail. The chicken should be bred from mature birds. They must be kept from damp, but in a dry spot they are tolerably hardy. Their diminutive size and compact beauty render them the prettiest among chickens. There is scarcely a pret- tier sight than a Sebright mother and her little brood. The little ones fledge quickly, and require constant good feeding during the process. The Booted Bantam is probably the earliest type of the Bantam race ; it is, at any rate, the one which has been the longest known among us, having been introduced as long back as the beginning of the seventeenth century. It is a small, compactly-made, jaunty little bird, with abundant furnishing in hackle, flowing tail, and heavily-booted legs. The plumage is generally perfectly white, but there are also some of other colors. In the early part of the present cen- turv, Booted Bantams were more thought of than any others ; afterwards they were almost lost sight of ; but within the last very few years they have appeared again, and often win prizes in a Bantam class for other varieties. White and Black Bantams are beautifully diminutive, bold and saucy in gait, plentifully furnished in hackle and tail, and spotlessly white in plumage, or perfectly black, as the case may be. The white and the black have each a dis- tinct class at the shows, where they are always well repre- sented. The white bantam rooster must have a fully sickled tail of snowy whiteness, brilliantly red rose-comb and wattles, and white beak and legs, — the last perfectly free from feathers. The hen must agree. Many may be seen weighing, the rooster Hot more that 15 ounces, and the hen 12 ounces, and smaller weights are mentioned. The black Bantams are compact in form and bold in carriage. They are hardier than the whites Wery prolific, and often very small. The plumage should be tin mixed black with metallic luster. Other points are a rose- comb, small but rather wide wattles, and rather short blue or black !%■*. la bath white and tha black the ear-lobes should be white, but in the black especially ; they must bt pure in the white, and free from any tinge of red. Game Bantams must be exact Game fowls in miniatuie. TURKEYS AND WATER-FOWL. TURKEYS. When America was discovered, turkeys were found in a domesticated as well as in a wild state, and the French name Dinde (D’lnde) seems to indicate that they came from the West Indies, the East Indies possessing no such bird. Turkeys do not attain full growth and maturity until the moult after they are two years old. The stock-birds should therefore be not less than three years old, for poults bred from young birds are sure to be tender. To obtain fine tur- key poults, let the hen sit on the first eggs she lays in the season, as soon as she will, that the brood may have all the best of he year in which to make their growth. Some turkey roosters are very spiteful to their hens, and to the young ones, so that it is necessary to put the nest in a place of safety. The presence of the rooster is not necessary after the early part of the season, as the entire clutch of eggs is said on good authority to be fertilized at once. The turkey cock should be vigorous and healthy, broad in tL- chest, clean in the legs, and with well developed wings and tail. His eyes should be bright, and the corunculated skin of the neck full, and rapid in its changes of color. He is in his prime from three years old to seven or more. The year he is appointed as master at home, or the year after, a fine cock poult should be selected and reared to take his place when necessary. From the peculiar property in turkeys of the whole batch of eggs being fertilized at once, one turkey cock would well serve a whole neighborhood ; but that he should be a first-class mature bird is all-important. The hen should, of course, match her lord ; she should be plump, lively, and animated, and her plumage should be correct. If she be black, white feathers are a fault. Her eggs will produce the hardiest poults after she is three years old. A number of companions may be allowed one cock in the course of a year, but never let him have more than two mates at the same time. The hen foretells laying by a peculiar note and strut, and by hunting about for a sly comer to lay in. In the domesti- cated, as in the wild state, the cock is apt to destroy the eggs, and the hen is cornmensurately anxious to hide them from danger. She should be watched and humored to the nest pre- pared for her. If the turkey hen is well settled to the nest before the egg« are given to her, the poults may be looked for on the twenty- sixth day ; but four weeks is the time of incubation usually reckoned on for turkeys’ eggs, and some persons say thirty- one days. Whether the sitter is interfered with or not, when she hatches must depend on her disposition. The hen turkey will sometimes lay and hatch a second time in the sea.,-.. , but late broods require great care. Even in a wild state the turkey poults are delicate, and un- able to endure wet : the young of the domesticated race ora POULTRY. 573 yet more so, and must be kept from wet and cold. The little poults will peck for themselves as soon as nature prompts the necessity : until then leave them with what appears to be their only requirement — their mother’s warmth. At first the little ones may be fed on hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine and mixed with bread 7 crumbs and herbs finely minced, or on curd and bread-crumbs. The herbs to use with their food are chives, young onion tops, fennel, let- tuce, nettles, and parsley. The water should be given in shallow pans, that they may not get the down wet. As they get older they will feed on food made of barleymeal and oat- meal, and on grain. Meal boiled in milk until quite thick is good food. The little turkey poults want a tolerably free range, and they must be so constantly well fed from the first, as never to lose condition ; for if they once get poor they can never be restored. The most important thing of all is never to let the little turkeys get wet, or even damp. Keep them in in the morn- ing until the dew is off the grass, put them up before the damp of evening, and never let them be out in the rain. Cottagers in the country, who think it worth while to keep in the brood in wet weather, and to drive them in when rain threatens, rear them successfully, as it is generally after a wetting that the little poults go bad. When the turkeys are finished up with cramming, it may be done by giving about six rolls of barleymeal and sugar before roosting-time every night for a week or ten days. In France, the usual food is meal paste mixed with chopped suet and milk, or with ale and molasses. Whole pepper, garlic, ani- seed, and tonic herbs are also given. Whole walnuts given daily, from 4 to 40, are said to fatten well. If turkey chicks look heavy and ruffled, a little crushed malt, or carroway or coriander seed, will do good. Let them be fed very constantly, and never be in want for an hour. If they do not run at large; they must have a little meat, turves of grass, and gravel. Most hens require cooping to prevent their running the chicks too far. The old turkeys are very fand of Indian corn. GEESE. Common Goose. — It is almost superfluous to say that the usual mode of keeping geese is to drive them out to pasture in the morning, and to house them at night. If there be any right of common to which the flock can be turned out, they will almost get their own living, as grass is their main food. Turning their heads sideways, they nip it off quite close, and consume a good quantity. Whether it is worth while to keep geese on land that would feed larger stock, is a question for economists ; but they are worth keeping where they can partly live on grass which cannot be turned to better account. It is well to have a house for the geese and one for the young stock, but any shed will do, and it need not be too closely shut in. Care should be taken that the roof does not let in rain, and that the shelter which the house affords excludes bitter windy draughts upon the geese at night. The floors should be dry, and if litter is used, it must be renewed as often as cleanliness requires. If the geese can have a pond at com- mand within the day’s range, so much the better ; but they will do without it. Geese are essentially vegetable feeders ; they will eat any kind of corn, pulse, or greens, such as cabbage, lettuce, mao* gold, lucern, tares, and now and then sliced carrots and tur- nips. The old geese require a little com twice a day ; a mese sprinkle in the morning, if they have the opportunity of doing much for themselves, and a good feed at night. In mild sea- sons the goose will lay early : she should have a good, large nest, in a secure, quiet comer, and she will cover about fifteen eggs : the time of incubation is thirty days. Give her plenty of food and water, to which to help herself, when she leaves the nest. She is a patient, good sitter, and a good mother. In choosing stock-birds, select those which are long in the body and small in bone. The pouch sagging down loose behin 4 is generally a mark of age. Allow three geese to a gander ; let all be of mature age, and they will all do well up to twenty years old, if not longer. DUCKS. Ducks are very hardy, and easy to feed, as regards quality of food ; for they will eat almost anything with appetite and relish. The humble accommodation of a mere shed offers quite good housing enough. The roof should be water-tight, and the ground of the shed pretty dry, to render it a good place for the sitters ; as, if the nest be very damp, the eggs are apt to break, however quiet the sitter may be. Four ducks to a drake are better than a larger number. The stock-birds should be long in the frame, fleshy (not fat), and small in bone. A good-sized duck will cover fourteen eggs well : according to the size of the duck the number allotted her may be from eleven to fifteen. Give her oats and water near her nest, that she may come off and feed when she likes ; and a run down to the pond and dip therein will do no harm to her eggs, but rather the contrary, by imparting from the sitter’s moist feath- ers the warm damp which is favorable to incubation. Hens may be set on ducks’ eggs, when it is considered that the ex- tra care which can be bestowed on them may realize greater size for exhibition purposes ; but ducklings so reared had bet- ter not be kept as stock-birds. For the first few weeks it is better to let the ducklings have no pan of water in which they can immerse themselves, so as to wet the down underneath them. The bill of fare for young ducks may include cold boiled oatmeal porridge, cooked vegetables, mixed up with barley* meal or sharps, crushed oats thrown into water, and a little milk when convenient ; but in giving milk to young things, scouring must always be guarded against. Ducks, old and young, should have a little litter for a bed —straw, dry fern, pea-haum, rushes, or anything which is dry will do. The eggs do not keep so well as hens’ eggs, so they should be set as fresh as possible. Aylesbury Ducks must be very large, perfectly white ia plumage, with yellow legs and feet, and flesh-colored bills, Dark spots or streaks on the bills hatre lost many fine pens 576 POULTRY. their prizes. Such blemishes may arise from the ducks fre- quenting peaty land ; to get fair unsullied bills is a great trouble to exhibitors. A good pen of three drakes and two ducks will weigh 23 lbs. or 24 lbs., and 26 1-4 lbs. have been reached. Rouen Ducks, in plumage, resemble the wild duck, but they are of splendid size. The Buenos Ayres, or East Indian ducks, like Bantams among fowls, are the dwarfs among ducks, and are bred as small as possible, and shown young, to make the most of this important point — diminutive size. They must be very small, and quite black, with brilliant green metallic luster on the plumage. They have dark legs and bills. They often incline to mate in pairs, so that if only one drake is kept to two or more ducks, many eggs will prove infertile ; the eggs are colored, and, of course, small. The Musk, Muscovy, or Brazilian Duck is very distinct. They vary in color, the usual color being a dull black, with white on the under surface, and some other portions of their bodies. A curious red warty cere near the bill characterizes them ; and the great difference of size between the drake and the duck is peculiar. A large black duck, with brilliant luster on the plumage, called the Cayuga Black duck, is mentioned. It is a native of America and is said to have been domesticated from some wild stock. Call Ducks. — The beautiful little Call or Decoy ducks are ornamental and very small. These are the kinds most frequently seen. There are occasionally sent to the shows the Hook-billed , the Penguin , and the Top-knotted ducks. DISEASES. There is little economy in an attempt to doctor sick fowls j as a labor of love and a matter of humanity, the case may be different, and we often like to cure or lessen the sufferings of • favorite. Warmth, shelter, and safety from the molestation of other fowls is often a main remedial measure. A bask by a kitchen fire, for a few days, a retreat where tyrants cannot hunt or peck the sufferer, and simple or nourishing food, according to whether the patient is suffering from weakness or repletion, is frequently by itself a curative treatment. If little chickens pine and droop the wings, a pill of Barba, does aloes, the size of a pea, or a pellet of rue and butter, may do good if the ailment be taken in good time. Insects must always be duly looked after, dislodged with a dusting of flour of sulphur, and guarded against by cleanliness, and a good provision of dust-bath. Most poultry diseases r..ay be traced to the effect of our chilly, damp, and variable climate, so that a warm sheltered locality, and good shelter for young chick- ens, are all important. Douglass’ mixture is excellent for giving strength and sta- mina to old fowls, or young. Dissolve together with a little water I -2 lb. of sulphate of iron, and I oz. of diluted sul- phuric acid, add spring water enough to make up two gallons, let it stand for a fortnight, mix a teaspoonful of the mixture with a pint of water, and give it to fowls or chickens to drink instead of water. Decoction of citrate of iron mixed with water in the pro- portion to give it a very perceptible taste of iron, is also good as a strengthened If inflammation in the egg passage be denoted by the produc- tion of soft or misshapen eggs, give one grain of calomel, with i-i2th of a grain of tartar emetic. It should be repeated three times in a week at intervals. If mature fowls appear feverish and drooping, and seem to require a dose of medicine, give one of Plummer’s pill, a bit of Barbadoes aloes the size of a large pea, or five grains of jalap in a bolus of barley meal, according to the strength of the dose required. If, however, they are judiciously fed and properly cared for, medical treatment will rarefy be re* ohab mJL ‘pMtfSPLANT'rfi'^ M ^s=ip mwM WmM&, ^Wfil ||§|| PPP THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. 577 AVING decided upon the cultivation of fruit and establishing an orchard, it becomes ne- cessary to fix upon its dimensions and extent. In consideration of this ques- tion of extent, two other important matters are to be taken into account — these are, the quantity of ground you may have suitable and to spare, and the amount of means you can set apart for the pur- pose. In settling these points you should possess, first, a knowledge of the kind of ground necessary ; and second, a determination to do the work well, at whatever cost. For an ordinary family of five to ten persons, not less than three acres will suffice for home consump- tion use, and as many more as can be made profit- able for market use. On these three acres can be stocked from two to three hundred standard trees of the different sorts of fruit, besides a due proportion of all the smaller kinds — an amount which, if properly managed, will in a few years afford an ample supply for family use. COST. The cost of first planting will vary widely in dif- ferent localities — depending on the condition of the ground, the quality of the soil, prices of trees, price of labor, etc. An approximate calculation may be made, however, by estimating the cost of preparing the ground and planting the trees, at an amount equal to the cost of the trees in the nursery ; and, when ditching and underdraining is necessary, at double that amount. The following rule laid down by Thomas Gregg in his admirable work on fruit culture should be inflexibly observed in all cases : Never slight the work, nor plant an inferior tree , because it is cheaper to do so / Work half done is very poor econ- omy in planting an orchard, as well as in most other things ; and a tree costing only half price in the nursery may turn out to be a very dear one in the end. The very best varieties (and these are not al- ways the most costly), as well as the very best trees, are those from which you must expect to realize the most profit. ESTIMATE FOR THREE ACRES. The following estimate will answer for an orchard of three acres of ground, with such variations as circumstances may require. [The number of trees will vary somewhat as the shape of the ground ifi 578 THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. varied ; the calculation is based on a plat twenty- four rods long by twenty wide.] Eighty apple trees, thirty-three feet apart, covering ' two acres. Seventy peach-trees, sixteen and a half feet apart, set around three sides of the whole. There will then be left in front one acre, which may be divided into two equal plats of 132 by 1 66 feet. These may be filled as follows : ' In No. i. — Twenty standard pears, thirty-three feet apart, in continuation of the apple rows. Thirty-two dwarf pears, in the same rows, seven feet apart and thirteen feet from the standards. And — Twenty-seven pyramid and dwarf plums, quinces, cherries, etc., in the alternate rows, sixteen and a half feet apart. In No. 2. — Such number of almonds, apricots, grapes, nectarines, gooseberries, currants, raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries, as fancy may dictate, and as will stock it properly. The above estimate will constitute an orchard of about 250 orchard trees — standard and dwarf — and perhaps as many more of the garden or bush fruits. DISTANCES. Every planter has his own opinion regarding the distance which trees should be planted from each other. Besides, some kinds of soils and localities require greater distance than others ; and some varieties will bear to stand closer than other varie- ties of the same fruit. A good rule is that, when full grown, the tops should not be nearer to each other than one third their diameter. An apple-tree, for example, when fully grown, will spread, on an average, to a distance of twenty-five feet ; the rule will give thirty-three feet as the proper distance apart. Peaches seldom spread, or should not, if properly pruned, more than twelve to fifteen feet ; the rule gives sixteen to twenty feet as the distance to plant. In planting an orchard of apples, with plenty of ground, thirty-three feet is probably the safest distance ; yet, if ground is an object, they will do at twenty- five feet. Apples may be planted a little wider — say forty feet and rows of peach-trees planted both ways between: as the I peach, not being so long-lived, will die out before the apple has attained to a large growth. ^ When the saving of ground is an important consideration, and none but standard trees are to be planted, more space may be obtained by planting in rows, according to the following diagram ; * • • * * * # * • «) « « • Smaller trees may be set closely in rows, as represented in the figure below : ************* ************* ************* This last method is recommended for village plats, where it is desirable to combine the raising of vegetables with that of fruit ; as the spaces between the rows may be appropriated to any kind of root crop, with decided advantage to the trees. The following table of distances for the various kinds of fruit, condensed from Thomas’s Fruit Culturist, seems to have been acquiesced in by most fruit-growers : Apples. — For large trees For pyramids and dwarfs Pears. — Large trees on pear stocks Pyramids on “ “ Pyramids on quince “ Dwarf standards on quince Peaches. — Full growth Shortened in Cherries. — Common standards Pyramids on common stocks (Dukes and Morellos require less). Plums. — Standards Pyramids 25 to 40 feet 6 to 8 “ 20 8 to 10 »< «< 6 54 8 « 20 12 to 15 20 10 n << 44 II 15 “ 6 to 8 “ Apricots Quinces Grapes. — On 8-feet trellis On 12 “ “ Trimmed to stakes Gooseberries and Currants. . . Raspberries and Blackberries. 15 to 20 “ . 6 to 8 “ 25 “ 16 “ 4 to 6 “ 4 to 5 “ For the above distances, the following is the number of trees required for an acre : 40 feet apart 27 trees. 33 “ “ 40 “ 25 “ “ 69 “ 20 “ “ 108 “ 15 “ “ 193 “ 12 feet apart 10 “ “ , 8 <« .. 6 “ “ . . 302 trees. ••435 “ ..680 “ 1,208 “ 2,720 “ LOCATION Much has been said and written concerning the location of orchards. Situation and aspect doubtless have their effects, yet no one should neglect to plant merely because he cannot give his trees such an aspect as he may desire. Trees in favor- able situations will undoubtedly produce more good crops than those less fortunately situated ; yet many seasons occur when the causes of the difference do not arise, and trees in any ex- posure will produce abundantly. To this general rule there can be very few exceptions, namely — Elevated situations are better than lowlands, atid the brows and sides of hills are to be chosen in preference to the valleys. Numerous proofs have been adduced to show that the peach might be successfully grown much farther north than it usually is, if the most elevated po- sitions were chosen instead of the warm valleys. So, farther south, frequent severe frosts cut off the crops on the low grounds, THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. 579 while those on the more elevated and exposed situations are not affected. The old rule was to choose a southern or south-eastern ex- posure. A northern exposure is now very generally preferred. This is because the action of the warm sun, in a southern ex. posure, will too soon thaw away the frost about the roots, and occasion the buds to swell — leaving them exposed to alter- nations of frost and thaw. In the West, the rolling prairies near the woodland, the hazel ruffs that skirt the prairie and wood, and the richest portions of the timbered bluffs or high- lands that overlook the rivers, are regarded as the best loca- tions. The best bearing orchards are those on the bluff over- looking the Mississippi at the Lower Rapids. SOIL. Fruit trees, like corn and cabbages, will grow on almost any kind of soil ; yet some soils are more suited to their natures than others. They require a soil strong enough to give the tree a vigorous growth, and the better and more vigorous the growth of the tree, the better will be the character of the fruit. As a general thing, any soil that will produce a good crop of com will be good for fruit-trees. A strictly alluvial soil, however, is not to be recommended ; as, while it will produce a rank growth of wood, it will not make so hardy or fruitful a tree ; nor will the quality of the fruit be equal to that grown on a less fertile soil. A calcareous soil is the best adapted to most kinds of fruit ; yet in other than limestone regions a gravelly or sandy loam will be found to answer a good purpose. Stiff, clayey soils are not promotive of a good growth ; yet they can be rendered available by a proper incorporation of sand, manure, and vege- table mold. Most soils — even those in the limestone region — require an addition of more or less lime and potash, as these in- gredients enter largely into the composition of most fruits. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. Not one in a hundred of those who plant trees bestows the necessary care and attention to the preparation of the ground. A very common mode is to dig a hole about a foot wide and five or six inches deep, stick in the tree, bending the roots or cutting them off to bring them within the proper compass — shovel in a few spadefuls of dirt or sod, tread it down with the foot, and the job is done 1 If the tree grows, well ; if not, the planter has only been unlucky, and all the neighbors conclude not to plant, it is so hard to make trees grow ! Is it any wonder that three out of every four trees taken from the nursery die without having reached the stage of fruit-bearing? In the first place, the soil must be dry before planting. If not so naturally, it must be made so by deep plowing, and, if this will not suffice, then by underdraining. A clay subsoil should be underdrained to the depth of three feet ; but any soil not very retentive of water may be sufficiently drained by the use of a subsoil plow and a strong team. With good underdrain- ing and a proper admixture of manure, ashes, sand, and loam, the toughest clay soils may be reduced to a proper condition for fruit trees. All soils that are sufficiently porous to drain well should be first prepared with the plow, harrow, and sub-soiler ; and then the holes for the trees should be made only of proper size and depth to admit the roots in their natural position, and 20 at two or three inches greater depth than they stood in the nursery. Deep holes in a hard and tenacious subsoil will in- jure the trees by retaining too much water. Such soils should be avoided for a fruit orchard ; or if used, should first be prop- erly underdrained. Many young trees die from the effects of standing in deep holes, prepared for them at great expense. Previous to planting, the soil should be enriched with well- rotted barn-yard manure, thoroughly intermixed and pulverized by the harrow. If planting is to be done in the spring, the plowing should have been gone through with the fall previous, and then thoroughly stirred again just before planting. When the whole field is thoroughly prepared by the plow, it can be cultivated to some useful crop, and the trees will be more likely to receive the necessary tillage than they would if standing in the field alone. MANURING. It is a quite common experience that the quality of fruit in orchards will, after a few years, gradually decline, yielding only small and imperfect specimens. Some varieties will show this decline much sooner than others. Negligence in regard to manuring is generally the cause of this deterioration. The application of barn-yard manure will cure the evil, though, with some fruits, other ingredients are very valuable. Ashes is a good fertilizer for most fruits, and is worth more to the fruit- grower, as such, than for any other purpose. In the peach orchard there is little danger of getting too much. A free use of lime on some soils is very beneficial, and in many cases salt may be used to advantage. This latter has been strongly re- commended as a preventive to blight in the pear. TRANSPLANTING. LAYING OFF THE GROUND. The best way to lay off the ground, after it has been fully prepared and the distances decided upon, is to measure along the sides and ends, setting a stake at the proper distances, and then driving small stakes, say one foot high, at all the points where the lines thus indicated intersect each other. After the ground is staked, commence digging the holes — and this should be completed before the trees are removed from the nursery. SEASON FOR TRANSPLANTING. The proper season for transplanting a tree is any time be- tween the falling of the leaf in autumn and the swelling of the buds in spring ; and, in the case of a hardy tree, as the apple, it probably makes but little difference whether it be done be- fore the winter or after it. With other trees it is different ; the less hardy ones, with diminished strength, cannot so easily withstand the severe frosts and piercing nor’westers of that season. Hence they should be transplanted only in the spring. Apples may be removed either in November or April, provided it be done well, with probably about equal success. SETTING OUT TREES. It requires three men, or two men and a boy, to set out trees as it should be done. Before inserting the roots into the hole 5 a ° HE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. prepared to receive them, they should first be dipped into mud made of the rich surface mold, to cause the earth to adhere to all their parts. This done, place the tree in its proper position in the hole, shovel in a small quantity of the finely pulverized mold, and then give it a gentle shaking suddenly up and down, in order to settle the dirt closely about the roots — one person to hold the tree to its proper position, while another shovels in the earth. When a sufficient quantity of the earth has been placed upon the roots to bring it level with the surface of the ground, tread it down gently with the foot, and then add more, rounding it to a slight mound, with the stem of the tree for a center. The tree should be placed in the hole so as to allow it to stand about as deep, when the earth becomes settled around it, as it stood in the nursery. It is recommended by some to plant the tree in the orchard in the same relative position to the points of the compass that it occupied in the nursery. This may or may not be bene- ficial ; at any rate, it can do no harm, and it is quite an easy matter to mark the tree before it is lifted, so as to indicate its position. If the planting be done in autumn, there should be a mound of earth ten inches to a foot high, and three feet in diameter, raised around the tree to steady it, and protect its roots from frost and the bark from mice. When the ground becomes well settled in the spring, the mound should be removed. TRIMMING. Before setting out, each tree should undergo a proper degree of trimming. This requires considerable judgment. As the branches and roots of a tree depend upon each other for sup- port, it will readily be understood that neither should be over- tasked. In removing it from the nursery, all the small fibrous roots, and sometimes many of the larger, are lost ; hence the top must be trimmed to correspond. To do this properly, all the leading shoots should be shortened back one-half or two- thirds of the current year’s growth ; and, if the roots have been much injured, the leading branches should be headed back still more. TAKING FROM THE NURSERY. Trees should be injured as little as possible in removing them from the nursery. Taking them from the row, and tying in such a manner as to be easily transported, is properly the nurseryman’s business ; yet it is always best to keep a watchful eye to the work. Especial care should be taken that the roots are not broken or bruised, or cut away by the spade in taking them from the ground ; and when any of the roots do become injured, they should be nicely cut off with a sharp knife. As soon as dug, the trees should be carefully arranged in con- venient bunches, as much damp earth as possible placed about their roots, and then closely enveloped in some coarse sacking, or other suitable thing, and firmly tied with strong cord. If they are to be re-set at but a short distance from the nursery, these precautions are unnecessary, though, if they are to be carried any considerable distance, too much care cannot be used in this respect. In all cases the roots should be carefully secured against exposure to the air and sun. If from any cause the trees are not to be immediately planted, they should be placed in the ground, root and stock, by digging a trench and shoveling loose dirt upon them, to a depth suffi- cient to exclude the air. The weather will not always permit of immediate re-planting, but it should in no case be delayed longer than is absolutely necessary. This covering should be done in the orchard or garden, and the trees should be removed from the trench one by one as they are planted. SELECTION OF TREES. There is a great diversity of opinion in regard to the proper size of a tree for transplanting, though the best informed and most experienced planters now prefer a two- year-old tree rather than one of a larger size. In thrifty, well-tilled nurseries, trees of that age will average about five feet high ; and such a tree can be more easily handled, and is also in a better condition to sustain the violence done to its nature by transplanting, and better able to recover from it, than those of an older and larger growth. Care should also be taken to select trees of well- branched and well-formed heads, and of as near the same size, vigor, and general condition as possible. AFTER-CULTURE. PLOWING AND HOEING. One of the most common errors among the people in regard to fruit-growing is that pertaining to after-culture. Many sup- pose that all that is necessary to get good fruit is to set the tree in the ground, right end downward, to be sure, and nature will do the rest. This is a most fatal error — nothing can be more unreasonable. It is as absolutely necessary that the tree which you have planted should receive culture and care afterward, as that the corn which rustles in the breeze should be plowed and hoed, and harrowed, to make it yield its golden harvest. Trees, as well as vegetables, must have food and drink. It is by culture that they obtain them. Hence, in the orchard, the growing of some crop is very desirable. Roots are perhaps the best of all. Potatoes, beets, beans, carrots, parsnips, onions — all require thorough culture, and do not shade the trees; while Indian corn, clover, grass, and all the cereal grains, should be rigidly excluded. PRUNING. In the matter of pruning we find there is a great diversity ol opinion among experienced fruit-growers. Some advise a free use of the knife ; others prune but little, or none at all. The first are doubtless right, as regards some sorts of trees ; while, in regard to other varieties, the second class are correct. And the point must be settled between them by considering the objects sought to be attained by pruning. To our mind there are four objects to be had in view ia pruning a fruit-tree. These are : — 1. To relieve it of its dead and decaying branches. 2. To promote the growth of the tree. 3. To encourage the production, and increase the size and quality of the fruit. 4. To change its shape. Now, the above being Al.l. the objects for which a tree ought to be pruned (except as heretofore stated, under the head of “ Trimming,” to preserve an equilibrium between roots and THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. 5* 1 branches in transplanting), it is evident that, while a permanent vigor and productiveness are maintained without it, the less pruning the better. Many planters insist that a tree should never be pruned except for the first of these objects ; because, as they allege, if a tree be faithfully kept free from all dead and decaying wood, its growth and productiveness will both be promoted. This is doubtless true to some extent with some sorts of fruit, and, unless some peculiar form is desired, it is better to do but little other pruning. Yet withal it is some- times necessary to prune more freely. Some varieties of the apple, for instance, will grow, if left alone, to too thick a head, and require thinning out ; others grow so straggling that it is frequently necessary to cut away drooping, or crooked and deformed branches, to give the tree some symmetry of appear- ance. After the first object is attained, the apple, the pear, and the cherry, as standards, require little more, except in the cases last alluded to. Other trees require much more, which will be treated of in the proper place. PROTECTION. All orchards and fruit gardens, whether of old or young trees, should be carefully protected against the depredations of cattle or other animals. Good fences to secure them are indispensable, as it is utter folly to expend time and money in planting and rearing a fine orchard, and then allow animals to disfigure, maim, and destroy the trees. Cattle, horses, or sheep should never be allowed to run in orchards , nor should swine be admitted except at intervals of very short periods, in order that they may have time only to eat up the fallen fruit, and not to bark the trees or root up the ground. In some sections birds are great depredators upon fruit, but as a general thing they do more good in devouring the insects than harm in consuming the fruit. If they become too nu- merous, they can be frightened away with guns. MULCHING. This is simp'y the process of distributing some proper ma- terial around the root of each tree to retain the moisture. When not thus protected, the ground will frequently bake and greatly retard the growth of the tree. Any coarse litter, straw, or forest leaves will be suitable for mulching. It should be used plentifully — spread on to a depth of at least six inches. When properly mulched, trees will retain moisture about their roots, and make a vigorous growth, through the dry and sultry summer months, while others not protected in this way cease to grow altogether, and in many cases wither and die. vine culture is so rapidly developing into a source of national wealth, the following instructions will be found of considerable value. PROPAGATION. 'he grape is easily grown from cuttings — some however, much more readily than others. Those that are not so easily produced in this way are usually grown in the hot-house or hot-beds, bottom heat being required for the production of roots. This method we shall leave to those who are prepared for it. For out-door growth the cuttings should be made late in the fall, or during the winter, or in the early spring. They should be cut from well-ripened wood of the new growth, and should be made about a foot in length, including two eyes, one near each end ; if the wood is short-jointed, more eyes may be used, but in no case should a cutting be used with less than two. When cut, they should be tied in bunches of fifty, with the butts all one way, and should be protected from the weather until time for planting. The safest plan to do this is to bury in the ground in a well-drained soil, below the reach of frost. Or they may be packed in very slightly moistened sawdust or sand, in boxes, in a dry cellar. In the spring, when the weather becomes sufficiently settled, they may be taken up and planted in good garden soil, pre- viously well-prepared. In planting, make a trench with the plow, or spade, ten inches deep : place the cuttings in the trench at a slight angle, and from eight to twelve inches apart. close against the side and with the top-bud just even with the surface. Then fill in a few inches of earth at the bottom, and press tightly with the foot, continuing the process with less pressure to the top. Level and smooth, and the work is done. In a favorable season and with free-growing sorts, nineteen- twentieths of them will grow, and with proper tillage will be- come good plants. The only cultivation necessary will be to keep the weeds down with the hoe, and the ground mellow and moist. If not intended for sale, or transplanting the next season, they may remain another year. Otherwise they should be taken up in the fall, and stored in cellar during winter, packed in earth or sand. In transplanting, the tops should be cut back to two bud*, and the roots shortened in to fifteen or twenty inches. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Much has been said and written about preparation of the soil for grapes that is calculated to mislead the planter. Some have urged the entire trenching of the ground to a depth of three to five feet, with heavy manuring; others require the digging of deep holes, four by four feet, and filling in with manure and other enriching material while a third and more reasonable class would only subsoil and drain, in addition to good depth of culture. In all soils suited to the growth of a good crop of corn or potatoes, grapes will flourish, and the plow, harrow, and sub-soiler are the tools necessary for its preparation. If new ground is used, the stumps and roots should be care- fully grubbed out, as they will be much in the way while plant 582 THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. ing and in after-cultivation, and can be easier taken out before than after planting. The timbered lands of our bluffs are more suited to grapes than the richer and heavier soils of the Western prairies, or the alluvial soils of the river bottoms. Thin soils, with proper cultivation, will produce grapes of a richer and better quality than others, though the size may not be so great, or the growth of wood so abundant. TRANSPLANTING may be safely done in spring or fall, according to latitude. In northern locations spring planting is preferable. Southward, fall is preferred. No certain line of division can be fixed ; but we should say that, as a rule, all south of the latitude of Phila- delphia, Columbus in Ohio, and Quincy in Illinois, may most safely plant in the fall, while north of those points it is better to plant in the spring. In fall planting there is this advantage — the young plants can be taken directly from the nursery bed and planted, with- out remaining out of ground for any great length of time. Whereas, if planting be delayed till spring, the vines must be taken care of for the winter — as heretofore noted — with more or less loss. In any case it is important that the roots shall not be exposed to the weather, or allowed to be- come dry. In removing from the nursery row, they should be securely packed in damp moss, straw, hay, or litter of some sort, until they are finally disposed of by planting or packing for the winter. After frost, and the leaves have begun to fall, the fall plant- ing may commence. In spring it should be done as early as the weather becomes settled and the soil in good condition. The last of October, and through November, will do for fall planting ; in spring, the 1st of May. Fall planting is preferable on this account also — that the soil will become packed to the roots during winter, the new growth of roots will be ready to start, and the plant will com- mence growing by the usual time of spring planting. To prevent heaving by the action of the frost, and throwing out the plants — a very serious matter if not prevented — a furrow should be turned on the plants from each side after planting in fall ; or they should be mounded up with the hoe. This should be leveled down again in the spring. Having prepared the ground well, as before stated, with plow, sub-soiler, and harrow, run off the distances for the rows with a plow, making a clean furrow nine or ten inches deep — being careful, if crooked, to straighten with a hoe or spade. Then set stakes the proper distances along the furrow, and plant at the stakes. Stand the plant at a slight angle against the perpendicular side of the furrow, and spread the roots nicely each way. Cover and pack the soil well around the roots DISTANCE. Most vineyardists choose to plant in rows about eight feet apart, and eight feet in the row. Some adopt six feet, or even less— according to the variety, and the mode of training. Some of the strong-growing sorts require greater distances. Concord, Isabella, Hartford Prolific, Ives seedling, Clinton, and such, need eight feet or more ; while the little Delaware may do With four or five, and the Catawba. Iona, and similar ones. with five or six. Where ground is plenty, it is best to allow plenty of room. NUMBER PER ACRE. An acre of ground contains 43,560 square feet, or 4,840 square yards. It will require for planting the numbers speci- fied in the following estimate, viz. : At distance of 10 by IO feet 435 plants. At distance of 9 by 9 feet 537 plants. At distance of 8 by 8 feet 680 plants. At distance of 6 by 6 feet 1,210 plants. For Concords IO by 10 — certainly not less than 9 by 9 — is desirable, giving plenty of room for the plow and cultivator, and also sufficient distance to train on the trellis. Where the ground is level, or nearly so, the rows should be run north and south, thereby giving more sunshine and freer circulation of air. If it be hilly — and it is presumed that grapes will be more frequently planted on hilly and uneven ground than elsewhere — the rows should be run across the slope, so as to make the cultivation as near on a level as pos- sible, in order that the ground shall not wash. SELECTION OF PLANTS. In purchasing from a nursery, No. 1 yearling plants are generally preferred. Two-year-old plants cost more in price and for transportation, and are not so likely to live, and will gain little, if any, in point of time, Good No. 1 plants, from honest nursery men, should have four to eight roots not less than two feet long, and a corresponding growth of top. Before transplanting, all roots should be cut back to eighteen or twenty inches, and the top shortened to two eyes, and these shoulc be set nearly level with the ground. CULTIVATION. The young plant should be allowed to take its own course the first year after transplanting. No pinching, no tying-up, is necessary. But the ground should be kept well tilled and clear of weeds, by the free use of the cultivator and hoe. A row of early cabbages, beans, beets, or other root crop, maybe beneficially grown between. In a favorable season, the strong- growing sorts will usually make a growth of five or six feet in length, and, in some cases, as much as ten or fifteen feet, the first year. TRAINING AND AFTER-CULTURE. We have now got our plants with two-year-old roots and stems one year old. The after-management is various. It is best, however, that this one-^ear vine should not be permitted to bear fruit the next season : which it would do if left to itself. It should now be cut back to two eyes, and protected during winter by a slight covering of straw, or some other light litter. And here comes up the question of winter protection. What shall be done with our vines, now that we have got them planted and growing? Shall they be protected, or shall they be left exposed to the rigors of the winter, and run the risk of life or death ? Some will say — Let them alone ; plant only such varieties as will not need winter protection. Others, claiming that whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well, advise protection. It is very desirable, certainly, that we shall be able to secure such varieties as will withstand tin* THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. 5 ^ rigors of our winters without this labor and care ; and there are such ; but it must be confessed that they — as in the case of many other fruits — are not of the best sorts. It is also equally evident that, as a rule, the great mass of grape-growers — the million — will not, however much they may be urged, be induced to adopt any system of winter protection that involves care and trouble. The Concords, the Clintons, the Ives, the Nortons, and others, may get along safely through most winters without protection. But if we expect to obtain the luscious Delaware, the Rebecca, the Maxitawny, or even the Catawba, we must make up our minds to protect. The mode of protection usually practiced is to lay the vine down upon the ground, and cover with earth to the depth of an inch or two. This requires that the annual trimming shall be done in the fall, before the freezing weather commences. In most vineyards, where protection is not practiced, this work is omitted till in the winter or early spring. This question of protection we shall leave for each one to judge for himself, according to circumstances ; with the addi- tional remark, that of the varieties named in the succeeding list probably one-half had better be protected, north of Ohio and Pennsylvania, while the other half may get along without it. Different modes of training are adopted. Some tie to stout stakes, six or seven feet high, one to each plant. Where wood is scarce and costly, this is an expensive mode. The most common method is to use a trellis of wire. For this purpose posts are set in the ground at proper distances — say twenty feet —and wire fastened to these horizontally. The posts at the ends should be firmly set and braced, in order that the strain of the wire shall not loosen them. The wire is fastened to the posts by means of small staples, to be had at the hardware stores. Three wires are usually required, placed twenty inches or two feet apart, and the lower one a foot 'or so from the ground. Manufacturers now supply a wire especially for the purpose. This annealed wire, No. 12, is strong, and will answer; but No. 10 is heavier, and will last longer. To wire an acre of trellis, the cost will be from thirty to sixty dollars, while the posts, at ten cents each, may bring the sum total form sixty to one hundred dollars, according as wood and labor are costly or cheap. Inferior trellis, made of split or sawed slats, may be obtained at cheaper rates in places where wood is plentiful. A primitive mode of building a trellis is to use split poles, obtained from the woods when the bark will peel ; these, while answering a present purpose, will be of short duration. PRUNING. On this subject there is a great diversity of opinion, and the limits of this work will not permit of a lengthy treatise on the subject. It is proper to say, that the tendency to vine-growth is a check to the fruiting ; and that cultivators consider it neces- sary to counteract this excessive growth by pinching and pruning. Many carry this practice to excess ; and with spring and summer pinching, and fall and winter pruning, we believe, very materially injure their vines. In this description of the pruning process, we shall condense from various treatises on the subject. Buchanan, a practical Cincinnati vineyardist of several years ago, says : — “ In the second spring after planting, cut down to two ot three eyes, or joints, and the third year to four or five ; pinch- ing off laterals and tying up. * * Pruning the fourth year requires good judgment, as the standard stem or stalk has to be established. * * Select the best stem or cane of last year, and cut it down to six or eight joints ; * * the other cane cut down to a spur of two or three eyes, to make bearing, wood for the next season.” His mode has reference to tying to upright stakes, instead of trellis, and must be varied accordingly. He says : “ In the succeeding and all subsequent years, cut away the old bearing- wood, and form a new bow, or arch, from the best branch of the new wood of the last year, leaving a spur as before, to pro- duce bearing-wood for the coming year ; thus keeping the old stalk of the vine down to within eighteen to twenty-four inches from the ground. The vine is then always within reach and control.” This is the renewal system. Spur pruning consists in continuing the old or main stem, and annually cutting back the laterals to two or three good buds. A blending of the two is often practiced. For summer prunning, we can do no better than to quote from Husmann, a noted grape-grower, and writer in Missouri. He says : — “ We are glad to see that the attention of the grape-growers of the country is thoroughly aroused to the importance of this subject, and that the practice of cutting and slashing the young growth in July and August is generally discountenanced. It has murdered more promising vineyards than any other prac- tice. But people are apt to run into extremes, and many are now advocating the ‘let alone’ doctrine. We think both are wrong, and that the true course to steer is in the middle. “ 1. Perform the operation early. Do it as soon as the shoots are six inches long. At this time you can oversee your vine much easier. Every young shoot is soft and pliable. * * Remember that the knife has nothing to do with summer pruning. Your thumb and finger should perform all the work, and they can do it easily if it is done early. “ 2. Perform it thoroughly and systematically. Select the shoots you intend for bearing wood for next year. These are left unchecked ; but do not leave more than you really need. Remember that each part of the vine should be thoroughly ventilated, and if you crowd it too much, none of these canes will ripen their wood as thoroughly, nor be as vigorous, as when each has room, air, and light. Having selected these, com. mence at the bottom of the vine, rubbing off all superfluous shoots, and all which appear weak and imperfect. Then go over each arm or part of the vine, pinching every fruit-bearing branch above the last bunch of grapes. “We come now to the second stage of summer pruning. After the first pinching, the dormant buds in the axils of the leaves, on fruit-bearing shoots, will each push out a lateral shoot opposite the young bunches. Our second operation consists in pinching each of these laterals back to one leaf as soon as we can get hold of the shoot above the first leaf, so that we get a young, vigorous leaf additional, opposite to each bunch of grapes. These serve as elevators of the sap, and also as an excellent protection and shade to the fruit. Remember, our aim is not to rob the plant of its foliage, but to make lux 5$4 THE CULTIVATION OF FRUIT. oaves grow where there was but one before, and at a place whore they are of more benefit to the fruit.” INSECTS AND DISEASES. Mildew and rot are the chief diseases affecting the grape, and are both believed to be caused by atmospheric influences. Excessive rains and damp, sultry weather are deemed the chief causes of these allied diseases. No specific remedy has been found, as no means of preventing the recurrence of the unfavor- able causes are within human reach. Of insects , there are several that are quite destructive to the grape plant, among which the most formidable is the phyl- loxera, a tiny insect which, in its several stages, is lately making deadly havoc among the vineyards of both Europe and America — affecting the roots as well as the foliage. In its work upon the foliage it does comparatively little injury, but its work upon the roots is very destructive — eating away the fibrous portions, and causing them to decay and die. Against the ravages of this insect there is as yet no known satisfactory remedy. Large rewards have been offered in Europe to stimulate discovery, and in America the ento- mologists and others are diligently pursuing their investiga tions. The leaf -hopper is a troublesome insect on some varieties. It is an active little beetle, and works on the underside of the leaves, causing them to assume a deadly appearance in spots, and finally killing the leaf entirely. Soapsuds have been re- commended as a remedy ; also tobacco infusion thrown upon them with a syringe. The leaf~folder is a green worm that folds itself up in the leaf, where it goes into the chrysalis state. The parent moth appears in the spring and deposits her eggs, which hatch and fold themselves up dur’ig the summer. The increase of both this and the leaf hopper may be checked by raking up and burning the leaves in the fall. There is also a grape curculio, inferior in size to the plum curculio, but with habits somewhat similar. It punctures the fruit and deposits an egg, which hatches a worm to live on the juices. This larva leaves the berry during summer, and passes into the ground. It is believed, however, to issue again in the fall as a beetle, and thus pass the winter. Many other more or less destructive insect enemies of tne grape might be mentioned. CARVING. 5«5 VERYBODY should know how to carve. Parents should instruct their children in this neces- sary art, and on given oc- casions practically exercise the youngsters in the use of the “ big ” knife and fork. ' o hV . j f i TY- T ’ " ladies ought especially to make ( carving a study ; at their own houses they grace the table, and should be enabled to perform the task allotted to them with suffi- cient skill to prevent remark, or the calling forth of eager proffers cf assistance from good-natured visitors near, who probably would not present any better claim to a neat performance. Carving presents no difficulties ; it simply requires knowledge. All displays of exertion or violence are in very bad taste ; for, if not proved an evidence of the want of ability on the part of the carver, they present a very strong testimony of the toughness of a joint. Lightness of hand and dexterity of management are necessary, and can only be acquired by practice. The flakes, which in such fish as salmon and cod are large, should not be broken in serving, for the beauty of the fish is then destroyed, and the appe- tite for it injured. In addition to the skill in the use of the knife, there is also required another de- scription of knowledge, and that is an acquaintance with the best part of the joint, fowl or fish being carved. Thus in a haunch of venison the fat, which is a favorite, must be served with each slice ; in the shoulder of mutton there are some delicate cuts in the under part. The breast and wings are the best part of a fowl, and the trail of a woodcock on a toast is the choicest part of the bird. In fish a part of the roe, melt or liver should accompany the piece of fish served. The list, however, is too numerous to mention here ; and, indeed, the knowl- edge can only be acquired by experience. In large establishments the gross dishes are carved at the buffet by the butler, but in middle society they are placed upon the table. In the following directions, accom- panied by diagrams, we have endeavored to be as explict as possible ; but while they will prove as landmarks to the uninitiated, he will find that prac- tice alone will enable him to carve with skill and facility. Part of a Sirloin of Beef. — There are two modes of helping this joint : either by carving long thin slices from 3 550 CARVING. to 4, and assisting a portion of the marrowy fat, which is found underneath the ribs, to each person ; or by cutting thicker slices in the direction i to 2. When sent to the table the joint should be laid down on the dish with the surface 2 up- permost. An Aitch-Bone of Beef. — This is a simple joint to carve, but the slices from it must be cut quite even, and of a very moderate thickness. When the joint is boiled, before cutting to serve, remove a slice from the whole of the upper part of sufficient thickness, say a quarter of an inch, in order to ar- rive at the juicy part of the meat at once. Carve from I to 2 ; let the slices be moderately thin — not too thin ; help fat with the lean in one piece, and give a little additional fat which you will find below 3 ; the solid fat is at 1, and must be cut in slices horizontally. The round of beef is carved in the same manner. Ham. — It is served as placed in the engraving, and should come to the table ornamented. Carve from A to B, cutting thin slices slantingly, to give a wedge-like appearance. Those from A to B, then carve from D to C, in thin slices, as indicated in the diagram. The Sirloin of Beef. — The under part should be first served, and carved as indicated in the engraving, across the XT SIRLOIN OF BEEF. bone. In carving the upper part the same directions should be followed as for the ribs, or in the center, from a to B, and helping : he fat from D, Sucking Pig. — The cook should send a roast pig to table garnished with head and ears. Carve the joints, then divide the ribs, serve with plenty of sauce : should one of the joints be too much, it may be separated : bread sauce and stuffing should accompany it. An ear and the jaw are favorite parts with many people. Boiled Tongue. — Carve across the tongue, but do not cut through ; keep the slices rather thin, and help the fat from underneath. Brisket of Beef must be carved in the direction 1 and 2 quite down to the bone, after cutting off the outside, which should be about three-quarters of an inch thick. Ribs of Beef are carved similar to the sirloin, commenc. ing at the thin end of the joint, and cutting long slices, so as to assist fat and lean at the same time. Round or Buttock of Beef. — Remove the upper surface in the same manner as for an aitch-bone of beef, carve thin horizontal slices of fat and lean, as evenly as possible. It re- quires a sharp knife and steady hand to carve it well. Leg of Mutton. — The under or thickest part of the leg should be placed uppermost, and carved in slices moderately thin, from B to C. Many persons have a taste for the knuckle. and this question should be asked, and, if preferred, should be assisted. When cold the back of the leg should be placed up. permost, and thus carved ; if the cramp bone is reqaested, and some persons regard it as a dainty, hold the shank with your left hand, and insert your knife at D, passing it round to E, and you will remove it. Ribs of Beef. — There are two modes of carving this joint. The first, which is now becoming common, and is easy to an amateur carver, is to cut across the bone commencing in the center, and serving fat from A, as marked in the engraving of the sirloin; or it should be carved in slices from A to C, commencing either in the center of the joint or at the sides. Occasionally the bones are removed, and the meat formed : nt< a fillet ; it should then be carved as a round of beef. The Loin of Mutton, if small, should be carved in chops, beginning with the outer chop ; if large, carve slices the whole CARVING. 58? length. A neat way is to run the knife along the chine bone and under the meat along the ribs : it may then be cut in slices ; and by this process fat and lean are served together. Your knife should be very sharp, and it should be done cleverly. Neck of Mutton, if the scrag and chine bone are re- moved, is carved in the direction of the bones. The Scrag of Mutton should be separated from the ribs of the neck, and when roasted the bone assisted with the meat. Haunch of Mutton is carved as haunch of venison. Roast Fowl. — This operation is a nice and skillful one to perform , it requires both observa- tion and practice. Insert the knife between the legs and the side, press back the leg with the blade of the knife, and the joint will disclose itself : if young, it will part, but at best, if judiciously managed, will require but a nick where the joints unite. Remove your wing from D to B, cut through and lay it back as with the leg, separating the joint with the edge of your knife, remove the merrythought and neck bones next : this you will accomplish by inserting the knife and forcing it under ,v ie bones : raise it, and it will readily separate from the breasi You will divide the breast from the body by cutting through the small ribs down to the vent, turn the back upper- most, now put your knife into about the center between the neck and rump, raise the lower part firmly yet gently, it will easily separate ; turn the neck or rump from you, take off the side bones and the fowl is carved. In separating the thigh from the drumstick, you must insert the knife exactly at the joint, as we have in- dicated in the engraving ; this, however, will be found to require practice, for the joint must be accurately hit, or else much difficulty will be experienced in getting the parts asunder. There is no difference in carving roast and boiled fowls, if full grown ; but in a very young fowl when roasted, the breast is served whole. The wings and breast are in the highest favor, but the leg of a young fowl is an excellent part. Capons, when very fine and roasted, should have slices carved from the breast. Geese. — Follow with your knife the lines marked in the engraving, A to b, and cut slices, then remove the wing, and if the party be large, the legs must also be removed, and here the disjointer will again prove ser- viceable. The stuff- ing, as in the tur- Vey, will be obtained by making an insertion at the apron. | Guinea Fowl are carved in the same manner. Quails, Landrail, Wheatears, Larks, and all small birds are served whole. Grouse and Plover are carved as partridges. Snipe and Woodcock are divided into two parts; the trail being served on a toast. Fish should never be carved with steel ; assisting requires more care than knowl- edge ; the principal caution is to avoid breaking the flakes. In carving a piece of salmon as here en- graved, cut thin slices, as from A to B, and MIDDLE CUT OF SALMON. help w j th ; t pieces the belly in the direction marked from c to D. The best flavored is the upper or thick part. Haddock. — It is dressed whole, unless unusually large. When sent to the table it is split its whole length, and served one-half the head to the tail of the other part ; it is carved across. Mackerel should always be sent to table head to tail. Di- vide the meat from the bone by cutting down the back length- wise from I t(? 2 : upper part is the best. All small fish, such as herrings, smelts, mackerel. etc., are served whole. Neck of Veal. — Were you to attempt to carve each chop and serve it, you would not only place a gigantic bit upon the plate of the person you intended to help, but you would waste time, and if the vertebrae had not been jointed by the butcher NECK OF VEAL. you would find yourself in the position of the ungraceful carver, being compelled to exercise a degree of strength which should never be suffered to appear ; very possibly, too, assist- ing gravy in a manner not contemplated by the person unfor- tunate enough to receive it. Cut diagonally from B to A, and help in slices of moderate thickness ; you can cut from c to D in order to separate the small bones ; divide and serve them, having first inquired if they are desired. The Breast of Veal.— Separate the ribs from A to b ; these small bones, which are the sweetest and mostly chosen, you will cut them as D D D, and serve. Tlie long ribs are di- vided as at C C C ; and having ascertained the preference of c CARVING. the person, help accordingly. At good tables the scrag is not 6erved, but is lound, when properly cooked, a very good stew. CalPs Head. — There is much more meat to be obtained CALF'S HMD. from A to B, cutting quite down to the bone. At the fleshy part of the neck end you will find the throat sweetbread, which you can help a slice of with the other part , you will remove the eye with the point of the knife, and divide it in half, help- ing those to it who p-ofess a preference for it : there are some tasty, gelatinous pieces around it which are palatable. Re- move the jaw-bone, and then you will meet with some fine- flavored lean ; the palate, which is under the head, is by some thought a dainty, and should be proffered when carving. Boiled Turkey is trussed in a different fashion to the the roast, but the same directions given for the first apply to the second. The legs in the boiled turkey be- ing drawn into the body may cause some little difficulty at first boiled turkey in their separation, but a little practice will soon surmount it. Fillet of Veal. — Cut a slice off the whole of the upper part in the same way as from a round of beef : this being, if well roasted, of a nice brown, should be helped in small pieces with the slices you cut for each person. The stuffing is skewered in the flap, and where fillet of veal. the bones come out there is some placed ; help this with the meat, with a piece of the tat . Loin of Veal. — This joint is sent to table served as a sirloin of beef. Having turned it over, cut out the kidney and the fat, return it to its proper position, and carve it as in the neck of veal, from B to A ; help with it a slice of kidney and fat. The kidney is usually placed upon a dry toast when removed from the joint. Shoulder of Veal is sent to table with the under part placed uopermost. Help it as a shoulder of mutton, begin- ning at the knuckle end. A Shoulder of Mutton. — This is a joint upon which a great diversity of opinion exists, many professing a species of horror at its insipidity, others finding much delicacy of flavor in certain parts. In good mutton there is no doubtbut that, if prop- erly -managed, it is an excellent joint, and, if judiciously served, will give satisfaction to all who partake of it. It should be served hot. It is sent to table lying G on the dish as shown in shoulder of mutton. the annexed engraving. Commence carving from A to B, taking out moderately thin slices in the shape of a wedge ; some nice pieces may then be helped from the blade-bone, from c to B, cutting on both sides of the bone. Cut the fat from D, carving it in thin slices. Some of the most delicate parts, however, lie on the under part of the shoulder ; take off thin pieces horizontally from b to c, and from A ; some tender slices are to be met with at D, but they must be cut through as indicated. The shoulder of mutton is essentially a joint of titbits, and therefore, when carving it, the tastes of those at the table should be consulted. It is a very insipid joint when cold, and should therefore be hashed if sent to table a second time. Wild Duck and Widgeon. — The breast of these fowls, being the best portion, is carved in slices, which being re- moved, a glass of old port made hot is poured in, the half or a lemon seasoned with cayenne and salt should then be squeezed in, the slices relaid in their places, and then served the joints being removed the same as in other fowl. Partridge. — Separate the legs, and then divide the bird into three parts, leaving each leg and wing together. The breast is then divided from the back, and helped whole, the latter being assisted with any of the other parts. When the party consists of gentlemen only, the bird is divided into two by cutting right through from the vent to the neck. Pigeon. — Like woodcock, these birds are cut in half, through the breast and back, and helped. Roast Turkey. — Cut long slices from both sides of the breast down to the ribs at the breast-bone. If a large bird the legs may be removed, and the drumsticks taken off. The stuffing may be removed by making an incision in the apron. Boiled Fowl. — There is but little difference in the mode of carving roast and boiled fowl, and that little lies in the breast of the former being generally served entire — the thigh bone. too. is jjrefcrred by many to the wing. ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. 589 TIQUETTE may be defined as the minor morality of life. Its laws, like all other social laws, are the accumulated re- sults of the wisdom and ex- perience of many generations. They form a code with which every educated person is bound to be acquainted ; and the ob- ject of this portion of Collier’s Cyclopedia is to place that code before the reader in as succinct, as agreeable, and as explanatory a light as the sub- ject admits of. We hope and believe that it will be found in all respects a trusty and pleasant guide. INTRODUCTIONS. To introduce persons who are mutually unknown is to undertake a serious responsibility, and to certify to each the respectability of the other. Never undertake this responsibility without, in the first place, asking yourself whether the persons are likely to be agreeable to each other ; nor, in the second place, without ascertaining whether it will be acceptable to both parties to become acquainted. Always introduce the gentleman to the lady — never the lady to the gentleman. The chivalry of etiquette assumes that the lady is invariably the superior in right of her sex, and that the gentleman is honored in the introduction. Never present a gentleman to a lady without first asking her permission to do so. When you are introduced to a gentleman, never offer your hand. When introduced, persons limit their recognition of tach other to a bow. Persons who have met at the house of a mutual friend with- out being introduced should not bow if they afterwards meet elsewhere. A bow implies acquaintance ; and persons who have not been introduced are not acquainted. If you are walking with one friend, and presently meet with, or are joined by, a second, do not commit the too frequent error of introducing them to each other. You have even less right to do so than if they encountered each other at your house during a morning call. There are some exceptions to the etiquette of introduction. At a ball, or evening party where there is dancing, the mistress of the house may introduce any gentleman to any lady without first asking the lady’s permission. But she should first ascer- tain whether the lady is willing to dance ; and this out of consideration for the gentleman, who may otherwise be refused. No man likes to be refused the hand of a lady, though it be only for a quadrille. A sister may present her brother, or a mother her son, with- out any kind of preliminary. Friends may introduce friends at the house of a mutual acquaintance ; but, as a rule, it is better to be introduced by the mistress of the house. Such an introduction carries more authority with it. Introductions at evening parties are now almost wholly dispensed with. Persons who meet at a friend’s house are ostensibly upon an equality, and pay a bad compliment to the host by appearing suspicious and formal. Some old-fashioned country hosts still persevere in introducing each new comer to all the assembled guests. It is a custom that cannot be too soon abolished, and one that places the last unfortunate visitor in a singularly awkward position. All that she can do is to make a semicircular courtesy, like a concert singer before an audience, and bear the general gaze with as much composure as possible. An introduction given at a ball for the mere purpose of conducting a lady through a dance does not give the gentleman any right to bow to her on a future occasion. If he commits this error, she may remember that she is not bound to see, or return, his salutation. 59° ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. Do not lightly give or promise letters of introduction. Always remember that when you give a letter of introduction you lay yourself under an obligation to the friend to whom it is addressed. If she lives in a great city, such as Chicago or Boston, you in a measure compel her to undergo the penalty of escorting the stranger to some of those places of public enter- tainment in which the capital abounds. If your friend be a married lady, and the mistress of a house, you put her to the expense of inviting the stranger to her table. We cannot be too cautious how we tax the time and purse of a friend, or weigh too seriously the question of mutual advantage in the introduc- tion. Always ask yourself whether the perscn introduced will be an acceptable acquaintance to the one to whom you present her; and whether the pleasure of knowing her will compensate for the time or money which it costs to entertain her. If the stranger is in any way unsuitable in habits or temperament, you inflict an annoyance on your friend instead of a pleasure. In questions of introduction never oblige one friend to the discom- fort of another. Those to whom letters of introduction have been given should send them to the person to whom they are addressed, and inclose a card. Avoid delivering a letter of introduction in person. It places you in the most undignified position imaginable, and compels you to wait while it is being read, like a servant who has been told to wait for an answer. If the receiver of the letter be a really well-bred person, she will call upon you or leave her card the next day, and you should return her attention within the week. If, on the other hand, a stranger sends you a letter of introduction and her card, you are bound by the laws of polite- ness and hospitality, not only to call upon her the next day, but to follow up that attention with others. If you are in a posi- tion to do so, the most correct proceeding is to invite her to dine with you. Should this not be within your power, you can probably escort her to some of the exhibitions, bazaars, or con- certs of the season ; any of which would be interesting to a provincial visitor. In short, etiquette demands that you shall exert yourself to show kindness to the stranger, if only out of compliment to the friend who introduced her to you. If you invite her to take dinner with you, it is a better compliment to ask some others to meet her than to dine with her tete-h-tite. You are thereby giving her an opportunity of making other acquaintances, and are assisting your friend in still farther promoting the purpose for which she gave her the introduction to yourself. A letter of introduction should be given unsealed, not alone because your friend may wish to know what you have said of her, but also as a guarantee of your own good faith. As you should never give such a letter unless you can speak highly of the bearer, this rule of etiquette is easy to observe. By request- ing your friend to fasten the envelope before forwarding the letter to its destination, you tacitly give her permission to inspect its contents. VISITING CARDS. Visits of ceremony should be short. If even the conversation ihould have become animated, beware of letting your call ex- ceed half-an-hour’s length. It is always better to let you; friends regret rather than desire your withdrawal. On returning visits of ceremony you may, without impolite- ness, leave your card at the door without going in. Do no> fail, however, to inquire if the family be well. Should there be daughters or sisters residing with the lady upon whom you call, you may turn down a corner of your card to signify that the visit is paid to all. It is in better taste, how ever, to leave cards for each. Unless when returning thanks for “kind inquiries,” or announcing your arrival in, or departure from, town, it is not considered respectful to send round cards by a servant. Leave-taking cards have P. P.C. ( pour prendre eong/) written in the corner. Some use P.D. A. {pour dire adieu). Autographic facsimiles for visiting cards are affectations in any persons but those who are personally remarkable for talent, and whose autographs, or facsimiles of them, would be prized as curiosities. Visits of condolence are paid within the week after the event which occasions them. Personal visits of this kind are made by relations and very intimate friends only. Acquaintances should leave catds with narrow mourning borders. On the first occasion when you are received by the family after the death of one of its members, it is etiquette to weai slight mourning. Umbrellas should invariably be left in the hall. Never take favorite dogs into a drawing-room when you make a morning call. Their feet may be dusty, or they may bark at the sight of strangers, or, being of a too friendly dis- position, may take the liberty of lying on a lady’s gown, or jumping on the sofas and easy chairs. Where your friend has a favorite cat already established before the fire, a battle may ensue, and one or both of the pets be seriously hurt. Besides, many persons have a constitutional antipathy to dogs, and others never allow their own to be seen in the sitting-rooms. For all or any of these reasons, a visitor has no right to inflict upon her friend the society of her dog as well as of herself Neither is it well for a mother to take young children with her when she pays morning visits ; their presence, unless they are unusually well trained, can only be productive of anxiety to both yourself and your hostess. She, while striving to amuse them, or to appear interested in them, is secretly anxious for the fate of her album, or the ornaments on her dtage're ; while the mother is trembling lest her children should say or dc something objectionable. If other visitors are announced, and you have already re- mained as long as courtesy requires, wait till they are seated, and then rise from your chair, take leave of your hostess, and bow politely to the newly arrived guests. You will, perhaps, be urged to remain, but, having once risen, it is best to got There is always a certain air of gaucherie in resuming yourseat and repeating the ceremony of leave-taking. If you have occasion to look at your watch during a call, ask permission to do so, and apologize for it on the plea of other appointments. In receiving morning visitors, it is not necessary that the lady should lay aside the employment in which she may be engaged, particularly if it consists of light or ornamental needie-woU. ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. 59 1 Politeness, however, requires that music, drawing, or any occupation which would completely engross the attention, be at once abandoned. You need not advance to receive visitors when announced, unless they are persons to whom you are desirous of testifying particular attention. It is sufficient if a lady rises to receive her visitors, moves forward a single step to shake hands with them, and remains standing till they are seated. When your visitors rise to take leave you should rise also, and remain standing till they have quite left the room. A lady should dress well, but not too richly, when she pays a morning visit. CONVERSATION. There is no conversation so graceful, so varied, so sparkling, as that of an intellectual and cultivated woman. Excellence in this particular is, indeed, one of the attributes of the sex, and should be cultivated by every gentlewoman who aspires to please in general society. In order to talk well, three conditions are indispensable, namely — tact, a good memory, and a fair education. Remember that people take more interest in their own affairs than in anything else which you can name. If you wish your conversation to be thoroughly agreeable, lead a mother to talk of her children, a young lady of her last ball, an author of his forthcoming book, or an artist of his exhibition picture. Having furnished the topic, you need only listen ; and you are sure to be thought not only agreeable, but thoroughly sensible and well-informed. Be careful, however, on the other hand, not always to make a point of talking to persons upon general matters relating to their profession. To show an interest in their immediate concerns is flattering ; but to converse with them too much about their own arts looks as if you thought them ignorant of other topics. Remember in conversation that a voice “ gentle and low ” is, above all other extraneous acquirements, “ an excellent thing in woman.” There is a certain distinct but subdued tone of voice which is peculiar to only well-bred persons. A loud voice is both disagreeable and vulgar. It is better to err by the use of too low rather than too loud a tone. Remember that all “ slang” is vulgar. The use of proverbs is equally vulgar in conversation ; and puns, unless they rise to the rank of 4 witticisms, are to be scru- pulously avoided. A lady-punster is a most unpleasing phenom- enon, and we would advise no young woman, however witty she may be, to cultivate this kind of verbal talent. Long arguments in general company, however entertaining to the disputants, are tiresome to the last degree to all others. You should always endeavor to prevent the conversation from dwelling too long upon one topic. Religion is a topic which should never be introduced into society. It is the one subject on which persons are most likely to differ, and least able to preserve temper. Never interrupt a person who is speaking. It has been aptly said that “ if you interrupt a speaker in the middle of his sentence, you act almost as rudely as if, when walking with a companion, you were to thrust yourself before him, and stop his progress.” To listen well is almost as great an art as to talk well. It is not enough only to listen. You must endeavor to seem in- terested in the conversation of others. It is considered extremely ill bred when two persons whisper in society, or converse in a language with which all present are not familiar. If you have private matters to discuss, you should appoint a proper time and place to do so, without pay- ing others the ill compliment of excluding them from your conversation. If a foreigner be one of the guests at a small party, and does not understand English sufficiently to follow what is said, good breeding demands that the conversation shall be carried on in his own language. If at a dinner-party, the same rule applies to those at his end of the table. If upon the entrance of a visitor you carry on the thread of a previous conversation, you should briefly recapitulate to him what has been said before he arrived. Do not be always witty, even though you should be so hap- pily gifted as to need the caution. To outshine others on every occasion is the surest road to unpopularity. Always look, but never stare, at those with whom you converse. In order to meet the general needs of conversation in society, it is necessary that a gentlewoman should be acquainted with the current news and historical events of, at least, the last few years. Never taik upon subjects of which you know nothing, unless it be for the purpose of acquiring information. Many young ladies imagine that because they play a little, sing a little, draw a little, and frequent exhibitions and operas, they are qualified judges of art. No mistake is more egregious or universal. Those who introduce anecdotes into their conversation are warned that these should invariably be “ short, witty, eloquent, new, and not far-fetched.” Scandal is the least excusable of all conversational vulgari- ties. DRESS. To dress well requires something more than a full purse and a pretty figure. It needs taste, good sense, and refine- ment. Dress may almost be classed as one of the fine arts. It is certainly one of those arts the cultivation of which is in- dispensable to any person moving in the upper or middle classes of society. Very clever women are too frequently in- different to the graces of the toilette ; and women who wish to be thought clever affect indifference. In the one case it is an error, and in the other a folly. It is not enough that a gentle- woman should be clever, or well educated, or well-born. To take her due place in society, she must be acquainted with all that this little book proposes to teach. She must, above all else, know how to enter a room, how to perform a graceful salutation, and how to dress. Of these three important quali- fications, the most important, because the most observed, is the latter. Let your style of dress always be appropriate to the hour of the day. To dress too finely in the morning, or to be seen in a morning dress in the evening, is equally vulgar and out of place. 59 2 ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. Light and inexpensive materials are fittest for morning wear ; dark silk dresses for the promenade or carriage ; and low dresses of rich or transparent stuff's for the dinner and ball. A young lady cannot dress with too much simplicity in the early part of the day. A morning dress of some simple material, and delicate whole color, with collar and cuffs of spotless linen, is, perhaps, the most becoming and elegant of morning toilettes. Never dress very richly or showily in the street. It attracts attention of no enviable kind, and is looked upon as a want of good breeding. In the carriage a lady may dress as elegantly as she pleases. With respect to ball-room toilette, its fashions are so variable, that statements which are true of it to-day may be false a month hence. Respecting no institution of modern society, is it so difficult to pronounce half-a-dozen permanent rules. We may, perhaps, be permitted to suggest the following leading principles ; but we do so with diffidence. Rich colors harmonize with rich brunette complexions and dark hair. Del- icate colors are the most suitable for delicate and fragile styles of beauty. Very young ladies are never so suitably attired as in white. Ladies who dance should wear dresses of light and diaphanous materials, such as tulle , gauze, crape, net, etc., over colored silk slips. Silk dresses are not suitable for dan- cing. A married lady who dances only a few quadrilles may wear a dicolleti silk dress with propriety. Very stout persons should never wear white. It has the effect of adding to the bulk of the figure. Black and scarlet, or black and violet, are worn in mourning. A lady in deep mourning should not dance at all. However fashionable it may be to w'ear very long dresses, those ladies who go to a ball with the intention of dancing, and enjoying the dance, should cause their dresses to be made short enough to clear the ground. We would ask them whether it is not better to accept this slight deviation from an absurd fashion, than to appear for three parts of the evening in a torn and pinned-up skirt? Well-made shoes, whatever their color or material, and faultless gloves, are indispensable to the effect of a ball-room toilette. Much jewelry is out of place in a ball-room. Beautiful flowers, whether natural or artificial, are the loveliest ornaments that a lady can wear on these occasions. At small dinner parties, low dresses are not so indispensable as they were held to be some years since. High dresses of transparent materials, and low bodices with capes of black lace, are considered sufficiently full dress on these occasions. At large dinners only the fullest dress is appropriate. Very young ladies should wear but little jewelry. Pearls are deemed most appropriate for the young and unmarried. Let your jewelry be always the best of its kind. Nothing is so vulgar, either in youth or in age, as the use of false orna- ments. There is as much propriety to be observed in the wearing of jewelry as in the wearing of dresses. Diamonds, pearls, rubies, and all transparent precious stones, belong to evening dress, and should on no account be worn before dinner. In the morning let your rings be of the more simple and massive kind ; wear no bracelets ; and limit your jewelry to a good brooch, gold chain, and watch. Your diamonds and pearls would be as much out of place during the morning as a low dress, or a wreath. It is well to remember in the choice of jewelry that mere costliness is not always the test of value ; and that an exquisite work of art, such as a fine cameo, or a natural rarity, such as black pearl, is a more distiugu / possession than a large brilliant which any rich and tasteless vulgarian can buy as easily as yourself. Of all precious stones, the opal is one of the most lovely and least common-place. No vulgar woman purchases an opal. She invariably prefers the more showy ruby, emerald, or sapphire. A true gentlewoman is always faultlessly neat. No richness of toilette in the afternoon, no diamonds in the evening, can atone for unbrushed hair, a soiled collar, or untidy slippers at breakfast. Never be seen in the street without gloves. Your gloves should fit to the last degree of perfection. In these days of public baths and universal progress, we trust that it is unnecessary to do more than hint at the necessity of the most fastidious personal cleanliness. The hair, the teeth, the nails, should be faultlessly kept ; and a muslin dress that has been worn once too often, a dingy pocket-handker- chief, or a soiled pair of light gloves, are things to be scrupu- lously avoided by any young lady who is ambitious of preserving the exterior of a gentlewoman. Remember that the make of your corsage is of even greater importance than the make of your dress. No dressmaker can fit you well, or make your bodices in the manner most becom- ing to your figure, if the corsage beneath be not of the best description. Your shoes and gloves should always be faultless. Perfumes should be used only in the evening, and then in moderation. Let your perfumes be of the most delicate and recherchd kind. Nothing is more vulgar than a coarse, ordinary scent ; and of all coarse, ordinary scents, the most objectionable are musk and patchouli. Finally, every lady should remember that to dress well is a duty which she owes to society ; but that to make it her idol is to commit something worse than a folly. Fashion is made for woman ; not woman for fashion. MORNING AND EVENING PARTIES. The morning party is a modern invention. It was unknown to cur fathers and mothers, and even to ourselves till quite lately. A morning party is given during the months oi June, July, August, September, and sometimes October. It begins about two o’clock and ends about seven, and the enter- tainment consists for the most part of conversation , music, and (if there be a garden) croquet, lawn tennis, archery, etc. The refreshments are given in the form of a dSjeAnerh la fourchette. Receptions are held during the winter season. Elegant morning dress, general good manners, and some acquaintance with the topics of the day and the games above named, are all the qualifications especially necessary to a lady ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. 593 at a morning party, and “ At Homes ; ” music and elocution at receptions. An evening party begins about nine o’clock p.m., and ends about midnight, or somewhat later. Good-breeding neither demands that you should present yourself at the commencement, nor remain till the close of the evening. You come and go as may be most convenient to you, and by these means are at liberty, during the height of the season when evening parties are numerous, to present yourself at two or three houses during a single evening. When your name is announced, look for the lady of the house, and pay your respects to her before you even seem to see any other of your friends who may be in the room. At very large and fashionable receptions, the hostess is generally to be found near the door. Should you, however, find your- self separated by a dense crowd of guests, you are at liberty to recognize those who are near you, and those whom you en- counter as you make your way slowly through the throng. If you are at the house of a new acquaintance and find your- self among entire strangers, remember that by so meeting under one roof you are all in a certain sense made known to one another, and should, therefore, converse freely, as equals. To shrink away to a side-table and affect to be absorbed in some album or illustrated work ; or, if you find one unlucky acquaint- ance in the room to fasten upon her like a drowning man clinging to a spar, are gaitchenies which no shyness can excuse. If you possess any musical accomplishments, do not wait to be pressed and entreated by your hostess, but comply imme- diately when she pays you the compliment of inviting you to play or sing. Remember, however, that only the lady of the house has the right to ask you. If others do so, you can put them off in some polite way, but must not comply till the hostess herself invites you. Be scrupulous to observe silence when any of the company are playing or singing. Remember that they are doing this for the amusement of the rest ; and that to talk at such a time is as ill-bred as if you were to turn your back upon a person who was talking to you and begin a conversation with some one else. If you are yourself the performer, bear in mind that in music, as in speech, “brevity is the soul of wit.” Two verses of a song, or four pages of a piece, are at all times enough to give pleasure. If your audience desire more they will ask for it ; and it is infinitely more flattering to be encored than to receive the thanks of your hearers, not so much in gratitude for what you have given them, but in relief that you have left off. You should try to suit your music, like your conversation, to your company. A solo of Beethoven’s would be as much out of place in some circles as a comic song at a Quakers’ meet- ing. To those who only care for the light popularities of the season, give Verdi, Suppe, Sullivan, or Offenbach. To con- noisseurs, if you perform well enough to venture, give such music as will be likely to meet the exigencies of a fine taste. Above all, attempt nothing that you cannot execute with ease and precision. II the party be of a small and social kind and those games called by the French les jeux innocents are proposed, do not object to join in them when invited. It may be that they de- mand some slight exercise of wit and readiness, and that you do not feel yourself calculated to shine in them ; but it is better to seem dull than disagreeable, and those who are obliging can always find some clever neighbor to assist them in the moment of need. Impromptu charades are frequently organized at friendly parties. Unless you have really some talent for acting and some readiness of speech, you should remember that you only put others out and expose your own inability by taking part in these entertainments. Of course, if your help is really needed, and you would disoblige by refusing, you must do your best, and by doing it as quietly and coolly as possible, avoid being awkward or ridiculous. Even though you may take no pleasure in cards, some knowl- edge of the etiquette and rules belonging to the games most in vogue is necessary to you in society. If a fourth hand is wanted at euchre, or if the rest of the company sit down to a round game, you would be deemed guilty of an impoliteness if you refused to join. The games most commonly played in society are euchre, draw-poker, and whist. THE DINNER-PARTY. To be acquainted with every detail of the etiquette pertain* ing to this subject is of the highest importance to every lady. Ease, savoir-faire , and good-breeding are nowhere more in- dispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence of them is nowhere more apparent. How to eat soup and what to do with a cherry-stone are weighty considerations when taken as the index of social status ; and it is not too much to say, that a young woman who elected to take claret with her fish, or ate peas with her knife, would justly risk the punishment of being banished from good society. An invitation to dinner should be replied to immediately, and unequivocally accepted or declined. Once accepted, no- thing but an event of the last importance should cause you to fail in your engagement. To be exactly punctual is the strictest politeness on these occasions. If you are too early, you are in the way ; if too late you spoil the dinner, annoy the hostess, and are hated by the rest of the guests. Some authorities are even of opinion that in the question of a dinner- party “ never ” is better than “ late ” ; and one author has gone so far as to say, “ if you do not reach the house till dinner is served, you had better retire, and send an apology, and not interrupt the harmony of the courses by awkward excuses and cold acceptance.” When the party is assembled, the mistress or master of the house will point out to each gentleman the lady whom he is tc conduct to the table. The lady who is the greatest stranger should be taken down by the master of the house, and the gentleman who is the greatest stranger should conduct the hostess. Married ladies take precedence of single ladies, elder ladies of younger ones, and so forth When dinnei is announced, the host offers his arm to the lady of most distinction, invites the rest to follow by a few words or a bow, and leads the way. The lady of the house 594 ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. should then follow with the gentleman who is most entitled to that honor, and the visitors follow in the order that has been previously arranged. The lady of the house frequently re- mains, however, till the last, that she may see her guests go in their prescribed order ; but the plan is not a convenient one. It is much better that the hostesss should be in her place as the guests enter the dining-room, in order that she may in- dicate their seats to them as they enter, and not find them all crowded together in uncertainty when she arrives. The plan of cards, with the names of the guests on them, op- posite their chairs, is a very useful one. The lady of the house takes the head of the table. The gentleman who led her down to dinner occupies the seat on her right hand, and the gentleman next in order of precedence, that on her left. The master of the house takes the foot of the table. The lady whom he escorted sits on his right hand, and the lady next in order of precedence on his left. As soon as you are seated at table, remove your gloves, place your table napkin across your knees, and remove the roll which you will probably find within it to the left side of your plate. The soup should be placed on the table first. All well- ordered dinners begin with soup, whether in summer or winter. The lady of the house should help it, and send it round with- out asking each individual in turn. It is as much an understood thing as the bread beside each plate, and those who do not choose it are always at liberty to leave it untasted. In eating soup, remember always to take it from the side of the spoon, and to make no sound in doing so. If the servants do not go round with wine, the gentlemen should help the ladies and themselves to sherry or sauterne immediately after the soup. You should never ask for a second supply of either soup or fish ; it delays the next course, and keeps the table waiting. Never offer to “ assist” your neighbors to this or that dish. The word is inexpressibly vulgar — all the more vulgar for its affectation of elegance. “ Shall I send you some mutton ? ”or “ may I help you to canvas back ? ” is better chosen and better bred. As a general rule, it is better not to ask your guests if they will partake of the dishes ; but to send the plates round, and let them accept or decline them as they please. At very large dinners it is sometimes customary to distribute little lists of the order of the dishes at intervals along the table. It must be confessed that this gives somewhat the air of a dinner at an hotel ; but it has the advantage of enabling the visitors to select their fare, and, as “ forewarned is forearmed,” to keep a corner, as the children say, for their favorite dishes. As soon as you are helped, begin to eat ; or, if the viands are too hot for your palate, take up your knife and fork and appear to begin. To wait for others is now not only old- fashioned, but ill-bred. Never offer to pass on the plate to which you have been helped. In helping soup, fish, or any other dish, remember that to overfill a plate is as bad as to supply it too scantily. Silver fish knives will now always be met with at the best tables ; but where there are none, a piece of crust should be taken in the left hand, and the fork in the right. There is no exception to this rule in eating fish. We presume it is scarcely necessary to remind our fair reader that she is never, under any circumstances, to convey her knife to her mouth. Peas are eaten with the fork ; tarts, curry, and puddings of all kinds with the spoon. Always help fish with a fish-slice, and tart and puddings with a spoon, or, if necessary, a spoon and fork. Asparagus must be helped with the asparagus-tongs. In eating asparagus, it is well to observe what others do, and act accordingly. Some very well-bred people eat it with the fingers ; others cut off the heads, and convey them to the mouth upon the fork. If would be difficult to say which is the more correct. In eating stone fruit, such as cherries, damsons, etc., the same rule had better be observed. Some put the stones out from the mouth into a spoon, and so convey them to the plate. Others cover the lips with the hand, drop them unseen into the palm, and so deposit them on the side of the plate. In our own opinion, the latter is the better way, as it effectually con- ceals the return of the stones, which is certainly the point of highest importance. Of one thing we may be sure, and that is, that they must never be dropped from the mouth to the plate. In helping sauce, always pour it on the side of the plate. If the servants do not go round with the wine (which is by far the best custom), the gentlemen at a dinner-table should take upon themselves the office of helping those ladies who sit near them. Unless you are a total abstainer, it is extremely uncivil to decline taking wine if you are invited to do so. It is particularly ill-bred to empty your glass on these occasions. Certain wines are taken with certain dishes, by old-establish- ed custom — as sherry or sauterne, with soup and fish ; hock and claret with roast meat ; punch with turtle ; champagne with sweet-bread or cutlets ; port with venison ; port or burgundy, with game ; sparkling wines between the roast and the confec- tionery ; madeira with sweets ; port with cheese ; and for des- sert, port, tokay, madeira, sherry, and claret. Red wines should never be iced, even in summer. Claret and burgundy should always be slightly warmed ; claret-cup and champagne should, of course, be iced. Instead of cooling their wines in the ice-pail, some hosts intro- duce clear ice upon the table, broken up in small lumps, to be put inside the glasses. This cannot be too strictly reprehended. Melting ice can but weaken the quality and flavor of the wine. Those who desire to drink wine and water can ask for iced water if they choose ; but it savors too much of economy on the part of a host to insinuate the ice inside the glasses of his guests when the wine could be more effectually iced outside the bottle. A silver knife and fork should be placed to each guest at dessert. It is wise never to partake of any dish without knowing of what ingredients it is composed. You can always ask the servant who hands it to you, and you thereby avoid all danger of having to commit the impoliteness of leaving it, and show ing that you do not approve of it. Never speak while you have anything in your mouth. ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. 595 Be careful never to taste soups or puddings till you are sure they are sufficiently cool ; as, by disregarding this caution, you may be compelled to swallow what is dangerously hot, or be driven to the unpardonable alternative of returning it to your plate. When eating or drinking, avoid every kind of audible tes- timony to the fact. Finger-glasses, containing water slightly warmed and per- fumed, are placed to each person at dessert. In these you may dip the tips of your fingers, wiping them afterwards on your table-napkin. If the finger-glass and doyley are placed on your dessert-plate, you should immediately remove the doyley to the left of your plate, and place the finger-glass upon it. By these means you leave the right for the wine-glasses. Be careful to know the shapes of the various kinds of wine- glasses commonly in use, in order that you may never put for- ward one for another. High and narrow, and very broad and shallow glasses, are used for champagne ; large goblet-shaped glasses for burgundy and claret ; ordinary wine-glasses for sherry and madeira ; green glasses for hock ; and somewhat large, bell-shaped glasses for port. Port, sherry, and madeira are decanted. Hocks and cham- pagnes appear in their native bottles. Claret and burgundy are handed round in a claret-jug. The servants leave the room when the dessert is on the table. Coffee and liqueurs should be handed round when the des- sert has been about a quarter of an hour on the table. After this the ladies generally retire. The lady of the house should never send away her plate, or appear to have done eating, till all her guests have finished. If you should unfortunately overturn or break anything, do not apologize for it. You can show your regret in your face, but it is not well-bred to put it into words. To abstain from taking the last piece on the dish, or the last glass of wine in the decanter, only because it is the last, is highly ill-bred. It implies a fear on your part that the vacancy cannot be supplied, and almost conveys an affront to your host. To those ladies who have houses and servants at command, we have one or two remarks to offer. Every housekeeper should be acquainted with the routine of a dinner and the eti- quette of a dinner-table. No lady should be utterly depend- ent on the taste and judgment of her cook. Though she need not know how to dress a dish, she should be able to judge of it when served. The mistress of the house, in short, should be to a cook what a publisher is to his authors — that is to say, competent to form a judgment upon their works, though him- self incapable of writing even a magazine article. If you wish to have a good dinner, and do not know in what manner to set about it, you will do wisely to order it from some first-rate restaurateur. By these means you insure the best cookery and a faultless carte. Bear in mind that it is your duty to entertain your friends in the best manner that your means permit. This is the least you can do to recompense them for the expenditure of time and money which they incur in accepting your invitation. “ To invite a friend to dinner,” says Brillat Savarin, “ is to become responsible for his happiness so long as he is under your roof.” A dinner, to be excellent, need not consist of a great variety of dishes ; but everything should be of the best, and the cook- ery should be perfect. That which should be cool should be cool as ice ; that which should be hot should be smoking ; the attendance should be rapid and noiseless ; the guests well as- sorted ; the wines of the best quality ; the host attentive and courteous ; the room well lighted, and the time punctual. Every dinner should begin with soup, be followed by fish, and include some kind of game. “ The soup is to the dinner,’* we are told by Grisnod de la Regniere, “ what the portico is to a building, or the overture to an opera.” To this aphorism we may be permitted to add that a chasse of cognac or curagoa at the close of a dinner is like the epi- logue at the end of a comedy. Never reprove or give directions to your servants before guests. If a dish is not placed precisely where you would have wished it to stand, or the order of a course is reversed, let the error pass unobserved by yourself, and you may de- pend that it will be unnoticed by others. The duties of hostess at a dinner-party are not onerous ; but they demand tact and good breeding, grace of bearing, and self-possession of no ordinary degree.. She does not often carve. She has no active duties to perform ; but she must neg- lect nothing, forget nothing, put all her guests at their ease, encourage the timid, draw out the silent, and pay every possi- ble attention to the requirements of each and all around her. No accident must ruffle her temper. No disappointment must embarrass her. She must see her old china broken without a sigh, and her best glass shattered with a smile. STAYING AT A FRIEND’S HOUSE— BREAK- FAST, LUNCHEON, ETC. A visitor is bound by the laws of social intercourse to con- form in all respects to the habits of the house. In order to do this effectually, she should inquire, or cause her personal ser- vant to inquire, what those habits are. To keep your friend’s breakfast on the table till a late hour ; to delay the dinner by want of punctuality ; to accept other invitations, and treat his house as if it were merely an hotel to be slept in ; or to keep the family up till unwonted hours, are alike evidences of a want of good feeling and good-breeding. At breakfast and lunch absolute punctuality is not impera- tive ; but a visitor should avoid being always the last to appear at table. No order of precedence is observed at either breakfast or luncheon. Persons take their seats as they come in, and, having exchanged their morning salutations, begin to eat with- out waiting for the rest of the party. If letters are delivered to you at breakfast or luncheon, you may read them by asking permission from the lady who presides at the urn. Always hold yourself at the disposal of those in whose house you are visiting. If they propose to ride, drive, walk, or otherwise occupy the day, you may take it for granted that these plans are made with reference to your enjoyment. You 59 * ETIQUETTE FOR LADIES. should, therefore, receive them with cheerfulness, enter into them with alacrity, and do your best to seem pleased, and be pleased, by the efforts which your friends make to entertain you. You should never take a book from the library to your own room without requesting permission to borrow it. When it is lent, you should take every care that it sustains no injury while in your possession, and should cover it, if necessary. A guest should endeavor to amuse herself as much as pos- sible, and not be continually dependent on her hosts for en- tertainment. She should remember that, however welcome she may be, she is not always wanted. A visitor should avoid giving unnecessary trouble to the ser- vants of the house. The signal for retiring to rest is generally given by the ap- pearance of the servant with wine, water, and biscuits, where a late dinner hour is observed and suppers are not the custom. This is the last refreshment of the evening, and the visitor will do well to rise and wish good night shortly after it has been partaken of by the family. GENERAL HINTS. Do not frequently repeat the name of the person with whom you are conversing. It implies either the extreme of hauteur or familiarity. Never speak of absent persons by only their Christian or surnames ; but always as Mr. , or Mrs. . Above all, never name anybody by the first letter of his name. Married people are sometimes guilty of this flagrant offense against taste. Look at those who address you. Never boast of your birth, your money, your grand friends, or anything that is yours. If you have traveled, do not intro- duce that information into your conversation at every oppor- tunity. Any one can travel with money and leisure. The real distinction is to come home with enlarged views, improved tastes, and a mind free from prejudice* If you present a book to a friend, do not write his or he! name in it, unless requested. You have no right to presume that it will be rendered any the more valuable for that addi- tion ; and you ought not to conclude beforehand that your gift will be accepted. Never undervalue the gift which you are yourself offering , you have no business to offer it if it is valueless. Neither say that you do not want it yourself, or that you should throw it away if it were not accepted, etc., etc. Such apologies would be insults if true, and mean nothing if false. No compliment that bears insincerity on the face of it is a compliment at all. Presents made by a married lady to a gentleman can only be offered in the joint names of her husband and herself. Married ladies may occasionally accept presents from gentle- men who visit frequently' at their houses, and who desire to show their sense of the hospitality which they receive there. Acknowledge the receipt of a present without delay. Give a foreigner his name in full, as Monsieur de Vigny — never as Monsieur only. In speaking of him, give him his title, if he has one. Foreign noblemen are addressed viva voce as Monsieur. In speaking of a foreign nobleman before his face, say Monsieur le Comte, or Monsieur le Marquis. In hij absence, say Monsieur le ConUe de Vigny. Converse with a foreigner in his own language. If not com petent to do so, apologize, and beg permission to speak Eng- lish. To get in and out of a carriage gracefully is a simple but im portant accomplishment. If there is but one step, and you are going to take the seat facing the horses, put your left foot on the step, and enter the carriage with your right, in such a man- ner as to drop at once into your seat. If you are about to sit with your back to the horses, reverse the process. As you step into the carriage, be careful to keep your back towards the seat you are about to occupy, so as to avoid the awkwardness of taming when you ate one e fit* ETIQUETTE for gentlemen. mmsuzimmz. INTRODUCTIONS. O introduce persons who are mutually unknown is to undertake a serious responsibility, and to certify to each the respectability of the other. Never undertake this responsibility without in the first place asking you, self whether the persons are likely to be agt “able to each other ; nor, in the second place, . 'tiv t ascertain- ing whether it will be acceptable to boh. parties to become acquainted. Always introduce the gentleman to the lady — never the lady to the gentleman. The chivalry of etiquette assumes that the lady is invariably the superior in right of her sex, and that the gentleman is honored by the introduction. Never present a gentleman to a lady without first asking her permission to do so. When you are introduced to a lady, never offer your hand. When introduced, persons limit their recognition of each other to a bow. Persons who have met at the house of a mutual friend without being introduced, should not bow if they afterwards meet elsewhere ; a bow implies acquaintance, and persons who have not been introduced are not acquainted. If you are walking with one friend, and presently meet with, or are joined by, a second, do not commit the too frequent error of introducing them to each other. You have even less right to do so than if they encountered each other at your house during a morning call. There are some exceptions to the etiquette of introductions. At a ball or evening party, where there is dancing, the mis- tress of the house may introduce any gentleman to any lady without first asking the lady’s permission. But she should first ascertain whether the lady is willing to dance ; and this out of consideration for the gentleman, who may otherwise be refused. No man likes to be refused the hand of a lady, though it be only for a quadrille. A brother may present his sister, or a father his son. with- out any kind of preliminary : but only when there is no infe- riority on the part of his own family to that of the acquaint- ance. Friends may introduce friends at the house of a mutual ac- quaintance, but, as a rule, it is better to be introduced by the mistress of the house. Such an introduction carries more authority with it. Introductions at evening parties are now almost wholly dis- pensed with. Persons who meet at a friend’s house are osten- sibly upon an equality, and pay a bad compliment to the host by appearing suspicious and formal. Some old-fashioned country hosts yet persevere in introducing each newcomer to all the assembled guests. It is a custom that cannot be too soon abolished, and one that places the last unfortunate visitor in a singularly awkward position. All that he can do is to make a semicircular bow, like a concert singer before an audi- ence, and bear the general gaze with as much composure as possible. If, when you enter a drawing-room, your name has been wrongly announced, or has passed unheard in the buzz of con- versation, make your way at once to the mistress of the house, if you are a stranger, and introduce yourself by name. This should be done with the greatest simplicity, and your profes- sional or titular rank made as little of as possible. An introduction given at a ball for the mere purpose of conducting a lady through a dance does not give the gentle- man any right to bow to her on a future occasion. If he com- mits this error, he must remember that she is not bound to see or return his salutation. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. Do not lightly give or promise letters of introduction. Always remember that when you give a letter of introduction you lay yourself under an obligation to the friend to whom it is addressed. No one delivers a letter of introduction in person. It places you in the most undignified position imaginable, and compels you to wait while it is being read, like a footman who has been told to wait for an answer. If, on the other hand, a stranger sends you a letter of in- ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN. troduction and feta eafd„ fSXt me bound by the laws of polite- ness and hospitality, not only to call upon him the next day, but to follow up that attention with others. If you are in a position to do so, the most correct proceeding is to invite him to dine with you. Should this not be within your power, you have probably the entrde to some private collections, club- houses, theaters, or reading-rooms, and could devote a few hours to showing him these places. A letter of introduction should be given unsealed, not alone because your friend may wish to know what you have said of him, but also as a guarantee of your own good faith. As you should never give such a letter unless you can speak highly of the bearer, this rule of etiquette is easy to observe. By requesting your friend to fasten the envelope before for- warding the letter to its destination you tacitly give him per- mission to inspect its contents. Let your note paper be of the best quality and proper size. VISITING.— MORNING CALLS.— CARDS. A morning visit should be paid between the hours of 2 and 4 P.M. in winter, and 2 and 5 in summer. Visits of ceremony should be short. If even the conversa- tion should have become animated, beware of letting your call exceed half an hour’s length. It is always better to let your friends regret rather than desire your withdrawal. On returning visits of ceremony you may, without impolite- ness, leave your card at the door without going in. Do not fail, however, to inquire if the family be well. Should there be daughters or sisters residing with the lady upon whom you call, you may turn down a corner of your card, to signify that the visit is paid to all. It is in better taste, however, to leave cards for each. Unless when returning thanks for “kind inquiries,” or announcing your arrival in, or departure from, town, it is not considered respectful to send cards round by a servant. Leave-taking cards have P.P.C. {pour prendre conge) written in the corner. Some use P.D.A. ( pour dire adieu). The visiting cards of gentlemen are half the size of those used by ladies. Visits of condolence are paid within the week after the event which occasions them. Personal visits of this kind are made by relations and very intimate friends only. Acquaint- ances should leave cards with narrow mourning borders. On the first occasion when you are received by the family after the death of one of its members, it is etiquette to wear slight mourning. When a gentleman makes a morning call, he should never leave his hat or riding-whip in the hall, but should take both into the room. To do otherwise would be to make himself too much at home. The hat, however, must never be laid on a table, piano, or any article of furniture, it should be held gracefully in the hand. If you are compelled to lay it aside put it on the floor. Umbrellas should invariably be left in the hall. Never take favorite dogs into a drawing-room when you make a morning call. Their feet may be dusty, or they may bark at the sight of strangers, or, being of too friendly a dis- position, may take the liberty of lying on a lady’s gown, or jumping on the sofas and easy chairs. Where your friend has a favorite cat already established before th c fire, a battle may ensue, and one or both of the pets be seriously hurt. Be- sides, many persons have a constitutional antipathy to dogs, and others never allow their own to be seen in the sitting- rooms. For all or any of these reasons a visitor has no right to inflict upon his friend the society of his dog as well as of himself. If, when you call upon a lady, you meet a lady visitor in her drawing-room, you should rise when that lady takes her leave. If other visitors are announced, and you have already re- mained as long as courtesy requires, wait till they are seated, and then rise from your chair, take leave of your hostess, and bow politely to the newly arrived guests. You will, perhaps, be urged to remain, but, having once risen, it is always best to go. There is always a certain air of gaucherie in resuming your seat and repeating the ceremony of leave taking. If you have occasion to look at your watch during a call, ask permission to do so, and apologize for it on the plea of other appointments. CONVERSATION. Let your conversation be adapted as skillfully as may be to your company. Some men make a point of talking common- places to all ladies alike, as if a woman could only be a trifler. Others, on the contrary, seem to forget in what respects the education of a lady differs from that of a gentleman, and commit the opposite error of conversing on topics with which ladies are seldom acquainted. A woman of sense has as much right to be annoyed by the one, as a lady of ordinary educa- tion by the other. You cannot pay a finer compliment to a woman of refinement and esprit than by leading the conversa- tion into such a channel as may mark your appreciation of her superior attainments. In talking with ladies of ordinary education, avoid political, scientific, or commercial topics, and choose only such subjects as are likely to be of interest to them. Remember that people take more merest in their own affairs than in anything else which you can name. If you wish your conversation to be thoroughly agreeable, lead a mother to talk of her children, a young lady of her last ball, an au- thor of his forthcoming book, or an artist of his exhibition picture. Having furnished the topic, you need only listen ; and you are sure to be thought not omy agreeable, but thoroughly sensible and well-informed. Be careful, however, on the other hand, not always to make a point of talking to persons upon general matters relating to their professions. To show an interest in their immediate concerns is flattering ; but to converse with them too much about their own arts looks as if you thought them ignorant of other topics. Do not use a classical quotation in the presence of ladies without apologizing for, or translating it. Even this should only be done when no other phrase would so aptly express your meaning. Whether in the presence of ladies or gentle- men, much display of learning is pedantic and out of place. There is a certain distinct but subdued tone of voice which is peculiar to only well-bred persons. A ioud voice is both ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN. 599 disagreeable and vulgar. It is better to err by the use of too lew rather than too loud a tone. Remember that all “ slang” is vulgar. Do not pun. Puns unless they rise to the rank of wit- ticisms, are to be scrupulously avoided. Long arguments in general company, however entertaining to the disputants, are tiresome to the last degree to all others. You should always endeavor to prevent the conversation from dwelling too long upon one topic. Religion is a topic which should never be introduced in society. It is the one subject on which persons are most likely to differ, and least able to preserve temper. Never interrupt a person who is speaking. To listen well, is almost as great an art as to talk well. It is not enough only to listen. You must endeavor to seem in- terested in the conversation of others. It is considered extremely ill-bred when two persons whisper in society, or converse in a language with which all present are not familiar. If you have private matters to discuss, you should appoint a proper time and place to do so, without pay- ing others the ill compliment of excluding them from your conversation. If a foreigner be one of the guests at a small-party, and does not understand English sufficiently to follow what is said, good-breedmg demands that the conversation shall be carried on in his own language. If at a dinner-party, the same rule applies to those at his end of the table. If upon the entrance of a visitor you carry on the thread of a previous conversation, you should briefly recapitulate to him what has been said before he arrived. Always look, but never stare, at those with whom you con- verse. In order to meet the general needs of conversation in society, it is necessary that a man should be well acquainted with the current news and historical events of at least the last few years . Never talk upon subjects of which you know nothing, un- less it be for the ourpose of acquiring information. Many young men imagine that because they frequent exhibitions and operas they arc qualified judges of art. No mistake is more egregious or universal. Those who introduce anecdotes into their conversation are warned that these should invariably be “short, witty, elo- quent, new. and not far-fetched.” Scandal is the least excusable of all conversational vulgari- ties. In conversing with a man of rank, do not too frequently give him his title. THE PROMENADE. A well-bred man must entertain no respect for the brim of his hat. “ A bow,” says La Fontaine, “ is a note drawn at sight.” You are bound to acknowledge it immediately, and to the full amount. True politeness demands that the hat should be quite lifted from the head. On meeting friends with whom you are likely to shake hands, iemove your hat with the left hand in order to leave the right hand free. If you meet a lady in the street whom you are sufficiently intimate to address, do not stop her, but turn round and walk beside her in whichever direction she is going. When you have said all that you wish to say, you can take your leave. If you meet a lady with whom you are not particularly well acquainted, wait for her recognition before you venture to bow to her. In bowing to a lady whom you are not going to address, lift your hat with that hand which is farthest from her. For in- stance, if you pass her on the right side, use your left hand ; if on the left, use your right. If you are on horseback and wish to converse with a lady who is on foot, you must dismount and lead your horse, so as not to give her the fatigue of looking up to your level. Neither should you subject her to the impropriety of carrying on a conversation in a tone necessarily louder than is sanc- tioned in public by the laws of good breeding. When you meet friends or acquaintances in the streets, at the exhibitions, or any public places, take care not to pro- nounce their names so loudly as to attract the attention of the passers-by. Never call across the street ; and never carry on a dialogue in a public vehicle, unless your interlocutor occu- pies the seat beside your own. In walking with a lady, take charge of any small parcel, parasol, or book with which she may be encumbered. DRESS. A gentleman should always be so well dressed that his dress shall never be observed at all. Does this sound like an enig- ma? It is not meant for one. It only implies that perfect simplicity is perfect elegance, and that the true test of taste in the toilet of a gentleman is its entire harmony, unobtrusive- ness, and becomingness. If any friend should say to you, “ What a handsome waistcoat you have on ! ” you may de- pend that a less handsome waistcoat would be in better taste. If you hear it said that Mr. So-and-So wears superb jewelry, you may conclude beforehand that he wears too much. Dis- play, in short, is ever to be avoided, especially in matters of dress. The toilet is the domain of the fair sex. Let a wise man leave its graces and luxuries to his wife, daughters, or sisters, and seek to be himself appreciated for something of higher worth than the stud in his shirt or the trinkets on his chain. To be too much in the fashion is as vulgar as to be too far behind it. No really well-bred man follows every new cut that he sees in his tailor’s fashion-book. In the morning wear frock coats, double-breasted waist- coats, and trousers of light or dark colors, according to the season. In the evening, though only in the bosom of your own fam- ily, wear only black, and be as scrupulous to put on a dress coat as if you expected visitors. If you have sons, bring them up to do the same. It is the observance of these minor trifles in domestic etiquette which marks the true gentleman. For evening parties, dinner parties, and balls, wear a black dress coat, black trousers, black silk or cloth waistcoat, white cravat, white or gray kid gloves, and thin patent leather boots. <500 ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN. A black cravat may be worn in full dress, but is not so elegant as a white one. Let your jewelry be of the best, but the least gaudy descrip- tion, and wear it very sparingly. A single stud, a gold watch and guard, and one handsome ring, are as many ornaments as a gentleman can wear with propriety. It is well to remember in the choice of jewelry that mere costliness is not always the test of value ; and that an exqui- site work of art, such as a fine cameo, or a natural rarity, such as a black pearl, is a more dislingut 1 possession than a large brilliant, which any rich and tasteless vulgarian can buy as easily as yourself. For a ring, the gentleman of fine taste would prefer a precious antiqe intaglio to the handsomest dia- mond or ruby that could be bought at Tiffany’s. Of all precious stones, the opal is one of the most lovely and the least common-place. No vulgar man purchases an opal. He invariably prefers the more showy diamond, ruby, sapphire, or emerald. Unless you are a snuff-taker, never carry any but a white pocket-handkerchief. If in the morning you wear a long cravat fastened by a pin, be careful to avoid what may be called alliteration of color. We have seen a turquois pin worn in a violet-colored cravat, and the effect was frightful. Choose, if possible, complemen- tary colors, and their secondaries. For instance, if the stone in your pin be a turquois, wear it with brown, or crimson mixed with black, or black and orange. If a ruby, contrast it with shades of green. The same rule holds good with regard to the mixture and contrast of colors in your waistcoat and cravat. Thus, a buff waistcoat and a blue tie, or brown and blue, or brown and green, or brown and magenta, green and magenta, green and mauve, are all good arrangements of color. Colored shirts may be worn in the morning ; but they should be small in pattern and quiet in color. In these days of public baths and universal progress, we trust that it is unnecessary to do more than hint at the ne- cessity of the most fastidious personal cleanliness. The hair, the teeth, the nails, should be faultlessly kept ; and a soiled shirt, a dingy pocket-handkerchief, or a light waistcoat that has been worn once too often, are things to be scrupulously avoided by any man who is ambitious of preserving the ex- terior of a gentleman. RIDING AND DRIVING. riding, as in walking, give the lady the wall. If you assist a lady to mount, hold your hand at a conven- ient distance from the ground that she may place her foot in it. As she springs, you aid her by the impetus of your hand. In doing this, it is always better to agree upon a signal, that her spring and your assistance may come at the same moment. For this purpose there is no better form than the old dueling one of “ one, two, three." When the lady is in the saddle, it is your place to find the stirrup for her, and guide her left foot to it. When this is done, she rises in her seat and you assist her to draw her habit Straight. Even when a groom is present, it is more polite for the gentleman himself to perform this office for his fair compan- ion ; as it would be more polite for him to band her a chair than to have it handed by a servant. If the lady be light, you must take care not to give her too much impetus in mounting. We have known a lady nearly thrown over her horse by a misplaced zeal of this kind. If a gate has to be opened, we need hardly observe that it is your place to hold it open till the lady has passed through. In driving, a gentleman places himself with his back to the horses, and leaves the best seat for the ladies. When the carriage stops, the gentleman should alight first, in order to assist the lady. To get in and out of a carriage gracefully is a simple but important accomplishment. If there is but one step, and you are going to take your seat facing the horses, put your left foot on the step, and enter the carriage with your right in such a manner as to drop at once into your seat. If you are about to sit with your back to the horses, reverse the process. As you step into the carriage, be careful to keep your back towards the seat you are about to occupy, so as to avoid the awkwardness of turning when you are once in. A gentleman cannot be too careful to avoid stepping on ladies’ dresses when he gets in or out of a carriage. He should also beware of shutting them in with the door. MORNING AND EVENING PARTIES. Elegant morning dress, general good manners, and some acquaintance with the topics of the day and the games above named, are all the qualifications especially necessary to a gentleman at a morning party. An evening party begins about nine o’clock p.m., and ends about midnight, or somewhat later. Good-breeding neither demands that you should present yourself at the commence- ment, nor remain till the close of the evening. You come and go as may be most convenient to you, and by these means are at liberty, during ttxc height of the season when evening parties are numerous, to pi e.ient yourself at two or three houses during a single evening. At very large and fashionable receptions, the hostess is generally to be found near the door. Should you, however, find yourself separated by a dense crowd of guests, you are at liberty to recognize those who are near you, and those whom you encounter as you make your way slowly through the throng. If you are at the house of a new acquaintance and find yourself among entire strangers, remember that by so meeting under one roof you are all in a certain sense made known to one another, and should therefore converse freely, as equals. To shrink away to a side-table and affect to be absorbed in some album or illustrated work ; or, if you find one unlucky acquaintance in the room, to fasten upon him like a drowning man clinging to a spar, are gaucheties which no shyness can excuse. An easy and unembarrassed manner, and the self- possession requisite to open a conversation with those who happen to be near you, are the indispensable credentials of a well-bred man. At an evening uarty- do not remain too long in one spot ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN. 6oj To be afraid to move from one drawing-room to another is the sure sign of a neophyte in society. If you have occasion to use your handkerchief, do so as noiselessly as possible. To blow your nose as if it were a trombone, or to turn your head aside when using your hand- kerchief, are vulgarities scrupulously to be avoided. Never stand upon the hearth with your back to the fire or stove, either in a friend’s house or your own. Never offer any one the chair from which you have just 'isen, unless there be no other disengaged. If, when supper is announced, no lady has been specially placed under your care by the hostess, offer your arm to which- ever lady you may have last conversed with. If you possess any musical accomplishments, do not wait to be pressed and entreated by your hostess, but comply immedi- ately when she pays you the compliment of inviting you to play or sing. Remember, however, that only the lady of the house has the right to ask you If others do so, you can put them off in some polite way ; but must not comply till the hostess herself invites you. If you sing comic songs, be careful that they are of the most unexceptionable kind, and likely to offend neither the tastes nor prejudices of the society in which you find yourself. If the party be of a small and social kind, and those games called by the French Us jeux innocents are proposed, do not object to join in them when invited. It may be that they demand some slight exercise of wit and readiness, and that you do not feel yourself calculated to shine in them ; but it is better to seem dull than disagreeable, and those who are obliging can always find some clever neighbor to assist them in the moment of need. The game of “ consequences ” is one which unfortunately gives too much scope to liberty of expression. If you join in this game, we cannot too earnestly enjoin you never to write down one word which the most pure-minded woman present might not read aloud without a blush. Jests of an equivocal character are not only vulgar, but contemptible. Impromptu charades are frequently organized at friendly parties. Unless you have really some talent for acting and some readiness of speech, you should remember that you only put others out and expose your own inability by taking part in these entertainments. Of course, if your help is really needed and you would disoblige by refusing, you must do your best, and by doing it as quietly and coolly as possible, avoid being awkward or ridiculous. Should an impromptu polka or quadrille be got up after supper at a party where no dancing was intended, be sure not to omit putting on gloves before you stand up. It is well always to have a pair of white gloves in your pocket in case of need ; but even black are better under these circumstances than none. Even though you may take no pleasure in cards, some knowledge of the etiquette and rules belonging to the games most in vogue is necessary to you in society. Never let even politeness induce you to play for high (takes. Etiquette is the minor morality of life ; but it never should be allowed to outweigh the higher code of right and wrong. Be scrupulous to observe silence when any of the company are playing or singing. Remember that they are doing this for the amusement of the rest ; and that to talk at such a time is as ill-bred as if you were to turn your back upon a person who was talking to you, and begin a conversation with some one else. If you are yourself the performer, bear in mind that in music, as in speech, “ brevity is the soul of wit.” Two verses of a song, or four pages of a piece, are at all times enough to give pleasure. If your audience desire more they will ask for it ; and it is infinitely more flattering to be encored than to receive the thanks of you hearers, not so much in gratitude for what you have given them, but in relief that you have left off. You should try to suit your music, like your conversa- tion, to your company. A solo of Beethoven s would be as much out of place in some circles as a comic song at a Quakers’ meeting. To those who only care for the light popularities of the season, give Verdi. To connoisseurs, if you perform well enough to venture, give such music as will be likely to meet the exigencies of a fine taste. Above all, attempt nothing that you cannot execute with ease and precis- ion. In retiring from a crowded party it is unnecessary that you should seek out the hostess for the purpose of bidding her a formal good-night. By doing this you would, perhaps, remind others that it was getting late, and cause the party to break up. If you meet the lady of the house on your way to the drawing-room door, take your leave of her as unobtrusively as possible, and slip away without attracting the attention of her other guests. THE DINNER TABLE. To be acquainted with every detail of the etiquette pertain- ing to this subject is of the highest importance to every gentle- man. Ease, savoir faire , and good-breeding are nowhere more indispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence of them is nowhere more apparent. An invitation to dine should be replied to immediately, and unequivocally accepted or declined. Once accepted, nothing but an event of the last importance should cause you to fail m your engagement. To be exactly punctual is the strictest politeness on these occasions. If you are too early, you are in the way ; if too late, you spoil the dinner, annoy the hostess, and are hated by the rest of the guests. Some authorities are even of opinion that in the question of a dinner-party “never ” is better than “ late ” ; and one author has gone so far as to say, “ if you do not reach the house till dinner is served, you had better retire to a 'estaurateur’s, and thence send an apology, and not inter- rupt the harmony of the courses by awkward excuses and cold acceptance.” When the party is assembled, the mistress or master of the house will point out to each gentleman the lady whom he is to conduct to table. If she be a stranger, you had better seek an introduction ; if a previous acquaintance, take care to be near her when the dinner is announced ; offer your arm, and go down according to precedence. This order of prece- dence must be arranged by the host or hostess. ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN. When dinner is announced, the host offers his arm to the lady of most distinction, invites the rest to follow by a few words or a bow, and leads the way. The lady of the house should then follow with the gentleman who is most entitled to that honor, and the visitors follow in the order that the master of the house has previously arranged. The lady of the house frequently remains, however, till the last, that she may see her guests go down in their prescribed order ; but the plan is not a convenient one. It is much better that the hostess should be in her place as the guests enter the dining-room, in order that she may indicate their seats to them as they come in, and not find them all crowded together in uncertainty when she arrives. If cards with names are on the table seek that of the lady whom vou have taken to dinner. The number of Jfuests at a dinner-party should always be determined by the size of the table. When the party is too small, conversation flags, and a general air of desolation per- vades the table. When they are too many, every one is in- convenienced. A space of two feet should be allowed to each person. It is well to arrange a party in such wise that the number of ladies and gentlemen be equal. The lady of the house takes the head of the table. The gentleman who led her down to dinner occupies the seat on her right hand, and the gentleman next in order of precedence that on her left. The master of the house takes the foot of the table. The lady whom he escorted sits on his right hand, and the lady next in order of precedence on his left. The gentlemen who support the lady of the house should offer to relieve her of the duties of hostess. Many ladies are well pleased thus to delegate the difficulties of carving, and all gentlemen who accept invitations to dinner should be pre- pared to render such assistance when called upon. To offer to carve a dish, and then perform the office unskillfully, is an unpardonable gaucherie. Every gentleman should carve, and carve well. As soon as you are seated at table, remove your gloves, place your table napkin across your knees, and remove the roll which you find probably within it to the left side of your plate. The soup should be placed on the table first. In eating soup, remember always to take it from the side of the spoon, and to make no sound in doing so. If the servants do not go round with wine the gentlemen should help the ladies and themselves to sherry or sauterne immediately after the soup. You should never ask for a second supply of either soup or fish ; it delays the next course and keeps the table waiting. Never offer to “ assist” your neighbors to this or that dish. The word is inexpressibly vulgar — all the more vulgar for its affectation of elegance. “Shall I send you some mutton?” or “ may I help you to canvas back?” is better chosen and better bred. If you are asked to take wine, it is polite to select the same as that which your interlocutor is drinking. If you invite a lady to take wine, you shoul I ask her which she will prefer, and then take the same yourself. Should you, however, for any reason prefer some other vintage, you can take it by cour- teously requesting her permission. As soon as you are helped, begin to eat ; or, if the viands are too hot for your palate, take up your knife and fork and appear to begin. To wait for others is now not only oldr fashioned, but ill-bred. Never offer to pass on the plate to which you have been helped. In helping soup, fish, or any other dish, remember that to overfill a plate is as bad as to supply it too scantily. Silver fish-knives will now always be met with at the best tables ; but where there are none, a piece of crust should be taken in the left hand, and the fork in the right. There is no exception to this rule in eating fish. We presume it is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that he is never, under any circumstances, to convey his knife to his mouth. Peas are eaten with the fork ; tarts, curry, and puddings ;f all kinds with the spoon. Always help fish with a fish-slice, and tart and puddings with a spoon, or, if necessary, a spoon and fork. Asparagus must be helped with the asparagus-tongs. In eating asparagus, it is well to observe what others do, and act accordingly. Some very well-bred people eat it with the fingers ; others cut off tfye heads, and convey them to the mouth upon the fork. It would be difficult to say which is the more correct. In eating stone fruit, such as cherries, damsons, etc., the same rule had better be observed. Some put the stones out from the mouth into a spoon, and so convey them to the plate. Others cover the lips with the hand, drop them unseen into the palm, and so deposit them on the side of the plate. In our own opinion, the latter is the better way, as it effectually conceals the return of the stones, which is certainly the point of highest importance. Of one thing we may be sure, and that is, that they must never be dropped from the mouth to the plate. In helping sauce, always pour it on the side of the plate. If the servants do not go round with the wine (which is by far the best custom), the gentlemen at a dinner table should take upon themselves the office of helping those ladies who sit near them. Ladies take more wine in the present day than they did fifty years ago, and gentlemen should remember this, and offer it frequently. Ladies cannot very well ask for wine, but they can always decline it. At all events they do not like to be neglected, or to see gentlemen liberally helping them- selves, without observing whether their fair neighbors’ glasses are full or empty. The habit of taking wine with each other has almost wholly gone out of fashion. A gentleman may ask the lady whom he conducted down to dinner, or he may ask the lady of the house to take wine with him.- But even these last remnants of the old custom are fast falling into disuse. Unless you are a total abstainer, it is extremely uncivil to decline taking wine if you are invited to do so. In accepting, you have only to pour a little fresh wine into your glass, look at the person who invited you, bow slightly, and take a sip from the glass. It is particularly ill-bred to empty your glass on these oc- casions. Certain wines are taken with certain dishes, by old-estab- lished custom — as sherry or 6auterne, with soup and fish. ETIQUETTE FOR GENTLEMEN. 603 hock and claret, with roast meat ; punch with turtle ; cham- pagne with sweet-bread and cutlets ; port with venison ; port or burgundy, with game ; sparkling wines between the roast and the confectionery ; madeira with sweets ; port with cheese ; and for dessert, port, tokay, madeira, sherry and claret. Red wines should never be iced, even in summer. Claret and bur- gundy should always be slightly warmed ; claret-cup and champagne-cup should, of course, be iced. Instead of cooling their wines in the ice pail, some hosts introduce clear ice upon the table, broken up in small lumps, to be put inside the glasses. This cannot be too strongly rep- rehended. Melting ice can but weaken the quality and flavor of the wine. Those who desire to drink wine and water , can ask for iced water if they choose, but it savors too much of economy on the part of the host to insinuate the ice inside the glasses of his guests when the wine could be more effectually iced outside the bottle. A silver knife and fork should be placed to each guest at dessert. If you are asked to prepare fruit for a lady, be careful to do so by means of the silver knife and fork only, and never to touch it with your fingers. It is wise never to partake of any dish without knowing of what ingredients it is composed. You can always ask the ser- vant who hands it to you, and you thereby avoid all danger of having to commit the impoliteness of leaving it, and showing that you do not approve of it. j Never speak while you have anything in your mouth. I Be careful never to taste soups or puddings till you are sure jthey are sufficiently cool ; as, by disregarding this caution, you may be compelled to swallow what is dangerously hot, or be driven to the unpardonable alternative of returning it to your plate. When eating or drinking, avo : d every kind of audible testi- mony to the fact. Finger-glasses, containing water slightly warmed and per- fumed, are placed to each person at dessert. In these you may dip the tips of your fingers, wiping them afterwards on jrour table-napkin. If the finger-glass and doyley are placed on your dessert-plate, you should immediately remove the doyley to the left of your plate, and place the finger-glass upon it. By these means you leave the right for the wine- glasses. Be careful to know the shapes of the various kinds of wine- glasses commonly in use, in order that you may never put for- ward one for another. High and narrow, and very broad and shallow glasses, are used for champagne ; large, goblet-shaped glasses for burgundy and claret; ordinary wine-glasses for sherry and madeira ; green glasses for hock ; and somewhat large, bell-shaped glasses for port. Port, sherry, and madeira are decanted. Hocks and cham- pagnes appear in their native bottles. Claret and burgundy are handed around in a claret jug. Coffee and liqueurs should be handed round .vhen the des» sert has been about a quarter of an hour on the table. After this, the ladies generally retire. Should no servant be present to do so, the gentleman who is nearest the door should hold it for the ladies to pass through. When the ladies are leaving the dining-room, the gentle- men all rise in their places, and do not resume their seats till the last lady is gone. If you should unfortunately overturn or break anything, do not apologize for it. You can show your regret in your face, but it is not well-bred to put it into words. Should you injure a lady’s dress, apologize amply, and assist her, if possible, to remove all traces of the damage. To abstain from taking the last piece on the dish, or the last glass of wine in the decanter, only because it is the last, is highly ill-bred. It implies a fear that the vacancy cannot be supplied, and almost conveys an affront to your host. In summing up the little duties and laws of the table, a popular author has said that — “ The chief matter of consider- ation at the dinner-table — as, indeed, everywhere else in the life of a gentleman — is to be perfectly composed and at his ease. He speaks deliberately ; he perforins the most impor- tant act of the day as if he were performing the most ordinary. Yet there is no appearance of trifling or want of gravity in his manner, he maintains the dignity which is so becoming on so vital an occasion. He performs all the ceremonies, yet in the style of one who who performs no ceremonies at all. He goes through all the complicated duties of the scene as if he were * to the manner born.’ ” To the giver of a dinner we have but one or two remarks to offer. If he be a bachelor, he had better give his dinner at a good hotel. If a married man, he will, we presume, enter into council with his wife and his cook. In any case, however, he should always bear in mind that it is his duty to entertain his friends in the best manner that his means permit ; and that this is the least he can do to recompense them for the expenditure of time and money which they incur in accepting his invitation. In conclusion, we may observe that to sit long in the dining- room after the ladies have retired is to pay a bad compliment to the hostess and her fair visitors ; and that it is still wore* to rejoin them with a flushed face and impaired powers a| thought. A refined gentleman is always temperate. PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. i O04 O0tK im mNBMr$EMmm?mryrwiw'. I.— HOW TO ORGANIZE A DANCING PARTY OR BALL. 'S the number of guests at a dinner-party is regu- lated by the size of the table, so should the num- ber of invitations to a ball be limited by the proportions of the dancing or ball-room. A pru- dent hostess will always invite a few more guests than she really desires to entertain, in the certainty that there will be some deserters when the appointed evening comes round ; but she will at the same time remember that to overcrowd her room is to spoil the pleasure of those who love dancing, and that a party of this kind when too numerously attended is as great a failure as one at which too few are present. A room which is nearly square, yet a little longer than it is broad, will be found the most favorable for a ball. It admits of two quadrille parties, or two round dances, at the same time. In a perfectly square room this arrangement is not so practicable or pleasant. A very long and narrow room, and their number in this country is legion, is obviously of the worst shape for the purpose of dancing, and is fit only for quadrilles and country dances. The top of the ball room is the part nearest the musicians. In a private room, the top is where it would be if the room were a dining-room. It is generally at the farthest point from the door. Dancers should be careful to ascertain the top of the room before taking their places, as the top couples always lead the dances. A good floor is of the first importance in a ball-room. In a private house, nothing can be better than a smooth, well- stretched holland, with the carpet beneath. Abundance of light and free ventilation are indispensable to the spirits and comfort of the dancers. Good music is as necessary to the prosperity of a ball as good wine to the excellence of a dinner. No hostess should tax her friends for this part of the entertainment. It is the most injurious economy imaginable. Ladies who would pre- iw tw sUusu are tied to the pw»oforte r «x»d »s few amateurs have been trained in the art of playing dance music, with that strict attention to time and accent which is absolutely neces- sary to the comfort of the dancers, a total and general discon- tent is sure to be the result. To play dance music thoroughly well is a branch of the art which requires considerable prac- tice. It is as different from every other kind of playing as whale fishing is from fly fishing. Those who give private balls will do well ever to bear this in mind, and to provide skilled musicians for the evening. For a small party, a piano and cornopean make a very pleasant combination. Unless where several instruments are engaged we do not recommend the introduction of the violin ; although in some respects the finest of all solo instruments, it is apt to sound thin and shrill when employed on mere inexpressive dance tunes, and played by a mere dance player. Invitations to a ball or dance should be issued in the name of the lady of the house, and written on small note-paper of the best quality. Elegant printed forms, some of them printed in gold or silver, are to be had at every stationer’s by those who prefer them. The paper may be gilt-edged, but not colored. An invitation to a ball should be sent out at least ten days before the evening appointed. A fortnight, three weeks, and even a month may be allowed in the way of notice. Not more than two or three days should be permitted to elapse before you reply to an invitation of this kind. The reply should always be addressed to the lady of the house, and should be couched in the same person as the invitation. The following are the forms generally in use Mrs. Molyneux requests the honor of Captain Hamilton’s company at an evening party, on Monday, March the nth instant. Dancing mill begin at Nine o'clock. Thursday, March 1st Captain Hamilton has much pleasure in accepting Mrs. Molyneux * polite invitation for Monday evening, March the nth instant. Friday, March 2d. The old form of “ presenting compliments” is now out of fashion. If Mrs. Molyneux writes to Contain Hamilton in the hist PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. 605 person, as “ My dear Sir,” he is bound in etiquette to reply “ My dear Madam.” The lady who gives a ball * should endeavor to secure an equal number of dancers of both sexes. Many private parties are spoiled by the preponderance of young ladies, some of whom never get partners at all, unless they dance with each other. A room should in all cases be provided for the accommoda- tion of the ladies. In this room there ought to be several looking-glasses ; attendants to assist the fair visitors in the arrangement of their hair and dress ; and some place in which the cloaks and shawls can be laid in order, and found at a moment’s notice. It is well to affix tickets to the cloaks, giv- ing a duplicate at the same time to each lady, as at the public theaters and concert rooms. Needles and thread should also be at hand, to repair any little accident incurred in dancing. Another room should be devoted to refreshments, and kept amply supplied with coffee, lemonade, ices, wine, and biscuits during the evening. Where this cannot be arranged, the re- freshments should be handed round between the dances. The question of supper is one which so entirely depends on the means of those who give a ball or evening party, that very little can be said upon it in a treatise of this description. Where money is no object, it is of course always preferable to have the whole supper, “with all appliances and means to boot,” sen. in from some first-rate house. It spares all trouble whether to the entertainers or their servants, and relieves the hostess of every anxiety. Where circumstances render such a course imprudent, we would only observe that a home-provided supper, however simple, should be good of its kind, and abundant in quantity. Dancers are generally hungry people, and feel themselves much aggrieved if the supply of sand- wiches proves unequal to the demand. II.— BALL-ROOM TOILETTE. LADIES. The style of a lady’s dress is a matter so entirely dependent on age, means, and fashion, that we can offer but little advice upon it. Fashion is so variable, that statements which are true of it to-day may be false a month hence. Respecting no institution of modern society is it so difficult to pronounce half-a-dozen permanent rules. We may perhaps be permitted to suggest the following lead- ing principles ; but we do so with diffidence. Rich colors harmonize with rich brunette complexions and dark hair. Delicate colors are the most suitable for delicate and fragile styles of beauty. Very young ladies are never so suitably attired as in white. Ladies who dance should wear dresses of light and diaphanous materials, such as tulle , gauze, crape, net, etc., over colored silk slips. Silk dresses are not suitable for dancing. A married lady who dances only a few quadrilles may wear a decollete e silk dress with propriety. Very stout persons should never wear white. It has the effect of adding to the bulk of the figure. * Tt will be understood that we use the word “ball" to signity a [/irviue parly where there is dancing, as well as a public ball. Black and scarlet or black and violet are worn in mourn* mg. i A lady in deep mourning should not dance at all. ll However fashionable it may be to wear very long dresses^ those ladies who go to a ball with the intention of dancing and enjoying the dance, should cause their dresses to be made short enough to clear the ground. We would ask them whether it is not better to accept this slight deviation from an absurd fashion, than to appear for three parts of the evening in a torn and pinned-up skirt. Well-made shoes, whatever their color or material, and faultless gloves, are indispensable to the effect of a ball-room toilette. Much jewelry is out of place in a ball-room. Beautiful flowers, whether natural or artificial, are the loveliest orna ments that a lady can wear on these occasions. GENTLEMEN. A black suit, thin enameled boots, a white neckcloth, and white or delicate gray gloves, are the chief points of a gen- tleman’s ball-room toilette. He may wear a plain-bosomed shirt with one stud. White waistcoats are now fashionable. Much display of jewelry is no proof of good taste. A hand- some watch-chain with, perhaps, the addition of a few costly trifles suspended to it, and a single shirt-stud, are the only adornments of this kind that a gentleman should wear. A gentleman’s dress is necessarily so simple that it admits of no compromise in point of quality and style. The material should be the best that money can procure, and the fashion unexceptionable. So much of the outward man depends on his tailor, that we would urge no gentleman to economize in this matter. ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL-ROOM. On entering the ball-room, the visitor should at once seek the lady of the house, and pay his respects to her. Having done this, he may exchange salutations with such friends and acquaintances as may be in the room. If the ball be a public one, and a gentleman desires to dance with any lady to whom he is a stranger, he must apply to a member of the floor committee for an introduction. Even in private balls, no gentleman can invite a lady to dance without a previous introduction. This introduction should be effected through the lady of the house or a member of her family. No lady should accept an invitation to dance from a gen- tleman to whom she has not been introduced. In case any gentleman should commit the error of so inviting her, she should not excuse herself on the plea of a previous engage, meat or o ( fatigue, as to do so would imply that she did not herself attach due importance to the necessary ceremony of introduction. Her best reply would be to the effect that she would have much pleasure in accepting his invitation if he would procure an introduction to her. This observation may be taken as applying only to public balls. At a private party the host and hostess are sufficient guarantees for the respect- ability of their guests ; and although a gentleman would show a singular want of knowledge of the laws of society in acting Soft PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. as we have supposed, the lady who should reply to him as if he were merely an impertinent stranger in a public assembly- room would be implying an affront to her entertainers. The mere facl of being assembled together under the roof of a mutual iriend, is in itself a kind of general introduction of the guests to each other. An introduction given for the mere purpose of enabling a lady and gentleman to go through a dance together does not constitute an acquaintanceship. The lady is at liberty, should she feel like doing so, to pass the gentleman the next day without recognition. To attempt to dance without a knowledge of dancing is not only to make one’s self ridiculous, but one’s partner also. No lady or gentleman has a right to place a partner in this ab- surd position. Never forget a ball-room engagement. To do so is to com- mit an unpardonable offense against good breeding. It is not necessary that a lady or gentleman should be ac- quainted with the steps in order to walk gracefully and easily through a quadrille. An easy carriage and a knowledge of the figure is all that is requisite. A round dance, however, should on no account be attempted without a thorough know- ledge of the steps and some previous practice. No person who has not a good ear for time and tune need hope to dance well. At the conclusion of a dance the gentleman bows to his partner, and either promenades with her round the room or takes her to a seat. Where a room is set apart for refresh- ments he offers to conduct her thither. At a public ball no gentleman would, of course, permit a lady to pay for refresh- ments. Good taste forbids that a lady and gentleman should dance too frequently together at either a public or private ball. Engaged persons should be careful not to commit this con- spicuous solecism. If a lady happens to forget a previous engagement, and stands up with another partner, the gentleman whom she has thus slighted is bound to believe that she has acted from mere inadvertence, and should by no means suffer his pride to master his good temper. To cause a disagreeable scene in a private ball-room is to affront your host and hostess, and to make yourself absurd. In a public room it is no less repre- hensible. Always remember that good breeding and good temper (or the appearance of good temper) are inseparably connected. Young gentlemen are earnestly advised not to limit their conversation to remarks on the weather and the heat of the room. It is to a certain extent incumbent on them to do something more than dance when they invite a lady to join a quadrille. If it be only upon the news of the day, a gentle- man should be able to afford at least three or four observations to his partner in the course of a long half hour. Gentlemen who dance cannot be too careful not to injure the dresses of the ladies who do them the honor to stand up with them. The young men of the present day are singularly careless in this respect, and when they have tom a lady’s deli- cate skirt appear to think the mischief they have done scarcely ivorth the trouble of an apology. A gentleman conduct? his last partner to the supper-room, and having waited upon her while there, re-conducts her tc the ball-room. Never attempt to take a place in a dance which has been previously engaged. A thoughtful hostess will never introduce a bad dancer to a good one, because she has no right to punish one friend in order to oblige another. It is not customary for married persons to dance together in society. IV. — THE QUADRILLE. The Quadrille is the most universal, as it is certainly the most sociable of all fashionable dances. It admits of pleasant conversation, frequent interchange of partners, and is adapted to every age, the young or old ; the ponderous paterfamilias or his sylph-like daughter, may with equal propriety take part in its easy and elegant figures. Even an occasional blunder is of less consequence in this dance than in many others, for each personage is in some degree free as to his own move- ments, not being compelled by the continual embrace of his partner to dance either better or worse than he may find con- venient. People now generally walk through a quadrille. Nothing more than a perfect knowledge of the figure, a graceful demeanor, and a correct ear for the time of the music are requisite to enable any one to take a creditable part in this dance. As soon as a gentleman has engaged his partner for the quadrille, he should endeavor to secure as his vis-a-vis some friend or acquaintance and should then lead his partner to the top of the quadrille, provided that post of honor be still vacant . He will place the lady always at his right hand. Quadrille music is divided into eight bars for each part of the figure ; two steps should be taken in every bar ; every movement thus invariably consists of eight or four steps. It is well not to learn too many new figures : the memory is liable to become confused among them ; besides which, it is doubtful whether your partner, or your vis-a-vis, is as learned in the matter as yourself. Masters are extremely fond of in- venting and teaching new figures ; but you will do well to confine your attention to a few simple and universally received sets, which you will find quite sufficient for your purpose. We begin with the oldest and most common, the FIRST SET OF QUADRILLES. First Figure.— Le Pantalon. The couples at the top and bottom of the quadrille cross to each other’s places in eight steps, occupying four bars of the time ; re-cross immediately to their own places, which com- pletes the movement of eight bars. This is called the Ckaine Anglaise. The gentleman always keeps to the right of vis-ti- vis lady in crossing, thus placing her inside. Set to partners, or balancez ; turn your partners. (This oc- cupies the second eight bars.) Ladies chain, or chaine des dames. (Eight bars more.) Each couple crosses to opposite couple’s place, gentleman giving his hand to his partner : this is called half-promenade. Couples recross right and left to PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. 6oj their places, without giving hands, which completes another eight bars, and ends the figure. The side couples repeat what the top and bottom couples have done. Second Figure. — L'Et6. The ladies in all the top couples, and their vis-a-vis gentle- men, advance four steps, and retire the same, repeating this movement once again, which makes the first eight bars. Top ladies and vis-a-vis gentlemen cross to each other’s places ; advance four steps ; retreat ditto ; cross back towards partners, who set to them as they advance ; turn partners, which ends first half of figure. Second ladies and top vis-a-vis gentlemen execute the same movements. Then side couples begin, the privilege of com- mencement being conferred on those ladies who stand at the tight of the top couples. This figure is sometimes performed in a different manner, known as double L' Etc'. Instead of the top lady and vis-a-vis gentleman advancing alone, they advance with partners, join- ing hands ; cross and return, as in the single figure. This variation is, however, somewhat out of vogue, except (as will presently be seen) in the last figure of the quadrille, where it is still frequently introduced. Third Figure.— La Poule. Top lady and vis-a-vis gentleman cross to each other’s places, giving right hand in passing ; cross back again with left hand. (Eight bars.) The two couples form in a line, and join hands, the left hand of one holding the right hand of his or her neighbor, so that each faces different ways ; in this position all four balancez, then half promenade with partner to opposite place : top lady and vis-a-vis gentleman advance four steps and retire ditto. (2d eight bars.) Both top and bottom couples advance together, and retire the same ; then re-cross right and left to places. (3d eight bars.) Second lady and first oppos- ite gentleman repeat figure. Side couples repeat, observing same rule for commencement as in L’ Etd. Fourth Figure.— La Trenise. Top couples join hands, advance four steps and retreat ditto ; advance again, gentleman leaving lady at left hand of vis-h-vis gentleman, and retiring alone. (ist eight bars.) Two ladies advance, crossing to opposite side ; gentleman ad- vances to meet his partner, vis-h-vis lady returns to hers. (2d eight bars.) Balancez ; turns partners to places. (3d eight bars.) Second couple performs same figure ; side couples re- peat as before. If La Pastorale be preferred, it will be performed thus : — Top couples advance and retreat ; advance, gentleman leading lady to left hand of vis-h-vis gentleman ; he advances with both ladies four steps, retreating ditto ; again advancing he leaves both ladies with first gentleman, retreating alone ; top gentleman and both ladies advance and retreat ; again ad- vance, joining hands in circle, go half round, half promenade to opposite places, then return right and left to their own. Second couples and side couples repeat as before. Fifth Figure.— La Finale. Begin with the grand rond or great round ; that is, the whole quadrille ; first and second couples and sides join hands all around, advance four steps, and retreat ditto. Z’£V/isnow sometimes introduced, the grand rond being repeated between each division of the figure. But it gives a greater variety and brio to the quadrille if, after the first grand rond, the follow- ing figure be performed, the galop step being used throughout. Each gentleman (at top and bottom couples) takes his lady round the waist, as for the galop ; advance four steps, retrett ditto, advance again, cross to opposite places ; advance, re- treat, re-cross to own places. Ladies chain ; half promenade across ; half right and left to places ; grand rond. Side couples repeat figure. Grand rond between each division and at the conclusion. Bow to your partners, and conduct your lady to seat. V.— THE LANCERS. The Lancers Quadrille is perhaps the most graceful and animated of any. Within the last few years it has become a great favorite in fashionable circles. It admits of much skill and elegance in executing its quick and varied figures, a correct acquaintance with which is absolutely requisite to all who take part in it. Unlike the common quadrille, the Lan- cers must be danced by four couples only in each set ; though of course there can be many sets dancing at the same time. The number being so limited, one awkward or ignorant person confuses the whole set ; therefore, it is indispensable that every one who dances in this quadrille should have a thorough mastery of its graceful intricacies. We have observed that of late it has become the fashion to substitute new tunes and new figures for the old well-known music of the Lancers Quadrille. W T e cannot consider this an improvement. The old simple melodies are peculiarly fitted to the sprightly, joy- ous character of the dance ; which is more than can be said for any of the modem substitutes. When these are used, the Lancers, in our opinion, loses its individuality and spirit, becoming almost like a common quadrille. We should be heartily glad to see the old tunes restored, once for all, to their rightful supremacy. The sets of four couples, top, opposite, and sides, having been arranged, the dance begins as follows : — ist Figure. — First lady and opposite gentleman advance and retreat ; advance again, joining their hands ; pass round each other and back to places, (ist eight bars.) Top couple join hands, and cross, opposite couple crossing at the same time, separately, outside them ; the same reversed, back to places. (2d eight bars.) All the couples balancez to corners; each gentleman turns his neighbor’s partner back to places. (3d eight bars.) Second couple repeat figure from beginning; after them side couples, those who stand to the right of top couple having always the priority, as in the common quad- rille. 2 d Figure. — First couple advance and retreat, gentleman' holding lady’s left hand ; advance again ; gentleman leaves his partner in the center of the quadrille, and retires to place, (ist eight bars.) Balancez to each other and turn to places. (2d eight bars.) Side couples join first and second couples, forming a line of four on either side. Each line advances four steps, retreats ditto ; then advances again, each gentle- man reclaiming his partner, and all turn to places- Second and side couples repeat figure in succession. CoS PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. 3 d Figure. — First lady advances four steps alone, and stops; vis-a-vis gentleman does the same ; first lady retires, facing gentleman, to whom she makes a slow profound courtesy. (The courtesy must occupy a bar or two of the music ; and as, if made with grace and dignity, it is most effective, we would recommend ladies to practice it carefully beforehand.) The gentleman at the same time bows and retires (rst eight bars). All four ladies advance to center, give right hands across to each other (which is called the double chain), and left hand to vis-a-vis gentleman ; then back again, left hands across in the middle, and right hands to partners back to places. (2d eight bars.) Second and side couples repeat figure from commence- ment. A more recent fashion for dancing this figure is as follows : Instead of one lady advancing at first, all four advance, and courtesy to each other ; then turn and courtesy to their part- ners. Ladies do the moulinet in the center ; that is, give right hands across to each other, and half round ; left hands across back again, and return to places. Gentlemen meantime all move round outside the ladies, till each has regained his place. Figure as usual repeated four times ; but the second and fourth time the gentlemen advance instead of the ladies, and bow, first to each other, then to their partners; continuing as before through the rest of the figure. 4 th Figure. — Top gentleman, taking partner’s left hand, leads her to the couple on their right, to whom they bow and courtesy (which civility must be met with the like acknowledg- ment), then cross quickly to fourth couple, and do the same. (1st eight bars.) All four couples chassez croisez right and left (gentleman invariably passing behind his partner), then turn hands ( tour des mains) back to places. (2d eight bars.) First and opposite couples right and left across and back again to places. (3d eight bars.) Second and sides repeat as usual. 5 th Figure. — This figure commences with the music. Each couple should stand ready, the gentleman facing his partner, his right hand holding hers. If every one does not start di- rectly the music begins, and does not observe strict time throughout, this somewhat intricate figure becomes hopelessly embarrassed ; but, when well danced, it is the prettiest of the set. It commences with the gratide chaine all round ; each gentleman giving his right hand to his partner at starting, his left to the next lady, then his right again, and so all round, till all have returned to their places. (This occupies sixteen bars of the music.) First couple promenade inside figure, re- turning to places with their backs turned to opposite couple. I The side couple on their right falls in immediately behind them ; the fourth couple follows, the second couple remaining in their places. A double line is thus formed — ladies on one side and gentlemen on the other. (3d eight bars.) All chassez croisez , ladies left, gentlemen right, behind partners. First Lady leads off, turning sharply round to the right ; first gentle- man does the same to the left, meeting at the bottom of the quadrille, and promenade back to places. All the ladies fol- low first lady ; all the gentlemen follow first gentleman ; and as each meets his partner at the bottom of the figure, they touch hands, then fall back in two lines — ladies on one side, gentlemen on the other — facing each other. (4th eight bars.) Four ladies join hands, advance, and retreat : four gentlemen ditto at the same time ; then each turns his partner to places (5th eight bars ) Grande chaine again. Second and side couples repeat the whole figure in succession, each couple tak- ing its turn to lead off, as the first had done. Grande chain t between each figure and in conclusion. VI.— THE LANCERS FOR SIXTEEN, OR DOUBLE LANCERS. I si Figure. — Two first ladies and visa-vis gentlemen begin at the same moment, and go through the figure as in Single Lancers. All balancez to corners ; in other words, each lady sets to gentlemen at her right, who turns her to her place. Second couples and sides repeat as usual. 2 d Figure. — First couples advance, retreat, advance again, leaving ladies in center ; set to partners and turn to places. Two side couples nearest first couples join them ; two side couples nearest second couples do the same, thus forming eight in each line. They all advance and retreat, holding hands, then turn partners to places. Repeated by second and side couples as usual. 3 d Figure. — First ladies advance and stop ; vis-a-vis gen- tlemen ditto ; courtesy profoundly, bow, and back to places. Ladies do the moulinet, gentlemen go round outside, and back to places. Or, ladies advance and courtesy to each other and then to partners ; gentlemen doing the same when the second and fourth couples begin the figure, as in Single Lancers. 4 th Figure. - First couples advance to couples on their right ; bow and courtesy ; cross to opposite side, bow and cour- tesy, chassez croisez, and return to place. Right and left to opposite places, and back again. Second couples and sides repeat figure. 5 th Figure. — Grande chaine all round, pausing at the end of every eight bars to bow and courtesy ; continue chaine back to places, which will occupy altogether thirty-two bars of the music. Figure almost the same as in Single Lancers. Both first couples lead around, side couples falling in behind, thus forming four sets of lines. Figure repeated by second and side couples ; grande chaine between each figure and at the conclusion. VII. DOUBLE QUADRILLE. This quadrille contains the same figures as the common quadrille, but so arranged that they are danced by fou r instead of two couples. All quadrille music suits it ; and it occupies just half the time of the old quadrille. It makes an agreeable variety in the movements of the dance, and is easily learned. It requires four couples. First Figure. — Pantalon. | First and second couples right and left, whilst side couple* dance the chaine Anglaise outside them. All four couples sc-, to partners and turn them. Four ladies form ladies’ chain, 01 hands across in the middle of the figure, giving first right hands, and then left, back to places. Half promenade, first and second couples do chaine Anglaise, while side couples do grande chaine round them. This leaves all in their right places, and ends figure. PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. Second Figure. — L’Etc. First lady, and lady on her right hand, perform the figure with their vis-a-vis gentlemen, as in common L' Etd ; taking care, when they cross, to make a semi-circle to the left. Second couple and second side couple repeat figure, as in com- mon L' Etd. Third Figure.— i_a Poule. Top lady and vis-a-vis gentleman, lady at her right, and her opposite gentleman, perform figure at the same time, set- ting to each other in two cross lines. Other couples follow as usual. Fourth Figure. — La Pastorale. The first and opposite couples dance the figure, not with each other, but with the couples to their right. The latter do the same with first and second couples. Fifth Figure.— Finale. Galopade all round. Top and opposite couples galopade forwards, and retreat. As they retreat side couples advance ; and, as they retreat in their turn, first and second couples gal- opade to each others places. Side couples the same. First and second couples advance again ; side couples the same as the others retreat ; first and second back to places as side couples retreat. Side couples back to places. Double chai?ie des dames, and galopade all round. Then side couples repeat figure as usual, and galop all round in conclusion. It is requisite to keep correct time and step in this quad- rille, which would otherwise become much confused. VIII. THE POLKA. The origin of this once celebrated dance is difficult to ascer- tain. It is believed by some to be of great antiquity, and to have been brought into Germany from the East. Others affirm that its origin is of more recent date, and its birthplace con- siderably nearer home. An authority on these matters re- marks : “In spite of what those professors say who proclaim themselves to have learned the Polka in Germany, or as being indebted for it to an Hungarian nobleman, we are far from placing confidence in their assertions. In our opinion Paris is Us birthplace, and its true author, undoubtedly, the now far-famed Monsieur Cellarius, for whom this offspring of his genius has gained a European celebrity.” Whatever we may be inclined to believe with regard to this disputed question, there can be no doubt of the wide-spread popularity which for many years was enjoyed by the Polka. When first introduced in 1843, it was received with enthusi- asm ; and it effected a complete revolution in the style of dancing which had prevailed up to that period. A brisk, lively character was imparted even to the steady-going quad- rille ; the old Valse a Trois Temps was pronounced insuffera- bly “ slow ” ; and its brilliant rival, the Valse h Deux Temps, which had been recently introduced, at once established the supremacy which- it has ever since maintained. The galop, which had been until this period only an occasional dance, now assumed a prominent post in every ball-room, dividing the honors with the valse. Perhaps no dance affords greater facilities for the display of 609 ignorance or skill, elegance or vulgarity, than the Polka. Tha step is simple and easily acquired, but the method of dancing it varies ad infinitum. Some persons race and romp through the dance in a manner fatiguing to themselves and dangerous to their fellow-dancers. Others (though this is more rare) drag their partner listlessly along, with a sovereign contempt alike for the requirements of the time and the spirit of the music. Some gentlemen hold their partner so tight that she is half suffocated ; others hold her so loosely that she continually slips away from them. All these extremes are equally objec- tionable, and defeat the graceful intention of the dance. It should be performed quietly, but with spirit, and always in strict time. The head and shoulders should be kept still, not jerked and turned at every step, as is the manner of some. The feet should glide swiftly along the floor — not hopping or jumping as if the boards were red-hot. You should clasp your partner lightly but firmly round the waist with your right arm. Your left hand takes her right hand ; but beware of elevat- ing your arm and hers in the air, or holding them out straight, which suggests the idea of windmills. Above all, never place your left hand on your hip or behind you. In the first place, you thus drag your partner too much forward, which makes her look ungraceful ; in the next, this attitude is never used except in casinos, and it is almost an insult to introduce it in a respectable ball-room. Let the hand which clasps your partner’s fall easily by you: side in a natural position, and keep it there. Your partner’s left hand rests on your right shoulder ; her right arm is thrown a little forwards toward your left. The Polka is danced in \ time. There are three steps in each bar ; the fourth beat is always a rest. It is next to impossible to describe in words the step of the Polka, or of any circular dance : nothing but example can correctly teach it ; and although we shall do our best to be as clear as possible, we would earnestly recommend those of our readers who desire to excel, whether in this or the following dances, to take a few lessons from some competent instructor. The gentleman starts with his left foot, the lady with her right. We shall describe the step as danced by the gentle- man the same directions, reversing the order of the feet, will apply to the lady. 1st beat . — Spring slightly on right foot, at the same tinvj shoe left foot forward. 2 d beat . — Bring right foot forward by glissade, at the same time raising left foot. 3 d beat . — Bring left foot slightly forward and fall upon it, leaving right foot raised, and the knee slightly bent, ready to begin the step at the first beat of the next bar 4 th beat . — Remain on left foot. Begin next bar with the right foot, and repeat the step to end of third beat. Begin the following bar with left foot, and so on ; commencing each bar with right or left foot alternately. The Polka is danced with a circular movement, like the Valse ; in each bar you half turn, so that by the end of the second bar, you have brought your partner completely round. The circular movement of the Polka admits of two direc- tions — from right or left or from left to right. The ordinal PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. 610 direction is from right to left. The opposite one is known as the reverse step. It is more difficult to execute, but is a pleas- ant change for skilled dancers, if they have become giddy from turning too long in one direction. In dancing the Polka, or any circular dance where a large number of couples are performing at the same time, the gen- tleman must be careful to steer his fair burden safely through the mazes of the crowded ball-room. A little watchfulness can almost always avoid collisions, and a good dancer would consider himself disgraced if any mishap occurred to a lady under his care. Keep a sharp lookout, and avoid crowded corners. Should so many couples be dancing as to render such caution impossible, stop at once and do not go on until the room has become somewhat cleared. In a few minutes others will have paused to rest, and you can then continue. Your partner will be grateful that your consideration has preserved her from the dismal plight in which we have seen some ladies emerge from this dance — their coiffeurs disordered, their dresses torn, and their cheeks crimson with fatigue and mortification, while their indignant glances plainly showed the anger they did not care to express in words, and which their reckless partner had fully deserved. A torn dress is sometimes not the heaviest penalty incurred : we have known more than one instance where ladies have been lamed for weeks through the culpable carelessness of their partners ; their tender feet having been half crushed beneath some heavy boot in one of these awk- ward collisions. This is a severe price to pay for an even- ng’s amusement, and gentlemen are bound to be cautious how they inflict it or anything approaching to it, upon their fair companions. Ladies, on the other hand will do well to re- member that by leaning heavily upon their partner’s shoulder, dragging back from his encircling arm, or otherwise impeding the freedom of his movements, they materially add to his labor and take from his pleasure in the dance. They should endeavor to lean as lightly, and give as little trouble as possi- ble ; for, however flattering to the vanity of the nobler sex may be the idea of feminine dependence, we question whether the reality, in the shape of a dead weight upon their aching arms throughout a Polka or a Valse of twenty minutes’ dura- tion, would be acceptable to even the most chivalrous among them. We have been thus minute in our instructions, because they not only apply to the Polka, but equally to all circular dances where a great number stand up to dance at the same time. We now pass on to the Mazourka. The time of the Mazourka is §, like the common valse ; but it should be played much more slowly ; if danced quickly, it becomes an unmeaning succession of hops, and its graceful character is destroyed. We describe the step as danced by the lady ; for the gen- gentleman it will be the same, with the feet reversed ; that is, for right foot read left, and so on. First Step. 1st and id beats. -Spring on left foot, sliding forward right foot at the same time, and immediately let your weight rest on the forward foot. This occupies two beats. yi beat — Spring on right foot ; this ends the bar. id bar , 1st and id beats. — Spring again on right foot, and slide forward left at same time. Rest on it a moment as be- fore during second beat ; at third beat spring on it ; which ends second bar. Continue same step throughout. You will perceive that, at the first and third beats of the time, you hop slightly, resting, during the second beats, on the foremost foot. Second Step. 1st beat. — Spring on left foot, slightly striking both heela together. id beat. — Slide right foot to the right, bending the knee. 3 d beat. — Bring the left foot up to right foot with a slight spring, raising right foot ; which ends the first bar. id bar , 1st beat. — Spring again on left foot, striking it with heel of right. id beat. — Slide right foot to the right. 3 d beat. — Fall on right foot, raising left foot behind it, which ends the second bar. Reverse the step by springing first on the right foot, and sliding the left, etc. The music generally indicates that this step should be repeated three times to the right, which occupies three bars then rest during the fourth bar, and return with reverse step to the left during the three bars which follow, resting again at the eighth bar. Third Step. 1 st beat . — Spring on left foot, and slide right foot to the right. id beat. — Rest on right foot. 3 d beat. — Spring on right foot, bringing left foot up be- hind it. id bar, 1st beat . — Spring on right foot, sliding left foot to the left. id beat. — Rest on left foot. 3 d beat.— Hop on left foot, bringing right behind as before. Continue at pleasure. The first of these three steps is most commonly used in the valse ; but the second is an agreeable change for those who may have grown giddy or weary in doing the figure en tour- mint (circular movement). Be careful not to exaggerate the slight hop at the first and third beats of each bar ; and to slide the foot gracefully for- ward, not merely to make a step, as some bad dancers do. IX. THE MAZOURKA QUADRILLE. This elegant quadrille has five figures, and can be performed by any even number of couples. The music, like the step, is that of the Mazourka. The couples are arranged as in the ordinary quadrille. Join hands aH round ; grand rond to the left (four bars), then back again to the right (four bars), employing the second step of the Mazourka. Each couple does the petit tour forwards and backwards, still using the second step, and repeating it three times to the right — then resting a bar ; three limes to the left — then resting another bar ; which occupies eight bars of the music. These figures may be considered as prelimi. nary. 1st Figure. — Top and bottom couples right and left (eight PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. 611 bars), with Redawa step ;* then they advance, the ladies cross over, the gentlemen meanwhile pass quickly round each other, and return to own places (four bars) ; petit tour forward with opposite ladies (four bars) ; right and left (eight bars) ; ad- vance again ; ths ladies return to own places, and the gentle- men pass again round each other to their own ladies (four bars ; petit tour backward (four bars). Side couples do like- wise. 2d Figure. — (Eight bars rest). Top and bottom couples advance and retire, hands joined (four bars). All cross over into opposite places, each going to each other’s left (four bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars) ; advance and retire (four bars), and return to places (four bars) ; petit tour (four bars). Side couples do likewise. 2,d Figure. — (Eight bars rest.) Top and bottom ladies cross over into opposite places (four bars) ; return, presenting left hand to each other, and right hand to partner, as in La Poule (four bars) ; pass round with partners into opposite places (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars) ; vis-a-vis couples hands across, round (six bars) ; retire (two bars) ; top and bottom ladies cross over (four bars) ; ladies cross again, giv- ing each other left hands, and right to partners (four bars). All pass round to own places (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars). 4 th Figure. — (Eight bars rest.) Top couple lead round in- side the figure (eight bars) ; petit tour forward and backward (eight bars) ; advance to opposite couple ; the gentleman turns half round without quitting his partner, and gives his left hand to opposite lady ; the two ladies join hands behind gentleman (four bars) ; in this position the three advance and retire (eight bars). The gentleman passes under the ladies’ arms ; all three pass round to the left, with second step of Mazourka, the opposite lady finishing in her own place (four bars). The top couple return to places (four bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars). Opposite couple and side couples do likewise. 5 th Figure. — (Eight bars rest.) Top and bottom couples half right and left (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars); half right and left to places (four bars) ; petit tour backward (four bars) ; vis-a-vis couples hands round to opposite places (four bars) ; petit tour forward (four bars) ; hands round to own places (four bars) ; petit tour (four bars) ; right and left (eight bars). Side couples do likewise. Finale. — Grand round all to the left, and then to the right (sixteen bars) ; grand chain, as in the Lancers, with first step of Mazourka (sixteen bars). But if there are more than eight in the quadrille, the music must be continued until all have regained their places. N.B. — Music continues during rests. X.— THE POLKA MAZOURKA. The step of this dance is, as its name implies, a mixture of the steps of the Polka and the Mazourka. The time is § quicker than that of the Mazourka. Gentleman takes his partner as in the valse. Figure en toumant. We describe the steps for the gentleman ; the lady simply reverses the order of the feet, using left foot for right throughout. 1st beat. — Rest on right foot, with left foot a little raised behind, and slide left foot to the left. 2 d beat. — Spring on the right foot, bringing it up to where left foot is, and raising the latter in front. 3 d beat. — Spring once more on right foot, passing left foot behind without touching the ground with it ; this ends first bar. 2 d bar, 1st beat. — Slide left foot to the left, as before. id beat. — Spring on right foot, as before, and bring it up to the place of left foot, raising latter at same moment. 3 d beat. — Fall on the left foot, and raise the right foot behind ; end of second bar. Begin third bar with right foot, and continue as before. You turn half round in the first three beats, and complete the circle in the second three. XI —THE REDOWA, OR REDOVA. The step of this valse somewhat resembles that of the Mazourka, and is used, as we have seen, in dancing the Ma- zourka Quadrille. It is an elegant valse, not so lively as the Polka Mazourka, but, if danced in correct time, not too slowly, is very graceful and pleasing. The step is not so diffi- cult as that of the Mazourka : it is almost a Pas de Basque, with the addition of the hop. In all these dances, which par- take of the nature of the Mazourka, it is requisite to mark distinctly the first and third beats of every bar, otherwise the peculiar character of the movement is completely lost. We describe the step for the lady as it is employed in the forward movement. 1st beat. — Stand with right foot slightly forward ; spring upon it, bringing it behind left foot, which is raised at same time. 2 d beat. — Slide your left foot forward, bending the knee. 3 d beat. — Bring your right foot, with a slight hop, up behind your left foot, raising the latter and keeping it in front. (One bar.) 1st beat. — Spring upon your left foot, passing it behind your right, and raising latter. 2 d beat. — Slide right foot forward, bending the knee. 3 d beat. — Bring left foot up to right, with slight hop, and raise right foot at same moment, keeping it in front as be- fore. When the figure en toumant (circular movement) is em- ployed, the lady begins by sliding the left foot forward, and the right foot backward. Gentleman always does the same^ with order of feet reversed. This dance has been very popular in Paris : in England it is now seldom seen. XII.— THE SCHOTTISCHE. The Schottische was introduced about the same time as the Polka Mazourka. Its origin is as uncertain as that of the Polka, and it is believed to be a very ancient national dance. It is a great favorite with the German peasantry ; and although its name, Schottische, would seem to imply that it came form • This step will be iound farther on under the head of Redowa Valse. 141 Ol 2 PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. Scotland, there is no doubt that it is essentially German alike in character and in music. The step, although easy to learn, requires great precision. We would recommend our readers to adhere throughout to the circular movement. Some dancers begin by four steps to the right, then back again, not turning until they commence the second half of the figure. But when many couples are danc- ing this practice involves a risk of collisions, and it is safer to begin at once with the figure en lournant. The second part of the step consists of a series of slight hops, which must be made exactly at the same moment by both parties, otherwise a break-down is inevitable. They should be executed as quickly as possible, so as to avoid the jigging effect which bad dancers impart to the Schottische. When well performed it is a very animated and elegant dance, forming an agreeable variety to the Polka and Valse. The time is J ; it should be played a good deal slower than the Polka ; when hurried it becomes ungraceful and vulgar. The first and third beat in each bar should be slightly marked. We proceed to describe the step as danced by the gentle- man. Slide the left foot forward ; bring right foot close behind left foot. Slide left foot forward a second time. Spring upon left foot. Then do the same with right foot. Having completed four steps, first with the left foot, and then with the right, you come to the second part, which con- sists of a series of double hops, two on each foot alternately. Hop twice on the left foot (one hop for each beat of time), and half turn round ; then twice on the right, completing the circular movement. Repeat the same through another four beats ; then resume first step through the next two bars, and continue to alternate them every second bar. You can also vary the dance at pleasure, by continuing the first step with- out changing it for the hops ; or you can likewise continue these throughout several bars in succession ; taking care, of course, to appraise your partner of your intention. Even when well and quietly danced, there is something undignified in the hopping movement of the second step ; and we have observed with satisfaction that for some time past it has been replaced by the step of the Valse h Deux Temps, which is now gener- ally used instead of the double hops. XIII.— LA VARSOVIENNE. This is a round dance for two, which, like the Polka Ma- zourka, is a combination of the steps of one or two other dances. Since the introduction of the Polka and the Ma- zourka, several dances have been invented which partake largely of the character of both. La Varsovienne is very graceful. It is not often danced now. j Take your partner as for the valse. Count three in each 1 bar. Time much the same as in Polka Mazourka. The music is generally divided into parts of sixteen bars each. The step for the gentleman is as follows in the first part : — Slide left foot to the left ; slightly spring forward with right foot, twice, leaving the left foot raised behind, in readi- ness for next step, (ist bar ) Repeat the same. (2d bar.) One polka step, during which turn. (3d bar.) Bring your right foot to the second position, and wait a whole bar. (4th bar.) Resume first step with right foot, and repeat through, out, reversing order of feet. Lady, as usual, begins with her right foot, doing the same step. Second step in second part. 1 si bar. — Gentleman, beginning with his left foot, does one polka step to the left, turning partner. 2 d bar. — Bring right foot to the second position, and bend towards it ; wait a whole bar. 3 d bat. — One polka step with right foot to the right, turn- •ng partner. 4 th bar. — Left foot to second position ; bend towards it, and wait as before. Third part. — Take three polka steps to the left. (This occupies three bars.) Bring right foot to second position, and wait one bar. Repeat the same, beginning with right foot to the right. XIV.— THE GORLITZA. This is a Polish round dance for two. Like the Varsovienne, it is now seldom seen beyond the walls of the dancing acad- emy. Perhaps one reason of its short-lived popularity is to be found in the fact that it is rather troublesome to learn, the steps being changed continually. The time is the same as the Schottische, but not quite so quick. Take your position as for the Polka. 1st bar. — One polka step to the left, beginning with left foot, and turning half round. id for. —Slide your right foot to right ; bring left foot up close behind it, as in the fifth position ; make a glissade with your right foot, ending with your left in front. 3 d bar. — Spring on your right foot, raising your left in front. Fall on your left foot, passing it behind your right foot. Glissade right with right foot, ending with left in front. 4 th bar. — Again spring on right foot, raising left in front. Fall on left foot, passing it behind right. Glissade to right, with your right foot ; end with same foot in front. Then re- peat from beginning during the next four bars, but the second time be careful to end with the left foot in front. During the last two bars you turn round, but do not move forward. The step for the lady is the same, with the order of the feet, as usual, reversed ; except, however, in the last two bars of this figure, which both begin with the same foot. The Gorlitza, like the preceding dance, is divided into parts. The first part occupies eight bars of the music ; the second sixteen bars. The step for the second part is as follows : — ist four bars. — Commence with Polka Mazourka step, with left foot to the left, and turn half round. Then do the step of Mazourka to the right, beginning with the right foot. Fall on left foot, keeping it behind right foot ; glissade with righ. foot, and end with same in front. id four bars. — Polka Mazourka with right foot to the right, and turn half round. Mazourka step with left foot to the left. Fall on right foot, keeping it behind ; glissade with left foot, bringing it behind. Repeat from beginning, which completes the sixteen bars of second half of the figure. Lady does the same steps, with order of feet reversed. PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. 613 XV. — THE VALSE A TROIS TEMPS. Forty years ago, the Valse (or as it was then pronounced, Waltz ) was a stately measure, danced with gravity and delib- eration. Each couple wheeled round and round with digni- fied composure, never interrupting the monotony of the dance by any movements forward or backward. They conse- quently soon became giddy, although the music was not played above half as fast as the valse music of our day. We are bound to admit that this stately fashion of waltzing was in- finitely more graceful than the style which has superseded it. But having confessed so much, we may venture to add that Valse, as danced by the present generation, possesses a spirit, lightness, and variety quite unknown to its stately predecessor. Although we cannot regret the introduction of a more ani- mated style of dancing, we are sorry that the old Waltz has been so entirely given up. When restored to its original temps, the Valse a Trois Temps is nearly as spirited as the Valse a Deux ; and twice as graceful. It has the additional advantage over the latter, that it contains in each bar three steps to three beats of the time ; whereas the Deux Temps , as its name implies, numbers only two steps in a bar of three notes ; and is thus incorrect in time. We venture to predict that the old Waltz will, at no distant day, be restored to pub- lic favor. Gentleman takes his partner round the waist with his right arm ; his left hand holds hers, as in the Polka. Lady places left hand on his shoulder, and right hand in his left hand. Begin at once with th z figure en toumant. Time f ; one step to each beat. First beat in each bar should be slightly marked by the dancers. 1st beat. — Slide left foot backwards, towards the left. 2 d beat. — Slide your right foot past your left in same di- rection, keeping right foot behind left, and turning slightly to the right. 3 d beat. — Bring left foot up behind right (one bar). 1st beat. — Slide right foot forward toward the right. 2 d beat. — Slide left foot forward, still turning towards right. 3 d beat. — Bring right foot up to right, turning on both feet, so as to complete the circle (two bars). Remember to finish with right foot in front. Repeat from first beat of first bar. Gentleman always turns from left to right ; lady from right to left. The step of the old Waltz is simple enough ; nevertheless some practice is required to dance it really well. Remember always to slide , not to step , forward ; for the beauty of this valse consists in its gliding motion. It is not at first easy to dance swiftly and quietly at the same time ; but a little pa- tience will socto enable you to conquer that difficulty, and to do full justice to what is, in our opinion, the most perfectly graceful of all the round dances, without a single exception. XVI. THE VALSE A DEUX TEMPS. We are indebted to the mirth-loving capital of Austria for this brilliant Valse. This V alse is incorrect in time. T wo steps can never properly be made to occupy the space of three beats in the music. The ear requires that each beat shall have its step. This in- accuracy in the measure has exposed the Valse a Deux Tempi to the just censure of musicians, but has never interfered with its success among dancers. We must caution our readers, however, against one mistake often made by the inexperienced. They imagine that it is unnecessary to observe any rule of time in this dance, and are perfectly careless whether they begin the step at the beginning, end, or middle of the bar. This is quite inadmissible. Every bar must contain within its three beats two steps. These steps must begin and end strictly with the beginning and end of each bar ; otherwise a hopeless confusion of the measure will ensue. Precision in this matter is the more requisite, because of the peculiarity in the meas- ure. If the first step-in each bar be not strongly marked, the valse measure has no chance of making itself apparent ; and the dance becomes a meaningless galop. The step contains two movements, a glissade and a chassez, following each other quickly in the same direction. Gentle- man begins as usual with his left foot ; lady with her right. 1st beat. — Glissade to the left with left foot. id and 3 d beats. — Chassez in the same direction with right foot ; do not turn in this first bar. id bar , 1 st beat - — Slide right foot backwards, turning half round. id and 3 d beats . — Pass left foot behind right, and chassez forward with it, turning half round to complete the figure en toumant. Finish with right foot in front, and begin over again with left foot. There is no variation in this step ; but you can vary the movement by going backward or forward at pleasure, instead of continuing the rotary motion. The Valse a Deux Temps , like the Polka, admits of a reverse step ; but it looks awkward unless executed to perfection. The first requisite in this Valse is to avoid all jumping movements. The feet must glide smoothly and swiftly over the floor, and be raised from it as little as possible. Being so very quick a dance, it must be performed quietly, otherwise it is liable to become ungraceful and vulgar. The steps should be short, and the knees slightly bent. As the movement is necessarily very rapid, the danger of collision is proportionately increased ; and gentlemen will do well to remember and act upon this hint. They should also be scrupulous not to attempt to conduce a lady through this valse until they have thoroughly mastered the step and well practiced the figure en toumant. Awkward- ness or inexperience doubles the risks of a collision ; which, in this extremely rapid dance, might be attended with serious consequences. The Deux Temps is a somewhat fatiguing valse, and after two or three turns around the room, the gentleman should pause to allow his partner to rest. He should be careful to select a lady whose height does not present too striking a con- trast to his own ; for it leoks ridiculous to see a tall man danc- ing with a short woman, or vice versd. This observation ap- plies to all round dances, but especially to the valse, in any of its forms. XVII. THE FINE STEP VALSE. The step is extremely simple. 014 - PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. XVIII.— THE GALOP. The Galop, as its name implies, is the quintessence of all the “ fast ” dances. At the time of the Polka mania it was very much in vogue, and almost as great a favorite as the Deux Temps. Although its popularity has greatly declined of late, it generally occurs twice or thrice in the programme of every ball-room ; and the music of the Galop is, like the dance itself, so gay and spirited, that we should regret to see it wholly laid aside. The step is similar to that of the Deux Temps Valse, but the time is J, and as quick as possible. Two chassez steps are made in each bar. The figure can be varied by taking four or eight steps in the same direction, or by turning with every two steps, as in the Deux Temps. Like all round dances, it admits of an unlimited number of couples. Being, perhaps, the most easy of any, every one takes part in it, and the room is generally crowded during its continuance. A special amount of care is therefore necessary on the part of the gentleman to protect his partner from acci- dents. XIX.— THE COTILLON. The Cotillon is never commenced till toward the close of the ball, at so advanced an hour that all the sober portion of the assembly have retired, and only the real lovers of dancing remain, who sometimes prolong this their favorite amusement till a late hour in the morning. It is customary for gentlemen to select their partners for the Cotillon early in the evening, while the other dances are in progress ; for, as it lasts so long a time, it is necessary to know beforehand how many ladies feel inclined to remain during its continuance. A circle of chairs is arranged round the room, the center being left clear ; the spectators stand behind the chairs, so as not to interfere with the dancers. Each gentleman leads his partner to a seat, taking another beside her. To these same seats they return after every figure, it being the etiquette of the dance that no couple should appropriate any chairs but their own, taken at the commencement. When the dancers are arranged round the room, the orchestra strikes up the spirited music of the Cotillon, which consists of a long series of valse movements at the usual tempo of the Deux Temps. There are generally several leaders of the Cotillon, who decide upon the succession of the figures. If there are many couples dancing, one leader attends upon a group of six or eight couples, to in- sure that all shall take part. We are aware of no fixed rule for the succession of the figures, which depends upon the ca- price of the leaders. A good leader will invent new combina- tions, or diversify old figures ; thus securing an almost endless variety. One of the most popular is the following : — Several gentlemen assume the names of flowers or plants, such as the honeysuckle, woodbine, ivy, etc. A lady is then requested to name her favorite flower, and the fortunate swain who bears its name springs forward and valses off with her in triumph. It is usual to make one, or at most two, turns round the room, and then restore the lady to her own partner, Who in the meantime has perhaps been the chosen one of another lady, All having regained their places, each gentle- man valses with his own partner once round the room, or re, mains sitting by her side, as she may feel inclined. Baskets filled with small bouquets are brought in. Each gentleman provides himself with a bouquet, and presents it to the lady with whom he wishes to valse. Sometimes a light pole or staff is introduced, to the top of which are attached long streamers of different colored rib- bons. A lady takes one of these to several of her fair com- panians in turn, each of whom chooses a ribbon, and, holding it firmly in her hand, follows the leading lady to the center of the room. Here they are met by an equal number of gentle- men, likewise grouped round a leader who carries the pole, while each holds a streamer of his favorite color, or that which he imagines would be selected by the dame de ses penstes. The merry groups compare notes : those who possess stream- ers of the same color pair off in couples, and valse gaily round the room, returning to places as before. Six or eight ladies, and the same number of gentlemen, form in two lines, facing each other. The leading lady throws a soft worsted ball of bright colors at the gentleman with whom she wishes to dance. He catches it, throws it back to the fair group, and valses off with his partner. Whoever catches the returning ball has the right to throw next ; and the same ceremony is repeated until all have chosen their partners, with whom they valse round the room, returning to places as usual. Sometimes a handkerchief is substituted for the ball ; but the latter is better, being more easily thrown and caught. Six or eight chairs are placed in a circle, the backs turned inwards. Ladies seat themselves in the chairs, gentlemen move slowly round in front of them. Each lady throws her handkerchief or bouquet at the gentleman with whom she wishes to dance as he passes before her ; Valse round as usual, and return to places. Sometimes a gentleman is blindfolded and placed in a chair. Two ladies take a seat on either side of him, and he is bound to make his selection without seeing the face of his partner. Having done so, he pulls the cover- ing from his eyes and valses off with her. It is a curious cir- cumstance that mistakes seldom occur, the gentleman being generally sufficiently clairvoyant to secure the partner he desires. We have here described a few of the most striking figures of the Cotillon. We might multiply them to an extent which would equally tax the patience of our readers and our own powers of remembrance, but we forbear. Gifts and souvenirs are usually freely distributed. XX.— THE SPANISH DANCE. This pretty, though now somewhat old-fashioned, dance was, before the introduction of the Deux Temps and polka, a principle feature in every ball-room. It is danced with the step and music of the old Valse a Trois Temps , played slower than the music of the Deux Temps. Sometimes the couples stand in two long parallel lines, as in a country dance ; sometimes they are arranged in a circle. The leading gentleman must be on the ladies’ side, and his partner on the gentlemen’s side. Every fourth lady and gen- tleman change places, to avoid the necessity of keeping the PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. 615 other couples waiting. The whole set can thus begin at 'he same moment. Leading gentleman and second lady advance and retreat with valse step and change places. Leading iady and second gentleman do the same at the same time. Leading gentleman and his partner advance and retreat, and change places. Sec- ond lady and gentleman do the same at the same time. Lead- ing gentleman and second lady repeat this figure, first lady and second gentleman likewise, at same time. Leading gentleman and first lady repeat same figure ; sec- ond gentleman and lady repeat at same time. All four, joining hands, advance to center and retreat. Ladies pass to the left. Repeat three times. Each gentle- man takes his partner, and the two couples valse round each other once or twice at pleasure, the second lady and gentle- man being left at the top of the figure, as in a country dance. Leading gentleman and partner repeat same figure with suc- ceeding couple to end of dance. It is obvious that there must be an equal number of couples, and that they must be arranged in sets of four, eight, sixteen, twenty, twenty-four, and so on. XXI — LA TEMPETE. La Tempete is divided into parties of four couples, like the quadrille, but their arrangement is different. Two couples stand side by side, facing their respective vis-d-vis ; there are not any side couples. As many sets of four couples can be thus arranged as the room will accommodate. Each new set turns its back upon the second line of the preceding set. Thus the dance can be the whole length of the room, but it is only the breadth of two couples. The figure is as follows : — Place two couples side by side, the lady standing at the right hand of the gentleman. Place two other couples as their vis-a-vis. Next place two couples with their backs turned to the first set ; two couples opposite them for their vis-d-vis, and continue arranging more sets of four couples, according to the number of the dancers and the size of the room. First part. — All the couples begin at the same moment, by advancing and retreating twice, with joined hands. First couples (that is all whose backs are turned to the top of the room), cross with hands joined to the places of their vis-d-vis. The latter cross at the same time, but, separating, pass out- side two couples at the top, where they join hands, return to own places, and back again to the top without separating, the top couples crossing separately at the same time outside the second couples. Top couples then join hands, and all return to their own places, second couples separating to allow the others to pass between them. Ladies and gentlemen in the center of each line join hands, giving their disengaged hands to their two vis-a-vis. All four half round to the left, then half-round back again to places. Meantime the outside lady and gentleman perform the same with their respective vis-a-vis, making a circle of two instead of four. Circle of four give hands across round ; change hands ; round once more, and back to places. Outside couples perform same figure in twos. All the sets perform the figure th ; same moment Second part. — All advance, retreat, and advance again, all the top couples passing the second couples into the next line, where they recommence the same figure, their former vis-a-vis having passed to the top, and turned round to wait for a fresh vis-d-vis , gentleman always keeping lady at his right hand. An entire change of places is thus effected, which is continued throughout this figure, until all the top lines have passed to the bottom, the bottom lines at the same time passing to the top, and then turning round, all go back again by the same method reversed, till all have regained their original places. The dance may terminate here, or the last figure may be re- peated at pleasure. When the first exchange of vis-d-vis take3 place the new lines at the top and bottom find themselves for a moment without a vis-d-vis ; but at the next move forward they are provided, and can continue the figure as above described. We extract from a contemporary the following graceful variation in the first half of this dance : — “ All ad, vance and retire twice (hands joined). All vis-d-vis couples chassez croisez en double, each gentleman retaining his partner’s left hand ; eight galop steps (four bars) ; dechassez eight steps (four bars) ; the couple on the right of the top line passing in front of the couple on the left the first time ; returning to place, passing behind. Thus, two couples are moving to the right and two to the left. This is repeated. The vis- d-vis couples do likewise at the same time. This, of course, applies to all the couples, as all commence at the same time.” La Tempete is danced to quick music in f time. The step is the same as in quadrilles, varied sometimes by the in- troduction of the galop step, when the couples cross into each others’ places or advance into the lines of the next set. XXII.— SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY AND A VIRGINNY REEL. Sir Roger de Coverley or the Virginny Reel is always intro- duced at the end of the evening, and no dance could be so well fitted to send the guests home in good humor with each other and with their hosts. We describe it as it is danced in the present day, slightly modernized to suit the taste of out time. Like the quadrille, it can be danced with equal pro priety by old or young, and is so easy that the most inexperi- enced dancer may fearlessly venture to take part in it. Form in two parallel lines ; ladies on the left, gentlemen on the right, facing their partners. All advance ; retreat (which occupies the first four bars); cross to opposite places (four bars more) ; advance and retreat (four bars) ; re-cross to places (four bars). The lady who stands at the top and the gentleman who stands at the bottom, of each line, advance towards eaoh other, courtesy and bow, and retire to places. The gentleman at the top and the lady at the bottom do the same. Lady at top and gentleman at bottom advance again, give right hands, and swing quickly round each other back to places. Gentle- man at top and lady at bottom do the same. Top lady advances, gives right hand to partner opposite, and passes behind the two gentlemen standing next to him. Then through the line and across it, giving left hand to partner, who meets her half way between the two lines, having i» the roeanUnw? 0i 6 PARTY AND BALL-ROOM ETIQUETTE. passed behind the two ladies who stood next his partner. Lady then passes behind the two ladies next lowest ; gentle- man at same time behind the two gentlemen next lowest ; and so on all down the line. At the bottom, lady gives left hand to her partner, and they promenade back to places at the top of the line. (This figure is frequently ommitted.) Top couple advance, courtesy and bow, then lady turns off to the right, gentleman to the left, each followed by the rest of her or his line. Top couple meet at the bottom of figure, join hands, and raising their arms, let all the other couples pass under them towards the top of the line, till all reach their own places, except the top, who have now become the bottom couple. Figure is repeated from the beginning, until the top couple have once more worked their way back to their orig- inal places at the top sf the line. GLOSSARY. We subjoin a Glossary of all the French words and expressions that have long since been universally accepted as the accredited phraseol- ogy of the Ball-room. A vos places, back to your own places. A la fin, at the end. A droite, to the right. A gauche, to the left. Balancer, set to your partners. Balancez aux coins, set to the corners. Balancez quatre en ligne, four dancers set in a line, joining hands , as in La Poule. Balancez en moulinet, gentlemen and their partners give each other right hands across , and balancez in the form of a cross. Balancez et tour des mains, all set to partners , and turn to places. ( See Tour des mains.) Ballotez, do the same four times without changing your places. Chaine Anglaise, opposite couples right and left. Chaine des dames, ladies' chain. Chaine Anglaise double, double right and left. Chaine des dames double, all the ladies perform the ladies’ chain at the same time. Chassez croisez, do the chass£ step from left to right , or right to left , the lady passing before the gentleman in the opposite direction , that is, moving right if he moves left, and vice versa. Chassez croisez et dechassez, change places with partners , ladies pass- ing in front , first to the right , then to the left , back to places. It may be either il quatie— four couples— or les huit — eight couples. Chassez k droite — h gauche, move to the right — to the left. Le cavalier seul, gentleman advances alone. Les cavaliers seuls deux fois, gentlemen advance and retire twice with- out their partners. Changez vos dames, change partners. Contre partie pour les autres, the other dancers do the same figure. Demi promenade, half promenade. Demi chaine Anglaise, half right and left. Demi moulinet .ladies all advance to center , right hands across , and back to places. Demi tour a quatre, four hands half round. Dos-4-dos, lady and opposite gentleman advance, pass round each other back to back , and return to places. Les dames en moulinet, ladies give right hands across to each other , half round, and back again with left hands. Les dames donnent la main droit— gauche — 4 leurs cavalier, ladies give the right — left— hands to partners. En avant deux et en arrit-re, first lady and vis-4-vis gentleman advance and retire. To secure brevity, en avant is always understood to im- ply en arrifere when the latter is not expressed. En avant deux fois, advance and retreat twice. En avant quatre, first couple and their vis-i-vis advance and retire. En avant trois, three advance and retire, as in La Pastorale. Figurez devant, dance before. Figurez & droite — k gauche, dance to the right— to the left. La grande tour de rond, all join hands and dance completely round the figure in a circle back to places. Le grand rond, all join hands, and advance and retreat twice, as in La Finale. Le grand quatre, all eight couples form into squares. La grande chaine, all Ike couples move quite round the figure, giving alternately the right and left hand to each in succession, beginning with the right , until all have regained their places, as in last figure of the Lancers. La grande promenade, all eight ( or more ) couples promenade all around tke figure back to places. La main, the hand. La meme pour les cavaliers, gentlemen do the same. Le moulinet, hand across. The figure will explain whether it is the gentlemen, or the ladies, or both, who are to perform it. Pas de Allemande, tke gentleman turns his partner under each arm in succession. Pas de Basque, a kind of sliding step forward, performed with both feet alternately in quick succession. Used in the Redowa and other dances. Comes from the South of France. Glissade, a sliding step. Le Tiroir , first couple cross with hands joined to opposite couple' s place , opposite couple crossing separately outside them; then cross back to places, same figure reversed. Tour des mains, give both hands to partner , and turn her round with- out quitting your places . Tour sur place, the same. Tournez vos dames, the same. Tour aux coins, turn at the corners, as in the Caledonians , each gentle- man turning the lady who stands nearest his left hand, and immed- iately returning to his own place. Traversez, cross over to opposite place. Retraversez, cross back again. Traversez deux, en donnant la main droite, lady and vis-i-vis gentle- tnan cross, giving right hand , as in La Poult , Vis-l-vis, opposite. Figure en tournant, circular form. ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. 617 FIRST STEPS IN COURTSHIP. T would be out of place in these pages to grapple with a subject so large as that of Love in its various phases : a theme that must be left to poets, novelists, and moralists to dilate upon. It is sufficient for our purpose to recognize the existence of this, the most universal — the most powerful — of human passions, when venturing to offer our counsel and guidance to those of both sexes who, under its promptings, have resolved to become votaries of Hymen, but who, from imperfect knowledge of conven- tional usages, are naturally apprehensive that at every step they take they may render themselves liable to misconception, ridicule, or censure. We will take it for granted, then, that a gentleman has in one way or another become fascinated by a fair lady — possibly a recent acquaintance — whom he is most anxious to know more particularly. His heart already feels “ the inly touch of love,” and his most ardent wish is to have that love returned. At this point we venture to give him a word of serious advice. We urge him, before he ventures to take any step towards the pursuit of this object, to consider well his position and prospects in life, and reflect whether they are such as to justify him in deliberately seeking to win the young lady’s affections, with the view of making her his wife at no distant period. Should he, after such a review of his affairs, feel satisfied that he can proceed honorably, he may then use fair opportunities to ascertain the estimation in which the young lady, as well as her family, is held by friends. It is perhaps needless to add, that all possible delicacy and caution must be observed in making such inquiries, so as to avoid compromis- ing the lady herself in the slightest degree. When he has satisfied himself on this head, ana found no insurmountable impediment in his way, his next endeavor will be, through the mediation of a common friend, to procure an introduction to the lady’s family. Those who undertake such an office incur UO slight responsibility,, and are, of course, expected to be scrupulously careful in performing it, and to communicate all they happen to know affecting the character and circumstances of the individual they introduce. We will now reverse the picture, and see how matters stand on the fair one’s side. First, let us hope that the inclination is mutual ; at all events that the lady views her admirer with preference, that she deems him not unworthy of her favorable regard, and that his attentions are agreeable to her. It is true her heart may not yet be won : she has to be wooed ; and what fair daughter of Eve has not hailed with rapture that brightest day in the springtide of her life ? She has probably first met the gentle- man at a ball, or other festive occasion, where the excitement of the scene has reflected on every object around a roseate tint. We are to suppose, of course, that in looks, manners, and address, her incipient admirer is not below her ideal standard in gentlemanly attributes. His respectful approaches to her — in soliciting her hand as a partner in the dance, etc. — have first awakened on her part a slight feeling of interest towards him. This mutual feeling of interest, once established, soon “grows by what it feeds on.” The exaltation of the whole scene favors its development, and it can hardly be won- dered at if both parties leave iudgment “out in the cold” while enjoying r^ch other’s society, and possibly already pleas- antly occupied in building “ castles in the air.” Whatever may eventually come of it, the fair one is conscious for the nonce of being unusually happy. This emotion is not likely to be diminished when she finds herself the object of general attention — accompanied, it may be, by the display of a little envy among rival beauties — owing to the assiduous homage of her admirer. At length, prudence whispers that he is to her, as yet, a comparative stranger ; and with a modest reserve she endeavors to retire from his observation, so as not to seem to encourage his attentions. The gentleman’s ardor, however, is not to be thus checked ; he again solicits her to be his partner in a dance. She finds it hard, very hard, to refuse him ; and both, yielding at last to the alluring influences by which they are surrounded, discover at the moment of parting that 6i8 ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. a new and delightful sensation has been awakened in their hearts. At a juncture so critical in the life of a young, inexperi- enced woman as that when she begins to form an attachment for one of the opposite sex — at a moment when she needs the very best advice, accompanied with a considerate regard for her overwrought feelings — the very best course she can take is to confide the secret of her heart to that truest and most loving of friends — her mother. Fortunate is the daughter who has not been deprived of that wisest and tenderest of counselors — whose experience of life, whose prudence and sagacity, whose anxious care and appreciation of her child’s sentiments, and whose awakened recollections of her own trysting days, qualify and entitle her, above all other beings, to counsel and com- fort her trusting child, and to claim her confidence. Let the timid girl then pour forth into her mother’s ear the flood of her pent-up feelings. Let her endeavor to distrust her own judgment, and seek hope, guidance, and support from one who, she well knows, will not deceive or mislead her. The confidence thus established will be productive of the most beneficial results — by securing the daughter’s obedience to her parent’s advice, and her willing adoption of the observances prescribed by etiquette, which, as the courtship progresses, that parent will not faS to recommend as strictly essential in this phase of life. Where a young woman has had the mis- fortune to be deprived of her mother, she should at such a period endeavor to find her next best counselor in some female relative, or other trustworthy friend. We are to suppose that favorable opportunities for meeting have occurred, until, by and by, both the lady and her ad- mirer have come to regard each other with such warm feelings of inclination as to have a constant craving for each other’s society. Other eyes have in the meantime not failed to notice the symptoms of a growing attachment ; and some “ kind friends ” have, no doubt, even set them down as already engaged. The admirer of the fair one is, indeed, so much enamored as to be unable longer to retain his secret within his own breast ; and not being without hope that his attachment is reciprocated, resolves on seeking an introduction to the lady’s family preparatory to his making a formal declaration of love. It is possible, however, that the lover’s endeavors to pro- cure the desired introduction may fail of success, although where no material difference of social position exists, this difficulty will be found to occur less frequently than might at first be supposed. He must then discreetly adopt measures to bring himself, in some degree, under the fair one’s notice : such, for instance, as attending the place of worship which she frequents, meeting her, so often as to be manifestly for the purpose, in the course of her promenades, etc. He will thus soon be able to judge — even without speaking to the lady — whether his further attentions will be distasteful to her. The signs of this on the lady’s part, though of the most trifling nature, and in no way compromising her, will be un- mistakable : for, as the poet tells us in speaking of the sex : — “ He gave them but one tongue to say us ‘ Nay,’ And two lend eyes to grant * ” Should her demeanor be decidedly discouraging, any perse- verance on his part would be ungentlemanly and highly inde- corous. But, on the other hand, should a timid blush intimate doubt, or a gentle smile lurking in the half-dropped eye give pleasing challenge to further parley, when possible he may venture to write — not to the lady — that would be the opening of a clandestine correspondence ; an unworthy course, where every act should be open and straightforward, as tending to manly and honorable ends — but to the father or guardian, through the agency of a common friend where feasible, or, in some instances, to the party at whose residence the lady may be staying. In his letter he ought first to state his posi- tion in life and prospects, as well as mention his family con- nections ; and then request permission '.o visit the family, as a preliminary step to paying his addresses to the object of his admiration. By this course he in no wise compromises either himself or the lady, but leaves open to both, at any future period, an opportunity of retiring from the position of courtship taken up on the one side, and of receiving addresses on the other, without laying either party open to the accusation of fickle- ness or jilting. ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP. In whatever way the attachment may have originated, whether resulting from old association or from a recent ac- quaintanceship between the lovers, we will assume that the courtship is so far in a favorable train that the lady’s admirer has succeeded in obtaining an introduction to her family, and that he is about to be received in their domestic circle on the footing of a welcome visitor, if not yet in the light of a pro- bationary suitor. In the first place, matters will in all probability be found to amble on so calmly, that the enamored pair may seldom find it needful to consult the rules of etiejuette ; but in the latter, its rules must be attentively observed, or “ the course of true love ” will assuredly not run smooth. Young people are naturally prone to seek the company of those they love ; and as their impulses are often at such times impatient of control, etiquette prescribes cautionary rules for the purpose of averting the mischief that unchecked inter- course and incautious familiarity might give rise to. For instance, a couple known to be attached to each other should never, unless when old acquaintances, be left alone for any length of time, nor be allowed to meet in any other place than the lady's home — particularly at balls, concerts, and other public places — except in tbe presence of a third party. This, as a general rule, should be carefully observed, although exceptions may occasionally occur under special circumstances. WHAT THE LADY SHOULD OBSERVE DURING COURTSHIP. A lady should be particular during the early days of court- ship — while still retaining some clearness of mental vision — to observe the manner in which her suitor comports himself to other ladies. If he behave with ease and courtesy, without freedom or the slightest approach to license in manner or conversation ; if he never speak slightingly of the sex, and ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. 619 Is ever ready to honor its virtues and defend its weakness ; she may continue to incline towards him a willing ear. His habits and his conduct must awaken her vigilant attention before it be too late. Should he come to visit her at irregular hours ; should he exhibit a vague or wandering attention — give proofs of a want of punctuality — show disrespect for age — sneer at things sacred, or absent himself from regular at- tendance at divine service — or evince an inclination to expen- sive pleasures beyond his means, or to low and vulgar amuse- ments ; should he be foppish, eccentric, or very slovenly in his dress ; or display a frivolity of mind, and an absence of well-directed energy in his worldly pursuits ; let the young lady, we say, while there is yet time, eschew that gentleman’s acquaintance, and allow it gently to drop. The effort, at whatever cost to her feelings, must be made, if she have any regard for her future happiness and self-respect. The proper course then to take is to intimate her distate, and the causes that have given rise to it, to her parents or guardian, who will be pretty sure to sympathize with her, and to take measures for facilitating the retirement of the gentleman from his pre- tensions. WHAT THE GENTLEMAN SHOULD OBSERVE DURING COURTSHIP. It would be well also for the suitor, on his part, during the first few weeks of courtship, carefully to observe the conduct of the young lady in her own family, and the degree of esti- mation in which she is held by them, as well as among her intimate friends. If she be attentive to her duties ; respectful and affectionate to her parents ; kind and forbearing to her brothers and sisters ; not easily ruffled in temper ; if her mind be prone to cheerfulness and to hopeful aspiration, instead of to the display of a morbid anxiety and dread of coming evil ; if her pleasures and enjoyments be those which chiefly center in home ; if her words be characterized by benevolence, good- will, and charity : then we say, let him not hesitate, but hasten to enshrine so precious a gem in the casket of his affec- tions. But if, on the other hand, he should find that he has been attracted by the tricksome affectation and heartless al- lurements of a flirt, ready to bestow smiles on all, but with a heart for none ; if she who has succeeded for a time in fas- cinating him be of uneven temper, easily provoked, and slow to be appeased ; fond of showy dress, and eager for admira- tion ; ecstatic about trifles, frivolous in her tastes, and weak and wavering in performing her duties ; if her religious ob- servances are merely the formality of lip-service ; if she be petulant to her friends, pert and disrespectful to her par- ents, overbearing to her inferiors ; if pride, vanity, and affec- tation be her characteristics ; if she be inconstant in her friendships ; gaudy and slovenly, rather than neat and scru- pulously clean, in attire and personal habits ; then we counsel the gentleman to retire as speedily, but as politely, as possible from the pursuit of an object unworthy of his admiration and love ; nor dread that the lady’s friends — who must know her better than he can do — will call him to account for withdraw- ing from the field. But we will take it for granted that all goes on well ; that the parties are, on sufficient acquaintance, pleased with each other, and that the gentleman is eager to prove the sincerity of his affectionate regard by giving some substantial token of his love and homage to the fair one. This brings us to the question of PRESENTS, a point on which certain observances of etiquette must not be disregarded. A lady, for instance, cannot with propriety ac- cept presents from a gentleman previously to his having made proposals of marriage. She would by so doing incur an obli- gation at once embarrassing and unbecoming. Should, how- ever, the gentleman insist on making her a present — as of some trifling object of jewelry, etc.— there must be no secret about it. Let the young lady take an early opportunity of saying to her admirer, in the presence of her father or mother, “ I am much obliged to you for that ring (or other trinket, as the case may be) which you kindly offered me the other day, and which I shall be most happy to accept, if my parents do not object ; ” and let her say this in a manner which, while it in- creases the obligation, will divest it altogether of impropriety, from having been conferred under the sanction of her parents. We have now reached that stage in the progress of the Courtship, where budding affection, having developed into mature growth, encourages the lover to make THE PROPOSAL. When about to take this step, the suitor’s first difficulty is how to get a favorable opportunity ; and next, having got the chance, how to screw his courage up to give utterance to the “declaration.” A declaration in writing should certainly be avoided where the lover can by any possibility get at the lady’s ear. But there are cases where this is so difficult that an im- patient lover cannot be restrained from adopting the agency of a billet-doux in declaring his passion. The lady, before proposal, is generally prepared for it. It is seldom that such an avowal comes without some previous indications of look and manner on the part of the admirer which can hardly fail of being understood. She may not, in- deed, consider herself engaged; and although nearly certain of the conquest she has made, may yet have her misgivings. Some gentlemen dread to ask, lest they should be refused. Many pause just at the point, and refrain from anything like ardor in their professions of attachment until they feel confi- dent, that they may be spared the mortification and ridicule that is supposed to attach to being rejected, in addition to the pain of disappointed hope. This hesitation when the mind is made up is wrong ; but it does often occur, and we suppose ever will do so, with persons of great timidity of character By it both parties are kept needlessly on the fret, until the long-looked-for opportunity unexpectedly arrives, when the flood-gates of feeling are loosened, and the full tide of mutual affection gushes forth uncontrolled. It is, however, at this moment — the agony-point to the embarrassed lover, who “ doats yet doubts” — whose suppressed feelings rendered him morbidly sensitive— that a lady should be. especially careful lest any show of either prudery or coquetry on her part should lose to her forever the object of her choice. True love is generally delicate and timid, and may easily be scared by a £• 020 ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. fected indifference, through feelings of wounded pride. A lover needs very little to assure him of the reciprocation of his attachment : a glance, a single pressure of the hand, a whis- pered syllable, on the part of the loved one, will suffice to con- firm his hopes, REFUSAL BY THE YOUNG LADY. When a lady rejects the proposal of a gentleman, her behavior should be characterized by the most delicate feeling toward sone who, in offering her his hand, has proved his desire to confer upon her, by this implied preference for her above all other women, the greatest honor it is in his power to offer. Therefore, if she have no love for him. she ought at least to evince a tender regard for his feelings ; and in the event of her being previously engaged, should at once acquaint him with the fact. No right-minded man would desire to persist in a suit, when he well knew that the object of his admiration had already disposed of her heart. When a gentleman makes an offer of his hand by letter, the letter must be answered, and certainly not returned, should the answer be a refusal ; unless, indeed, when from a previous repulse, or some other particular and special circumstance, such an offer may be regarded by the lady or her relatives as presumptuous and intrusive. Under such circumstances, the letter may be placed by the lady in the hands of her parents or guardian, to be dealt with by them as they may deem most advisable. No woman of proper feeling would regard her rejection of an offer of marriage from a worthy man as a matter of tri- umph ; her feeling on such an occasion should be one of regretful sympathy with him for the pain she is unavoidably compelled to inflict. Nor should such a rejection be unaccompanied with some degree of self-examination on her part, to discern whether any lightness of demeanor or tendency to flirtation may have given rise to a false hope of her favoring his suit. At all events, no lady should ever treat the man who has so honored her with the slightest disrespect or frivolous disregard, nor ever unfeelingly parade a more favored suitor before one whom she has refused. CONDUCT OF THE GENTLEMAN WHEN HIS ADDRESSES ARE REJECTED. The conduct of the gentleman under such distressing cir- cumstances should be characterized by extreme delicacy and a chivalrous resolve to avoid occasioning any possible annoyance or uneasiness to the fair author of his pain. If, however, he should have reason to suppose that his rejection has resulted from mere indifference to his suit, he need not altogether retire from the field, but may endeavor to kindle a feeling of regard and sympathy for the patient endurance of his disap- pointment, and for his continued but respectful endeavors to please the lukewarm fair one. But in case of avowed or evi- dent preference for another, it becomes imperative upon him, as a gentleman, to withdraw at once, and so relieve the lady of any obstacle, that his presence or pretensions may occasion, to the furtherance of her obvious wishes. A pertinacious con- tinuance of his attentions, on the part of one who has been distinctly rejected, is an insult deserving of the severest repro- bation. Although the weakness of her sex, which ought to be her protection, frequently prevents a woman from forcibly breaking off an acquaintance thus annoyingly forced upon her, she rarely fails to resent such impertinence by that sharpest of woman’s weapons, a keen-edged but courteous ridicule, which few men can bear up against. REFUSAL BY THE LADY’S PARENTS OR GUARDIANS. It may happen that both the lady and her suitor are willing, but that the parents or guardians of the former, on being re- ferred to, deem the connection unfitting, and refuse their con- sent. In this state of matters, the first thing a man of sense, proper feeling, and candor should do, is to endeavor to learn the objections of the parents, to see whether they cannot be removed. If they are based on his present insufficiency of means, a lover of a persevering spirit may effect much in removing apprehension on that score, by cheerfully submit- ting to a reasonable time of probation, in the hope of amelio- ration in his worldly circumstances. Happiness delayed will be none the less precious when love has stood the test of con- stancy and the trial of time. Should the objection be founded on inequality of social position, the parties, if young, may wait until matured age shall ripen their judgment and place the future more at their own disposal. A clandestine mar- riage should be peremptorily declined. In too many cases it is a fraud committed by an elder and more experienced party upon one whose ignorance of the world’s ways, and whose confiding tenderness appeal to him for protection even against himself. In nearly all the instances we have known of such marriages, the result proved the step to have been ill-judged, imprudent, and highly injurious to the reputation of one party, and in the long run detrimental to the happiness of both. CONDUCT OF THE ENGAGED COUPLE. The conduct of the bridegroom-elect should be marked by a gallant and affectionate assiduity towards his lady-love — a denouement easily felt and understood, but not so easy to de- fine. That of the lady towards him should manifest delicacy, tenderness, and confidence : while looking for his thorough devotion to herself, she should not captiously take offense and show airs at his showing the same kind of attention to other ladies as she, in her turn, would not hesitate to receive from the other sex. In the behavior of a gentleman towards his betrothed in public, little difference should be perceptible from his demeanor to other ladies, except in those minute attentions which none but those who love can properly understand oi appreciate. In private, the slightest approach to indecorous familiarity must be avoided ; indeed it is pretty certain to be resented by every woman who deserves to be a bride. The lady’s honor is now in her lover’s hands, and he should never forget in his demeanor to and before her that that lady is to be his future wife. It is the privilege of the betrothed lover, as it is also his ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. 621 duty, to give advice to the fair one who now implicitly con- fides in him. Should he detect a fault, should he observe failings which he would wish removed or amended, let him avail himself of this season, so favorable for the frank inter- change of thought between the betrothed pair, to urge their correction. He will find a ready listener ; and any judicious counsel offered to her by him will now be gratefully received, and remembered in after life. After marriage it may be too late ; for advice on trivial points of conduct may then not im- probably be resented by the wife as an unnecessary interfer- ence ; now, the fair and loving creature is disposed like pliant wax in his hands to mold herself to his reasonable wishes in all things. CONDUCT OF THE LADY DURING HER BETROTHAL. A lady is not expected to keep aloof from society on her engagement, nor to debar herself from the customary atten- tions and courtesies of her male acquaintances generally ; but sne should, while accepting them cheerfully, maintain such a prudent reserve, as to intimate that they are viewed by her as mere acts of ordinary courtesy and friendship. In all places of public amusement — at balls, the opera, etc. — fora lady to be seen with any other cavalier than her avowed lover, in close attendance upon her, would expose her to the imputation of flirtation. She will naturally take pains at such a period to observe the taste of her lover in regard to her costume, and strive carefully to follow it, for all men desire to have their taste and wishes on such apparent trifles gratified. She should at the same time observe much delicacy in regard to dress, and be careful to avoid any unseemly display of her charms ; lovers are naturally jealous of observation under such circumstances. It is a mistake not seldom made by women, to suppose their 6uitors will be pleased by the glowing admiration expressed by other men for the object of their passion. Most lovers, on the contrary, we believe, wonld prefer to withdraw their prize from general observation until the happy moment for their union has arrived. CONDUCT OF THE GENTLEMAN TOWARDS THE FAMILY OF HIS BETROTHED. The lover, having now secured his position, should use dis- cretion and tact in his intercourse with the lady’s family, and take care that his visits be not deemed too frequent — so as to be really inconvenient to them. He should accommodate himself as much as possible to their habits and ways, and be ever ready and attentive to consult their wishes. Marked attention, and in most cases affectionate kindness, to the lady’s mother ought to be shown ; such respectful homage will secure for him many advantages in his present position. He must not, however, presume to take his stand yet as a member of the family, nor exhibit an obtrusive familiarity in manner and conversation. Should a disruption of the engage- ment from some unexpected cause ensue, it is obvious that any such premature assumption would lead to very embarras- sing results. In short, his conduct should be such as to win for himself the esteem and affection of all the family, and dis- pose them ever to welcome and desire his presence, rather than regard him as an intruder. CONDUCT OF THE LADY ON RETIRING FROM HER ENGAGEMENT. Should this step unhappily be found necessary on the lady’s part, the truth should be spoken, and the reasons frankly given ; there must be no room left for the suspicion of its having originated in caprice or injustice. The case should be so put that the gentleman himself must see and acknowl- edge the justice of the painful decision arrived at. Incom- patible habits, ungentlemanly actions, anything tending to diminish that respect for the lover which should be felt for the husband ; inconstancy, ill-governed temper — all of which, not to mention other obvious objections — are to be considered as sufficient reasons for terminating an engagement. The communication should be made as tenderly as possible ; room may be left in mere venial cases for reformation ; but all that is done must be so managed that not the slightest shadow of fickleness or want of faith may rest upon the character of the lady. It must be remembered, however, that the termination of an engagement by a lady has the privilege of passing unchallenged ; a lady not being bound to declare any other reason than her will. Nevertheless she owes it to her own reputation that her decision should rest on a sufficient founda- tion, and be unmistakeably pronounced. CONDUCT OF THE GENTLEMAN ON RE. TIRING FROM HIS ENGAGEMENT. We hardly know how to approach this portion of our sub- ject. The reasons must be strong indeed that can sufficiently justify a man, placed in the position of an accepted suitor, in severing the ties by which he has bound himself to a lady with the avowed intention of making her his wife. His reasons for breaking off his engagement must be such as will not merely satisfy his own conscience, but will justify him in the eyes of the world. If the fault be on the lady’s side, great reserve and delicacy will be observed by any man of honor. If, on the other hand, the imperative force of circumstances, such as loss of fortune, or some other unexpected calamity to himself, may be the cause, then must the reason be clearly and fully explained, in such a manner as to soothe the painful feelings which such a result must necessarily occasion to the lady and her friends. It is scarcely necessary to point out the necessity for observing great caution in all that relates to the ante- cedents of an engagement that has been broken off ; especially the return on either side of presents and of all letters that have passed. This last allusion brings us to the consideration of CORRESPONDENCE. Letter-writing is one great test of ability and cultivation, as respects both sexes. The imperfectisus of education may be to some extent concealed or glossed over in conversation, but cannot fail to stand out conspicuously in a letter. An ill- written letter infallibly betrays the vulgarity and ignoranc* indicative of a mean social position. 629 ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. But there is something more to be guarded against than even bad writing and worse spelling in a correspondence : saying too much — writing that kind of matter which w ill not bear to be read by other eyes than those for which it was originally intended. That this is too frequently done is amply proved by the love letters often read in a court of law, the Iniost affecting passages from which occasion “ roars of laugh- ter” and the derisive comments of merry-making counsel. Occurrences of this kind prove how frequently letters are not returned or burned when an affair of the heart is broken off. Correspondence between lovers should at all events be tem- pered with discretion , and on the lady’s part particularly, her affectionate expressions should not degenerate into a silly style of fondness. It is as well to remark here, that in correspondence between a couple not actually engaged, the use of Christian names in addressing each other should be avoided. DEMEANOR OF THE SUITOR DURING COURTSHIP. The manners of a gentleman are ever characterized by ur- banity and a becoming consideration for the feelings and wishes of others, and by a readiness to practice self-denial. But the very nature of courtship requires the fullest exercise of these excellent qualities on his part. The lover should carefully ac- commodate his tone and bearing, whether cheerful or serious, to the mood for the time of his lady-love, whose slightest wish must be his law. In his assiduities to her he must allow of no stint ; though hindered by time, distance, or fatigue, he must strive to make his professional and social duties bend to his homage at the shrine of love. All this can be done, moreover, by a man of excellent sense with perfect pro- priety. Indeed, the world will not only commend him for such devoted gallantry, but will be pretty sure to censure him for any short-coming in his performance of such devoirs. It is, perhaps, needless to observe that at such a period a gentleman should be scrupulously neat, without appearing par- ticular, in his attire. We shall not attempt to prescribe what he should wear, as that must, of course, depend on the times of the day when his visits are paid, and other circumstances, such as meeting a party of friends, going to the theater, etc., with the lady. SHOULD A COURTSHIP BE SHORT OR LONG? The answer to this question must depend on the previous acquaintanceship, connection, or relationship of the parties, as well as on their present circumstances, and the position of their parents. In case of relationship or old acquaintance- ship subsisting between the families, when the courtship, decla- ration, and engagement have followed each other rapidly, a short wooing is preferable to a long one, should other circum- stances not create an obstacle. Indeed, as a general rule, we are disposed strongly to recommend a short courtship. A man is never well settled in (he saddle of his fortunes until he be married. He wants spring, purpose, and aim; and, above all, he wants a kcnne as the center of his efforts. Some portion of inconvenience, therefore, may be risked to obtain this ; in fact, it often oocurs that by waiting too long the freshness of life is worn off, and that the generous glow of early feelings becomes tamed down to lukewarmness by a too prudent delaying ; while a slight sacrifice of ambition or self- indulgence on the part of the gentleman, and a little descent from pride of station on the lady’s side, might have insured years of satisfied love and happy wedded life. On the other hand, we would recommend a long courtship as advisable when — the friends on both sides favoring the match — it happens that the fortune of neither party will prudently allow an immediate marriage. The gentleman, we will sup. pose, has his way to make in his profession or business, and is desirous not to involve the object of his affection in the dis tressing inconvenience, if not the misery, of straitened means. He reflects that for a lady it is an actual degradation, how- ever love may ennoble the motive of her submission, to de- scend from her former footing in society. He feels, therefore, that this risk ought not to be incurred. For, although the noble and loving spirit of a wife might enable her to bear up cheerfully against misfortune, and by her endearments soothe the broken spirit of her husband ; yet the lover who would willfully, at the outset of wedded life, expose his devoted helpmate to the ordeal of poverty, would be deservedly scouted as selfish and unworthy. These, then, are among the circumstances which warrant a lengthened engagement, and it should be the endeavor of the lady’s friends to approve such cautious delay, and do all they can to assist the lover in his efforts to abridge it. The lady’s father should regard the lover in the light of another son added to his family, and spare no pains to promote his interests in life, while the lady’s mother should do everything in her power, by those small attentions which a mother understands so well, to make the protracted engagement agreeable to him, and as endurable as possible to her daughter. PRELIMINARY ETIQUETTE OF A WEDDING. Whether the term of courtship may have been long or short — according to the requirements of the case — the time will at last arrive for FIXING THE DAY. While it is the gentleman’s province to press for the earliest possible opportunity, it is the lady’s privilege to name the happy day ; not but that the bridegroom-elect must, after all, issue the fiat, for he has much to consider and prepare for beforehand : for instance, to settle where it will be most con- venient to spend the honeymoon — a point which must depend on the season of the year, on his own vocation, and other circumstances. At this advanced state of affairs, we must not overlook the important question of THE BRIDAL TROUSSEAU AND THE WED- DING PRESENTS. Wedding presents must be sent always to the hide, never to the bridegroom, though they be given by friends of the latter. They should be sent during the week previous to the wedding day, as it is customary to display them before the ceremony. Two cards folded in the invitation in the envelope are sent ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. 623 with the wedding invitation. The invitation is in the name of the bride’s mother, or, if she is not living, the relative or friend nearest the bride : MRS. NICHOLAS RUTH AT HOME, Tuesday , November \%th, FROM II TILL 2 O’CLOCK. No. 86 W. 47TH Street. The two cards, one large and one small, are folded in this invitation. Upon the large card is engraved : MR. and MRS. W. F. JOHNSON On the smaller one : MISS ROSIE RUTH. If the young people '* receive ” after their return from the bridal tour, and there is no wedding-day reception, the follow- ing card is sent out : MR. and MRS. W. F. JOHNSON AT HOME, Thursday , December 2Z f h, FROM II TILL 2 O’CLOCK, No. 50 E. 630 Street. Or, MR. and MRS. W. F. JOHNSON AT HOME, Thursdays in December. FROM II TILL 2 O’CLOCK. No. 50 E. 63D Street. The bridal calls are not expected to be returned until the last day of reception. The bridegroom gives to the first groomsman the control of the ceremony and money for the necessary expenses. The first groomsman presents the bouquet to the bride, leads the visitors up to the young couple for the words of congratula- tion, gives the clergyman his fee, engages the carriages, se- cures tickets, checks baggage, secures pleasant seats, if the happy pair start by rail for the “ moon ; ” and, in short, makes all arrangements. If the wedding takes place in church, the front seats in the body of the church are reserved for the relatives of the young couple. The bride must not be kept waiting. The clergy- man should be within the rails, the bridegroom and grooms- men should be in the vestry-room by the time the bride is due at the church. The bridesmaids should receive the bride in the vestibule. The bridal party meet in the vestry-room. Then the bride, leaning on the arm of her father, leads the procession ; the bridegroom, with the bride’s mother upon his arm, follows ; then groomsmen and bridesmaids in couples follow. At the altar the bridegroom receives the bride, and the cere* mony begins. The groomsmen stand behind the bridegroom, the bridesmaids behind the bride. In some churches, the bride and bridegroom remove the right hand glove ; in others it is not considered essential. The bride stands on the left of the groom. When the wedding takes place at the house of the bride, the bridal party is grouped behind folding doors or curtaim ere their friends see them. If, however, this is not convenient, they enter in the same order as in church. The first bridesmaid removes the bride’s left hand glove for the ring. After the ceremony the bride and groom go in the same carriage from the church to the house, or from the house to the railway depot or boat. The bride does not change her dress until she assumes her traveling dress. Her wedding gown is worn at the breakfast. Friends of the family should call upon the mother of the bride during the two weeks after the wedding. Mourning must not be worn at a wedding. Even in the case of a widowed mother to either of the happy pair, it is customary to wear gray, or some neutral tint. It is no longer the fashion at a wedding or wedding recep- tion to congratulate the bride ; it is the bridegroom who receives congratulations ; the bride wishes for her future hap- piness. The bride is spoken to first. The day being fixed for the wedding, the bride’s father now presents her with a sum of money for her trousseau, according to her rank in life. A few days previously to the wedding, presents are also made to the bride by relations and intimate friends, varying in amount and value according to their de- grees of relationship and friendship — such as plate, furniture, jewelry, and articles of ornament, as well as of utility, to the newly-married lady in her future station. These, together with her wedding dresses, etc., it is customary to exhibit to the intimate friends of the bride a day or two before her mar- riage. DUTY OF A BRIDEGROOM-ELECT. The bridegroom-elect has, on the eve of matrimony, no little business to transact. His first care is to look after a house suitable for his future home, and then, assisted by the taste of his chosen helpmate, to take steps to furnish it in a becoming style. He must also, if engaged in business, make arrangements for a month’s absence ; in fact, bring together all matters into a focus, so as to be readily manageable when, after the honeymoon, he shall take the reins himself. He will do wel 1 to burn most of his bachelor letters, and to part with, it may be, some few of his bachelor connections ; and he should rommunicate, in an easy, informal way, to his ac quaintances generally, the close approach of so important a change in his condition. Not to do this might hereafter lead to incoi ''enience and cause no little annoyance. We must now speak of BUYING THE RING. It is the gentleman’s business to buy the ring ; and let Jam take special care not to forget it ; for such an awkward mistake has frequently happened. The ring should be, we need jETIQUET'i E OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. 624 scarcely say, of the very purest gold, but substantial. There are three reasons for this : first, that it may not break — a source of great trouble to the young wife ; secondly, that it may not slip off the finger without being missed — few hus- bands being pleased to hear that their wives have lost their wedding rings ; and thirdly, that it may last out the lifetime of the loving recipient, even should that life be protracted to the extreme extent. To get the right size required is not one of the least interesting of the delicate mysteries of love. A not unusual method is to get a sister of the fair one to lend one of the lady’s rings to enable the jeweler to select the proper size. Care must be taken, however, that it is not too large. Some audacious suitors, rendered bold by their favored position, have been even known presumptuously to try the ring on the patient finger of the bride elect ; and it has rarely happened in such cases that the ring has been refused, or sent back to be changed. WHO SHOULD BE ASKED TO THE WEDDING. The wedding should take place at the house of the bride’s parents or guardians. The parties who ought to be asked are the father and mother of the gentleman, the brothers and sis- ters (their wives and husbands also, if married), and indeed the immediate relations and favored friends of both parties. Old family friends on the bride’s side should also, receive invi- tations — the rationale or original intention of this wedding assemblage being to give publicity to the fact that the bride is leaving her paternal home with the consent and approbation of her parents. On this occasion the bridegroom has the privilege of asking any friends he may choose to the wedding ; but no friend has a right to feel affronted at not being invited, since, were all the friends on either side assembled, the wedding breakfast would be an inconveniently crowded reception rather than an impressive ceremonial. It is, however, considered a matter of friendly attention on the part of those who cannot be in- vited, to be present at the ceremony in the church. WHO SHOULD BE BRIDESMAIDS. The bridesmaids should include the unmarried sisters of the bride ; but it is considered an anomaly for an elder sister to perform this function. The pleasing novelty for several years past of an addition to the number of bridesmaids, varying from two to eight, and sometimes more, has added greatly to the interest in weddings, the bride being thus enabled to diffuse a portion of her own happiness among the most inti- mate of her younger friends. One lady is always appointed principal bridesmaid, and has the bride in her charge ; it is also her duty to take care that the other bridesmaids have the wedding favors in readiness. On the second bmdesmaid de- volves, with her principal, the duty of sending out the cards ; and on the third bridesmaid, in conjunction with the remain- ing beauties of her choir, the onerous office of attending to certain ministrations and mysteries connected with the wed- ding cake. OF THE BRIDEGROOMSMEN. It behooves a bridegroom to be exceedingly particular in the selection of the friends who, as groomsmen, are to be his com- panions and assistants on the occasion of his wedding. Their number is limited to that of the bridesmaids ; one for each. It is unnecessary to add that very much of the social pleasure of the day will depend on their proper mating. Young and unmarried they must be, handsome they should be, good- humored they cannot fail to be, well dressed they will of course take good care to be. Let the bridegroom diligently con over his circle of friends, and select the comeliest and the pleasantest fellows for his own train. The principal bride- groomsman, styled his “ best man,” has, for the day, the special charge of the bridegroom ; and the last warning we would give him is, to take care that, when the bridegroom puts on his wedding waistcoat, he does not omit to put the wedding ring into the comer of the left-hand pocket. The dress of a groomsman should be light and elegant ; a dress coat, formerly considered indispensable, is no longer adopted. ETIQUETTE OF A WEDDING. The parties being assembled on the wedding morning in the drawing-room of the residence of the bride’s father (unless, as sometimes happens, the breakfast is spread in that room), the happy cortege should proceed to the church in the following order ; — In the first carriage, the bride’s mother and the parents of the bridegroom. In the second and third carriages, bridesmaids. Other carriages with the bride’s friends. In the last carriage, the bride and her father. COSTUME OF THE BRIDE. A bride’s costume should be white, or some hue as close as possible to it. COSTUME OF THE BRIDEGROOM. Formerly it was not considered to be in good taste for a gentleman to be married in a black coat. More latitude is now allowed in the costume of a bridegroom, the style now adopted being what is termed morning dress : a frock coat, light trowsers, white waistcoat, ornamental tie, and white or gray gloves. THE MARRIAGE CEREMONY. The bridegroom stands at the right hand of the bride. The father stands just behind her, so as to be in readiness to give her hand at the proper moment to the bridegroom. The principal bridesmaid stands on the left of the bride, ready to take off the bride’s glove, which she keeps as a perquisite and prize of her office. THE WORDS “I WILL” are to be pronounced distinctly and audibly by both parties, such being the all-important part of the ceremony as respects themselves : the public delivery, before the priest, by the father of his daughter to the bridegroom, being an evi- dence of his assent ; the silence which follows the inquiry for “ cause or just impediment ” testifying that of society in gen- eral ; and the * I will ” being the declaration of the bride and ETIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. 625 bridegroom that they are voluntary parties to their holy union in marriage. THE WORDS “HONOR AND OBEY” must also be distinctly spoken by the bride. They constitute an essential part of the obligation and contract of matrimony on her part. AFTER THE CEREMONY the clergyman usually shakes hands with the bride and bride- groom, and the bride’s father and mother, and a general con- gratulation ensues. THE RETURN HOME. The bridegroom now leads the bride out of the church, and the happy pair return homeward in the first carriage. The father and mother follow in the next. The rest “ stand not on the order of their going,” but start off in such wise as they can best contrive. THE WEDDING BREAKFAST. The bride and bridegroom sit together at the center of the table, in front of the wedding cake, the clergyman who per- formed the ceremony taking his place opposite to them. The top and bottom of the table are occupied by the father and mother of the bride. The principal bridesmaid sits to the left of the bride, and the principal bridegroomsman on the left of the bridegroom. It may not be unnecessary to say that it is customary for the ladies to wear their bonnets just as they came from the church. The bridesmaids cut the cake into small pieces, which are not eaten until the health of the bride is proposed. This is usually done by the officiating clergy- man, or by an old and cherished friend of the family of the bridegroom, 't'he bridegroom returns thanks for the bride and for himself. The health of the bride’s parents is then proposed, and is followed by those of the principal personages present, the toast of the bridesmaids being generally one of the pleasantest features of the festal ceremony. After about two hours, the principal bridesmaid leads the bride out of the room as quietly as possible, so as not to disturb the party or attract attention. Shortly after — it may be in about ten min- utes — the absence of the bride being noticed, the rest of the ladies retire. Then it is that the bridegroom has a melan- choly moments to bid adieu to his bachelor friends, and he then generally receives some hints on the subject in a short address from one of them, to which he is of course expected to re- spond. He then withdraws for a few moments, and returns after having made a slight addition to his toilet, in readiness for traveling. DEPARTURE FOR THE HONEYMOON. The young bride, divested of her bridal attire, and quietly costumed for the journey, now bids farewell to her bridesmaids and lady friends. A few tears spring to her gentle eyes as she takes a last look at the home she is now leaving. The ser- vants venture to crowd about her with their humble but heart- felt congratulations ; finally, she falls weeping on her mother’s bosom. A short cough is heard, as of some one summoning up resolution to hide emotion. It is her father. He dare* not trust his voice ; but holds out his hand, gives her an af- fectionate kiss, and then leads her, half turning back, down the stairs and through the hall, to the door, where he delivers her as a precious charge to her husband, who hands her quickly into the carriage, springs in after her, waves his hand to the party who appear crowding at the window, half smiles at the throng about the door, then, amidst a shower of old slippers— missiles of good-luck sent flying after the happy pair — gives the word, and they are off, and started on the long-hoped-f . voyage ! PRACTICAL ADVICE TO A NEWLY-MARRIED COUPLE. Our advice to the husband will be brief. Let him have no concealments from his wife, but remember that their interests are mutual ; that, as she must suffer the pains of every loss, as well as share the advantages of every success, in his career in life, she has therefore a right to know the risks she may be made to undergo. We do not say that it is necessary, or ad- visable, or even fair, to harass a wife’s mind with the details of business ; but where a change of circumstances — not for the better — is anticipated or risked, let her by all means be made acquainted with the fact in good time. Many a kind husband almost breaks his young wife’s fond heart by an alteration in his manner, which she cannot but detect, but from igno- rance of the cause very probably attributes to a wrong motive ; while he, poor fellow, all the while out of pure tenderness, is endeavoring to conceal from her tidings — which must come out at last — of ruined hopes or failure in speculation ; whereas, had she but known the danger beforehand, she would have alleviated his fears on her account, and by cheerful resignation have taken out half the sting of his disappointment. Let no man think lightly of the opinion of his wife in times of diffi- culty. Women have generally more acuteness of perception than men ; and in moments of peril, or in circumstances that involve a crisis or turning-point in life, they have usually more resolution and greater instinctive judgment. We recommend that every husband from the first should make his wife an allowance for ordinary household expenses — which he should pay weekly or monthly — and for the expendi- ture of which he should not, unless for some urgent reason, call her to account. A tolerably sure guide in estimating the amount of this item, which does not include rent, taxes, ser- vants’ wages, coals, or candles, etc., is to remember that in a small middle-class family, not exceeding four, the expense of each person for ordinary food amounts to fifteen shillings weekly ; beyond that number to ten shillings weekly for each extra person, servant or otherwise. This estimate does not, of course, provide for wine or food of a luxurious kind. The largest establishment, indeed, may be safely calculated on the same scale. A wife should also receive a stated allowance for dress, within which limit she ought always to restrict her expenses. Any excess of expenditure under this head should be left to the considerate kindness: of her husband to concede. Nothing is more contemptible than for a woman to have perpetually to ask her husband for small sums for housekeeping expenses— < 026 BTIQUETTE OF COURTSHIP AND MATRIMONY. nothing more annoying and humiliating than to have to apply to him always for money for her own private use — nothing more disgusting than to see a man “ molly-coddling ” about marketing, and rummaging about for cheap articles of all kinds. Let the husband beware, when things go wrong with him tn business affairs, of venting his bitter feelings of disappoint- ment and despair in the presence of his wife and family ; feel- ings which, while abroad, he finds it practicable to restrain. It is as unjust as it is impolitic to indulge in such a habit. A wife having married the man she loves above all others, must be expected in her turn to pay some court to him. Be- fore marriage she has, doubtless, been made his idol. Every moment he could spare, and perhaps many more than he could properly so appropriate, have been devoted to her. How anx- iously has he not revolved in his mind his worldly chances of making her happy ! How often has he not had to reflect, before he made the proposal of marriage, whether he should be acting dishonorably towards her by incurring the risk, for the selfish motive of his own gratification, of placing her in a worse position than the one she occupied at home ! And still more than this, he must have had to consider with anxiety the probability of having to provide for an increasing family, with all its concomitant expenses. We say, then, that being married, and the honeymoon over, the husband must necessarily return to his usual occupations, which will, in all probability, engage the greater part of his thoughts, for he will now be desirous to have it in his power to procure various little indulgences for his wife’s sake which he nevsr would have dreamed of for his own. He comes to his home weary and fatigued ; his young wife has had but her pleasures to gratify, or the quiet routine of her domestic duties to attend to, while he has been toiling through the day to enable her to gratify these pleasures and to fulfill these duties. Let, then, the dear, tired husband, at the close of his daily labors, be made welcome by the endearments of his loving spouse— let him be free from the care of having to satisfy the caprices of a petted wife. Let her now take her turn in pay- g those many little love-begotten attentions which married >en look for to soothe them— -let her reciprocate that devo- i>n to herself, which, from the early hours of their love, he &:rished for her, by her ever-ready endeavors to make him ^ppy and his home attractive. In the presence of other persons, however, married people %)uld refrain from fulsome expressions of endearment to each her, the use of which, although a common practice, is really mark of bad taste. It is desirable also to caution them tgainst adopting the too prevalent vulgarism of calling each tther, or indeed any person whatever, merely by the initial *tter of their surname. A married woman should always be very careful how she jfc eives personal compliments. She should never court them, nor ever feel flattered by them, whether in her husband’s presence or not. If in his presence, they can hardly fail to be distasteful to him ; if in his absence, a lady, by a dignified demeanor, may always convince an assiduous admirer that his attentions are not well received, and at once and for ever stop all familiar advances. In case oi insult, a wife should imme- diately make her husband acquainted therewith ; as the only chance of safety to a villain lies in the concealment of such things by a lady from dread of consequences to her husband. From that moment he has her at advantage, and may very likely work on deliberately to the undermining of her charac- ter. He is thus enabled to play upon her fears, and taunt her with their mutual secret and its concealment, until she may be involved, guilelessly, in a web of apparent guilt, from which she can never extricate herself without risking the happiness of her future life. Not the least useful piece of advice — homely though it be-— that we can offer to newly-married ladies, is to remind them that husbands are men, and that men must eat. We can tell them, moreover, that men attach no small importance to this very essential operation, and that a very effectual way to keep them in good humor, as well as good condition, is for wives to study their husbands’ peculiar likes and dislikes in this matter Let the wife try, therefore, if she have not already done so, to get up a little knowledge of the art of ordering dinner, to say the least of it. This task, if she be disposed to learn it, will in time be easy enough ; moreover, if in addition she should acquire some practical knowledge of cookery, she will find ample reward in the gratification it will he the means of affording her husband. Servants are difficult subjects for a young wife to handle ; she generally either spoils them by indulgence, or ruins them by finding fault unfairly. At last they either get the better of her, or she is voted too bad for them. The art lies in steady command and management of yourself as well as them. An observance of the few following rules will in all proba- bility insure a life of domestic harmony, peace, and comfort : — To hear as little as possible whatever is to the prejudice of others ; to believe nothing of the kind until you are compelled to admit the truth of it ; never to take part in the circulation of evil report and idle gossip ; always to moderate, as far as possible, harsh and unkind expressions reflecting upon others ; always to believe that if the other side were heard, a very different account might be given of the matter. In conclusion, we say emphatically to the newly-wedded wife, that attention to these practical hints will prolong her honeymoon throughout the whole period of wedded life, and cause her husband, as each year adds to the sum of his happi- ness, to bless the day when he first chose her as the nuclem round which he might consolidate the inestimable blessings of HOME. “ How fair is home, in fancy’s pictured theme, In wedded life, in love's romantic dream ! Thence springs each hope, there every spring returns. Pure