CAUSES OF 
 
 THE CONFLICT 
 
 BETWEEN 
 
 CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 BY D. H. HENDERSHOTT, 
 
 ELEVEN YEARS PRINCIPAL OF THE FIFTH WARD 
 public’ school in HORNELLSVILLE. 
 
 CANISTEO N. Y.; 
 TIMES STEAM PRINT. 
 
 1885 . 
 
/ 7 vJ? 1 "^ Jiro it^ Gi, w*.. 
 
 LXTJWTJUCTIO.y. 
 
 That the products of industry, constituting the ■\vealtli of the 
 world, arc not distributed among the producers in accordance 
 with the efforts expended by each, in their production, must be 
 apparent to ail observers. It is pliysically impossible that a single 
 individual, however industrious, skillful, or economical, can pro- 
 wealth representing a million dollars; yet there are those in 
 j)Ossessiou of that representing many millions; a considerable num- 
 ber, more than ten millions; one, it is said, two hundred millions ! 
 
 Current theories of exchange furnish no data enabling us, 
 even approximately, to estimate the amount a single individ- 
 ual cfui produce. It is probable, though not certain, that no 
 single wealth producer is in possession of one hundred thousand 
 ^ of his own production; but this opinion, based upon no well 
 established facts, may be far from correct. 
 
 ^ An analysis of the theories of distribution, shows clearly that 
 , tlic arguments advanced to prove their legitimacy, are based 
 , upon false premises. Economists prove eonelu’sivcly that the .sole 
 0 factor of value is labor. Then assuming that exchanges take 
 emplace in accordance with the relative value of the commodities 
 exchanged, they, inadvertently, perhaps, allow desires, opportun- 
 ities, opinions, and even deception to slip in, and thus value, as a 
 t— fixed entity, appears to have n-o existence. Exchanges taking 
 ^ place according to the theory of value thus modified, must, in- 
 
 0 cvitably, result in a gain to one party and consequently a lo«s to 
 5 the other, unless, indeed, the desires, opportunities, opinions, 
 
 1 and deceptions neutralize each other. Even if these interpolated 
 c factors do not favor one of the parties at the expense of the other, 
 b the real nature of value is so obscured by their admission, that 
 
 ^ its existence, as a fixed quantity is utterly ignored; therefore, 
 
4 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in exchanging commodities, their relative values have little influ- 
 ence in determining the results; each party simply seeks to get as 
 much as possible and give as little as possible. 
 
 Because, in the business world, each seeks to get much for 
 little, or something for nothing, superficial observers conclude 
 that such is the nature of man. In a certain sense, this is true: 
 in its broadest sense, the one intended, it is not true. Naturally 
 all men have Certain impulses designed by the Creator to secure 
 their self-interest; each has a desire for food — a purely animal 
 desire. This desire may be p6rverted ; it is then an evil. Even 
 though normal, the desire for food, in obedience to the higher 
 nature of man, may require restraint; he may have enough for a 
 full meal while another is starving; under such circumstances, to 
 gratify the self-desire, is evil. Henry George, a pre-eminently 
 wise economist, has well defined man as an “animal plus some- 
 thing more.” This “something more” has the sole power of 
 preventing the perversion of human desires; none of them can be 
 annihilated; they are bestowed upon man for wise and beneficient 
 purposes. The desire for food, clothing, shelter, reputation, char- 
 acter — in short the desire for wealth and happiness is not merely 
 innocent, it is laudable; it needs direction and restraint by that 
 part of man which is more than animal. 'Whether this restraint 
 will be exercised or not, depends upon tlie development of the 
 higher and nobler nature of man. Seeking to obtain, by exchange, 
 more than is given, is no more natural to man than. is theft; both 
 result from a desire to obtain wealth irres-peetive of the rights of 
 others: the former within tlie law: the latter in defiance of law : 
 botii in defiance of natural law, from which there lies no appeal. 
 Such is the nature of man that even Uiejt may seem a reputable 
 means of securing that which is desired ; the laws of Ancient 
 Sparta encouraged theft; hence stealing was tlie common practice 
 of the Spartan youtii. ' He must not, libweveP, allow hinlseif to 
 be detected in the act; if he did, he lost all the glory, and must 
 suffer punishment for his want of shrewdness. The Spartan 
 mother '■ wejit when her son returned from the field of battle; 
 while she wlrose son fell, rejoiced; The Algerian, whose ancestors 
 were pirates on the Mediterranean, deems himself grievously 
 wronged in being deprived of his inherited right to live as his 
 father lived. All history is crowded witli facts which prove con- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 clusively that the character of the people in any country is de- 
 termined by their environments. So true is this, that knowing' 
 the environments of any comir unity, one can, from these data 
 alone, quite accurately describe their general character. Very 
 little reliance, therefore, can be placed upon any theory of the na- 
 ture of man, drawn from the practices of any people. The in- 
 vestigation must not stop with any community or nation now ex- 
 isting; it must be carried througli all the history of the past. The 
 history of the past and the experience of the present show con- 
 clusively, that we have not reached that high stage of develop- 
 ment beyond which there is no higher. If any theories, eco- 
 nomic or otherwise, are assailed, they cannot be successfully de- 
 fended by merely saying, “ Such is the nature of man; ” man is- 
 not inevitably what we are. 
 
 From erroneous theories of value, irresistibly follow errone- 
 ous theories of profits, interest, rent, wages, capital, and, conse- 
 quently, of the distribution of wealth. However much the re- 
 sults may be deplored, being the legitimate fruits of current theo- 
 ries, they must be borne so long as these theories ])ievail. By 
 united efforts, one department of laborers may temj^orarily cast the 
 burden upon others ; but this will not rid the v;orld of the evil; it 
 will still be hovering around the liomes of all. The rights of 
 none are secure while those of any are menaced. “Am I my bro- 
 ther’s keeper has been derisively asked, not by Cain alone, but 
 by mankind in all ages, thus indicating that, m tiie public estima- 
 tion, individual interest is independent of the general weal. 
 Some one has said that, if an Indian, in the wilderness, strikes 
 his squaw, the universe feels the shock. This is no more improb- 
 able than that the smallest grain of sand on the seaHiore, detiects 
 from its course, the most distant star. Let no one, tlierefore, rid- 
 icule the thought, that a wrong inflicted upon the feeblest and 
 most obscure human being, is an injury to all mankind. 
 
 In the following Essays, I have given little heed to economic 
 theories set forth in the exploits of Sinbad the Sailor, or in the 
 history of Aladdin-and his wonderful lamp. I have chosen rather to- 
 disregard all magical schemes for accumulating wealth, and by trac- 
 ing principles, in their simplest manifestations, sought to elicit 
 facts by which to determine the true economic relations of the 
 wealth-producers. The arguments of economists, in general, I 
 
INTKODUCTIOK, 
 
 (J 
 
 think, justify every conelusion that I have readied, however 
 much at variance with current tlieories. When, after proving 
 with mathematical precision that labor is tlie source of all 
 wealth, they, by the mere use of such terms as ‘‘abstinence.'’ 
 ‘•sacrifice,” “great brain powers,” “ superior executive skill,” 
 and “ trustworthiness,” attempt to justify profits, interest, and 
 rent, irrespective of the personal services rendered by the recip- 
 ient, I have chosen to abide by their arguments rather than ac- 
 cept contradictory theories ^citliout argument. 
 
 During many years, I have witnessed struggling humanity, in 
 all stages of development, striving to reach a freer and nobler 
 manhood. My own experience taught me, quite fully, to realize 
 its trials, its hopes, its fears, its defeats, and its victories. As 
 best I could, amid many discouragements, but full of hojic in the 
 possible achievements of humanity, and full of faith in the jus- 
 tice of God, I have endeavored to assist many in their attempts 
 to surmount tlie difficulties by which they were suriounded. I 
 feel therefore commissioned, by Experience, to speak in behalf of 
 the struggling millions, whose inalienable rights are invaded by 
 economic theories at war with the best interests of all. 
 
 This little book, my mite contributed to promote the general 
 w'cal, I send fortli on its mission, trusting that its suggestions 
 may furnish facts worthy the serious consideration of all. If any 
 believe in its teachings, let them act accordingly; if any do not, 
 let them refute tlie arguments, or forever hold tlieir peace. Fair, 
 manly criticism by any who study it with care, none will read witli 
 greater interest than myself. 
 
 D. IT. n, 
 
 HOItXELT.SVILLli, X. Y. 
 
ESSAY I 
 
 VALUE AND PKOPEKTY. 
 
 1. Value. Before defining u thing, its nature mast be cloarir 
 perceived. The definition must include all characteristics of the 
 thing defined, and exclude those belonging to anything else. The 
 origin of value, therefore, must be determined, before a definition 
 is possible. To say that the value of an article, is some other 
 thing for which it will be taken in exchange, is to say 
 that the caprice of man can annihilate or restore an entity at will. 
 The indefiniteness of this term causes the arguments of political 
 economists to lead to conclusions not warranted by the facts. If 
 it were true that political economy has no more substantial founda- 
 tion than wants, desires, necessities, opportunities, or opinions, 
 it would, indeed, be a “ Dismal Science,” because, thus inter- 
 preted, it promises nothing but pinching poverty to the great 
 mass of mankind so long as time shall endure. But, fortunately, 
 such is not the leaching of this science; these dismal forebodings 
 result from a misapprehension of its primary facts. 
 
 Each science has its own peculiar primary facts, or axioms. 
 Without these, no reasoning would be possible; hence, the indis- 
 pensable necessity of extreme care in selecting the ])rcmises upon 
 which all conclusions must finally rest. The geometrician must 
 perceive that, if equal quantites be added to equal quantities, the 
 sums will be equal; if equal quantities be taken from equal quan- 
 tities the remainders will be etiual ; if equal quantities be multi- 
 plied or divided by equal quantities, the results will be 
 equal; equal powers or roots of equal quantities are equal. 
 These arc some of the primary facts, or axioms, upon 
 which the mathematician confidently relics; without tliese, 
 mathematical reasoning would be impossible. If any thing, 
 not a fact, be assumed as such, in reasoning on any subject, 
 this false assumption must, inevitably, lead to a false conclusion^ 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPlTAE AND DABOK. 
 
 8 
 
 Axioms are facts so simple and easily perceived, that any one 
 '•whose attention is called to them, will, at once, admit them. 
 They are not susceptible of a demonstration, because there are 
 no facts simpler than themselves with which they may be com- 
 pared ; they are self-evident truths. But they are not confined to 
 mathematics; they pertain more or less to all sciences. 
 
 The following are some of the axioms pertaining to political 
 economy : The air, the ocean, the light of the sun, in fact, the 
 whole material universe, and all the forces of nature, are destitute 
 of value. This concession necessitates the conclusion 
 ^that value inheres in nothing, in its natural state. There- 
 fore whatever is true of the forces of nature, and the material un- 
 iverse on a grand scale, is no less true of the minutest material pro- 
 duct of nature. Gold, in its natural state, with all its useful proper- 
 ties — brilliancy, malleability, ductilty, homogeneity, etc. — is as 
 valueless as a sunbeam or a drop of water. The truth of the last 
 proposition is not generally conceded ; it cannot be without a uni- 
 versal wreck of current theories of political economy. These are 
 venerable relics of the Ancient World. They will not be sur- 
 rendered without a struggle ; all errors diehard, especially those 
 "hnary with years. But if these are errors, their evil results are so 
 far-reaching and disastrous, that they must perish, as have many 
 others no less hoary with age than are they: the path of civiliza- 
 tion lies through a grave-yard of ancient customs, no more 
 •vicious than are many which dominate the world to-day. 
 
 If any number of people were cast upon some, hitherto, un- 
 known island, each would have a right, to appropriate to his own 
 use, any product of nature found there. Tliis is an axiom ; all 
 will admit it without debate ; it is a primary truth. The soil, the 
 forests, the rivers, the waterfalls, the precious metals, the game, 
 the fish, and all other products of nature, whatever might be the 
 '.jiiantity or quality of either, would be as destitute of value as are 
 the barren wastes of Sahara, Calling natural products valuable, 
 'is mistaking utility for value. Each of these terms must be con- 
 fined to its own sphere, or inextricable confusion is inevitable. 
 L'tility is commonly, if not always, associated with value; but it 
 :is not a factor in its production. This is proven by the fact that 
 ■ air, though of inestimable utility, is free to all. The same is true 
 •of sunlight and of water. There are many other things that are 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAFITAL AND LABOR. " 
 
 absolutely indispensable to the continuance of human life, and are 
 therefore, infinite in utility, though, in value, they are zero. So 
 great is the utility of iron that its loss would arrest civilization 
 , and fill the world with misery. So small is the utility of gold or 
 diamonds that their loss would be scarcely felt. Yet, iron is o.f 
 little value, while that of gold and diamonds is great. Hence 
 value and utility are not identical ; neither is indispensrbly neces- 
 sary to the existence of the other. The utility of anything de- 
 pends upon certain properties adapting it to useful purposes. GocT 
 furnishes utilities infinite in variety and boimelless in extent. 
 These being free to all, each can appropriate what he desires 
 “ witl}out money and without price;” hence they are- without 
 value. 
 
 The moment human activities begin to modify the bounties 
 of nature, a new relation arises. If a settler in the new-found 
 island catches a fish, this natural product, which a moment before 
 was free to all, is severed from the common inheritance, and an 
 individual right results — a right that no one would question. 
 No other could take that fish, without invading the 
 rights of the fisherman, the owner. If another should catch a 
 deer, his individual right would be, at once, recognized. The 
 hut erected would belong to him whose labor constructed it. 
 The cleared plat of land would belong to him whose labor im- 
 proved it. All things modified by human industry would become 
 private property ; all that were not so modified, would remain 
 free to all. That which is modified by man possesses value ; that,, 
 not so modified, is destitute of value. The former is salable r 
 the latter is not. Value, therefore, is a relation suhsistinrj between 
 the laborer and the 'product of his labor. 
 
 In the production of value, there arise new relations, and 
 nothing more. Nothing is in the island except what was found 
 there, and the modifications resulting from human industry. Yet 
 there are new relations growing out of human efforts that consti- 
 tute individual ownership, or property, x\.t first, no one to the 
 exclusion of others, owned anything; hence there was no 
 property. Each could rightfully appropriate to his own use any- 
 thing he found. But now neither can take that which another 
 has gathered without violating the right of private property. 
 
10 CAl'SES OF THE CONFLICT BP^TWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 Property U the right of the Uiborer to exercise dominion over the pro- 
 duets of his industry. 
 
 It is nccc\ssary here to observe tliat the riglit of private prop- 
 erty is not the creature of human law; no liuman law can create 
 value, no human law can annihilate value; it is an individual re- 
 lation, as inlienable as the right to life or liberty. If the involun- 
 tary residents of the supposed island remain and multiply, each 
 new-born child will make its advent there clothed with all tlie 
 rigiits possessed by the original settlers. During its infancy, its 
 support will be an inherent right demanded, in the nature of 
 things, from its parents, as their support was furnished by their 
 parents. The future accumulations, for all time, consisting of food, 
 clothing, shelter, tools, and improvements in the conditions, will 
 belong to those wliose labor produces them, as did the first 
 meagre gatherings of the spontaneous productions of nature be- 
 long to those who gathered them, each being the owner of the 
 products of his own industry. 
 
 The fish in the streams, the game in its native freedom, the 
 trees in the forest, the unimproved land, the minerals in their na- 
 tive bed, the 'waterfalls, and all other products of nature, have, 
 and can have, no individual owner; in this condition, unmodified 
 by human agencies, all arc as free as air or sunlight. Up to 
 this time, each individual, by an indisputable right, has gathered 
 at will, anything he desired, limited only by the accumulations 
 of others. If they so desired and possessed the requisite wisdom, 
 they might continue thus to live forever, with boundless oppor- 
 tunities free to all. But so great wisdom has not as j'et been the 
 lot of any people ; hence, the necessity of government, not to 
 create rights, but to protect each, as near as may be, in the enjoy- 
 ment of his own inalienable rights, “to life, liberty, and thepursuit 
 of happiness. ” Within these limits, civil government has its legiti- 
 mate functions in the affairs of men; outside these limits, it be- 
 comes a positive evil, producing discord instead of harmony. 
 
 For and among themselves, the people of any country or a 
 majority of them, may prescribe such rules and regulations as 
 their circumstances demand. These constitute their government. 
 But, in the nature of things, the majority arc precluded from im- 
 posing upon the minority, even though that minority be but one, 
 any other conditions than those bearing with equal force upon the 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR, It 
 
 majority themselves. It is the part of government, not to create 
 rights, \mt to protect each in the enjoyment of his own; hence, 
 any distinction among its citizens, on the part of any govern- 
 ment, is a usurpation that sliould be met, at the very threshold, 
 with rebuke so strong ,as to insure no repetition. 
 
 A very common usurpation on the part of governments lurks 
 in the theory of “ vested rights.” In reality all riglits arc vested, 
 that is, fixed. Used in this sense the term is legitimate, at least, 
 harmless. But in the sense in which it is frequently used, to de- 
 fend one in possession of that which is wrongfully acquired, it is 
 fraught witli evil under wliose infiucnce the world reels and 
 shivers from social, commercial, and political convulsions. In 
 proof of this fact, witness European nations, each witli sword 
 and shield, ready to strike another or defend itself, as opportun- 
 ity may offer or necessity demand. Each nation is a usurper as 
 to the rights of other nations; each government is a usurper as to 
 the rights of its own citizens. It is doubtful whether the real 
 title to a foot of European soil is in its possessor; its possession 
 can be defended only on the theory of “vested rights,” in this 
 sense, a nonentity. 
 
 The time of vast numbers is w'orsc than w^asted, in efforts to 
 defend imaginary rights, vested rights, evoluted from ancient 
 wrongs. Even worse than this, the great mass of the people, 
 steeped in poverty and misery, growing out of these “vested 
 rights,” yield up the products of their labor to support the count- 
 less hordes by whom their poverty and degradation are perpetu- 
 ated. What is true of Europe, is true of the whole Eastern Con- 
 tinent. Pretended rights have been allowed to usurp the place 
 of real rights, and consequently the line of demarkation between 
 right and wrong is wholly obliterated, or rendered imperceptible 
 to the people. The same theories prevail, to a certain extent, in 
 tlie United States, notwithstanding the boasted exemption from 
 the pernicious principles which have pauperized the great mass 
 of the people of Europe. Had the American people carefully 
 studied the history of the causes of the civil war recently ended, 
 these theories would have perished in that conflict; the Rebellion 
 was the legitimate fruit of the theory that one may rightfully 
 live in idleness, if he is shrewd enough to obtain, within the let- 
 ter of the law, the means of his subsistence at the expense of oth- 
 
12 CAUSES OP THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 ers. Notwithstanding slavery was disarmed on the field of battle, 
 its still liven, a menace to the liberties of the people. 
 
 The digression from the discussion of the nature of value 
 and the origin of private property, became necessary from the 
 fact that ancient customs, however vicious, are from the antiquity 
 of their origin, supposed to be entitled to respect as precedents 
 to depart from which is little less than treason. One of the most 
 pernicious of these is the theory of “vested rights,” wliich has 
 inspired many of the current maxims of political economy. These 
 would have perished long ago, had not this relic of barbarism 
 presided at the discussion. 
 
 If the Island upon which the little fragment of humanity 
 was supposed to be cast, was so limited in extent and resources 
 as to furnish mere subsistence to those already there, the inhabi- 
 tants miglit, perhaps, justify the expulsion of any new-comers, as 
 <ii^her of two men, on a plank, in mid-ocean, might justify 
 •drowning the other to save himself. No attempt will be made 
 here to decide a point so fine. There may be those whose per- 
 ceptive powers are equal to the task of giving certainty to such 
 decisions; it is believed, however, to be doubtful. DidtheGreely 
 Part}'', on the verge of the grave fi’om starvation, become canni- 
 bals? If they did, the circumstances must be fully comprehended 
 before a correct judgment can be pronounced upon the moral 
 character of their deeds. There is probably a limit beyond 
 which the human mind fails in capacity to trace moral relations, 
 as the eye fails to discern physical objects, because of their small 
 size, or their great distance. Whatever may be the facts with re- 
 ference to extraordinary emergencies, they establish no precedent 
 for the determination of the moral relations in the ordinary affairs 
 of men. Monopoly of opportunities cannot be justified because 
 of the remote possibility that, sometime in the distant future, 
 population may be in excess of the means of subsistence. 
 
 If tlie resources of the Island were sufficient to sustain a larger 
 population, any later immigrant would laud there clothed with 
 precisely tlie same rights possessed by the first settlers. He 
 would have an inalienable right to supply his wants from the 
 spontaneous productions of the Island. The Islanders might unite 
 their forces and expel him; they might reduce him to the condi- 
 tion of a slave ; they murder him. But their prior occu- 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOU. 13 
 
 paucy could justify no such proceedings. Opportunities for 
 gaining sustenance, and securing life, liberty and happiness, can- 
 not, rightfully, be monopolized ; they belong, in perpetuity, to the 
 Race. Should the equal rights of the new settler be respected, he 
 must be permitted to gather the utilities furnished by the sponta- 
 neous productions of nature, as freely as those that preceded 
 him, limited only by the prior rights of others to the commodities 
 resulting from their industry. 
 
 Such was the beginning of private property. Stripped of all 
 false theories inherited from a barbarous Past, such is its nature 
 to-day, and such it will remain forever. It depends for its exist- 
 ence upon neither custom nor law; it is older than either of them. 
 It does not, as is sometimes said, result from priority of possession 
 merely; it results from industry, and from that alone. The first 
 property consisted of the gifts of nature merely gathered by man. 
 As to how long private property consisted merely of the unmodi- 
 fied accumulations of the spontaneous productions of na- 
 ture, history is silent. That such was the nature of primitive 
 property, is as certain as is the fact that every river has a source. 
 The right of the fisherman to the fish caught by him, needed no 
 legal sanction. 
 
 After a time, })rompted by his desires, the environments 
 forced upon man the fact that the comforts of life could be en- 
 hanced by tvariMformbig the material products of nature, thus 
 ■creating new utilities. Instead of engaging in weaponless contest 
 with the wild beasts by which he was surrounded, he, perhaps, 
 employed a club. He saw that, for many purposes, a stick was 
 better than his fingers; a stone was better than his teeth; he be- 
 eame an inventor. He saw that the form of the stick 
 or of the stone is, for certain purposes, a very important matter. 
 He took advantage of such facts to increase the efficiency of his 
 industry. Unimportant as seem the rude inventions of our remote 
 ancestors, they are, nevertheless the beginning, of the career that 
 has resulted in the wonderful inventions of modern times. Indi- 
 vidual right to the new utilities grew out of individual efforts in 
 the materials of nature, as primitive property grew 
 out of ndividual efforts in merely accumulating them. Industry is a 
 condition precedent to ownership. 
 
 As has, already, been said, a fragment of gold in its native 
 bed, though possessed of potential utility, is valuless. Under 
 
14 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOll. 
 
 such circumstances, a mountain of gold would be as destitute of 
 Taluc as would a single grain. Value is not a necessary accom- 
 paniment of utility, nor of quantity. Utility and quantity may be 
 indefinitely increased, value still remaining at zero. Value is not 
 found outside of human relations; it is not a product of nature. 
 Its nature discloses its true definition, that already given ; it is a ?•<?- 
 latioii subsisting between the laborer and the product of his labor. 
 
 There is no possibility of overthrowing this definition with- 
 out admitting the legitimacy of extortion. A misconception of 
 the nature of ownership leads to much confusion and hideous 
 monstrosities in economic theories. Ownership results, not from 
 legislative enactments, but from industry; it is coterminous with 
 value; the limits of the one are those of the other. Ownership- 
 confei’s no right of extortion; no more than an opportunity con- 
 fers the right to steal. It is true that the owner of a commodit}', 
 may, in case of the extreme necessity of another, wrest from him 
 a greater value than is given in exchange. This, however, falls 
 far short of proving that ownership can increase value. In this 
 case the owner extorts pay for utility instead of value; the latter, 
 only, is his. 
 
 To recapitulate the facts relating to value, they may be stated 
 as follows: God creates utilities, infinite in variety and bound- 
 less in quantity. He creates no value except through human in- 
 strumentalities. Immediately from theliand of God, a continent 
 is as valueless as an animalcule, millions of which can sport in a 
 drop of water. Human laws can create no values; these being 
 individual rights, they are antecedent to all legislative enact- 
 ments, whose sole function is to preserve rights. Custom, how- 
 ever long in vogue, being merely a species of law, creates no val- 
 ue. Its only source is individual effort, that is, labor. God fur- 
 nishes all the materials and all the opportunities But in the 
 fiat, “In the sweat of tliy face shalt thou eat bread,” is proclaim- 
 ed the economic law that lnl)or is the conditif)n ])reccdent to 
 ownership. From this decision, sanctioned by reason no less 
 than Revelation, there lies no appeal. 
 
 To the producers of value, therefore, belong all products mod- 
 ified by the hand of man ; those net so modified bedong to all man- 
 kind. The former alone are salable. The producer may exchange 
 his commodities for those produced by others. But the law of 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT F.ETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 15 
 
 exchange, like that of value, is fixed in the initurc of things, no 
 more dependent upon the caprice of custom, than is the force of 
 gravity, whicli imparts weight to the commodities exchanged. 
 The laws pertaining to political economy are no more subject to 
 the will of man than arc tliosc pertaining to astronomy. 
 
 The conclusions reached in this Essay, as to the nature of 
 value, are supported by the arguments of all economists. The 
 point in controversy relates to the estimation of its quantity; here 
 there is a wide divergence from current theories. Economists 
 seem, at this point, to entirely lose sight of its nature as a fixed 
 •entity. Their arguments with reference to the laws of exchange, 
 practically ignore the existence of value, by assuming that its 
 ■quantity depends upon the desires, necessities, opportunities, and 
 relative degrees of intelligence of tlie parties to an exchange. This 
 leads to inextricable confusion, and makes exchange a mere game 
 of chance, in which the passions of men, instead of the laws of 
 exchange, are ])ermittcd to determine the rights of the parties. 
 It seems to be forgotten that the tramferables consist, • not of 
 utilities or commodities, but of values. The utilities or commod- 
 ities, are inerehMucideiits to the transaction; the values, alone, 
 are to be estimated. Tiiese must be estimated, not by relegating 
 them to the passions of men, but as all other things are estimated, 
 by comparison witli a fixed unit, of the same nature as that 
 whose quantity is to be determined. The nature of value will be 
 more fully elucidated in the discussion of the laws of exchange, 
 the subject of a second Essay. 
 
ESSAY 2. 
 
 EXCHANGE, PROFITS, MEASURE OF VALUE. 
 
 That Providence designs that men should exchange services- 
 is proven by the great diversity of conditions in which they are 
 placed. Differences of climate modified by latitude, altitude,, 
 and remoteness from or nearness to oceans, lakes, and rivers; dif- 
 ferences of soil, adapting the Earth to the production of a great 
 variety of plants, some indispensable to the support of life, others 
 .adding greatly to the comforts and well-being of man; and the 
 distribution of minerals, necessary to the advancement of civiliz- 
 ation, are unmistakable evidences that exchange of services is in- 
 dispensable to the welfare of man. The material products of na- 
 ture, infinite in variety, are scattered in profusion over land and 
 sea, more than the desires of man can appropriate. But the distri- 
 bution of them generally among men, is impossible except 
 through the instrumentality of exchange. The diversity of 
 oceans, lakes, rivers, mountains, valleys, plains, fertile soil, sterile 
 soil, plants adapted to different conditions of climate and soil, 
 and the great variety of u.seful minerals, could be utilized in the 
 highest degree in no other way except through mutual services. 
 Exchange, therefore, is an indispensable factor in the develop- 
 ment of a higher civilization. Annihilate exchange, and civiliz- 
 ation would perish ; universal barbarism would be inevitable. 
 Whatever his industry, man would be miserably poor; skill 
 would be undeveloped; mechanical inventions, beyond the rudest 
 implements of the savage state, would be unknown. 
 
 Exchange is a potent factor in the development of skill. 
 One becomes skillful in devoting his efforts to the production of a 
 limited number of forms; skill is the product of numerous repe- 
 titions accompanied by careful, intelligent ob.servation. It will 
 not do, however, to limit the field of one’s exertions to a single- 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOll. 17 
 
 uniform movement; the healthful development of both body and 
 mind requires variety enough to call out all their resources. If 
 too little be required of them, they remain undeveloped, or with 
 unsymmetrical relations; if too much be required, the effect is no 
 less deleterious. Given the materials out of which they are pro- 
 duced, the most industrious man, in an attempt to produce, with 
 his own efforts, all the objects of his desires, would, with undevel- 
 oped skill, live and die in poverty, amid the monstrosities of his 
 own creation. 
 
 If intelligently manipulated, the materials and opportunities 
 furnished by nature, are exactly adapted to man’s highest 
 welfare. But here, as everywhere, man is left to determine, by 
 careful observation, the true relations. If he mistakes these, the 
 error must inevitably render unsafe all calculations based upon 
 his decisions. The evil effects will be, to a certain extent, real- 
 ized, though the cause may escape detection. Efforts of some 
 kind will be made to get rid of the unpleasant conditions; but 
 they will be made in vain, unless they be directed to the removal 
 of the disturbing causes. 
 
 The development of man’s powers, physical and intellectual, 
 requires precisely the conditions in which he is placed. If his 
 desires were gratuitously supplied, he would be, physically weak, 
 and, intellectually, a mere animal, a dwarfish monstrosity. The 
 mistakes from whose evil effects we suffer, then, are not 
 ineradically fixed in the nature of things; they result from a mis- 
 interpretation of nature’s laws. They are remediable ; but man, 
 alone, must remedy them. The responsibility is, therefore, his. 
 
 In no sphere of human activities, perhaps, are the evidences of 
 folly more marked than in current theories of exchange. Selfish- 
 ness, alone, is assumed to be the inspiring motive; individual 
 gain, the only object. Perception of mutual welfare prompts the 
 activities of neither party. Honesty is scoffed at; rascality is at a 
 premium; veracity is evidence of imbecility; vice strides almost 
 unrebuked in all the marts of trade; hopes wither; almost univer- 
 sal despair reigns; frequent financial panics threaten universal 
 commercial chaos; and starvation menaces the homes of those 
 w hose industry has filled the world with wealth, which, if properly 
 distributed, would fill the Republic with prosperous happy homes. 
 
 The above conditions inevitably result from the adoption of 
 
IS CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAFITAL AND LABOB. 
 
 theories inherited from an age when brute force dominated tlie 
 affairs of men. These theories set at defiance the teachings of 
 economic science; they must be set aside before better conditions 
 are possible. 
 
 Economic science teaches that the rights of the parties to an 
 exclumge of commodities m'Q fixed in the law of value; the mines 
 are the real exchangeable entities. These, alone, determine the 
 relations of the parties; they must, therefore, be equal. In all 
 equitable exchanges, value received equals value given. This is 
 granted by most, if not by all, economists. But do the current 
 theories of exchange agree with this maxim? Is it ever applied 
 in practice? Among mere business men, never ; the very existence of 
 such maxim is ignored, perhaps, unknown. They, invariably, 
 seek to get more than tliey give. But more of what ? Gain is 
 undoubtedh’- the legitimate object of exchange. This gain, how- 
 ever, if justifiable, must be secured through increase of utilities, 
 instead of through increase of value. 
 
 If profits could be realized only through increased value, they 
 could have no place in honest exchange, as what one would gain 
 another must certainly lose. If A give B one hundred dollars for 
 a horse worth one hundred and ten dollars, the gain of tlie former 
 is at the loss of the latter; what is added to the wealth of the one 
 is subtracted from that of the other. And yet, so potent is the 
 influence of custom, this monstrous commercial iniquity is toler- 
 ated. even commended, in this last quarter of the Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury! This is the source of that appalling public opinion which 
 scoffs at the suggestion of commercial integrity. Any attempt to 
 justify such tiicory of profits by argument, elicits the fact that 
 value is almost universally mistaken for utility. Thus, arguing 
 from false premises, the conclusion must necessarily be false. 
 
 If A exchanges with B, giving a horse for an ox of equal 
 value, both may gain vastly in utilities. Each may have a horse 
 and an ox, and neither liave a team. After the exchange, A 
 will have a team of oxen, and B, a team of horses. Each has 
 gained in utilities, but neither has gained in value. No sophis- 
 try is necessary to justify such a transaction; its morality is ab- 
 solutely unassailable. In the sense of increased value, profits are 
 not justified by the laws of exchange; in the sense of increased 
 utilities, they arc consistent with the highest integrity. The 
 
i 
 
 CAUSES OF THE CONFIHCT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 former arc properly designated as sjmrious, the latter, as legiti- 
 mate profits. This distinction must be inexorably maintained, or 
 the future offers no hope to the toiling millions. 
 
 If a hundred families should settle in a hitherto unoccupied 
 country, they would not acquire absolute title by the mere act of 
 settlement. They might, for convenience, assign to each family 
 the occupancy of a particular tract. Such action however could 
 not confer upon each occupant the absolute right of property ; 
 the settlers would not be precluded thereby from making a redis- 
 tribution of all natural products, if, in their judgment, the highest 
 interests of all demanded such redistribution. The relation ef 
 the settler to what his industry had produced would be very dif- 
 ferent; his right to the products of his labor would be absolute. 
 If a hundred other families should subsequently seek homes in 
 that country, justice would demand a redistribution of all natural 
 products unmodified by the industry of the previous settlers. 
 However numerous the immigration might be, each would rcacli 
 that country with the inalienable right to participate, on equal 
 terms with the prior occupants, in all the bounties of nature. It 
 is true that the population might become greater than could be 
 subsisted in the country. What then ? The solution of the prob- 
 lem would involve the same principles as would that of two men 
 in mid-ocean on a plank incapable of sustaining both. 
 
 Measure of Value. As the bounties of nature are free, anyone 
 may rightfully appropriate them. Not so with the products of in- 
 dustry; they belong to those whose industry produces them. The 
 former are not exchangeable; the latter are at the option of the 
 owner. But he is not at liberty, as is currently asserted, toyf.r their 
 value ; that depends upon the labor expended in their production. It 
 is no more susceptablc of being fixed by man, than is weight, color, 
 magnitude, or chemical properties. The value of anything is a 
 definite quantity and can be measured only as such. As in all 
 other measurements, the unit of measure must be of the same na- 
 ture as that whose quantity is to be measured, A unit of weight 
 must be used in measuring weight; a unit of length, in measur- 
 ing length; a unit of surface, in measuring surface; a unit of 
 volume, in measuring volume; a unit of value, in measuring value. 
 More or less difficulty is encountered in selecting the measuring 
 unit in all kinds of measurements. The measuring unit of value 
 
■20 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 may or may not be more difficult of attainment than other measur- 
 ing units. Difficult or not, it is indispensable, and must be had, 
 before any measurement is possible. It is currently asserted that 
 money is a measure of value. This is not true; the value of 
 money is as unknown as is that of the commodities whose value it is 
 supposed to make known. To say that money can make known 
 the value of commodity, is saying that an unknown quantity be- 
 comes known by comparing it with an unknown quantitjL 
 
 As has already been shown, value is the result of labor; it is, 
 therefore, evidently proportioned to the labor expended in pro- 
 duction. If labor were not of various degrees of efficiency, the 
 measuring unit would be easily attainable. If all labor were equally 
 effective, a day’s labor would be a perfect unit for the measurement 
 of the value of all commodities. The value of all things would be- 
 come known by simply ascertaining the number of days’ labor 
 expended in their production. Dividing the number of cords 
 of wood chopped by a hundred men in a day by 100, would give ap- 
 proximately the average labor expended in chopping one cord; a 
 simijar experiment with one thousand men would furnish a nearer 
 approximation to the average result; continually experimenting 
 with a larger number, a result would be attained practically re- 
 liable. It would not answer, however, invariably, to use this 
 standard ; some kinds of wood are more easily worked than others. 
 For a time at least, the standard would require frequent revision, 
 as do all other schemes of man. In the same manner could be 
 found the labor cost, or value, of all commodities. Strength, 
 skill, and persistency present other difficulties; but they are not 
 insurmountable obstacles; to estimate these factors of production, 
 requires patient observation. But, in this direction, only, is 
 there any hope of commercial equity, and, consequently, of gen- 
 eral prosperity. The scheme here presented for estimating val- 
 ues, being based upon labor, the sole source of all values, is im- 
 measurably superior to the current method, whose antiquity alone 
 is its only merit. The latter has divided the people of Europe 
 into two classes ; the, Jew very ricJi\ the many miserably 2 >oor. It 
 promises nothing better here; it must be discarded or, in the 
 neir future, this will become a land of serfs. 
 
 The relative amount of labor, then, expended in the produc- 
 tion of exchangeable commodities, determines their relative val- 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 21 
 
 '-les. If twice as mucli labor is re(iuired, on an aA’^erage, to pro- 
 duce a bushel of wheat, as is required, on an average, to produce a 
 bushel of corn, a bushel of the former is equal in value, to two 
 bushels of the latter. Simple as it is, this example involves all 
 the elements found in the most complex problem of exchange. 
 In ultimate analysis nothing appears but an exchange of services; 
 these are the only salaliles recognized by economic law. In con- 
 drmation of this statement, other illustrations will now be given. 
 
 A and 13 are neighboring larmers; each being the owner of a 
 good farm. But the farms are not equally well adapted to the 
 production of all kinds of grain. A’s is especially adapted to the 
 production of wheat, but poorly adapted to that of corn. B’s is the 
 reverse; it will produce corn in abundance, but to the growth of 
 wheat, it is illy adapted. Here the mutual interests of the parties 
 require an exchange of services. Both want wheat; both want 
 corn. It is an innate principle of human nature to seek the ob- 
 ject of the desires at the expense of the least effort that will ac- 
 complish the result. 
 
 If A and B are sufficiently wise to comprehend their mutual 
 welfare, each will direct his energies to the production of that for 
 w'hich his farm is best fitted. One hundred days’ labor expended 
 Dn A's farm will produce 400 bushels of wheat. If one-half the 
 labor w'ere devoted to the production of wheat, and the other 
 half to that of corn, tlie result would be 200 bushels of wdieat 
 and 200 bushels of coni. One hundred days’ labor expended on 
 B’s farm in the production of corn would yield 800 bushels. Had 
 half the labor been expended in the production of wdieat and the 
 other half in that of corn, the result w'ould have been 400 bushels 
 of corn and one hundred of wdieat. 
 
 If these farmers ignored the advantages offered by exchange 
 and each raised both kinds of grain, A would have received for 
 his 100 days’ labor, 200 bushels of wheat and 200 of corn — total 
 400 bushels; B would have received, for his, 400 bushels of corn 
 and 100 of wdieat — total 500 bushels. The united product would 
 have been 900 bushels. If each worked on his owm farm produc- 
 ing that to the growth of which his w^as best adapted, A would 
 liave produced 400 bushels of wdieat, and B would have produced 
 -SOO bushels of corn ; both would have realized 1200 bushels. 
 This clearly illustrates the advantages of exchange; had there been 
 no thought of this, the two wmuld have received for their labor 
 
22 CAUSES OP THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 1)00 bushels of grain; prompted by the advantages olfered by ex- 
 change, they would have received 1,200 bushels, a proiit of three 
 hundred bushels. 
 
 How ought these profits to be divided ? This question is 
 easily answered. xVssuming that the farmers have labored with 
 equal efficiency, they have contributed equally to the production of 
 the commodities; the products, therefore, should be equally divid- 
 ed. The 400 bushels of wheat raised by is exactly equal, in 
 value, to the 800 bushels of corn raised by B; hence, a bushel of 
 the former is equal, in vaiue, to tvvo bushels of the latter. Each 
 would then have 400 bushels of corn, and 200 bushels of wheat — 
 600 bushels of botli kinds. A has gained, at the expense of no 
 living man, 200 bushels of corn; B in like manner has gained 100 
 bushels of wheat, exactly c()ual, in value, to A’s 200 of corn. 
 There is a mutual gain in utilities, the only gain sanctioned by 
 economic law. 
 
 Had the productive powers of the land differed inconsequence 
 of latitude, the one being adapted to the growth of wheat, the 
 other to that of cotton, the principles would have been precisely the 
 same. The climate in which cotton thrives is not well adapted to the 
 production of wheat; the climate in which wheat nourishes, 
 would demand herculean efforts in the production of cotton. If 
 those in the cotton-belt want wheat, they can obtain it by grow- 
 ing cotton and exchanging with those whose climate is adapted 
 to the growth of wheat. The occupants of the wheat country 
 might, at an immense cost, in an artificial climate, grow their own 
 cotton; but they could get the cotton, with a comparatively in- 
 significant outlay of labor, by raising wheat and exchanging with 
 the cotton-growers. Under these circumstances, the advantages 
 derived from exchange are inestimable. 
 
 A third and not less important advantage gained by exchange 
 results from the skill developed by a diversity of employments. 
 As already stated, one becomes skillful by directing his energies 
 to the production of a limited number of forms. Hence, a divi- 
 sion of employments infinitely increases the productive powers of 
 labor. Such division, however, presupposes the opportunities 
 offered by exchange. Without the instrumentalities of exchange, 
 each must depend upon his individual efforts; division of labor 
 would be unknown ; and skill, beyond that possessed by the 
 rudest savage, would be undeveloped. 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOPv. 2o 
 
 From tho mine to the final utilities furnished, iron passes 
 through the liands of a vast number of artificers, each of wiiom 
 contributes his mite to swell the grand total. If eacli laborer 
 should attempt to perform the labor required in all the transfor- 
 mations and transportations, the unlinished product would re- 
 main Avhen he ceased from his labors here, and passed to the realms 
 beyond. This is typical of all labor. Tiiat of the individual is 
 fruitful, only when united with that of his fellow-man. 
 
 Should the hatter make shoes for himself and family, a great 
 deal of inefticient labor would be expended in producing an in- 
 dustrial monst:osity; one-tenth of the time expended in his own 
 field would, through exchange with the shoemaker, sujiply him 
 with infinitely better shoos. Should the shoemaker make his own 
 hats, waste of time and labor, on a practically useless product, 
 would be the inevitable result. What is true in relation ro the 
 hatter and the shoemaker, is universally true; not because some 
 are born with one, and others with different special capacities; 
 but because the necessities of production, on a grand scale, de- 
 mand the development of all the capacities of man. 
 
 The fact that one is a shoemaker, or a hatter, does not prove 
 that he had superior natural capacity in that field of labor; his 
 industrial capacity is the result of his environments. Hereditary 
 differences doubtless exist; but the theory that they determine 
 one's avocation in life, is inconsistent with all the facts of history. 
 If heredity had the influence claimed for it, no skillful mechani- 
 cian would inhabit tlie earth; the common ancestors of all were, 
 probably, savages — homeless, weaponless, toolless; as destitute of 
 mechanical skill, as of proficiency in mathematics. 
 
 The great diversity of soil, climate, mountains, plains, val- 
 leys, hydrographical features, and mineral facilities imperatively 
 demands the division of labor and exchange. Economically, 
 the whole world is but one people, all working for a common ob- 
 ject, the general welfare. The division into different n.ationali- 
 ties, is a mere matter of expediency, in no wise altering the prin- 
 ciples of economic law. Unfortunately, however, all nations, 
 more or less, throw obstacles in the way of the harmonious work- 
 ing of these beneficient provisions of nature. Blindly following 
 ancient customs, at war with the best interests of all, instead of 
 heeding the simple teachings of economic science, the commer- 
 
24 CAUSES OF THE CONP’LICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 cial world, even in this age, presents the phases of a state of war 
 rather than those of peace. Such is the inevitable result of vio- 
 lating nature’s laws. 
 
 Money. It is said that money is a measure of value. Is this- 
 true ? Does it comply with the universal requisite that the unit 
 of measure must of necessity be of the same nature as the quantity 
 to be measured ? By applying it to any commodity, is the value 
 of such commodity made known ? If not, is it in any sense a 
 measure of value ? All measurements are effected by comparison 
 by comparing an unknown quantity with a known quantity. Is- 
 not the value of money as much an unknown quantity as is that 
 of any commodity whose value is to be determined ? If it is so., 
 can it possibly be a measure of value ? Certainly not ; it is no 
 more a measure of value than is a bushel of wheat, or any other 
 commodity. As has already been shown, value is not a property 
 of anything; it is a relation of the producer to the thing produc- 
 ed. Of this nature, must be the unit employed in the measure of 
 value; such unit is absolutely indispensable. In the true eco- 
 nomic sense of the term value is not measured by money. By 
 immemorial custom money has been universally received in ex- 
 change for commodities. This has led to the erroneous assump- 
 tion that values are thus measured. Its general acceptability, 
 lenders money a very efficient instrument of exchange; though 
 tlie common misapprehension of its proper function, frequently 
 converts it into an engine of evil. Its real nature must be clearly 
 perceived in order that its use may result, only, in good. What 
 then, is the true function of money ? A correct answer to this 
 question, requires an appeal to the primary facts. 
 
 In a primitive community, isolated from the rest of the 
 world, there would be no money, and but little necessity for such 
 an instrument. But as population increased and spread over 
 more extensive feri'itory, exchanges would multiply and the sys- 
 tem of barter, formerly in vogue, would be illy adapted to the 
 new conditions. In the absence of money, a farmer, in need of 
 a hat, might experience great inconvenience in obtaining the de- 
 sired commodity. The hatter might not need anything the 
 farmer had to exchange. Or if he did need the farmer’s products, 
 he might not have use for just that quantity equal, in value, tc 
 the hat. The hatter in need of wheat, would experience a simi- 
 
CAUSES OF THE COXFUICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LAP>01L 
 
 25 
 
 lar difficulty, unless he could find a farmer in need of a hat. In 
 the absence of the hatter’s desire for farm -products, the farmer 
 must remain hatless, seek through a series of exchanges to ob- 
 tain something desired by the hatter, or resort to credit. The 
 shoemaker might want the farmer’s wheat; the blacksmith, the 
 shoemaker’s shoes ; and the hatter, the blacksmith’s hammer. If 
 the commodities were of equal value, the farmer might exchange 
 the wheat for the shoes; the shoes for the hammer; and the ham- 
 •mer for the hat. The series of exchanges would frequently be 
 much more extensive than that required in supplying the farmer 
 with his hat; the difficulties would be vastly increased by tlie 
 inequality of the values of the various commodities. So great 
 would be the obstacles in the way of exchanges under such cir-. ^ 
 cumstances that commerce on an extensive scale, would be impos- 
 sible and the profits derived from the division of labor could not 
 be realized. Such was the emergency that led to the invention 
 of money. But it was adapted only to the commercial theories 
 of a barbarous age — an age of ignorance, despotism, and slavery. 
 It vastly increased the facilities of commerce, but it lacked^ and 
 still lacks, a very essential quality; it expresses no invariable defi- 
 nite meaning. So long as this feature is wanting, commercial 
 prosperity can have no enduring foundation. 
 
 Current commercial theories set at defiance the law of value. 
 3Ioney adapted to theories of exchange which sadly need revising, 
 must need a corresponding revision itself. With or without 
 money, commodities can not be equitably exchanged until their re- 
 spective values are ascertained. These being the result of labor 
 •expended in production, can be determined only by estimating 
 the forces that produce them. The essential elements of labor 
 are strength, skill, and time. The divisions, commonly known as 
 skilled, and unskilled labor, are misleading; no kind of labor is 
 possible without skill. A skilled laborer is, strictly speak- 
 ing, one that has marked proficiency in his calling; an unskilled 
 laborer has little proficiency in his. None of these elements must 
 be omitted in estimating values. The efficiency of an unskilled 
 laborer is less than that of a skilled laborer; hence, the value of 
 a commodity produced in one day by the former, is not equal to 
 the value of that produced by the latter in the same time. The 
 value of a commodity produced by a given grade of labor in a 
 certahi time, is double that of one produced in one-half the time 
 
3G CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT UETWEEN CAPITAL AMU LAliOE. 
 
 by the Stun 0 grade of labor. It is immeterial as to tlie kind of 
 commodities; they may be alike or unlike. Both may be ax- 
 helves. One may be an ax-helve ; the otlier a hand-sled. One 
 may be a watch; the other a sewing-machine. One may be gold; 
 the other diamond. In all departments of production and ex- 
 change, equal values result from equal industrial efficiency. Cus- 
 tom may ignore the law of value, but it is eternally fixed in the 
 nature of things. Legislators may interfere with its beneficent 
 tendencies, but they can no more change tlie law than tliey can 
 that of gravitation. The worshipers of Mammon may scoff at it, 
 but the periodical commercial panics will be cumulative evidence 
 of their folly. 
 
 The value of most commodities is the result of many indus- 
 tries. A lish in Lake Erie is valueless; from the hands of the fish- 
 erman it is accompanied by the value of his .‘•ervices; it readies 
 the market loaded with the additional value of the services ren- 
 dered in traBsportation ; it goes into the hands of the consumer 
 with the value increased by those rendered by the dealer. The 
 ultimate value can be determined only by ascertaining that result- 
 ing from the services of all parties; these must be paid by the 
 consumer. A barrel of flour comes from Minnesota loaded with 
 the values resulting from the services of the farmer, the miller, 
 the railroads, the drayman, and finally reaches the consumer with 
 the value increased by the services of the grocer. Every one of 
 these is a legitimate service for which the consumer should render 
 an equivalent. 
 
 The facts already elicited show the absolute necessity of 
 statistics in all departments of production. These should exhibit, 
 substantially, all the products in every department of labor, to- 
 gether with the amount of labor expended in production. These 
 two facts are absolutely essential in obtaining the average value 
 of the products in each field of labor. Suppose that a hundred 
 days’ labor produces 300 bifshels of wheat and that an equal 
 amount of labor produces COO bushels of oats. Prom this it 
 would irresistibly follow that three bushels of wheat or six bush- 
 els of oats would be an equivalent for one day’s labor. The 
 same facts show that three bushels of wheat is equal in value to 
 six bushels of oats; hence, two bushels of oats should exchange 
 for one of wheat. The statistics, being absolutely demanded by 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAUITAL AND LAliOH. 27 
 
 the highest interests of all, should be secured, printed, and dis- 
 tributed periodically by the government, representing the inter- 
 ests of all the people. This suggestion may seem utopian; it is 
 not; the scheme is perfectly practicable. If the impracticable is 
 utopian, the current theories are utopian; they are not only im- 
 practicable, they make the attainment of the desired result abso- 
 lutel}^ impossible. If the instrumentalities of government can 
 not, at ont;e, be utilized for that purpose, individual producers 
 might, themselves, secure statistics from which they could deter- 
 mine, approximately, the relative value of commodities in ex- 
 change. By this method, only two facts are rerpiired in relation 
 to each held of labor ; these are the amount of labor expended 
 and the quantity produced; approximately both are easily attain- 
 able. The method, at present, employed has no reliable basis; it 
 leaves the result to be determined by the desires, necessities, op- 
 portunities, and relative degrees of shrewdness of the parties. If 
 this scheme does not bear on iis face positive evidence of unrelia- 
 bility, the history of commerce through hundreds of 3^ears, over- 
 Avhelmingly proves that it is inconsistent with commercial integ- 
 rity. It has impoverished the masses of all long-standing nation- 
 alities; unless soon discarded, such will be its fruits here. 
 
 Bearing in mind the fact, that all exchanges consistent wdtli, 
 the equal rights of all, are, in ultimate analysis, merely exchanges of 
 services, the legitimate functions of money are easily apprehended. 
 An effort wdll now be made to make clear the nature of this indis- 
 pensable instrument of commerce. To accomplish this, necessi- 
 tates an appeal to facts that none can question. These facts can 
 be elicited from the circumstances of the nmst primitive commu- 
 nity as well as from those whose commerce is wmrld-wide. Com- 
 mercial principles, like those of mechanics, are unchangeable. 
 The primitive community will, therefore, furnish the necessary 
 facts, and much less to distract the attention of the reader. To 
 them, then, is the appeal. 
 
 A laborer works for a farmer in a new country destitute of 
 money. The farmer, of course, cannot jiay money; he lias none. 
 But he has received a service for which he stands debtor. The 
 laborer may, or may not, desire something owuied by the farmer. 
 If the laborer wants butter and the farmer has a surplus, no money 
 is needed. The exchange is direct; the laborer receives for his 
 
28 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 service its equivalent in butter. If the fanner has nothing desired 
 by the laborer, how is the latter to be compensated for his workf 
 In the absence of money or some similar instrumentality, the 
 farmer might exchange with a neighbor and thus get the com- 
 modity required by the laborer. The difficulties that might be 
 encountered here have already been pointed out. The laliorer 
 might accept something the farmer had, and make the exchange 
 himself. The difficulties would not be obviated ; they would be 
 merely transferred. A little reflection would remind the farmer 
 that his nQ\ghhoY'& f requently desire his commodities. He suggests 
 this fact to the laborer, who at once recollects that such are in- 
 variably the conditions in all communities. So far, then, there 
 is no doubt. If an honest man, the farmer has invariably 
 been trusted by his acquaintances. At once, in his mind, the 
 cause is clear. He owes the laborer one day’s labor. He writes 
 the following : 
 
 “ Due the Bearer one day’s labor.” 
 
 Farmer. 
 
 Would not this pass at par in that neighborhood? Would 
 not the very first person having, to spare, the product re- 
 quired by tlie laborer, exchange it for this evidence of tlie farm- 
 er’s indebtedness ? Has not the experience of all been the same ? 
 In this respect, all communities are substantially alike, and will 
 be forever. The common weal requires a universal exchange of 
 services. Tliis demands that the money employed in effecting the 
 exchanges must clearly and fully express the relations of all parties. 
 For this purpose, the farmer’s due bill is immeasurably better 
 than gold and silver. It does not, indefinitely, express an obli- 
 gation to })ay one dollar; the obligation.is to pay an equivalent for 
 one day’s labor. Systematic business imperatively demands that 
 every producer must keep trace of all labor expended in produc- 
 tion. If the comiriunity in Avhich the simple little due-bill origi- 
 nated has complied with this re(piirement of exchange, the in- 
 strument is one not of convenience merely; it is an instrument of 
 justice. The holder is entitled to receive of the fa-rmer a com- 
 modity produced by one day’s labor. The rate of exchange' is 
 wholly independent of the desires, necessities, opportunities,*' or 
 relative degrees of shrewdness of the parties. If the laborer had 
 received a dollar, instead of the due-bill, all future exchanges 
 effected by its use would have been consummated, perhaps, only 
 
CAUSES OF THE CO^’FLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOIL 21 ) 
 
 after much waste of time; or worse still, probably at a gain to one 
 of the parties, and, of necessity, a loss to the other. Such is the 
 character of money throughout all Christendom to-day ; such it 
 has been more than two thousand years. Its lack of intelligibility 
 invests it, in public estimation, with magical powers; hence the 
 exchanges of industrial products effected by its use, are a disgrace 
 to civilization. The farmer’s due-bill, to which allusion has been 
 made, though lacking one very essential (piality of a universal 
 medium of exchange, is infinitely superior to any money based 
 upon present theories. As a general medium of exchange, that 
 instrument lacks the feature of universal acceptability; it is 
 current only within the sphere of the farmer’s ac(puiintance. 
 
 Still confining the illustrations to the conditions of a small 
 community, it is not difiicult to add to the local currency that 
 feature of general acceptability reciuired in extensive commerce. 
 In the primitive community, the due-bills of the reputable citizens 
 would be accepted in exchange for goods, or in payment of bal- 
 ances. Under such circumstances it would be the extremest folly 
 to import the precious metals, to serve as money in their local 
 exchanges. Would gold or silver be indispensable in effecting 
 exchanges with other communities^ They would not. The truth 
 of this answer is susceptible of irrefragable proof. All will admit 
 that an annihilalion of the precious metals would not annihilate 
 exchanges; the latter are, therefore, not inherently dependent 
 upon the former. Whether or not these metals are a convenient 
 medium of foreign, exchanges, is quite another (}iiestion. If a 
 community, in which gold is not found could exchange with 
 others only through the instrumentality of a gold currency, they 
 could not exchange at all; they would have no means of obtaining 
 the gold except in exchange for their products. The magical 
 powers of the precious metals exist only in the imagination. 
 Values in relation to them, are subject to the same conditions as 
 those relating to other commodities; they are proportional to the 
 labor expended in their production. Exchanges will arise be- 
 tween communities as between individuals, if the circumstances 
 are such tliat each can meet the desires of the other by furnishing 
 what that, other can not produce for itself; or, if both are capable 
 of producing the same kinds of commodities, each must be better 
 adapted than the other, to the production of special commodi- 
 ties. In the former case, each gets, by exchange, what he could 
 
3^0 CAUSKS OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 not produce himself; in the latter, each gets more cheaply what 
 he might produce himself. Communities exchange commodi- 
 ties for commodities; philosophically st>eaking, they exchange 
 services rendered in connection with the commodities. The 
 money used for this purpose, therefore, should be evidence of 
 services given by the holder. 
 
 The due-bills heretofore mentioned need, for greater effi- 
 ciency, a feature which is indispensable in an instrument used to 
 elfect exchanges between different countries. The currency of such 
 instruments requires that those who issue them be men of the 
 highest repute and generally known. The imuractica- 
 bility of the latter feature is a serious defect in money of limited 
 circulation ; it is fatal to its use in effecting exchanges between 
 different communities. The lacking feature is authenticity. How 
 can this be supplied ? 
 
 In a particular community, isolated, commercially from the rest 
 of the world, the due-bills issued as evidence of services render- 
 ed by the holder, might be approximately authenticated by the en- 
 dorsement of all through whose hands thew pass. This, if not 
 *impossible, would be a great inconvenience. Tlie endorsement is 
 properly a function of government, as it is a matter of much import- 
 ance to the whole people. All legitimate governmental authority is 
 derived from the people, whose welfare is its only object. The 
 government of a small community might be a pure democracy, 
 the legislature consisting of the whole people. 'Whether the 
 government be simple or complex, its money requires public en- 
 dorsement to give it that authenticity demanded in a matter of 
 sucli vast importance to tim general weal. The government can 
 no more value than it can create weight; it can authenti- 
 
 cate instruments for measuring weight; it can give authenticity 
 to evidences of value. 
 
 In a small community whose government h simple, the in- 
 struments of exchange might receive public endorsement through 
 agents appointed for that }mrp;o.se. Tirese might be authorized 
 to exchange the public credit for that of individuals, under such 
 restrictions as would iirsurc }).erfect safety. The agents of the 
 people should be authorized to cxctmnge the public for individ- 
 ual credit, on well defined principles, and to a limited extent, 
 only. Tlie individuai currciiey should be issued, not exceeding 
 
CAUSES OF THE CO^'FLICT IlETWEEX CAPITAL AND LABOR. 81 
 
 a small per cent, of the individual property, and never without 
 service rendered by the recipient. The essential characteristic of 
 money is, that it represents service given by the holder, for 
 Avhich he is entitled to an equivalent. Therefore, logically, ser- 
 vice is an indispensable condition precedent to the rightful pos- 
 session of money. It will be observed that the services required 
 of the agents having charge of the public credit, are substantially 
 the same as those now rendered by banks; hence, nothing new 
 would be required, in ascertaining the responsibility of those 
 wishing to exchange their individual credit for that of the public. 
 Stripped of all the mysteries with which false theories of value 
 and exchange have invested it, such is the nature of paper 
 money. If constructed in harmony with economic principles, 
 and duly authenticated, it is competent to effect all the exchanges 
 of a world-wide commerce, crossing unchallenged international 
 lines, and arrested only by the limits of civilization itself. 
 
 The principles of a metallic currency ore identical with those 
 of a paper currency. The function of gold used as money, is pre- 
 cisely the same as that of paper, used for the same purpose. A* 
 an instrument of exchange, paper represents service given by the 
 holder; used for the same purpose, gold represents the same fact. 
 A precedent service is, therefore, indispensable to the validity of 
 either. All notions of the magical powers of gold are handed 
 down from a barbarous age, along with theories of exchange har- 
 monizing with those pertaining to human rights in general. The 
 governed were supposed to have no rights which the rulers were 
 bound to respect. The superstition of the ignorant masses was a 
 potent factor in the governments of those times. Ignorant of 
 their own rights and duties, as well as of those in authority, the 
 people imagined that the rulers were sustained by super-human 
 power. Hence, in the estimation of the people, governors were 
 more than mortal. The love of approbation is inherent in human 
 nature; each individual desires the respect of his fellows. In an 
 ignorant age, this is secured through manifestations of physical 
 power and visible personal adornments. The object of these 
 adornments being to distinguish the person, they must be of va- 
 rious kinds; otherwise they would have no significance. By this 
 standard, superior worth, in the public estimation, would attack 
 to him whose personal adornments consisted of things beyond 
 
i2 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 the reach of the people in general. To secure this pre-eminent 
 distinction it was necessary to select, as the badge, material in- 
 accessible to the masses of the people. This is pre-eminently the 
 characteristic of what are known as precious metals and precious 
 stones. In ancient times, the people were not allowed to appropri- 
 ate these ; they belonged to the king, who, according to the 
 moral code of that age, conferred upon his favorites the sole priv- 
 ilege of gathering them. Of course, it was an age of slavery in 
 which the work was carried on under the lash of a master. Those 
 diat possessed them, tlierefore, held the evidence of superior 
 physical power, the sole evdience of superior worth in a barbar- 
 ous age. Such is the origin of the theory, that by some myste- 
 rious process, the precious metals and precious stones have power 
 to confer dignity upon their possessor! Preposterous as is this 
 theory, it still prevails in this country, a memento of the false 
 pretense that slavery perished amid the ruins of tlie ‘‘Southern 
 Confederacy.” The institution of slavery, indeed, went down 
 with the Confederate dag; but the si^irit which animated it still 
 dominates all tlie marts of trade. All notions of the magical 
 powers of the precious metals, inherited from barbarous ages, 
 must be discarded, before their use as money, can, with any tol- 
 erable degree of equity, result in distributing the products of 
 industry among those whose labor produces them. Even then, 
 it is not improbable that paper money based upon correct theories 
 of exchange, is preferable to a currency of gold and silver. It is 
 that a currency consisting of both would be preferable : 
 but, if either should be used to the exclusion of the other, the 
 -paper money has uiost to recommend it as an exclusive currency. 
 
 Assuming that the wonderful powers commonly ascribed to 
 the precious metals are purely imaginary, what preliminary facts 
 are essential to the construction of a metallic currency adapted to 
 correct theories of exchange ? The drst unquestionably 
 relates to the value of the metal. This, again, requires statistics 
 as to the amount produced and the labor expended in production; 
 these are absolutely indispensable. Gold or silver, like other sub- 
 stances, becomes valuable only through labor. Two facts, only, 
 are essential in determining the value of either; neither fact is 
 difficult of attainment. A small fraction of the time and expense 
 ‘given in attempts to adjust the metallic currency to present 
 
C.VUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPLTATi AND liABOR. 33 
 
 theories, would furnish the facts requisite to place the medium of 
 exchange upon a basis as intelligible as that of weights or meas- 
 ures. Instead of sending commissioners abroad, on a fruitless 
 errand, as has b(’en done in attempts to reconcile the irreconcil- 
 able theories of international currency, let Congress appoint a 
 commission to gatlier statistics relating to the product’on of 
 gold and silver, and thus secure a reliable basis to support the 
 national metallic currency. A properly constituted national cur- 
 rency, is perfectly adapted to all the requirements of international 
 exchange. i\.s in all other departments of labor, the ultimate 
 fact to be elicited is the average product of a given amount of 
 industry. If both gold and silver are to be used as money, statis- 
 tics are required from all regions producing these metals. In 
 this manner, only, is it possible to give intelligibility to a me- 
 tallic curren(;y. Suppose the statistics show, that, on an average, 
 one day’s labor produces 100 grains of gold; and the same 
 amount produces 1,600 grains of silver. From this it would fol- 
 low that 100 grains of gold or 1,600 grains of silver is an 
 equivalent for one day’s labor; also that one grain of gold is 
 equal in value to 16 grains of silver. 
 
 Laying aside all prejudices resulting from theories inherited 
 from the dismal past, is not the theory of metallic currency above 
 suggested immeasurably superior to that sanctioned, only by im- 
 memorial custom ? In the light of these facts, is it not the height 
 ■of absurdity to send agents abroad to make an agreement as to 
 the rate at which gold shall exchange for silver '^ If the repre- 
 sentatives of all nations should meet at Paris and declare the 
 French meter equal to one yard and a half, the very school-boys 
 would laugh at their folly. The relative magnitude of two 
 measures is ri.xed in the nature of things; so it is w/th the rela- 
 tive value of two metals. A universal medium of exchange 
 would undoubtedly greatly facilitate international exchanges; 
 but it is unattainable, without a universal abandonment of current 
 theories of value. If the assembled agents of all nations were 
 supplied with the proper statistics relating to mineral produc- 
 tions, and vverc inspired by a correct theory in manipulating them, 
 there would be no discord in their councils ; a simple arithmet- 
 ical operation would, at once, settle the point at issue. It must 
 be remembered, that economic princi[)les are universal and im- 
 
34 CAUSES OP THE COMPIUCT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 mutable; no reliaace cau be placed oti theories of exchange in- 
 consistent with these; therefore money, the instrument of 
 exchatige, must comply with the requirements of economic law. 
 
 With the necessiry statistics before them, Congress could 
 proceed intelligently in constructing a metallic currency inlinitely 
 superior to that at present used. The one in present use is wholly 
 unintelligible. What is a dollar ? “ One hundred cents.” What 
 
 is a cent? . Absurd as it appears, this represents the popular 
 
 notion of the metallic monetary unit. But what w a gold dollar? 
 “ 25 4-5 grains of standard gold.” This answer expresses the 
 material and the weight of the gold dollar; but no information is 
 given as to its value. No one knows its value; this feature is as 
 unknown as is that of wheat, lead, corn, hats, or any other com- 
 modities. Yet it is said that this bit of metal is a measure of 
 value! Its weight is known; its value is unknown; it might, 
 therefore, be used in measuring tlie former, but it can no more 
 measure the latter than it can the llavor of butter. If one ex- 
 changes a bnshei of wheat for a g )ld dollar, it is said that the 
 relative values are determined by the operation. This is not 
 true; nothing is settled except that the owner of the dollar pre- 
 ferred the wheat to the dollar, and the owner of the wheat preferred 
 the dollar to the wheat: the desire of the former for wheat, was 
 stronger than his desire for gold; the desire of the latter for gold, 
 was stronger than his desire for wheat. Desires are far from iden- 
 tical with value; neither of them can measure the other; there is 
 not a particle of similarity between them. If, on an average, the 
 labor expendeil in producing a bushel of wheat is equal to that 
 expended in producing the gold in a dollar, the value of the 
 former is equal' to that of the latter. The gold or silver coin, 
 therefore, should have impressed upon it its labor-cost. 
 
 If the average amount of gold produced in a day is 100 
 grains, these are the essential facts to appear on the coin. A 
 similar coin weighing 50 grains would e(|ual in value one-half 
 day’s labor; one weighing 25 grains would represent one-quarter 
 of a day; one of 10 grains would represent an hour, a day being- 
 ten hours. Money constituted as here suggested, would be free 
 from all mjstery ; would be perfectly intelligible; and would be 
 in harmony with economic law. Every coin would represent a 
 definite service rendered by the holder, thus complying with the 
 
CAUSES OP THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 35 
 
 indispensable requisite of all instruments of exchange. If silver 
 coins are also used, they must express the same facts; the rela- 
 tive value of gold and silver coins of the same denomination 
 depends entirely upon the relative cost of producing these metals. 
 If, on an average, sixteen times as much labor is required to pro- 
 duce a given quantity of gold as in producing an equal quantity 
 of silver, this determines the relative weight of the coins. If 100 
 grains of gold represent a day’s labor, 1,600 grains of silver rep- 
 resent the same fact. 
 
 From the preceding discussion, it is seen that money is an 
 inestimably convenient instrument of exchange. It represents 
 service given by the holder; but it does not measure value. Any- 
 thing that performs the function of money is money. It may 
 consist of paper, gold, or silver; it might consist of wheat, iron, 
 lead, or any other product of labor. The material used is a mat- 
 ter of mere expediency. Much labor is required to get gold and 
 silver; hence, a small quantity of either of these metals expresses 
 a value equal to that of a large quantity of other products of in- 
 dustry. These metals will not rust; hence, they will last a long 
 time. They are susceptible of being divided without loss. They 
 are easily stamped. Tney possess numerous other properties of 
 utility which makes their possession desirable; but these have 
 nothing to do with their monetary character. Of all substances 
 paper is, perhaps, the most convenient material for money. If 
 based upon correct theories of exchange, it is probable that an 
 exclusively paper currency would answer, perfectly, all demands 
 of the most extensive commerce. Its exclusive use would, at 
 least, forever rid the world of the nightmare superinduced by the 
 magical powers with which the superstition o^‘ a barbarous age 
 invested the precious metals. The notion that gold or silver is 
 the only real money, is a relic of that age in which nations waged 
 war for the possession of these metals, then supposed to consti- 
 tute the only real wealth. Of whatever material the money be 
 composed, it must express simply the fact of service given by the 
 holder, and the amount of such service. 
 
 Becapitulation, The diversity of soil, climate, hydrograph- 
 ical features, mineral productions, and relief of country, offers a 
 great variety of opportunities, to utilize which, for the common 
 weal, requires exchanges among all the producers throughout the 
 world. The di'. ision of labor demanded in producing t’;e great 
 
3G CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LA BOB. 
 
 variety of commodities required to satisfy the desires of all, is t 
 second potent factor inducing men to trade. The skill developed 
 in the various departments of industry, is a third factor, of won- 
 derful power in the production of wealth. A commerce based 
 wholly upon these conditions would be a blessing to all mankind ; 
 instead of being divided, as at present, into winners and losers, 
 all would be gainers. 
 
 The legitimate gains are not in values; they are in utilities. 
 A gain in value implies a loss to one of the parties; it violate.s 
 the economic maxim that service given must equal service re- 
 ceived. A gain in utilities implies no loss to either party ; in 
 these, both are gainers, not, perhaps, invariably, but generally. 
 The latter are the only legitimate inducements to exchange. 
 
 Whatever may be the commodities exchanged, the real 
 exchanges are in services; this is no less true amid all the com- 
 plexities of modern commerce than it was when, in early times, 
 the hunter exchanged with the fisiierman. 
 
 Profits secured through increased utilities are legitimate; 
 those secured through increased values are spurious. Allowing 
 the latter to usurp the place of the former, has obliterated all 
 mo7'al distinction between exchange and gambling. Vain is the 
 hope to rid the world of the effect, except through the removal 
 of the cause. Until this is accomplished, the lucky few will live 
 in ignoble splendor, surrounded by the luckless many, whose 
 services have reared the palaces, in which luxurious Idleness 
 mocks the miseries resulting from unrequited industry-. Such is 
 the penalty attached to the violation of economic law; its princi- 
 ples are inexorable. z 
 
 Money is not a measure of value; it is an instrument to facili- 
 tate exchanges. Its function is to represent a service rendered 
 by the holder. Hence, service is an indispensable condition pre- 
 cedent to the legitimate possession of money. The money in 
 pi’esent use lacks a very important feature of a perfect instrument 
 of exchange; it represents no definite value. Whatever evil has 
 resulted from its use, is attributable to this fact. 
 
 The only difficulty in the way of constructing a perfect in- 
 strument of exchange is prejudice — ^a formidable obst-acle, but 
 not insurmountable. Let all notions of the indispensable necessity 
 of tlie precious metals be discarded, and the necessary statistics 
 
CAUSKS OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LA!JOK. 37 
 
 be obtained and utilized in accordance with the legitimate 
 theories of exchange, and the material used as a currency will be 
 a mere matter of convenience. It may be gold and silver, or paper; 
 it may be all these. In any event, exchanges will be ellected 
 mostly through the instrumentality of a paper currency, in the 
 form of due-bills, notes, checks, and drafts; these lacking merely 
 the feature of authenticity required in a universal instrument of 
 exchange. 
 
 The treasury notes, known as green-backs, slightly modified, 
 would answer all the requirements of commerce, both domestic 
 and foreign. The modification demanded is that they should 
 express service rendered by the holder for which the nation is 
 bound to render an equivalent; until this is done, the obligation 
 is not discharged. This requires that the holder of a green-back 
 receive an exact equivalent for the service rendered by him as 
 expressed in the instrument of exchange. This not being defi- 
 nitely expressed on the face of the green-back, is a fatal defect in 
 that instrument. Let a definite amount of service take the place 
 of the term dollar, and the money is complete ; all the mysteries 
 of money will disappear; and it will be used merely as a medium 
 of exchange, instead of being, as at present, iooraliiped, as an idol. 
 
ESSAY 3. 
 
 INTBREST, RENT, CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 Strictly speaking, Interest is a compensation paid for the use 
 of money. There is now, and always has been, a vague indefi- 
 nite notion, widely prevalent, that taking Interest is not in 
 accordance with the principles of justice. On the other hand, as 
 it comports with the current theories relating to profits, in which 
 chances are offered of getting something for nothing, and, as it 
 is sanctioned by immemorial usage, its advocates ridicule the idea 
 that its legitimacy is, in the least degree, suspected. Its discus- 
 sion is attended with immense difficulties, in consequence of the 
 current theories of exchange, of which it forms a part. So long 
 as these dominate the commercial world, the advocates of Inter- 
 est will have the advantage in the discussion. If, in a single 
 instance, it can be shown that one may rightfully exact a greater 
 service for a less — that is, some for nothing — there is no resisting 
 the conclusion that Interest may be rightfully taken ; the maxim, 
 that the service given should equal that received, if legitimate, is 
 universal ; if it is not of universal application, it has no place in 
 economic science. 
 
 So deep seated, in the public mind, is the notion that one 
 may take into the account the good another receives from his ser- 
 vices, and charge the recipient for the benefit thus conferred, that 
 it is necessary, before proceeding to the discussion of the problem 
 of Interest, to illustrate the incorrectness of this doctrine. If this 
 can be successfully done, the question of Interest will be much 
 simplified. 
 
 If the effect upon the recipient of a commodity or a service, 
 in anywise modifies the claim of him who furnished it, the latter 
 might become debtor, instead of creditor, by the operation. If 
 the seller of an axe is to charge the buyer for the prospective ben- 
 
CAUSliS OF Tlia CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOIl. ol) 
 
 efit conferred, logically the former would be responsible to the 
 latter for any prospective injury resulting from the transaction; if 
 the latter should cut his foot, the former would be responsible 
 for damages. Absurd as is this conclusion, it is no more so than 
 is the notion, that the recipient of a service is responsible for the 
 benefit received. One has his leg so crushed and mangled that 
 amputation is necessary to save his life; the surgeon is called and 
 performs the operation : What is the basis of his fee? Is he to 
 charge for the benefit conferred? The result of his services is a 
 life saved. May he take that? If not, the basis of his fee is not 
 the benefit conferred. For what, then, is he entitled to compen- 
 sation? Merely for service rendered. No one would contradict 
 this conclusion. But, if service given is the sole basis of compen- 
 sation, in this instance, such must be the case universally. Such 
 extreme eases are not generally supposed to be fair illustrations. 
 Why are they not? If benefit conferred, instead of service given, is 
 the basis of compensation, the amount of fee can be limited, only 
 by the benefit conferred. By ancient custom, the surgeon would 
 be justified in making his patient a slave. Modern custom would 
 forbid this, but it would permit the surgeon to extort a fee wrung 
 from the patient's necessities, instead of limiting his demand to 
 mere compensation for service given. The humane impulses of 
 the present age frecpiently, if not generally, restrain men from 
 doing what the current tlieories permit; though extortion enters 
 largely into all deiiartments of exchange, thus enriching one party 
 at the expense of another There is no escaping such result with- 
 out first abandoning the theory from which it fiows. Rigidly 
 adhered to, the maxim, “ Service given, not benefit received, is the 
 sole basis compensation,” would eliminate the element of extor- 
 tion from ail ca)mmercial transactions, and insure justice to all by 
 distributing th.^ [iroducts of industry in accordance with the prin- 
 ciples of strict e(iuity. Any deviation from this maxim, degrades 
 excliangt* to the level of gambling, and divides the world of indus- 
 try into the two classes of winners and losers, thus enabling the 
 former to acc.umulate wealth without merit, while the latter are 
 reduced to [)overty, it may be, without fault. If such conditions 
 are in consonance with the principles of justice, as interpreted by 
 the people, they will never rid themselves of the practice of seek- 
 ing to accumulate wealth by taking Interest. Those who fully 
 comprehend the fact that a service is the indispensable condition 
 
40 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 precedent to every just claim for compensation, are justified in 
 challenging the practice of taking Interest, From this stand- 
 point the argument will proceed in this Essay. 
 
 A farmer has in his cellar 20 bushels of potatoes, saved for 
 home-consumption; his neighbor borrows 5 bushels, to betaken 
 and returned at his sole expense and trouble. Is there any basis 
 to support a claim on the part of the farmer for compensation? 
 If the potatoes are returned without loss to him, is he not in 
 precisely the same condition that he would have been, had he not 
 loaned to lus neighbor? If he exacts, in return, a bushel more, 
 than was taken, is not lus wealth increased without increase of 
 service? Is it not to him preciselj'^ as if some one had donated 
 one bushel of potatoes? It must not be forgotten that the benefit 
 received by the neighbor, has nothing to do with the claim for 
 compensation; this must have, for its support, a service given by 
 the farmer. A service necessarily implies an effort as its indis- 
 pensable accompaniment. If the farmer expends no effort, he 
 renders no service; he is, therefore, entitled to no compensation. 
 Under such circumstances, taking, from his neighbor, the bushel 
 of potatoes, would be extortion, as it would be wringing, from the 
 necessities of another, something for nothing. If this is precisely 
 analogous to taking Interest, tlie two must stand or fall together; 
 money has no inherent power differing from that possessed by 
 any other species of property. 
 
 If two men take a job requiring the use of a certain machine, 
 that can be obtained by five hundred days’ labor, both might per- 
 form the work required ; the machine would, then, of course, be 
 their joint property. Or one might earn the machine while the 
 other is earning monc}’-; the machine would, then, belong to him 
 who earned it. It requires one year, each working 300 days, to 
 complete the job, for which they receive $1,200. Whether the 
 machine is joint or individual property, it is deteriorated in value 
 for the common benefit; the loss to the parties should, therefore, 
 be equal. The two, in 300 days, earn $1,200 — equals $G00 apiece; 
 this is two dollars a day, the same as that allowed in earning the 
 machine. If one party earns the machine valued at $1,000 while 
 the other — presumed to be an equally efficient laborer — is earning 
 money, the wages of the latter amount to $1,000; equal wages are 
 due for equal services. Ignoring the fact that the machine is dete- 
 
CAUSES OP THE CONFLICT BETWEEN (CAPITAL AND LABOR. 41 
 
 riorated in value by a year’s use, the record would .stand; In all, 
 each has worked 800 days; the owner of the machine, 500 in 
 earning that, and 300 in doing the job; the other, 500 in earning 
 money, while the former is earning the machine, and 300 in doing 
 the job; the first has, for his 800 days’ labor, his machine valued 
 at $1,000, and $600 earned, in doinj; the job — total $1,600; the 
 latter has $1,000 earned while the former was earning the machine, 
 and $600 for doing the job — total $1,600. If the machine were 
 not deteriorated by use, this would be equal justice; the parties 
 receive equal compensation for equal service. Under such cir- 
 cumstances no compensation would be due for the use of the 
 machine. 
 
 But universal experience teaches that machines are consumed 
 by use; hence this is an important element in the problem. A 
 machine worth $1,000 at the beginning of the year, must be worth 
 less at the close. In the case under consideration, the diminu- 
 tion in value being for a common benefit, should be equally 
 borne by the parties benefitted. If the machine is worth $200 
 less in consequence of the use and this diminution were ignored 
 by the parties, the record would stand : At the end of 800 days’ 
 labor, the owner of the machine would have that left, equal to 
 $800, and $600 for doing the job — total $1,400. The other would 
 have $1,000, earned before commencing the job, and $600 for doing 
 the same — total $1,600. For 800 days’ labor the former has 
 $1,400; for the same, the latter, entitled to no more, has $1,600. 
 This inequality results from the deterioration of the value of the 
 machine for the common benefit of both parties. The injustice 
 of this is seen at a glance ; two equally efficient laborers each 
 work 800 days, one getting $200 more than the other. Justice 
 demands that the recipient of the $1,600 should give $100 to the 
 owner of the machine. The record would then stand; Owner 
 of machine has $1,400 plus $100, equals $1,500; the other, $1,600 
 minus $100, equah $1,500. Each party gets $1,500 for 800 days’ 
 labor, or $1.87i a day. 
 
 If the owner of the machine should set up a claim for Interest, 
 in addition to the compensation for deterioration of his property, 
 the record would stand; Owner of machine for 800 day’s labor, 
 has $1,500 plus $30 Interest — total $1,530; the other, $1,500 — $30 
 Interest paid— total received for 800 days’ $1,470, This gives the 
 
42 
 
 CAUSED OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND L ABOtl. 
 
 former $60 more than the latter, thongli both have worked the 
 same number of days of rhe same degree of efficiency. However 
 much it may be at variance v ith current theories, the assertion is 
 here made, without fear of successful contradiction, that the man 
 does not live who is able, by argument, to justify any claim for 
 interest due the owner of the machine. 
 
 Attempts are commonly made to justify taking Interest, as 
 above specified, on the grounds that those from whom it is exacted 
 may preserve the e(j[uilibrium by loaning iAeir money. This ''uU 
 not do; this Is begging the question; the right to take Interest is 
 the very point under discussion. A wrong practice cannot be 
 justitied by permitting another wrong to neutralize its evil effects. 
 Interest is the party on trial ; it must not be made referee in its 
 own case. 
 
 If the laborers referred to in the preceding paragraph, borrow 
 $1,000, with which to purchase the machine, could the one 
 loaning it justify a claim for compensation for its use ? Showing 
 that such has been the practice in all ages, falls far short of justi- 
 fication ; the antiquity of the custom is itself a suspicious circum- 
 stance. Laying aside the prejudice born of ancient customs, let 
 the theory of Interest be tested by an appeal to facts, open to 
 inspection by all. Assuming, as before, that the $1,000 is the 
 compensation received for 500 days’ labor, and that its previous 
 possessor continues working while the borrowers are using it in 
 doing the job, each of the three, then, assumed to be laborers of 
 equal efficiency, while the money is employed in the business, 
 works 300 days. Wages being $2 a day each should receive $600. 
 But the machine is reduced in value $200, and the owners must 
 pay $60 for the money with which it was purchased. The record 
 then stands: The one from whom the money is borrowed receives 
 during the year $600 for labor, and $60 for the use of his money 
 — total $660. The other two have the machine, reduced in value 
 to $800, and $1,200 received fordoing the job — total $2,000, out 
 of which they must pay $1,000, money borrowed, and $60 for use 
 of the same, leaving a balance of $940 to be divided between 
 them ; this leaves to each, $470. Eiich of the three should have 
 received for his services $600; one receives $60 more; each of 
 the other two, $130 less. This discloses another source of loss 
 to the two who do the job; they received but $1,200 for their 
 work and the deterioration of their machine; they were entitled 
 
CAUSES OP THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 4:,’ 
 
 to this for their work alone. They should have received $200 — 
 equals $100 each — more for doing the job. [This will more fully 
 appear in the discussion of the relation of Capital and Labor]. 
 This leaves only a loss sustained in paying Interest. The one 
 from whom the money is borrowed receives $660; each of the 
 others, if paid for the deterioration of their machine, by those for 
 whose benefit it was partially consumed, would receive $o70, 
 equals $90 less than that received by the Interest-taker, whose 
 services entitle him to no greater compensation than either of the 
 others. If each of the two, not expecting to have use for it, at the 
 time of borrowing the $1,000, had put out $500 at the same rate, 
 he might have secured himself against loss by transferring the 
 burden to some other person ; otherwise his loss is irretrievable. 
 That which compels one to inflict a loss upon others to avoid sus- 
 taining loss himself, is absolutely indefensible. It is, perhaps, 
 time to restate the maxim, that service given — not benefit received 
 — is the sole equitable basis to support a claim for compensation. 
 No sugar-coating of Revelation can save the current theories of 
 Interest. If service were not the basis of compensation, the phys- 
 ician’s fee would depend upon saving the life of his patient. 
 
 Failing to justify the theory of Interest, by appealing to eco- 
 nomic principles — so strong is the influence of custom — writers 
 frequently assert that abstinence is a sufficient basis to support 
 the claim. It is said that one should receive compensation for 
 denying himself the pleasure of using his money for the gratifi- 
 cation of his present desires! On this theory, the compensation 
 is not due for service .given; it is dina iov siiffering endured ! 
 Abstinence, so far as it suppresses desires the gratification of 
 which would be injurious, is a virtue, worthy of the highest 
 respect; but it can no more raise a cla'm for pecuniary compensa- 
 tion than can one’s religious belief. Abstinence is as far from 
 being a commercial commodity as is truth or honesty. Even 
 admitting that those having money to loan, are more abstinent 
 than the borrowers, this would afford no foundation to support a 
 claim for pecuniary compensation. Abstinence has its reward 
 in the superior moral and physical welfare of those who practice 
 it; a reward infinitely greater than any mere commercial consid- 
 eration. As a matter of tact, it is extremely doubtful whether or 
 not the most abstinent, are those having money to loan. 
 
 It is said that money is accumulated by saving. This is a very 
 
44 CAUSES THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 pernicious halt-truth ; tlie getting must ot necessity precede the sav- 
 ing. The former is of more importance than the latter: one may get 
 without saving; hut vain would be any attempt to save without 
 getting. It is an absurd assumption that saving is more com- 
 mendable than getting, provided the latter is effected through 
 legitimate industrial enterprises. 
 
 In consequence of the malad justment of the mechanism through 
 which the distribution of wealth is effected, it is impossible for 
 the greatest part of the wealth producers to save, as the compen- 
 sation received for their services, is not sufficient to defray neces- 
 sary current expenses; they have, therefore, no surplus, and con- 
 sequently nothing to save. If a laborer whose family consists of 
 live persons receives $1.50 per day, for three hundred days of 
 service given during the year, he would receive $450 ; this is an 
 annual income of $90, for each member of the family. Where is 
 the surplus to be saved out of this miserable pittance ? It may 
 be confidently asserted that any saving, under such circumsances, 
 must be at the expense of the welfare of the family ; instead, 
 therefore, of being commendable, such mock economy is repre- 
 hensible. The income above referred to, is, perhaps, greater than 
 that received by millions of those who, even in this country, toil 
 early and late ; and yet they are taunted with being spendthrifts, 
 because they expend their income in supplying necessaries for 
 their families, and trust in God for other days and equal or bet- 
 ter opportunities in the future! “Take no thought of to-mor- 
 row,” is a precept founded on high authority no less than the 
 deepest philosophy. There is no dereliction of duty on the part 
 of those whose faith in the future permits them to properly attend 
 to the affairs of the present. Abstinence is a virtue, only when 
 it restrains the desires from perversion ; it is a vice, if it sacrifices 
 the interests of the present to those of the future; each has its 
 legitimate demands. 
 
 Those that have saved are not necessarily more abstinent 
 than those that have not. That one whose salary is $1,000 has 
 saved $500, is far from proving him more abstinent than him 
 whose salary is $450, and who has saved nothing. Neither does 
 the fact that the former has spent $50 more than the latter prove 
 that he that has spent the least is the most abstinent; had the 
 income of the latter been greater, he might have spent more. If 
 
CAUSES Ob' THK CONFI.ICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 4.') 
 
 oue whose iiicolue is $10,000 saves $5,000, and another whose income 
 is $500, spends it all, is the former necessarily the most abstinent? 
 Of course, no one can answer, either affirmatively or negatively; 
 the necessary facts are not elicited. It is not proven that the 
 loaners are more abstinent than the borrowers of money; the 
 reverse is probably nearer the truth. It matters not, so far as 
 Interest is concerned; abstinence is not a proper basis to support a 
 claim for a pecuniary compensation. If at all then, Interest must 
 be justified as a compensation for service given. The illustrations 
 already given are believed sufficient proof to show that merely 
 pernutting another to use one’s money, is not a service given for 
 which the loaner of the money is entitled to compensation. The 
 taking of Interest is in violation of the fundamental principles of 
 equity in exchange. There is, indeed, a benefit received by the 
 borrower, but no service given by the lender; hence, no compen- 
 sation is due the latter. Interest, therefore, being destructive of 
 the equilibrium w’hich should subsist between the services given 
 and those received, is inconsistent with the equities of enchange. 
 
 The notion is almost universal that no one would lend his 
 moiiC}' without com[>ensation for its use. If this were true, it 
 Would not justify the practice of taking Interest. But is it true? 
 This is somewhat analogous to the notion that people would not 
 trade except in anticipation of profits. That profits are the induce- 
 ments to exchange, is true. It has, however, been shown, in the 
 preceding P>say, that profits are of two kinds: there may be an 
 increase of values or the same of utilities; the former are spuri- 
 OfC«, the latter, legitimate. In this, the gain is mutual; in that, 
 the gain by one necessitates a loss to the other. Increase of 
 wealth, effected through taking Interest, is, in principle, like 
 that resulting from spurious profits. The gain derived from lend- 
 ing money without Interest, like that derived from increased 
 utilities in exchange, is mutual. If the borrower invests the 
 money, in a machine which increases the efficacy of his labor, less 
 service will be required in producing commodities ; as these require 
 less labor, they will possess less value; hence less service of others 
 will be due in exchange for them. 
 
 A community having easy access to forests affording an abun- 
 dance of lumber, and having sufficient water-power for its 
 manufacture, but far removed from saw-mills, would, if wdse, 
 
46 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOE. 
 
 furjisli the requisite means for erecting a mill at home. The 
 primitive method of hand-manufacture, which they must employ, 
 in the absence of mills, would require an enormous outlay of labor 
 in the manufacture of lumber. In ultimate analysis, as has been 
 illustrated in the Essay treating of the laws of exchange, the legit- 
 imate cost of all commodities depends, wholly, upon the labor 
 expt nded in their production. The amount of labor necessary 
 for the manufacture of lumber by machinery, is very small, com- 
 pared with that required for manufacturing it by hand. Here, 
 then, is an inducement for the members of that community to lend 
 their money to any responsible party who would employ it in 
 erecting a mill — an inducement very much stronger than is ever 
 offered by the most excessive rate of Interest. If the sum of $o,00f) 
 is loaned for the erection of the mill, the returns for Interest 
 would be $300. The cost of manufacturing lumber by hand is 
 not known, but there is no doubt that it would be, at least, 
 twenty times as great as that of manufacturing by macliinery. If 
 the cost by the latter is $2.50 per thousand, by the former it would 
 not be less than $50 — a difference of $47.50, in favor of the former. 
 If the community require 100,000 feet of lumber, the saving to 
 them, in the cost of manufacturing, would be $4,750. This shows 
 an inducement to loan money, nearly sixteen times as great as that 
 olfered in the theory of Interest. This reasoning is based upon 
 the assumption that the owner of the mill is entitled to remuner- 
 ation for the deterioration of his property, and for service given 
 in manufacturing the lumber. If the former amounts to $500, 
 and the latter, including ha-ed help, amounts to $1,500, he is 
 entitled to $2,000 — all for services given: the $500 for previous 
 services, ending with the completion of the mill; the 1,500, for 
 services ending with the manufacture. It is well to remark, tliat 
 the compensation is due, not for what the mill does, but for what 
 the owner does. The inventor of a machine is entitled to com- 
 pensation for service given in determining the principles upon 
 which it is constructed; tlie manufacturer of the same is entitled 
 to compensation for service given in its construction; the owner 
 is entitled to compensation for any deterioration resulting from 
 its use; the user is entitled to compensation for directing its oper- 
 ation. If either exacts more, he violates the fundamental maxim 
 of exchange, that the service given should equal that received. 
 This must be borne in mind, in order that it may be clearly seen 
 
CAUSES OF THE (’ONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAT. AND LABOR. 47 
 
 that obtaining comniodities with a much less outlay of labor, is a 
 much stronger inducement to loan money than is the most exor- 
 bitant rate of Interest anticipated for its use. Therefore, Interest 
 is not necessary as an inducement to loan money. As previously 
 shown, taking Interest destroys the equilibrium that should sub- 
 sist between the services given and those received. It has also 
 been shown that abstinence is no ground for a pecuniary compen- 
 sation. Hence taking Interest, or compensation for the mere use 
 of money is in violation of economic law; and the plea of neces- 
 sity set up in defense of the practice hiving failed, the violation 
 is without excuse. 
 
 Rent. Rent is said to be a compensation for the ^ose of land. 
 If the compensation is for service given in imnroving the land, it 
 is legitimate; but, if it is claimed for the mere use of the land, 
 it. is in violation of the economic principle, that service given is 
 tlie sole basis of all legitimate claims for compensation. In dis- 
 cussing this subject, it is necessary to bear in mind these two uses 
 .of the term Rent. 
 
 In discussing the theory of Rent, as a compensation paid for 
 the use of land, writers illustrate its origin as follows: In all 
 countries, are lands of various degrees of fertility : Some is very 
 fertile; some, moderately so; some, sligiitlyso; and some, compar- 
 atively sterile. If the most fertile lands are capable of producing 
 40 bushels of wheat per acre, and are all appropriated, while the 
 second grade is capable of producing only 30 bushels, the Rent 
 of the best lands would be 10 bushels per acre. If the first and 
 second grades were all appropriated and capable of producing 
 as above specified, while the third is capable of producing 30 
 bushels, the Rent of the first would be 20 bushels, and that of the 
 second would be 10 bushels. If the first, second and third grades 
 ■wmre all appropriated and the fourth is capable of producing 10 
 bushels, the Rent of the first would be 30 bushels; that of the 
 second, 30 bushels; that of the third, 10 bushels. 
 
 The key to the above theory is found in a statement made by 
 an eminent English economist, John Stuart Mill. He remarks as 
 follows: ‘‘Landed proprietors are the only class, of any numbers 
 or importance, Avho have a claim to a share in the distribution of 
 the produce, through their ownership of something which neither 
 they nor any one else have produced.” This at once condemns the 
 
48 CAUSES OK THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAFITAL AND LABOH. 
 
 theory, unless it can be sliown that God lias created a class with 
 rights superior to those of their fellows ; the universal condition 
 precedent to a ciaim for comjiensation, is service given. It is an 
 historical fact that the landed proprietors of England came into 
 possession of their lands through force — a poor foundation, upon 
 which to base a claim of right — and the present proprietors liold 
 possession by the same means. 
 
 The author above named, in another part of his discussion 
 says; “When the ‘sacredness of property’ is talked of, itshould 
 always be remembered that any such sacredness does not belong, 
 in the same degree, to landed property. It is the original inherit- 
 ance of the whole species. Its appropriation is wholly a questio’i 
 of general expediency. When private property in land is not 
 expedient, it is unjust. The reverse is the case with ])roperty in 
 movables, and in all things the product of labor; over these, the 
 owner’s power both of use and of exclusion should be absolute, 
 except when positive evil to others whould result from it; but, in 
 the case of land, no exclusive right should be permitted in any 
 individual which cannot be shown to be productive of positive 
 good. To be allowed any exclusive right at all, over a portion of 
 the common inheritance, while there are others who have no |X)r- 
 tion, is already a privilege. No quantity of movablefgoods which 
 a person can acquire by his labor, prevents others from acquiring 
 the like by the same means; but from the very nature of the ca«te, 
 whoever owns land keeps others out of the enjoyment of it. 
 When land is not intended to be cultivated, no good reason can 
 in general be given for its being private proueity at all. Even in 
 the case of cultivated land, a man whom, though only one among 
 millions, the law permits to hold thousands of acres as his single 
 share, is not entitled to think that all this is given to him to use 
 and abuse, and deal with as if it concerned nobody but himself. 
 The rents or profits which he can obtain from it are at his sole dis- 
 posal; but with regard to the land, in everything which he doe-* 
 with it, and in everything which he abstains from doing, he 
 morally bound, and should, whenever the case admits, be legally 
 compelled to make his interest and pleasure consistent with tlui 
 public good.” Consistent with the public good! how can - 
 mitting certain individuals to exact compensation, without righ*^, 
 be consistent with the public good? 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOU. 49 
 
 Rout, based upon the theory illustrated in a preceding para- 
 graph, w'hen stripped of the mask wdtii wdiicli its deformity iias 
 been hidden for hundreds of years, stands revealed as an econom- 
 ical monstrosity, which has filled tlie world with ignoble pomp 
 and pinching poverty. According to Mr. 3Iill, it permits the 
 landed proprietors to share in the products, without contributing 
 anything to their production. Is this -‘consistent with tlie public 
 good ? ” Does not the noted Economist say of land, and that truly, 
 “It is the original inheritance of the whole species?” If it 
 belongs by inherent right to the h irnan race, and not to a particular 
 class, upon wdiat principle of justice can a claim for compensa- 
 tion for mere use be based? Naturally, have not all an equal 
 right to use the land? Can this right of all be transferred to a 
 few^ by a irere appeal to a custom bearing no credentials of 
 authority, except the cobwebs of past ages? 
 
 The working of the theory of Rent referred to above, may be 
 illustrated as follows : If a country limited in area, to one hundred 
 square miles, consists of four diilerent grades of soil, as previ- 
 ously specified, having respectively the productive capacity of 40, 
 30, 20, and 10 bushels per acre, the territory consisting of an 
 equal number of square miles of each, and the lower grades unoc- 
 cupied, every acre of the higher grade would draw Rent, provided 
 it is all appropriated. As the latter grade is capable of producing 
 40 bushels per acre, while the second grade is capable of produc- 
 ing but 30, little more labor is required to produce 40 bushels on 
 the superior than to produce 30 on the inferior land ; hence anyone 
 desiring the use of land in that country, except the occupants of 
 the best land, would be induced to pay nearly 10 bushels per acre 
 for the privilege of using the latter. If the twenty-five square 
 miles of land, the most productive, is sufficient to supply the 
 demand, the next grade below will draw no Rent, because the use 
 of the former can be had at a rate not exceeding the difference in 
 the productive powers of the two grades. ^As it is, evidently, a 
 system of extortion, the holders of the superior land will demand 
 all they can wring from the necessities of those desiring to use 
 the land; the extreme limit is 10 bushels, the difference in the 
 productive capacity of the two grades. Those, in need of land, 
 would have left, after paying 10 bushels for the use of the superior 
 land, 30 bushels per acre — precisely the same that they would 
 
50 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 have, had they, without paying Rent, expended their labor on the 
 sjcond grade. 
 
 If the first and second grades are all appropriated, and the 
 first not sufficient to supply the demand for use, both will draw 
 Rent. Labor expended on the third grade will produce but 20 
 bushels; on the second, 30; on the first, 40. After paying 20 
 bushels for the use of the best land, or 10 bushels for that of the 
 second, the laborer would have left. 20 bushels per acre — the 
 same as if he had, without paying Rent, expended his labor on 
 the third grade. Under such circumstances the superior land 
 which previously drew 10 bushels, now draws 20; the second 
 grade which previously drew no Rent, now draws 10 bushels; and 
 the third grade draws none. Twenty bushels for the best land, 
 and 10 for the second grade, are the highest; practically, in each 
 case, the Rent would be slightly below these figures; the exact 
 amount is determined by the necessities of those in need, and the 
 opportunities of those in possession of the lands. 
 
 If all the land in the first three grades is appropriated, and 
 the demand for use is not fully supplied, the landless are left to 
 choose between paying Rent to the occupants of the superior 
 grades and accepting free of rent the poorest land. As the pro- 
 ductive capacity of the superior lands is, beginning with the 
 highest, 40, 30, and 20 bushels per acre, and that of the lowest 
 grade but 10 bushels, it foilovvs that the most productive land 
 will draw, as Rent, 30 bushels; the second grade will draw 20; 
 the third, 10; the laborers net receipts would be precisely the 
 same, whether he paid 30 bushels for the use of the best 
 land, 20, for the second, 10, for the third, or wmrked the fourth 
 free of Rent. 
 
 As those who attempt to justify the above theory of Rent, 
 make no pretense that the more fertile lands are made so by the 
 labor of the occupants, it follows, irresistibly, that the compensa- 
 tion demanded for their use is not based upon any service given ; 
 it is therefore, nothing, more or less, than tribute exacted from 
 those who have an inalienable right to an equal share in all the 
 bounties of nature. It is well, again to remark, that no man can 
 rightfully take pay for what God has done; though practiced 
 through thousands of years, it finds no warrant in sound eco- 
 nomic philosophy. If, therefore. Rent has no better foundation 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 51 
 
 than the above, for its support, it is inconsistent with the theory 
 of ‘‘equal rights,” and one or the other must fall. Which shall 
 it be ? 
 
 The chance occupancy of mineral lands, natural facilities for 
 driving machinery, furnished by waterfalls, and the possession of 
 oil territory are vast engines of extortion in the hands of those 
 who control them. It is the false theory of Rent that permits the 
 monopolizers of these bounties of nature to extort from their fel- 
 lows, a large share of the products of industry. 'All the income 
 received, by those having these superior natural opportunities, 
 beyond a fair compensation for service given, is in the nature of 
 that species of Rent already illustrated as being nothing less tliaii 
 tribute exacted from those who, by chance or otherwise, are not 
 in possession of like opportunities. 
 
 Of the same species is the Rent derived from the possession of 
 superior commercial facilities; some of these facilities are natural; 
 others are industrial. The most important of the former are 
 oceans, bays, lakes, and rivers; the bays afford protection to 
 vessels while loading or unloading goods, and when these are 
 awaiting transportation; the other three are the natural high- 
 ways of communication between distant points. The industrial 
 facilities are not independent of the natural, but they are, to a 
 great extent, of human creation. 
 
 The natural commercial facilities are, evidently, the inherit- 
 ance of all mankind : no one, therefore, can rightfully appropriate 
 them and extort, from his fellows, pay for their use. All income 
 derived from the.-e, is tribute extorted by force instead of com- 
 pensation for service given. Hence, any theory of Rent which 
 tolerates such injustice must be condemned, though sanctioned 
 by custom so ancient that the ‘‘memory of man runneth not to 
 the contraiy.” 
 
 The industrial commen.-ial facilities present a somewhat com- 
 plex problem. In its discussion, wdll be met strong prejudice, 
 the removal of which will be no small task. By immemorial 
 usage, those occupying land in closely settled districts, have, in 
 many instances, accumulated immense wealth through the instru- 
 mentality of Rent. The maxim, “What man has done, man 
 may do,” has much influence in perpetuating a system which 
 seems to open a way to wealth, without the tedious process of 
 
53 CAUSES OP THE CONFCICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 earning it, through years of patient industry. The fact that the 
 inordinate gains thus accruing to the feio, are secured, only 
 through the inevitable losses to the many^ commonly escapes 
 detection. It is not generally seen that this tends to make busi- 
 ness a mere lottery, in which the prize secured by one, is condi- 
 tioned upon a loss to all competitors. An attempt will now be 
 made to illustrate the nature of Rent growing out of industrial 
 commercial facilities. 
 
 A, B, and C are three farmers in the prime of life — all 
 equally strong, active, industrious, skillful, and intelligent. No 
 one of the three lives within fifty miles of either of the t)thers. 
 Each has 100 acres of land, equally well improved, as the result 
 of twenty years’ industry and economy. So far in life, all have 
 received equal compensation for their services; this is as it should 
 be — equal compensation received for equal service given. If A’s 
 farm is situated on the natural line of communication between 
 some wealth-producing region and a market for commodities 
 therein produced, and a railroad is built between these points, 
 the wealth of A, in common with all land-holders along that line, 
 will be increased through the instrumentality of that species of 
 Rent resulting from superior industrial commercial facilities. At 
 once, the equilibrium of the receipts of A, B, and C is destroyed ; 
 the receipts of the first are increased, without change in the 
 amount of service given. If the location of A’s farm is such as to 
 make it desirable as a site for a depot, he, at once, becomes a 
 millionaire. He is now a man of commanding presence: his lofty 
 mien, his graceful movements, his keen eye, his classic features, 
 and his transcendant genius are subjects of universal remark. 
 Those -who make heredity their special hobby, trace his lineage, in 
 search of his noble ancestry, and the welkin rings with his 
 praises. He is now in possession of the philosopher's stone, 
 through which he holds communion with the genii having in 
 charge all the secret springs of wealth and happiness. In rapid 
 succession he mounts the successive rounds of the political ladder: 
 from private citizen, to supervisor; from supervisor, to state legis- 
 lator; from state legislator, to representative in congress. Surely, 
 it is thought, he that has the power to spring at a single bound 
 from the condition of an average farmer to that of a millionaire, 
 must have the capacity to relieve plodding mortals of the neces- 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 5:1 
 
 sity of seeking wealth through the tedious routine of industrial 
 enterprises. But alas! the hopes so fondly cherished are not real- 
 ized : the universal wealth anticipated is not forth-coming. The 
 palace rises in stately grandeur in the midst of the hovels of those 
 whose industry has contributed to the erection of this memento 
 of commercial injustice. 
 
 It will be observed that wealth accumulated as above indi- 
 cated, is not a consequence of any superiority of its posse.ssor; he 
 contributed little to its production. What, then, is its source ? 
 The most superficial observer w^hose attention is directed to the 
 facts, will see that it results from superior commercial facilities — 
 both natural and industrial. The former are the common inherit- 
 ance of the Race ; in these, all mankind are entitled to share. The 
 latter are of human creation; these belong to all those whose 
 industry has contributed to their production. Here, then, are 
 two potent factors at work transferring the wealth produced, it 
 may be, bj"^ thousands to a single individual, who thus becomes a 
 millionaire, indeed ; but his vast accumulations are, mostly, the 
 result of tribute exacted from his fellows. Rent as thus illus- 
 trated, like all preceding examples, is at war with the principles 
 of eternal justice: so long as it is tolerated among men, no equit- 
 able distribution of the products of industry is possible. There- 
 fore its elimination as a factor in the accumulation of individual 
 wealth, is absolutely indispensable to the public weal. 
 
 Rent as a compensation for service given. There is a species of 
 Rent radically different from that already illustrated: it is merely 
 a compensation for service given. 
 
 Preliminary to the discussion of the nature of this species of 
 Rent, it is necessary, again, to remark, that economic principles 
 are wholly independent of political institutions. They antedate 
 all legislative enactments, and are as persistent in their influence 
 among the savages in the wilds of Africa, whose wealth consists, 
 only of the spontaneous productions of nature, as among the 
 most highly civilized people, whose industry and skill in modify- 
 ing the natural products, have produced wealth which, if equit- 
 ably distributed, would be the crowning glory of civilization. In 
 the discussion of economic principles, therefore, it is necessary to 
 proceed as if no political institutions were in existence. Ignor- 
 ing this fact, political economy becomes a labyrinth into which, 
 
54 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOB. 
 
 all who enter are lost among its gloomy caverns, in which are 
 buried the hopes of millions whose fate has filled the world with 
 despair. No wonder tliat economics is sometimes called the 
 “Gloomy Science!” Let it be understood, then, that, in this 
 discussion, no note is taken of the influence of political institu- 
 tions. All are presumed to have the same rights; each may 
 improve any tract of land not previously improved by another. 
 
 If anyone has, with spade, plow, or any . other implement, 
 cultivated a piece of land, there at once arises, as a consequence 
 of that culture, a value in that land, proportional to the labor 
 expended in the operation. There arises in that laborer a right of 
 dominion over a specific part of what was previously the common 
 domain; this right constitutes individual property in land. The 
 civil authority, that is, the people, through legislative enactment, 
 may, as a matter of temporary expediency, grant him the exclu- 
 sive privilege of occupying territory beyond the limits of his 
 improvements. But no such absolute right of property attaches 
 to the unimproved as to the improved land. The same authority 
 that granted the privilege of individual occupancy of the unim- 
 proved land, may, if expediency requires it, revoke [the grant 
 without compensating the grantee; he having given no service, 
 the indispensable condition precedent to a claim for compensa- 
 tion. Not so with reference to the improved land: here is a valid 
 claim for compensation due for labor expended in the improve- 
 ment; this is an absolute right of which the individual cannot be 
 deprived, even by the legislature. If the public good demands 
 it, he that has improved land, may be dispossessed, if he is duly 
 compensated for his labor. The only legitimate basis, therefore, 
 for the ownership of land, like that of any other suecies of prop- 
 erty, is the labor expended in its improvement. 
 
 If, as stated in the preceding paragraph, one improves a 
 piece of land, he may rightfully claim compensation from any one 
 using it; not for the use of the land, but for give in its 
 
 improvement. Here, as throughout all the realms of exchange, 
 the equilibrium of the services given and those received must be 
 preserved; else universal discord reigns supreme. If by industri- 
 ously plying the spade, one has prepared for the seed, one acre of 
 land, at an expenditure of three days’ labor, the extent of his 
 right is thereby fixed : he is entitled to an equivalent service 
 
CAUSES OF TIIR CONFLICT BETWEEN CAUITAI, AND IvABOlC O-l 
 
 from him who plants the seed, harvests the crop and approjiri- 
 ates to his own use the proceeds. The same principle must 
 govern from the preparing of the soil to the marketing of the crop : 
 he that plants, cultivates, harvests, and markets the crop is enti- 
 tled to compensation for his services. If this lirings the crop to 
 the consumer, he discharges all obligation by giving in return, 
 that which represents services equal to all those given from the 
 preparing of the soil to the delivery of the proceeds. If, instead 
 of being sold directly to the consumer, the crop is sold to a mid- 
 dle-man who transports it to the place of tinal consumption, he to 
 whom it is delivered must, in addition to the original cost to the 
 middle-man, pay him for his services, including the cost of trans- 
 jiortation. 
 
 The above repetition of what is substantially stated in Essay 
 second, is necessary in anticipation of objections founded on the 
 imaginary profits which he that prepared the soil might have real- 
 ized, had he planted, cultivated, harvested, and marketed the 
 crop. This species of profits — in the Essay already referred to, 
 styled spurious — is so fortified by custom, that it is difficult to 
 draw the attention of the reader to its mischievous features. 
 Hence, blinded by his prejudices, the superficial observer will de- 
 clare that no exchanges would take place, if this pernicious 
 species of profits were eliminated from the theories of trade. 
 Those who thus reason, seem not to see that the wealth of the 
 w'orld is not, in the slightest degree, increased through this 
 species of profits. It is, nevertheless, true that the only result 
 effected through this agency, is merely a transfer of wealth from 
 one to another; hence, if some realize a gain, others must suffer a 
 loss. If one receives a commodity, equal in value to one dollar, 
 in exchange for another, equal in value to seventy-five cents, there 
 is a gain of twenty-five cents realized by one (party, conditioned 
 upon an equal loss suffered by the other; and the wealth of the 
 world is neither increased nor diminished by the transaction. 
 Such is the inevitable result of all transactions in which the 
 species of profits under consideration is tolerated. It is a mis- 
 chievous intruder on the domain of Commerce, and the best 
 interests of all mankind demand its expulsion, 
 
 The other species of profits — in the same Essay, styled legiti- 
 mate — are in accordance with the strictest equity: the gains 
 
f)fi causp:s of the conflict between capital and labok. 
 
 realized through their agency, by some, are not conditioned upon 
 losses suffered by others; through their instrumentality all gain. 
 Through them the wealth of tlie world is vastly increased by 
 exchange; without them, universal poverty would eternally pre- 
 vail. Tliey are justified by tlieir fruits, being always beneficent. 
 If, as already illustrated, the hatter and the shoemaker consult 
 their mutual interest, they have sufficient inducements to exchange 
 the products of their labor on such terms as will increase the 
 wealth of both. If the hatter can make a good hat in one day, 
 and an indifferent pair of boots in four days, while the reverse 
 is true of the shoemaker, he can make a good pair of boots in one 
 day and an indifferent hat in four days, a very strong inducement 
 to an exchange exists, prompted by a desire to realize gains 
 through legitimate profits. Each, by working at his own trade 
 and exchanging with the other, can get a very much better article 
 for one day’s labor than he could make for himself in four days. 
 Had the hatter made his own boots, they would have cost him 
 four days’ labor. Had the shoemaker made his own hat, it would 
 have cost him the same. By exchanging, therefore, each one gets 
 four times as much for his work as he would in expending his 
 labor directly upon the object of his desire. This is typical of 
 the relations existing among the skilled laborers throughout the 
 world : all exchanges based upon this species of profits are in the 
 highest degree commendable; their tendency is to increase the 
 wealth of all. Add to this the natural inducements to exchange 
 offered in soil, climate, etc., and the absurdity of attempting to 
 jjistify what are termed “ spurious profits,” on the plea of neces- 
 sity, is proven beyond the power of even sophistry to raise a 
 doubt. 
 
 In the following remarks, closing the discussion of Rent, let 
 it be borne in mind that it involves nothing, more or less, than a 
 mutual exchange of services; these being the only legitimate basis 
 to support a claim for compensation throughout all the complexi- 
 ties of a world-wide commerce. 
 
 If one has $5,000 with which to build a house, and the equa- 
 tion of values is preserved, that is, if in every instance, the value 
 given equals that received, The house, when completed, will be 
 worth $5,000, plus the value of the services of the owner in super- 
 intending the construction. Assuming this additional sum to be 
 
CAUSES OB’ THB^ CONB’LICT BETWEEN' CAPITA]. AND LABOR, 
 
 57 
 
 $200, the entire cost of the house is $5,200. The problem now 
 is, if he rents the house, what is the basis to support a claim for 
 compensation? Is it for services given while the tenant occupies 
 the house? There is no such presumption ; the owner may be in 
 Europe during the entire term. Can one serve without working? 
 When one stops work, do his services continue? If one works 
 for another a single day, do his services continue beyond tliat 
 day? If they do not, the service must cease with the labor. 
 This is a mere play upon words : .the real fact is, to serve is to work ; 
 in an economic sense, to serve without working, is an absolute 
 impossiblity. In reference to the house, the service of the owner 
 ended with its completion. His ownership of a house, or any 
 other species of property, can not continue his services after his 
 labor ceases. Inanimate material can not be invested with power 
 to perform human labor; therefore the owner can not give service 
 through the instrumentality of his house. If this species of Rent 
 has no better foundation for its support, than the, imaginary ser- 
 vice rendered by the ow.ncr, through the use of the house, it has 
 no valid support at all, and must go down with all other claims 
 for compensation, not based on service given by the claimant. 
 
 But there is a valid basis to support a claim for compensation 
 due the ow'ner of the house, from him who occupies it, in the 
 deterioration of property, the result of former labor expended in 
 its construction. In the case mentioned in the preceding par- 
 agraph, the owner of the house had, before commencing its 
 construction, saved $5,000 ; he also earned $200, for labor expended 
 in superintending ; Uierefore $5200 is an exact equivalent for all his 
 services. The relation between the owner and him that occupies 
 the house, is, iinaucially, precisely the same as it vvould be were 
 the property wheat or any other species of property, instead of 
 a house : the origin of real estate is the same as that of personal prop- 
 erty ; both are the result of labor, the creator of all property. It mat- 
 ters not, therefore, whether the $5,200 expresses the value of a house 
 or that of a bin of wheat. If it were the latter, he that consumed 
 $100 worth of the wheat, w'ould incur an indebtedness of that 
 amount to the owner. The indebtedness would have been neither 
 more nor less, had there been a consumption of $100, resulting 
 from the use of a house. In either case, the claim for compensa- 
 tion is not based upon the use of the property; it has, for its 
 suppoi;t, the services previously given by the owner in earning 
 
58 CAUSES OK THE CONFLICT HETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 the wheat or the house. Therefore, rigidly adlieriug to the fun- 
 damental principles of Value, as illustrated in the First Essay, the 
 conclusion is irresistible that Rent is justified, only so far as it is 
 a compensation for service given, not in the use of the property, 
 but in labor previously expended in its production. 
 
 It is freely admitted that the conclusion above reached, has 
 little precedent for its support, but it is confidently affirmed 
 that it is justified by the reawning of all economists: all have, over 
 and over again, established the fact that, without exception, the 
 indispensable condition precedent to a claim for compensation, is 
 services given by the claimant. 
 
 It will l)e asked, “ Ought not he that occupies the house, pay 
 the taxes and insuranc^e?” Certainly not: these are not services 
 given by the owner; they are burdens resting upon him, whether 
 his property be real or personal. To throw them upon the one 
 renting property, is to throw the burden of taxation from those 
 having property to those having none, and compelling the latter 
 to take risks not their own. If the latter are ovvners of property, 
 they, of course, should pay the taxes and insurance on tliat\ 
 whether they have property or not, tiiey should bear their proper 
 share of taxation through the payment of a poll-tax or otherwise. 
 But vain are all attempts to justify throwing the burdens of 
 taxation and insurance upon those least able to bear them. 
 
 Here wdll be met the objection that no houses would be built 
 to rent under such circumstances. At first si^ht, this sOems to 
 present a somewhat formidable obstacle. This objection might be 
 dismissed by remarking that there is no insurmonntable obstacles 
 in the line of duty; the right is 'dXw ay % practicable. But it can be 
 shown here, as well as in all other departments of production and 
 exchange, that sufiicient inducements are offered to build houses to 
 rent, inspired by no other motive than to receive a fair remunera- 
 tion for labor expended. The building of houses, legitimately 
 belongs, exclusively, to one department of industry, the laborers 
 in which are practical builders. Were there no houses to be 
 rented, the builders would have sufficient inducement to build for 
 that purpose, as thus they could find employment for their industry 
 and skill and obtain compensation for services rendered in construc- 
 tion. If there were no houses or other buildings to be constructed, 
 they must change their occupation or be without employment. 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 59 
 
 In Other departments of labor, their services might not be required ; 
 and, if they were, their skill as builders would be, practically, 
 almost worthless. Hence the inducement offered them to build 
 houses is very strong. After they are built, circumstances will 
 determine whether houses are to be rented or sold. If the builder 
 needs the money for present use, he prefers to sell rather than 
 rent the house. If he has no present use for the money, it is im- 
 material whether his property is in a house or in money : he is the 
 possessor of the same amount of wealth in either case. In con- 
 structing such buildings as are in demand for use, he finds employ- 
 ment for his labor in that field in which it is most efficient; in 
 other fields, his services might not be required, or if they were in 
 demand, they would be much less productive. In this depart- 
 ment, as well as in every other, the products of industry tend 
 rapidly to decay ; hence the builders would be amply compensated by 
 receiving as Rent for their property a sum sufficient to keep it in 
 repair. There need be no fears that building would cease in con- 
 sequence of eliminating the speculative element from the theory 
 of Rent: In the discussion of the relations of Capital and Labor, 
 it will be seen that the toiling millions do not get compensation 
 even for their services ; yet every ten years they 'produce wealth 
 equal in amount to all that has been saved since time began. 
 
 Capital and, Labor. Before proceeding with the discussion 
 of this subject, it is necessary to define the terms: in these defi- 
 nitions, there is great diversity among authors; the definitions 
 are nearly as numerous as the writers. 
 
 In this discussion, Capital is assumed to be merely the pro- 
 ducts of past Labor, used as instruments of present production : 
 any product of labor used as an instrument of further production, 
 is Capital; those not so used, are not Capital. Tools and 
 machinery of all kinds, all merchandise except that in the hands 
 of the consumer, farm products, when reserved for further produc- 
 tion, and ail the infinite variety of things so used is Capital. The 
 spade with which the gardener works, is as truly Capital as is the 
 steam-engine which drives all the machinery of the most exten- 
 sive factory : both are products of past Labor, used as instruments 
 ■of further production. The line of demarkation between that 
 species of property which is Capital, and that which is not, is 
 thus clearly drawn and easily discerned. 
 
fiO CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT I5ET\V KEN CAPITAL AND LAHOR. 
 
 Labor is human elforts prompted Ixy a desire for a future 
 good. It maj be mental or mental and physical : there is no 
 Ij'Ahov pur elij physical; it is doubtful whether any Labor is purely 
 mental. In the simplest kind of Labor, the mind directs the 
 movements; no matter whether the effort is directed to the pro- 
 duction of a steam-engine or an ax helve. An important distinc- 
 tion is that expressed in the terms unskilled and skilled Labor: 
 the efficiency of the former is slight; that of the latter is great. 
 In the same department of Labor, there is no difficulty in deter- 
 mining the relative degrees of skill possessed by the Laborers and 
 hence, the relative compensation due for their services. But 
 among the various departments, this is a troublesome element. 
 Which requires the greater skill, to make a coat, or to make a 
 hat? to make boots, or do efficient work on a farm ? to make a 
 watch, or to heal the sick ? to make goods, or to excliangc them ? 
 It is probable, though not absolutely certain, that the same 
 degree of skill is re(juired in all departmenU of Labor. If so, the 
 same wages should be paid to the most efficient Laborers in all 
 departments; all of ecjual efficiency in their respective depart- 
 ments, should receive equal compensation for their services. 
 
 It was stated in the preceding paragraph, that there is 
 doubt in regard to any Labor’s being purely' mental. That there 
 is a doubt, can be shown as follows: Belonging to that class 
 whose Labor is supposed to be purely mental, are government 
 officials, lawyers, authors, teachers, and many others whose Labor 
 does not produce material products. Is tlieir Labor entirely men- 
 tal? Does not the lawyer perform physical Labor when he speaks 
 or writes? Do not authors perform physical Labor in communi- 
 cating to the world their mental products? In all the affairs of 
 men, is there a single department of l^'.xhov, pureln mental? Not 
 one. If not, it were better to discard all unnecessary distinctions, 
 leaving no differences except those of efficiency. 
 
 The president, members of congress, lawyers, judicial officers, 
 and all others whose Labor is su])posed to be intellectual, are 
 merely Laborers employed by the Public to effect certain results. 
 Their compensation, like that of those employed in other depart- 
 ments of Labor, should be in proportion to service given. There 
 is nothing in the nature of the service required at their hands, which 
 entitles them to a compensation greater than that due equally 
 
('AUSES OF THE CONKTHCT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 61 
 
 skilled Laborers in other departments. The notion that high 
 salaries attract a superior class of officials, is inconsistent with all 
 experience; there is not tlie least doubt that all governmental 
 operations would be as well, if not better, conducted by officials 
 receiving the compensation due a skilled Laborer in any other 
 held plus tlie necessary extra expenses, as they Avould, if 
 conducted by those demanding exorbitant salaries: the most 
 efficient Laborers are, as a class, not the most avaricious. It is 
 thought, perhaps by most peojhe, that statesmen, necessarily, 
 must live in a style superior to that of other citizens: this is 
 another of those notions handed down from an age of superstition, 
 in whicli the government was supposed to be instituted by superior 
 beings, instead of by man himself. 
 
 It is impossible to enumerate all the different departments of 
 Labor; the names of a few have been mentioned, merely to illus- 
 trate the dehnition given. There is one more, however, the sub- 
 ject of much controversy, that demands a passing notice : this is 
 banking. Is this a necessary factor in conducting the commercial 
 affairs of the world ? Before answering this question, it is neces- 
 sary to ascertain Avhether or not this institution renders any assist- 
 ance in the production and distribution of wealth. If it is proven 
 to be an efficient factor in the production and distribution of 
 wealth, the question remains, does it equitably distribute the 
 products of industry among those whose Labor produces them ? 
 
 Those employed in the department of banking render import- 
 ant service in receiving on deposit, the funds of those otherwise 
 engaged; pay through the instrumentality of checks, drafts, and 
 bills of exchange, debts due in distant places; act as accountants 
 among those having funds deposited with them; and, in various 
 other ways, render important service in commercial affairs. As 
 much time and Labor, that without this department would be 
 demanded of others, is thus saved, in effecting results of vast 
 importance, the efficiency of banking as a labor-saving mechan- 
 ism, is clearly .shown. 
 
 But the most potent instrument of })roduction and exchange 
 may through misuse, become an unmitigated evil. If those 
 engaged in banking, instead of receiving compensation merely 
 for service given — to which, alone, they are entitled — extort, by 
 any means, that for Avhich they render no equivalent, they violate 
 
62 CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 the priaciples of equity, which should govern all exchanges, and 
 turn an otherwise beneficient industrial instrument, into an 
 engine of oppression. 
 
 Banking, therefore, like railroading, is a potent factor in 
 the industrial movements of the world : all mankind need the 
 services of both; though they cannot afford to give their liberties 
 in exchange for them. In these, as in all other fields of labor, 
 the maxim holds good. “The laborer is worthy of his hire.'’ 
 
 Wages. This brings on the subject relating to wages; What 
 are wages? There are two answers given to this question. 1. — 
 Wages are what the laborer receives for his services. 2. — Wages 
 are the values produced by labor. The first definition adapts the 
 term to present usage; the second adapts it to theories recogniz- 
 ing no profits as legitimate, except those resulting from greater 
 efficiency of labor, through the instrumentality of exchange. 
 The distinction between these definitions seems, to a superficial 
 observer, not very important; there is, however, a vast difference 
 — a difference as great as that between a ]mrt and the tohole of 
 anything. 
 
 The man who picks and carries home twelve quarts of ber- 
 ries, has twelve quarts of berries for his labor; this is his wages for 
 that work. In this case, the wages are the products of the labor. 
 If the berries are consumed at home, no question can arise as to 
 whether he is fully compensated for his labor: that which a man’s 
 labor produces is his; he is entitled to no more; he is fully com- 
 pensated with no less. 
 
 If, instead of consuming them at home, the man exchanges 
 the berries for some other product of labor, a question arises as to 
 the relative value of the two. If in the exchange, either party 
 gets a commodity representing a greater service than that repre- 
 sented by the one given in exchange, he gets more than the prod- 
 ucts of his labor while the other gets less. This is easily illus- 
 trated as follows: If the value of one commodity is represented 
 by 10 and that of the other by 8, in the exchange, the owner of 
 the latter gets 10 for 8, and the other party gets 8 for 10; the 
 wealth of the former is increased while that of the latter is dimin- 
 ished. Had the values exchanged been 10,000 and 8,000, the 
 gain to the one would have been 2,000, the loss to the other would 
 have been the same amount. 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAriTAT. AND LABOB. 63 
 
 It is absolutely indispensable tliat the mind grasps firmly the 
 fact, that the exchangeables, instead of being utilities, are values 
 resulting from services. The real value of all commodities is de- 
 pendent upon the labor expended in their production; for all 
 practical purposes, the values are easily estimated. The utilities 
 of commodities, being dependent upon the benefits derived from 
 their use, no man is capable of estimating. In the next para- 
 graph will begin a series of illustrations to prove more fully that 
 the only estimates required in determining the values of com- 
 modities, have reference to the labor expended in placing them 
 in market. The illustrations, though quite simple, will show the 
 true economic relation of Capital and L ibor. 
 
 A laborer receives, for one day’s labor, a spade which is the 
 product of a day’s labor ecpial in efficiency to that for which it is 
 exchanged; this is merely an exchange of equal services. No 
 matter when, where, or by whom the spade was manufactured, 
 the transaction is justified by the equality of the services 
 exchanged. 
 
 The laborer to whom reference ,was made in the preceding 
 paragraph, is now a capitalist; his capital consists of a spade, 
 whose value is one day’s labor. If, with his spade, he works 
 another day, in a neighbor’s garden, would the neighbor 
 compensate him by giving in return, the result of an e(iually 
 efficient day’s labor ? Is the laborer entitled to any compensa- 
 tion as a capitalist ? If he is, what is the basis of this claim ? 
 Bringing forward the facts in the case, there is not the slightest 
 difficulty in answering these questions. The laborer has worked 
 two days: he should have, in exchange for his services, the 
 result of two days’ labor, of equal efficiency. If he receives from 
 his neighbor, an equivalent for but one day’s labor, he would then 
 have, in exchange for two days’ services, too little, as the spade, 
 the result of one day’s labor, has been partly consumed by his 
 neighbor. The latter, therefore should, in addition to the com- 
 pensation for one day’s labor, give an equivalent for the partial 
 consumption of the spade, the laborer’s capital. In this way, 
 only, would the laborer receive full compensation for two days’ 
 service. That such illustrates the true relation of Capital and 
 Labor defies contradiction. The deterioration of the spade result- 
 ing from one day’s use is, indeed, slight; it might be inappreci- 
 
64 CATJSF.S OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 able, yet it is soinethiug. Another example will now be given, in 
 which the deterioration of the tool is an important item. 
 
 A laborer receives, for ten days’ work, a tool which he uses 
 one hundred days in working for another, the tool being entirely 
 worn out by the operation. Is it not clear that the one for whom 
 the wmrk is done, has received, in this case, one hundred and ten 
 days’ service for which he should give an equivalents^ Some will 
 say, “The laborer should furnish the tools.” Is this true^ That 
 it is not true may be easily demonstrated as follows : If the one 
 for whom the labor is done, is equally competent to do it himself, 
 he might furnish the tool and employ his own labor in the opera 
 tion. In this case, the cost to him would be 110 days’ service: 
 10 days’ service given for the tool; 100 days’ service given while 
 using the tool. It matters not who does the work, the compen- 
 sation due for the same is an equivalent for one hundred and ten 
 days’ service; ten days’ in earning the tool; one hundred days’, in 
 working with the same. Therefore the expense incurred in fur- 
 nishing tools, should be borne by him for whom the work is done; 
 otherwise he gets services for which he gives nothing in return. 
 
 In previous illustrations, tlM3 remarks were confined to the case 
 of one laliorer and one tool; no new principle would be involved, 
 if there were many men working with many tools. If in manu- 
 facturing certain commodities, five men equally efficient as labor- 
 ers, are required to do the work, and each incurs the same 
 expense in supplying himself with tools, the compensation due 
 each, should be determined in precisely the same manner as if 
 there were but one man and one tool. Each set of tools may 
 have cost the same as every other, and yet, the compensation due 
 for the deterioration of some, may be very different from that 
 due for the use of others : in some processes, tools are worn out 
 very much more rapidly than in others. If each of the live men 
 works, during the year, three hundred days, those who receive their 
 services or, whatis the same thing, the products of their labor,should 
 ‘ give in return services, or what is the same, products of labor, 
 sufficient to balance those received. If all the tools used by the 
 five men, are dimiiiished in value to the amount of one hun- 
 dred days’ service, and all sets equally deteriorated by use, the 
 aggregate compensation due is sixteen hundred days’ service: 
 fifteen hundred for service given during the year, and one him- 
 
CAUSK-i OF Till? COXFIiTCT liRTW^KX CAl’ITAIi AXD T,A?10Il. 
 
 dred for deterioration of tools, the product ,pf former services. 
 The com[)ensation due eacli of tlie five workmen, in this case, is 
 one-fifth of sixteen hundred, or three hundred and twenty days’ 
 servuce, But, as already intimated, the injury to one set of tools 
 may be very dilTerent from that to another, even though they cost 
 the same; it is, therefore, the diminution in the value of tools or 
 machinery that is to be estimated, instead of the original cost, in 
 determining the compensation for their use. Besides the tools, 
 the laborers would need a shop and the material out of which the 
 commodities are to i)e made. Thesd are a part of the capital 
 emplo^X'd in the business: the compensation due the owner for 
 their use involves no new principle ; it has for its support the 
 services previously rendered by the owner. The sliop and mate- 
 rial maybe the joint property of the five workmen, each having 
 an e(|ual interest in the same ; they may be the individual property 
 of one; one may owii the shop, anotlier the material; they may 
 own either or both jointly, some having greater -interests than 
 others. No matter whether owned by one man or a thousand, 
 tile compensation due for the use of Capital is based upon services 
 previously given by the owner or owners. It is, therefore, uni- 
 versally true that the condition ])recedent to all claims for 
 compensation, is services given by the claimant. Thhi being 
 admitted, there is no escape from the conclusion that tlie capital- 
 ist is entitled, for the use of his Capital, to a compensation for its 
 deterioration: less than this would be unjust to him; more than 
 this would be unjust to otliers. This must lie borne in mind in 
 all discussions relating to Capital and Labor. No custom, how- 
 ever hoary with age, must be allowed to stand, if inconsistent, 
 with the principles of eternal justice. 
 
 In closing the discussion of the relations of Capital and Labor, 
 a quotation from Walker’s “ Science of Wealth,” will serve to 
 illustrate the current theories of the distribution of wealth among 
 those engaged in its jiioduction. This eminent American author 
 divides the products of industry into fivx' parts as follows: 
 '‘Wages, profits, interest, rent, and taxation.” If those to whom 
 one or more of these parts i.s due, set up a claim for more than 
 their <5(juitab!e share, there necessarily arises a eoutiict, as the 
 false claims can be allowed only by sacrificing the rights of one 
 or more of the other parties. The term profits, here mentioned 
 
OA.n8KM OP THK HKrWKKN CAPITAl, A?ST) I.ABOR. 
 
 is of tluit sjXMncB properly named “spurions,” in the second P’ssay, 
 as they permit one of the parties to an exchange, to receive more 
 than he gives, thus enriching one while necessarily impoverishing 
 another. If one receives a commodity equal in value to $5.00, 
 in exchange for one who.se value is only $3.00, the 'wealth of the 
 one party is diminished $2.00 wliile that of the other is increased 
 to the same extent. Those who attempt to justify this species of 
 profits, take u}X)n themselves the somewhat difficult task of prov- 
 ing that three is equal to five. If however, as here ii.sed, profile 
 means comjxmsatiou due for managing the bnsine.ss, the claim is 
 just, but the term is useless; managing business is labor; wages is 
 the compensation of labor; it therefore includes that due, for 
 nmnagiiig. Jf the term profits, in this connection, invariably 
 signified merely the compensation due the proprietor for manag- 
 ing the buHin(‘,HS, it would be, at least, tolerable, wludher nece.s- 
 sary or not. Mat the fact tliat the claimant of this species of 
 profits is su})pased. to be entitled to all he can get irrespective of 
 services rendered, makes this term so powerful for mi.schief, that 
 the best interests of all demand its expulsion fn)m the list of 
 economic terms. Instead of five, then, there would rcMuain but 
 four terms: Wages, interest, rent, and taxation. 
 
 The term, interest, meaning a compensation for the use of 
 money, is, perliap.s, entitled to further illustration before closing. 
 In so far as interest is value received for the mere untiof money, 
 and not for services given by the recipient, it is inconsistent with 
 any equitable distribution of the products of industry. In this 
 sense, the claim fr>r interest has, for its support, the false assump- 
 tion that service may be given through tlje use of the products of 
 labor. It lias been shown, in treating of Ueut and fhipital, that 
 the only valid claim for compensation for the use of other species 
 of property, rests, for its support, on the previous services given 
 by the owner in earning tlic property. There is nothing in the 
 nature of money to give its possessor any claims superior to those 
 conferred on the owners of other species of property: all property, 
 money included, is llie product of Labor. The user of any 
 species of property belonging to another, incurs an indebtedness 
 equal to the value consumed in the operation : to this extent, the 
 owmer has a valid claim for comjiensation for services given: 
 beyond this, all claims are spurions. 'Idiorefore, so far as the 
 
CAUSISH OF Trrw CONFLICT BKTW'KKN CAPrrAL AND LABOR. 
 
 (57 
 
 money itself is concerned, the borrower discharges all obligations 
 by merely returning the sum borrowed. If, however, interest is 
 merely a compensation for services given by those engaged in 
 kianing money, collecting debts, receiving for safe-keeping, or 
 convenience, funds belonging to others, or in any other manner, 
 assisting in the production and distribution of wealth, it, like 
 orolits, is a useless term ; the term wages could as w'ell include 
 compensation for such services as any other. A.s interest is a 
 claim set up, by the owner of money, for coni}x.m8ation for its use 
 instead of services given by him^ it enables the claimant to accum- 
 ulate wealth without protlueing it: to accurniiiate wealth with- 
 out first producing it, must iueviiably indict a loss on the wealth- 
 prod uceis; the wealth ma^t be produced by noiru:b<j(Jy before its 
 accumulation is possible. It were better, therefore, to drop this 
 term, as it characterizes a false claim for a portion of the pro- 
 ducts of industry. This leaves three terms: wages, rent, and 
 (axHtiou. 
 
 It has been concbisively shoNvn that Rent based upon other 
 grounds than that of the labor expeuded in earning the property, 
 is a claim, on tlie part of the owner, for the services of others, 
 Avithont giving anything in return. It enables the owner to 
 acciiiiudate without producing, thus, iuevitably, inflicting los.s 
 upon others, w'ho have less than their due, Ix-cause they have given 
 a part of their weaUh to tho.^ie having inme than their share. If 
 Rent mean.s merely munpensation for laiau- expended by the owner, 
 the term, like interest and profits, is useh'ss, us the term w'liges 
 ineludcs tin's aswellastho.se. Add to i Ids the fact that Kent is 
 commonly neither more nor less than tribute exacted from the 
 neccssitie.s of others, and the propriety of .its elimination from the 
 list of econoinic: terms is conspicously apparent. There are now 
 but two terms left : wages and taxation. 
 
 In the true economic sense, a Taxi.sasufu of money demanded 
 of the citizens for the purpose of creating a fund out of wddeh to 
 pay those whose services are given to the public. Governmental 
 affairs immediately concern the w'hoie people: for tlteui and by 
 them, are all governments instituted. Hence all public officials, 
 from postmaster to president, are commissioned by the people 
 tbem.selves. If those acting in an official capacity faithfully 
 discharge the duties assigned them, they are us truly entitled to 
 
GS CAiJsi>:s,,()b' riiii coafi.ict bi5t\vkk\ CAi’iTAr. and lafiok. 
 
 compensation for tlieir services, as they would be were they work- 
 ing in any other department of labor. There aia;, however, certain 
 claims set up in favor of this department, which have no loTictd 
 basis to support them. , The pay of Certain judicial aiid of certain 
 militar}’’ otHcers, does not cease with their services, but continues 
 through life. There is no jusdtication for this distinction in com- 
 pensating public officers and other doers of the world’s work. 
 The sum of Fuoncy thus unrighteously drawn from the people 
 is, indeed, snntll, but it is, nevertlieless, in violation of the maxim 
 : that compensation is due only for services rendered by the recip- 
 ient. The millions recpiiiod every ^ufar to pay interest to bond- 
 holders, is so inUch subtracted from the various industries of the 
 country, for which the recipients render no e(julvalent. Tliat 
 these creditors of tlie govenunent would have made no loans, 
 except in anticipation of such unrighteoiFS means of accumulating 
 wealth, does not, in the least, mitigate the iniquity of a system 
 which perinits a da.^s of citizens to {iptVropriate a large sliare of 
 the products of industi'y, without contributing, in. the slightest 
 degree, to their production. Therefore, eliminating all spurious 
 claims against the government, the sum to be raised by taxji- 
 tion ’is merely that required to compensate those w'hose services 
 are given to the government. Logically, then, the sum of money 
 due in the legitimate sphere of taxation, constitutes the fund out 
 of which to pay the wages of those svho the government. 
 Hence taxation, in the sense in which Mr. Walker uses the term, 
 should, like protits, interest, and rent, be expelled as a mischief- 
 maker. Excluding all industrial parasites, wages alone remain 
 ' to be paid out of all the products of industry. 
 
 There is a false notion implied in the use of the term, wage- 
 worker: economic science knows tfo such distinction; it regards 
 all others as wage-workers, as much as those to whom the name 
 is applied; it knows no such thing as cade. This may be conclu- 
 sively proven by a simple illustration as follows: A farm-laborer 
 in Dakota, receiv'-es for bis labor oO bushels of wdieat, which he 
 sells to a ucighboring miller; the miller transports it to his mill 
 and converts it into dour ; a tlour-merchaat purchases the dour 
 for transportation to a distant market; the wholesale purcJiaaer 
 irt that market sells it to the gi’ocer; tlie grocer sells it to the 
 consumer. Unless it is presumed that Providence has conferred 
 special rights upon some, and, consequently, must have witliheld 
 

 ^the same from otiiefs, tliere must be 'a common basis to support 
 the claims of all who have in anywise been instruihental in sup- 
 plying the consumer with the Hour. The farm-laborer originally 
 received his wages in wheat; he exchanges with the miller, and 
 receives froih him a coni mod it}’ "of ecpial value. He htiS his wa*ge.s 
 still; no more, no hjss. Tint received from the miller was aS truly 
 wages as was that received from the farmer. In ultimate analysis^ 
 therefore, the income from the sale of commodities, is neitber 
 more nor less than wages received for producing them. If, as is 
 probable, the farm-laborer expended labor in storing, or otherwise 
 caring for the wheat received from the farmer, he sho\ild be paid 
 enough more than the original cost of the, same, to compensate 
 him for the extra services ; this does not, in the' least, alter the 
 fact tliat all received from the miller, in exchange for the wheats 
 is merelv wages paid for service given in producing it. 
 
 Wages are due tlie miller for services given in earning what 
 he pays the farm-laborer, transporting the wheat to mill, grinding 
 the same, and the consumption of wages previously earned, in the 
 partial consum[)tion of his mill: thus the entire receipts of the 
 miller, like those of the farm-laborer, are wages paid him for his 
 services by the flour-merchant. 
 
 Wages are due the flour-merchant for services given in 
 earning what he paid the miller, shipping the flour, transporting 
 to' market, or, what amounts to the same thing, paying freight 
 oharges, and all other outlays by him in this somewhat complex 
 transaction V rlic total sum of all the items, kijlthmitel )/ charged 
 by him coiHtitutos his wages': to this he has a just claim; more 
 than this is impossible wich<mt sacrificing the rights of others, ■ 
 
 The wholesale merchant is entitled, to wages for services given 
 in earning what he paid for the flour, cartage, storage, and the 
 , other, ivecess.ary services in- connection with the transaction: the 
 aggregate huui received for all his services constitutes his wages. 
 IjOgically lie is no less a wage-worker than is- the farm-laborer. 
 
 When, jinally, the grocer transfers the flour to the consumer, 
 the compeusation due the former, is for services given in earning 
 wliat was paid to the wholesale-dealer, cartage, storage, carrying 
 to the consumer, and other services given in connection with the 
 flour: for all these, the grocer is antitled to compensation ; like 
 all preceding partie.s, lie rcceive.s wages for his labor; he is, there- 
 fore a wage-worker. 
 
TO OAUfcsBa OP THE CONFLICT 8BTKWEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 From the illustration given above, it appears that there is no 
 special clnss to whom the name wage-worker appropriately 
 belongs: striclly speaking, all workers are wage-workers; all the 
 weA'Uth in Uie world coasinU of anconmoied wageit earned hy some- 
 hody. Applied to all workers, the term is innocent, though 
 useless; a])pliecl to a particular class, it is productive of much 
 mischief. According to the generally received opinion, wage- 
 workers are an iriferkn- class, lacking the ability to accumulate 
 wealth, e.xcept througli their labor; and business men are a mpe- 
 rior class, having the power to produce wealth by magic. The 
 wealth of the millionaire is, however, merely wages unconsumed; if 
 he has not been a wage-w'orker, his title is defective; if he is not a 
 wage-worker, he can honestly accumulate no more : as all the wealth 
 now existing is the product of labor, so must be all future accu- 
 mulations. Vanderbilt can uo more areate wealth, without labor, 
 than can the tramp on the highway; either, may appropriate what 
 others have produced — the former by extortion, the latter by 
 stealth; but as all the wealth accumulated in the past, is tho pro- 
 duct of labor uuconsumed, so must be that of the future. 
 
 tUmaes of the Oof lie, t hetween (Japitai and Labor. It is not a 
 diflicult matter, now, to point out the “ Oauses of the Ooufllct 
 between Ca[>ital and Labor.'’ All wealth appropriated through 
 the uistrumeutaliiy of profits <isthc term is commonly interpreted, 
 interest meaning conijicusation for the mere use of money, rent as 
 commonly understood, and taxation except for the wages of those 
 'Working for the g<)vei-nm('nt, is so much taken from the wealth- 
 producers, and transferred to others who render no eipiivaleut 
 for w^hat is thus taken. 
 
 ProfUy htent, and. Ta,v.ation-~\h*i palmerworm, the 
 
 locust, the carikerworm, and the caterpillar — thene are the para- 
 sites wliich prey upon the fruits of industry: “That which the 
 palmerworm hath left, hath the locust eaten ; and that which 
 the locust bath left, hath the cankerworm oaten; and that which 
 ■the cankerworm liath left, hath the (taterpillar eaten.” These ace 
 the proximate causes of the conflict between Capital and Labor; 
 ihe ultimate causes are the mistaken notions prevailing as to the 
 relations subsisting among the jiroducers of vreulth. 
 
 The cause of the Conflict is much iuterisified by the use of 
 Bwch terms as master, employer, servant, employe, wnige-worker, 
 
CAUBR8 OF THK CONFt.ICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOB. Tl 
 
 (iomegtic, and menial. The terras, master and menial, ought not 
 to have survived the fall of the institution of slavery; a nation of 
 freemm have no use for such names; their retention, menaces the 
 liberties of the people. The use of the other terms mentioned, is 
 not uecessarily reprehensible, though it is frequently made so by 
 the spirit which calls them iuto u-io. These terms are commonly 
 used to distinguish the position of individuals in. the social scale; 
 a worthless idler, whose support is drawn from the products of 
 others' industry, stands, socially, above those wdiose labor supplies 
 the unproductive consumer with the means of subsistence. 
 
 The in.Iieritor of millions, if living in idleness, is a thousand- 
 fold greater burden on the industries of the people, than is the 
 pauper, incapable of self-support: both are consumers of the pro- 
 ducts of labor; neither is a producer. As neither produces and 
 both consume, it irresistibly follows that the greater consumer 
 is the greater burden. It must be remembered that the inherited 
 millions can frodu-cA nothing; they serve merely as means through 
 which, under a false theory of the nature of wealth, the possessor 
 can^ thou.gh n(.)t rightfully, appropr-i/ite what produce. All 
 
 come into the world clothed with equal rights and burdened with 
 equal duties. Neither of these is inherited from ancestors; both 
 are the natural inheritance of the race. None can be deprived of 
 their rights; none can shift their duties upon others; any attempt 
 to do either, must, from, the nature of things, produce a conflict. 
 
 Misled by the false theories previously alluded to, the indus- 
 trial classes, fearing the penalties of social ostracism incurred by 
 those engaged in the drudgeries of life, frequently become rest- 
 less in the presencii of the grievous wrongs heaped upon them by 
 those who.se necessities do not compel them to occupy the same 
 position. Those ])reviovisly engaged in producing and accumu- 
 lating wealth, impatient at the meagre store acquired by so tedi- 
 ous a routine, abandon the fields of productive industry, and seek, 
 through speculation, more expeditiously to acquire a fortune. 
 Not more than one in twenty meet with even moderate success; 
 the few gains are contingent upon the many losses. The whole 
 scheme of speculation is a mere lottery, in Avhich the blan.ks far 
 outnumber the prizes. In no speculation is there any production 
 of wealth; all time spent in attempts to acquire wealth by such 
 methods is worse than wasted. Under such circumstances legit- 
 
72 CAUSIiS OF THE CONFIACT F.ETWEEN CAPITAL AND I.ATiOK, 
 
 imite exchanges are scarcely possible, Yery few have the moral 
 fortitude to be the victims rather than, the perpetrators of a wrong; 
 hence, most peo})le rather cheat than be cheated. Thus the 
 “Conflict between Capital and Labor,” except in magnitude, 
 differs not in the least from that manifested in the simplest ex- 
 changes, in which each party seeks to increase his wealth, regard- 
 less of tlie other’s welfare. 
 
 Properly organized, the wealth-producing facilities in the 
 possession of the American people, are sufficient to supply the 
 vrorld, not merely with necessary utilities, but with luxuries; yet 
 so wedded are they to the economic theories of the past, that 
 thousands of themselves are destitute in the midst of the splendor 
 and luxuries of their own creating. In the presence of such con- 
 ditions it is folly to assert that Capital and Labor are allies 
 instead of enemies; nanles are of comparatively little consctpience ; 
 the conditions are of vital importance. The conflict exists; and 
 for its existence, there is an adequate cause. It arises from at- 
 tempts to adapt ancient theories of the distribution of wealth to 
 modern methods of production. Prior to the Great Rebellion, 
 William H. Seward, with almost prophetic wisdom, declared 
 there was an “irrepressible conflict” between freedom and slavery; 
 .and the people whose horizon embraced only their petty selfish 
 interests, ridiculed him as a fanatic, for questioning the righteous- 
 ness of an institution that bore the seal of ages. But the logic 
 mf events proved the great statesman scarcely less than seer. 
 The conflict of the forum was abandoned for that of the field, 
 and what ought to have been decided by argument, was referred 
 to the arbitrament of war. In that convulsion perished millions 
 -of men and hundreds of millions of treasure, in ridding the 
 world of a hideous monster, which, after robbing of their man- 
 ;hood millions of the race, sought the overthrow of the Great 
 Republic. Though slavery itself is dead, its spirit still lives to 
 inspire the Conflict between Capital and Labor. It will not rest 
 while the congenial spirit which robs labor of its full reward, 
 •presides over the division of the products of industry. 
 
 Unless the pernicious theories of exchange now prevalent 
 rare soon abandoned, the conflict, now apparently so harmless, 
 will swell into gigantic proportions, and -what with proper pre- 
 •cautions miglit be easily avoided — the World will stand aghast at 
 rseenes the future has in store. Instead of section against sec- 
 
CAUSES OF THE CONELTCT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 7o 
 
 tfoTi, aS'in the late rebellion, it will be nei<;'hbor against neigh 
 bor — one chaotic mass of struggling humanity in the midst of 
 universal anarchy. 
 
 Those who offer the law as a soverign remedy for all social, 
 commercial, and political evils, forget that legislators sought ki 
 vain to remedy the evils of slavery. They exhausted all their 
 resources in attempts to render harmless the most gigantic evil 
 the world ever saw ! As well might they, by legislative enact- 
 ment, attempt the suppression of the thunders of Niagara. Tlie 
 only remedy for any evil is its abandonment; regulation by law 
 only intensifies it; any toleration by law gives it legal- existence. 
 At best, laws are merely bridges over which nations pass from, a 
 lower to a higher civilization; they create neither rights nor 
 wrongs. They may protect the right and repress the wrong; in 
 attempting more, they become a positive nuisance. 
 
 If the theory of profits is right, let the law protect those who 
 secure them. If any are due, there is no limit to the amount ; 
 morally it is as wrong to gain, through another’s loss, one per 
 cent, as it is to gain, in like manner, a thousand per cent. : the 
 evil is not a matter of magnitude but of principle. 
 
 If the theory of Interest is right, the law has nothing to do 
 with the matter, further than to protect those who through this 
 instrumentality increase their store of wealth. No regulating us 
 to the rate is permissible; the right to take one per cent, implies 
 the right to take a thousand per cent. 
 
 If the theory of Rent is right, the law must in no wise inter- 
 fere with that right. 
 
 If the theory of speculation, in general, is correct, let the 
 legislator beware of meddling: rights demand, not regulation, 
 but protection; wrongs are entitled only to repression. To sanc- 
 tion the theories that result in monopoly, and then att-empt to 
 repress the evil is the supremest folly : if monopolies are evils, 
 the theories of which they are the result are evils: “ A good tree 
 cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring 
 forth good fruit.” If monopolies are evils,, so must be the 
 theories producing them. 
 
 Before closing this Essay, it is thought best, once more to 
 illustrate the injustice of the current theory of profits; this is the 
 chief mischief maker in. the realms of exchange; without this for 
 
74 CA.rr8RS ok TITRJ conflict BKTWKESN CA.PITA.L A.ND LABOR. 
 
 their support, Interest and Rent would stand revealed as mere 
 parasites upon the proceeds of industry. The following example 
 will show the utter absurdity of this theory: 
 
 A is a hardware merchant, B, a dry-goods merchant, C, a 
 grfK;er, and I), a farm laborer. Suppose that A sells his goods 
 to the other three parties at 25 per cent, profit; that is, he gets 25 
 per cent, more than he gives. Each of the others, then, must 
 pay $1.25 for one dollars worth of goods; this is the same as 
 selling their goods at 20 per cent, discount; they get 80 cents for 
 a dollar’s worth of their goods. If B, as well as A, adds 25 per 
 cent, as profits on his goods, he will realize no gain in exchanging 
 with A; his profits must come entirely from exchanging with C 
 and D, who receive no profits. If C, as well as A and B, adds 
 25 per cent, to the price of his good.s, neither of these three will 
 realize any profits in exchanging w^ith one another; the only 
 chance for making profits is in exchanging with D, who makes 
 no profits. If D, as well as the other three, adds 25 per cent, to 
 the price of his labor, neither of the four will realize any profits 
 in exchanging with another. If A alone makes a profit, the 
 other three must suffer a discount. If A and B make an equal 
 profit, this must come from exchanging with C and D, who suffer 
 a discount. A and B would realize no profits in exchanging with 
 each other. If A, B, and C make equal profits this can result only 
 from exchanging with D, wdio makes no profit. If D’s wages are 
 advanced to correspond with the advances in the prices of goods 
 sold by A, B, and C, neither of the four in exchanging with an- 
 other could realize any profits. In order, therefore, tliat some 
 may realize a profit, there must be others who suffer a discount; 
 if some gain, others must lose. Blunt, indeed, must be the moral 
 perceptions of those whose conscience is quiet in the presence of 
 gain realized through this species of profits. Economic science 
 uninfluenced by pernicious custom, knows no favorites: its teach- 
 ings are in keeping with the principles of the strictest equity. It 
 justifies no profits realized by some, conditioned upon discounts 
 suffered by others; its decisions are absolutely impartial. The 
 income of the hardware merchant, the dry-goods merchant, 
 and the grocer, no less than that of the farm labonm, must, in 
 equity be based upon the service given. Those, only, are legiti- 
 mate profits which are realized through the increased utilities 
 
CATJSKS OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOH. 7G 
 
 growing out of the greater efficiency of labor resulting from the 
 division of the world’s work into the numerous departments 
 demanded by the mutual welfare of all. These, and these alone, 
 are the profits sanctioned by economic science; inspired by the 
 anticipation of mutual gain resulting from mutual services, 
 exchanges are wholly And infinitely beneficent. The littlone>s 
 displayed in the tricks of trade, inspired by an impulse wholly 
 selfish, is a disgrace to the age, and a menace to civilization. 
 
 If the theory of Profits advanced in this Essay is the correct 
 one, we have the key to the relations of Capital and Labor. It 
 will pay to trace the relations in the following example: 
 
 A manufacturing establishment employs 12 hands besides 
 the superintendent, who is himself the owner. ‘Four of the 
 hands are unskilled ; four possess that degree of skill render- 
 ing their efficiency double that of the first four; the third four are 
 three times as efficient as the first; the efficiency of the super- 
 intendent is five times that of either of the first four; and the 
 deterioration of the capital during the year is equal to 1,000 days’ 
 labor, each equal in efficiency to that of the unskilled laborers. 
 If all are employed 300 days, the record will stand as follows: 
 
 Pour men of ordinary efladency, each working 300 days 1,200 dajs 
 
 Four men of double ordinary efidciency, each working 300 days 2,400 “ 
 
 Poor men of three times ordinary efficiency, each working 300 days 3,600 “ 
 
 Superintendent, five degrees ordinary efficiency, working 300 days 1.500 •* 
 
 Deterioration of capital • 1.0 00 “ _ 
 
 Total service given by the establishment 9,700 days 
 
 This establishment having, in the aggregate, given 9,700 
 days’ service of ordinary efficiency, is entitled to an equal service, 
 in the aggregate, from those who receive the products of their 
 labor. The proprietor is entitled to 1000 days’ .service for deteri- 
 oration of capital, and 1,500 days’ service for superintending — 
 total 2,500 days; each of the ordinary w'orkmen is entitled to 300; 
 each of the second grade, 600; each of the highest grade, 900, la 
 addition to what is assigned to him. above, the proprietor has no 
 claim for profits; he, like his companions in labor, is entitled to 
 compensation for his services: justice gives him this; it cannot 
 possibly grant him more. He can get no more, except by taking 
 what belongs to his fellow workmen or from those who receive 
 the goods. No matter what may be the number or the necessi- 
 ties of the workmen; they may be few or many; they may be 
 
\ 
 
 76 • CAUSK6 OF THE CONFLJn'. BETWEEX ( AFITAI. AXD LAIiOK. 
 
 pinched with, j)overty or blessed with abundance- . Ail sucli inci- 
 dents are totally ineievant ; the coni})ensation due is for service 
 given, and for that alone. It is a false theory, unworthy the 
 civilization of the Nineteenth Century, that makes the compen- 
 sation for services dependent upon anything else than the service 
 itself. All attempts to perj)etuate such*a theory is at war with 
 the teachings of economic science, whose laws are inexorable, and 
 cannot be violated with im]mnity. So long as such theory is in 
 vogue, the. Conflict between Capital and Labor” will go on 
 with constantly increasing intensity, as time advances, until, 
 de.spairing of justice through the instrumentality of government, 
 the v/ealth-producers, either wisely or unwisely, will trample' 
 beneath their feet constitutions and laws, seeing in them nothing 
 but engines for the perpetuation of ancient schemes,' shrewdly - 
 d(isigned to per])etuate the humiliation and degradation of tlie-- 
 telling millidns. ’ There is no w’ay of avoiding the result except 
 by removing the' cause. Politicarconventions will strive in vain • 
 to exorcise the evil spirit by inserting new })lanks in their plat- 
 forms; legislators will prove unequal to the task of Teguluting 
 that widclr justice' demands shall be abolished; oratoi-s cannot 
 imbue with patriotic spirit those who see' no practical dilference 
 between republican liberty and monarchical despotism. Laborers, 
 combining for mutual protection ; farmers attempting through] 
 legislative enactments to fix freight rates on the railroads; rail-' 
 road companies engaged in ])er]3etual war, each striving for the 
 lion’s share of trans])ortation ; and liank officials en route for 
 Canada, are only dilTerent phases of the diseased social condition 
 resulting from false economic theories. The laborers remain in 
 the country and strike for justice; bank officials not overly par- 
 ticular to the claims of justice, strike for a foreign land. These 
 latter are, perhaps, the most perfectly developed specimens of tlie 
 fruits of that theory of profits which permits the recipients to take 
 more than they give in exchange. There can be no question that 
 the character of an economic theory, like that of a tree, is known 
 by its fruits. This being conceded, either the exiled bank offi- 
 cials are lionorable gentlemen involuntarily sojourning in a foreign 
 land, or the theory of which they are the legitimate fruit, is 
 inconsistent with financial integrity. Is it not customary to speak 
 in complimentary terms of those ca[)ablc of living by their wits? 
 Is it not currently thought to be more re[)utable to mal:e money 
 
(\\.usp:s of TErfi conflict uktwhkn capital and r-AHoii. 77 
 
 by shrewd decices thad to e irn it by honest ihdd'Htri/'l Docs' hot 
 the current theory of profits give countenance to such monstrous 
 d )Ctrines? Tlie fact is, that the final act of the bank officials, in 
 appropriating to their own use the funds entrusted to their care, 
 invQlves no new principle. Their lixes have been spent in shrewdiy 
 scheming, through the instrumentalities of unholy profits, to 
 ‘ippropriate the products of industry without giving that service 
 which alone is the basis of all honestly accumulated wealth' 
 Those who, within the law, violate the principles of natural eijuity, ' 
 for the sake of pecuniary gain, will carry their schemes outside of 
 the law, when the temptation is strong and the chance of detec- 
 tion remote. ' • ’ ' 
 
 . Those who carefully note ‘the manifestations pf the spirit 
 dominant in the commercial w'orld, cannot fail to see. that, instead 
 of merely a conliict between Capital and Labor, there.is aomC , 
 conflict throughput -all tlie realms of exchange.' .Itsgreat- 
 estdnrensity.'is apparent between those in possession of opportun- ^ 
 ities for accumulating wpalth, and those wanting such, opportun.- , 
 ities. The current thepry recognizing no fixed relation between 
 the. .parties to an exchange, leaves. ..them to. settle thC| Com.p.cnsa-: . ^ 
 tion due, without any, definite standard to... which they. can con- 
 fidently appeal. Those . controlling the materials out of which .. 
 are .fashioned all the utilities which constitute the world’s v/ealth, .. 
 feci jus'tified in exacting, from those in want .of these materials, 
 such terms as the uecessities of the latter mey force them to 
 accept. Ordinarily, the laborer mu.st accept the be.st terms lie 
 can get to-dny: his neces^itiea will not permit him to hold put 
 against those who have on hand the means of subsistence for 
 months or years to come. Under such circumstances the present 
 producers of wealth, except those who have already accumulated 
 a store sufficient for present needs, are victims of extortion, so 
 clear and positive, that it is a wonder how a people calling them- 
 selves Christians can countenance a theory which permits such 
 monstrous injiis^ce. Yet there it is, .guilty of the crimes of tlious- 
 ands of years, threatening the very existence of republican liberty. 
 
 He is not a freeman, who must part with the products of his 
 industry on terms exacted from his necessities. Tlie current 
 theory of the relations of Capital and Labor must give place to 
 one that shall secure to the laborer full compensation for his ser- 
 
78 CAUSES OP'THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 vices, irrespective of his necessities or misfortunes, or of the oppor- 
 tunities of others; the conflict must 2:0 on; or the spirit of liberty 
 must be extinguished. God grant that no such calamity shall 
 befall the A.mericau people as would be upon us, if the laborers 
 should, without protest, accept the niggardly pittance assigned 
 them by a theory that has impoverished the great masses in all 
 lands. Also, may the sons of industry remember, that physv'al 
 force can right no wrongs in the moral world. The only way 
 out of the labyrinth into which we have been induced to enter, 
 through the false teachings of the economists who seek the key 
 to economic science in the precedents recorded in the history of 
 the gloomy past, is to turn our attention to the living present, 
 and study the relations of men, in the light of the true spirit of 
 the civilization of the Ninteenth Century. 
 
 RecxipituUitlon. Interest, in the common acceptation of 
 that term, is at war with the equitable distribution of the world’.s 
 wealth ; it permits the recipients of the products of labor, through 
 this instrumentality, to appropriate what others produce, giving 
 nothing in return. It can be justified only as a compemsation for 
 service given by the recipient in connection with various instru- 
 mentalities of exchange. In this latter sense, it in no wise differs 
 from the compensation due other laborers; it is the wages of 
 those who perform this species of service. 
 
 Rent, as generally interpreted, being compensation for the 
 use of real estate, like Interest similarly interpreted, is wealth 
 merely appropriated by the owner who gives nothing in exchange 
 for what he thus gets. It can be justified, only as a compensa- 
 tion for service given in connection with the property rented, 
 the service given may have been in improving lands, or construct- 
 ing or repairing buildings. The indispensable condition pre- 
 cedent to the rightful appropriation of wealth, is personal service, 
 the sole creator of individual wealth. 
 
 Profits, Interest, Rent, and Taxes, so far as they permit cer- 
 tain individuals to appropriate of the products Ckf labor, a greater 
 share than their wages due for service given, are parasites upou 
 industry ; the highest interests of all demand their immediate, 
 total extermination. 
 
 Capital, that portion of the wealth of the country used in 
 further production, sets up spurious claims fora share of the pro- 
 
CAUSES OB’ THE CONFLICT BF.TWKKN CAPITAL AND LABOR, 79 
 
 <]u€ts of indvistry, which can be allowed only by sacrificing the 
 rights of the wealth-producers destitute of Capital. Under the 
 terms, Kent, Interest, and Profits, the capitalists appropriate the 
 products of labor without contributing anything to their produc- 
 tion ; every particle of wealth so appropriated, is at the expense of 
 Itt>x)rers without Capital. Nothing is due the capitalist, as such, 
 but compensation for wealth consumed in the use to which it is 
 applied. If besides furnishing the Capital, those who furnish it 
 also superintend the operations in which it is used, they have a 
 legitimate claim for wages thus earned. A rigid analysis of the 
 relations of the laborer and the capitalist, discloses the fact that 
 the latter has no legitimate means of accumulating w’ealth not 
 possessed by the former: all wealth is merely unconsumed wages. 
 If by a year’s use the capitalist’s previously accumulated wealth 
 is diminished $1,000, and his services in superintending the 
 operations in which it is used are worth $2,000, he has a valid 
 claim for $3,000, as his share of the products. An equally effi- 
 cient laborer without Capital, would be entitled to the same salary 
 for his year’s service as would the capitalist for his; the thou- 
 sand dollars extra received by the latter is for consumption of his 
 previously earned wealth. 
 
 The laborer is entitled to the product of his labor, or, which 
 is the same thing, he is entitled to receive the product ot an equal 
 amount of labor of the same degree of efficiency. No matter 
 whether he was born beneath the “ Stars and Stripes,” among the 
 icebergs of the polar regions, or in the land of tropical fruits and 
 fiowers, the law is universal: the products of labor belong to 
 those whose labor produces them. That theory which assigns to 
 the laborer what is left after the capitalist has appropriated as 
 Profits, Interest, Kent, Taxes, and Wages of superintendence, 
 the greater part of the products of industry, is responsible, not 
 merely for the conflict between “ Capital and Labor,” it is respon- 
 sible for that universal conflict in which wealth is won without 
 merit, and poverty incurred without fault. That the products of 
 jabor are not equitably divided among the producers, is, perhaps, 
 not the fault of any particular class: with few exceptions, all 
 sanction the pernicious theory, which, instead of assigning to 
 each that portion of the World’s wealth to which, irrespective of 
 custom or law, he is, iu return for his services, justly entitled, 
 makes the accumulation of wealth a game of chance. 
 
REVIEW AND CONC LUSION. 
 
 If there is any criterion by which the relative rights of indi- 
 viduals can l)e determined, it must be conceded that, so far as 
 wealth is concerned, each begins his earthly career clothed with 
 precisely the same rights possessed by every other. Before mod- 
 ified by individuals, the bounties of nature are the joint inherit- 
 ance of the whole human race. Except from the hand of the 
 laborer, nothing is valuable; that is, not specially related to any 
 individnal. Labor, therefore, is the creator of all value, and the 
 values of commodities are in pro])ortion to the labor of which 
 they are the product. Nature’s laws, not in a political sense, 
 like those of the Medes and Persians, but in the absolute sense, 
 are unchangeable; what they have been in the past, they are now% 
 and so will be forever. Ancient customs, wars, imperial edicts, 
 political conventions, constitutions — either or all — can no more 
 suspend the operations of economic law, than they can those 
 which determine tlie movements of the heavenly bodies. If 
 primitive man could obtain wealth only 1 hrough his industry, 
 this is the indispensable condition precedent to the accumulation of 
 wealth to-day. It is not true that mere occupancy is suliicient to 
 invest the occupant with the absolute right of property, in ev'cn 
 the smallest portion of the earth; the admission of the fact that 
 anotiier would not be justilied in ejecting him, in no way con- 
 cedes the right of property in tlie occupant; to justify ejectment, 
 the title must be in the ejector; want of title in the occupant, is 
 not sufficient. The moment the mere occupant of a piece of 
 land vacates it, another, without violating any rigid of private 
 property, may take possessitui. When Columbus, after years of 
 toil,disai)pointmenl, and tribulation, led the way to the discov- 
 ery of a new continent, he rendered a^reat service to mankind, 
 for which he was entitled to due compensation ; but neither lie 
 nor the sovereigns of Castile and Leon became the owners, even 
 of the West Indies, much less were they tiie owners of the Amer- 
 
CAUSES OK THE CONFJACT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOB. 81 
 
 ican Continent. Notwitlistanding the customary pomp and cere- 
 mony witli whicli Columbus took possession, tlie right of the 
 aborigines to their rude improvements, were as if the Spaniards 
 had never come: the right of a feeble people to their meagre store 
 does hot cease with their ability to defend it. AVhat the Indian 
 had improved Avas his by divine right;- what was unimproved 
 was the inheritance of the llace : no amount of ceremony, how- 
 ever pompous or solemn, can cixmc or annihilate the right of pri- 
 vate ])roperty. The bounties of nature, inlinite in utility, are. free 
 to all ; they are not subject to barter and sale; hence, they are 
 not valuable. All nature’s products modified by the hand of 
 man is'individual property : in spite of custom or law, these be- 
 long to those whose industry produces them. Each individual is 
 the owner of the ))r!/ducts of his industry, be he Greek or Jew, 
 heathen or Christian, rich or poor — nothing is, m the least de- 
 gree, relevant except the labor expended in production ; this is 
 the indispensable and only condition precedent to ownership. It 
 was so in the beginning, is now, and ever will be; the dwarfish 
 arm of the stickler for precedent will strive in vain to alter this 
 fundamental fact of economic science. 
 
 Providence has so ordained that, without exchange of ser- 
 vices, all must remain forever poor; annihilate all but a fcAV 
 thousands of the people of the United States and divide all the 
 weal til among those left, and in a comparatively short time, pov- 
 erty would be the lot of all. Wealth is conditioned upon a nu- 
 tiierous population ; properly organized, the greater the indust- 
 rhil population, the greater will be the wealth, not merely in the 
 aggregate, but pro rata. Let labor be properly organized and 
 each laborer receive the' 2^1’oducts of his own industry, or which 
 is the same thing, a just equivalent for the service rendered in 
 production, and the apparent paradox of a pepole becoming im- 
 poverished from a superabundance of industry will forever disap- 
 pear. If it were , true, as taught by eminent economists, that 
 the wealth of each producer is in an inverse ratio to their num- 
 ber, there would, indeed, be an “ irrepressible conflict,” not merely 
 between Capital and Labor, but among the laborers themselves. 
 But, fortunately, such is not the fact; the wage-fund theory is 
 inconsistent with the principles of production and exchange. 
 This theory supposes that there are two classes — laborers and 
 
■^2 CAUSKfl OF THK CONFLICri' BKTWRKN CAlMTAli AND tABOR, 
 
 employers; the former being dependent upon the latter for their 
 fubsistence. The real fact is that all who are not parasites on the 
 fruits of industry, are both. If A, who has accumulated no 
 wealth, works for B, who lias in store wealth, the product of his 
 previous industry, each employs the other, A giving his present 
 services in exchange for the products of services previously rend- 
 ered by B. If, because of superior opportunities, B exacts from 
 A, more than the latter receives from the former, .the excess taken 
 by B is wrested from A by force; B gets a part of A’s wealth for 
 nothing. No pettifogging about the “laws of trade,” can shake 
 this conclusion. The fact that such things are done every day 
 and have been for hundreds of years, no more justitios such deeds 
 than did immemorial usage justify the Algerian practice of plund- 
 ering merchant-men sailing the Mediterranean. Nothing is more 
 fallacious than is the doctrine that conscience invariably, a 
 safe monitor; conscience may be siient in the presence of the most 
 glaring iniquity. To say nothing of the offence.s committed 
 against the inalienable rights of man during the preceding thou- 
 sands of years, where slept the conscience of the slave-holders and 
 their aiders and abettors, through the two and a half centuries, 
 culminating in tlie Great Rebellion inspired by the hope of per- 
 petuating an institution at war with enlightened conscience, yet 
 sanctioned by the immemorial customs of the past! Judging by 
 the devotion with wliich the slave-holder adhered to the fortunes 
 of the “ Confederacy,” his conscience was as serene as was that of 
 the abolitionist, who prayed that the in.stitution of slavery might 
 be swept from the face of the earth. This doc.s not prove that a 
 practice is indifferently right or wrong, depending merely upon 
 the opinions of men; it merely proves that opinions based upon 
 ancient usage require frequent revision ; no precedent must 
 stand in tlie way of wilder experience and more light. 
 
 There are, then, no such special classes a.s employers and 
 employes; all seeking exchange wdth their fellow men are botli. 
 Both parties to an exchange may bring yresent services, or com- 
 modities, the product of services, or one may bring ser- 
 vices and the other commodities representing hisjpas^ labor. In deter- 
 mining the relative values in market, no estimates are, in the least 
 degree, relevant except as to the relative services involved in the 
 transaction. If the exchanges are in harmony with the principles of 
 equity, the nece.ssities, opportunities, desires, or shrewdness of 
 
CAU8BH OF TRR CGiNFLICr BKTWKBN CAPITAli AND LABOR. 8" 
 
 either or both parties are wholly immaterial; these have no more 
 infloence in determining values than in determining weight or 
 magnitude. 
 
 That species of profits which, if realized by one, are secured 
 only because an equal loss is sustained by another, has, to recom- 
 mend it, neither justice nor necessity. It degrades exchanges, 
 otherwise beneficent and ennobling, to the low level of a mere 
 game of chance, between which and outright gambling, the moral 
 line of deraarkation is wholh" imperceptible. The stock*gambler 
 in Wall Street and the tramp on the highway are the legitimate 
 fruits of this pernicious theory of exchange; in vain will society 
 hurt maleflictions against either of these or other similar burdens 
 upon industry, so long as custom upholds the theory which pro- 
 duces them. If this species of profits is justifiable oa a smaL 
 scale, it is justifiable on a large scale; if one may rightfully take 
 more than he gives, he may take something for nothing. The 
 hoy in the street playing marbles “for keeps,” is the prototyj>e 
 of the speculator in stocks; the former is the opening blossom, 
 the latter, the fully developed fruit of that species of profits cur- 
 rently thought to be the only inducements to exchange. This 
 theory Ls responsible for the almost universal opinion that there is 
 nooessnrily a conflict of interests in the world’s commerce ; hence the 
 deception, the strategy, and the low cunning manifest in all marts 
 of exchange; hence, the conflict between “Capital and Labor.” 
 
 That sjjecies of profits resulting from the greater efficiency of 
 labor, growing out of the division of the world’s industry into the 
 various departments required to produce and distribute the com- 
 modities desired by all, is in accordance with the requirements of 
 the most perfect equity, and offers sufficient inducements to bring 
 forth the best efforts of all men, till time shall be no more. The 
 shoemaker may exchange with the mason, the carpenter, the 
 farmer, the wood-chopper, the miner, the sailor, the dry-goods 
 merchant, the gi'ocer, the hardware merchant, the watch-maker, 
 the blacksmith, the brakernan, the engineer, the conductor, the 
 clerk, the book-keeper, the banker, the teacher, the inventor, the 
 minister, the physician, the town, county, state, and national 
 officials, and others giving useful services; each laborer, in any 
 department, may exchange with those in every other, and through 
 the greater efficiency of labor thus secured, immeasurably in- 
 
crease liis wealth; at the same time, adding to the wealth of 
 those with whom he.- exchanges. If industrious^ the ordinarily 
 ethcierit laborer dcom' enough to supply . himself and his family', 
 with all the necesmries and many of the of life ; but in 
 
 conse(]uence of .false theories of exchange, he ■frequently geU 
 neither. This, fact is recpgnfee.d and acknowledged, , perhaps, by 
 most economists; but, wedded to the past, most, of. t,)iem fail to 
 detect the cause of this great in.justice. The,y talk of “fair 
 prolits,” “reasonable protits,” “ e(|ual prolits,” . “ fair wages,”. 
 “re.asonable wages,” “wages .s.ufficient to support the laborers,” 
 and ‘‘.wages justitle.d by.the rate of profits.” Few of them seem 
 to recognize tlie. fact that no profits are fair, reasonable, or equal, 
 except those resulting from superior efficiency of labor secured by 
 the exchange of services, and that no wuages.are fair or reasonably, 
 if greater or less than the products- of .labor. “ Wages sufficient 
 to support the laborer,” implies that there is a special class of in- 
 dustrious people who- are entitled-ito a bare.-liying.; all beyond, 
 this' goes to make up the profits of that class who, somel>o\y or \ 
 other, are presumed to f-iave a right to a large, part of the wealth., 
 produced by others; ho wthey - came by this right, no .economist , 
 hcis' -yet explained. To be -sure- vague, assertions are.made .with _ 
 reference to “ great brain power,” ‘f, superior executive, ability*”, 
 “shrewd management,” “ wise forecast of the. market, ” etc.; but 
 these are hardhr definite enough to settle a point of so much im- 
 portance; to ordinary comprehension, they seem entirely irrele- 
 vant. In consequence of the inherent diHiculty of the question^ 
 however, no better explanation is, perhaps, possible; no better, 
 tlierefore, need I'l antif'iuated. To prove the existence of'a non- • 
 entity is a r dhijL uidicult task. 
 
 The President of the United States receives a yearly salary 
 of •'5^50,000 — 125,000 more than was paid Abraham Lincoln during 
 the high prices of w.ir times. It is said that he managed to 
 save a respectable sum each year; if this is true, the salary of the 
 President, at [)resent, is exorbitant. How then about the in- 
 come of W. II. Vanderbilt, said to be, probably $10,000,000 — suffi- 
 cient to pay the presidential salary 200 years ! The farmer who, 
 at the age of sixty, has saved a farm valued at $10,000, has been 
 more than ordinarily successful; this is the unconsumed wages of 
 forty years. The value of one thousand such farms is annually 
 
CAUPKS OF THE CONFLICT IJETWEEX CAPITA I- AND J.AUOK. 
 
 swept into the cotf(‘i'S ()f him whose motto is said to be, “The 
 people be damned! ” The farm-laborer who should receive $.7()0 
 for a 3 'eaV’s servic(3, Would think himself generouslv' compensated; 
 yet S?U),0()0,000 would pay an army of such laborers 20,00 0 
 strong! If such are the aspects presented by an’ income of $10,- 
 000,000, how about the principal from which it is derived, esti- 
 mated at $200,000,000? It must not be forgotten that all legiti- 
 mately accumulated wealth, is the uncoUsumed wages of the 
 possessor. Assuming that the Presidential^ salary is a sufficient' 
 compensation for any one man, <Tnd allnwing nothing for ex[)en- 
 ses, it would rcipiire .4,000 years tU save' ’$200,000,000; The 
 entire wealth of the people of the' United States is estimated at 
 something like , $50, 000, 000, 000 ; $200,000,000 is 1-250 part Of 
 the whole; therefore one man is in possession of 1-250 part o'f the 
 w(5'alth of the nation. The’ average annual income of hiiilidns of 
 industrious’laborers is,' perhaps, not more than $200: after paying 
 speculative prices for the necessaries of lifeb how nluch can they 
 save, or expend in luxuries? The' average edifor, ' worsh'fbing af 
 the shrine of Mammon, and trembling in the presence of “ lail- 
 road kings,’’ says that' the poverty of the industrious millions is 
 ■lue to their , intemperate habits! It is h lamentable fact th’at 
 many laboring people are cursed witli intemperate habits; but the 
 charge that moxt of them are so cursed, is a gratuitous insult, ' 
 Afered by those who ought to know its falsity. 
 
 • The most serious fault of laboring people is in conceding more; 
 to capital than its due; like the capitalists themselves, the laborers 
 sanction the theory which permits the former, through the instru- 
 mentality of profits, interest, and rent, to appropriate the greater 
 part of the fruits of industry. They also grievously err in giv- 
 ing countenance to the doctrine that a superabundance of laborers 
 is the cause of low wages, and hence that the gates should be 
 cdosed against foreign laborers, while foreign speculators are 
 permitted to come and go at pleasure. In demanding the exclu- 
 dou of foreign laborers, the American laborer sanctions the 
 theory that wages legitimately depend upon the capital specially 
 devoted to the payment of wages and the number of laborers 
 seeking employment. This theory is perfectly consistent wi tli 
 that which permits the capitalists to appropriate the products of 
 industry in the shape of profits, interest, and rent; but it is totally 
 
8fi CAUSES OP THE CONPUICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOH. 
 
 inconsistent with that theory which assigns to each the products 
 of his own labor. It is said that foreign laborers by returning 
 home with their earnings, impoverish the country. Is this true? 
 A million laborers come here and remain one year, each working- 
 three hundred days, the compensation for their services being 
 much less than the product of their labor. Each earns, say, $1.50 
 a day, but he gets but $1.00. The record stands as follows: 
 Entire product of each for the year $450; entire product of the 
 1,000,000 men is $450,000,000, of which they get $300,000,000, 
 thus leaving in the country $150,000,000 of the products of their 
 labor. Does this look like impoverishing the country? Certainly 
 not. If, however, this influx of foreign laborers displaces an 
 equal number of American laborers, who are thus thrown out of 
 employment — a result possible under the present pernicious theory 
 of wages — this increase of national wealth is detrimental to the 
 interests of the American laborer displaced by the foreigner. 
 Self-preservation being the first law of nature, if the current 
 theory of wages is correct, the American laborer is justified in 
 demanding the exclusion of the-foreigner. The economists teach 
 that the more numerous the laboring population, the lower^ of 
 necessity, must wages be. Accepting this theory, the laborer, 
 fearing a reduction of the niggardly pittance now received for his 
 services, and mistaking a result of the same cause from which he 
 suliers, for the cause itself, very consistently with the current 
 theory of wages, opposes the immigration of foreign laborers. 
 But as this is leaving the real cause wholly untouched, his efforts 
 are all in vain. The laborer can not be permanently benefited by 
 the exclusion of foreign laborers; in the end, all will be injured. 
 
 On the contrary, the capitalists, though accepting the current 
 theory of wages and hoping to increase his profits, very naturally 
 fatiors the immigration of foreign laborers, whose services can be 
 obtained, temporarily^ for less wages than can those of the American 
 laborers. Less wages, however, does not necessarily imply clieaper 
 labor: if the labor of the American is, in efficiency, double that of 
 the immigrant, the services of the former, at $2.00 a day, are a.s 
 cheap as those of the latter, at $1.00. More than this, the im- 
 ported laborer has latent desires, sure to be aroused by his nevr 
 environments, he, therefore, will soon demand an increase of 
 wages: if he does not do this, the employer, taking this non-ac- 
 
CAUSKft OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 87 
 
 tion of the laborer as a favorable symptom, will reduce the wages ; 
 inich action by either of the parties, wdll perhaps precipitate a 
 strike in which one of the contestants* gain a temporary h.d- 
 vantage; though, probably, all will be ultimately injured — not 
 merely those immediately concerned — all departments of produc- 
 tion and exchange will feel the shock. If the strike should, for- 
 tunately, lead to llie abandonment of the theory of wages, which 
 is the responsible cause, infinitely beneficial results would follow. 
 Wise or unwise, beneficial or injurious, right or wrong, strikes 
 will occur till the laborer is reduced to a condition of utter help- 
 lessness, or till the pernicious theory of wages which produces them 
 is replaced by that which assigns to each laborer the entire uro- 
 ducts of his own industry. It is not true, as many think, that 
 the laborer has an inherent disposition to w’age war against a 
 correct theory of wages; the conflict is the inevitable result of 
 that theory which, of itself, is a declaration of war against the 
 right of each to receive the full proceeds of his own industry. 
 
 Temporarily and locally, the exclusion of foreign laborers 
 7aay be beneficial to the American ; but ultimately and generally, 
 instead of raising wages, it will lower them. Under a correct 
 theory of wages, the greater the number of laborers, the greater 
 would be the compensation of each. If properly organized, an 
 increase of laborers would produce a greater increase of wages. 
 Keeping in mind the fact that, rightfully, to each laborer belong 
 the products of his labor, the following illustration by the emi- 
 nent economist, Adam Smith, will show how vastly the produc- 
 tiveness of labor is increased by increasing the number of labor- 
 ers; “The business of making a pin is divided into about eight- 
 een distinct operations. One man draws out the wire, another 
 straightens it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at 
 the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or 
 three operations; to put it on is a peculiar business ; to whiten 
 the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into 
 the paper * * * i liave seen a small manufactory where ten men 
 only were employed, and where some of them, consequently, per- 
 formed two or three distinct operations. But, though they were 
 very poor, and therefore indifferently accommodated with the 
 necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves, 
 make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day. There 
 
88 CAUSES OK THE CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR. 
 
 are in a pound upward of four thousand pins of a middling size. 
 Those ten persons, therefore, could make among them upward of 
 forty-eight thousand pins in a day. Each person, therefore, 
 making ateptii part of forty eight thous.ind pins, might be con- 
 sidered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day. 
 But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and 
 without any of thejn liaving been educated to this peculiar busi- 
 ness, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, 
 perhaps not one pin in a day.” Thus the wages of each laborer was 
 increased two hundred and forty times in conse((uence of effi- 
 ciency gained by uniting with his fellows! Tracing this principle 
 through all the departments of labor, its influence is seen to be 
 infinitely beneficent. Instead, therefore, ot a numerous laboring- 
 population tending to crowd wages down, the natural tendency 
 is to increase them. There is no necessary conflict of interests 
 among the producers of wealth; no matter whether they are fel- 
 low-countrymen or citizens of dififerent countries. All conflicts 
 among these, result from adhering to a theory of wages originat- 
 ing in an age in which the enslavement of a fellow-man was 
 thought to be no sin. 
 
 We have thrown aside the instruments of production invented 
 by our ancestors, but have retained their theories of distribution. The 
 sickle has been replaced by the reaper; the scythe, by the mower; 
 the ox-cart by the steam car; the birch canoe, by the steamer; 
 the pitch-pine torch, by the electric light; the distaff, l>y thou- 
 sands of spindles driven by falling water or expansion of steam; 
 and the pedestrian courier, by the telegraph. Yet, through the 
 accidents of exchange carried on under a theory making the dis- 
 tribution of the products of laboi- a mere game of chance, these 
 wonderful inventions of modern times have fallen info the hands 
 of a few speculators, and thus instead of benefiting all, they 
 menace the liberties of the people. Strange as it seems, sucli 
 have been the fruits of industry in all ages: the wealth produced 
 by all being appropriated by a few, has oppressed the great mass 
 of the wealth-producers; hence, it is thought, that poverty is the 
 inevitable lot of the great masses of mankind. Instead of attril.'- 
 utiug it to its true cause — mistaken economic theories — it is 
 supposed to be due to the fiat of Omnipotence; hence, all human 
 efforts aiming at different results are vain, if not sacreligious. If 
 
CAUSES OF THK CONFLICT HKTWEEN (LM’ITAI. AND r.AFiOU. 8!) 
 
 this were true, gloomy, indeed, would be the future. Jhit fortu- 
 nately it is not true; 'God is no more the Author of tlie current 
 theories of the distribution of wealth, than He is of cannibalism, 
 slavery, theft, burglary, murder, or any other erime--not f)ne of 
 these but has found defenders on religious grounds. The slave- 
 holders said 'that Cain was an accursed fratricide; God put a 
 mark on him; though not so stated in Scri])ture, they were sure 
 the mark was black; hence, he was the ancestor of the Negro. 
 Cain being an antedeluvian, a failure to explain how he or his pos- 
 terity escaped the wrath of Heaven and survived the general 
 wreck of humanity in the universal deluge, rendered this theory 
 untenable. A more plausible one was that based upon the unlil- 
 ial conduct of Ham ; through the malediction of his father, ho 
 and his posterity were doomed to serve Shem and Japhet. But 
 the dilhculty of establishing the right of Noah to do this, and the 
 further difficulty of identifying the Negro as the descetidant of 
 Ham or the slave-holder as the descendant of Shem or Japhet, 
 militated against the authenticity of this theory. The next theory 
 was based u[)on the fact that the Negro was a heathen; this justi- 
 fied the Christian in making him a slave. But many of these 
 heathens became Christians, without any diminution of their value 
 as chattels; this was an e^vceediiKjlxj troublesome feature of the 
 theory. A very natural inference was tliat, if his being a heathen 
 justified the enslavement of the Negro, lie logically must be set 
 at liberty on becoming a Christian; hence, this theory was far 
 from satisfactory. After accepting and finall}' abandoning many 
 .other theories equally as untenable as the three preceding, as a for- 
 lorn hope, was advanced the following; “He is nothing but a 
 
 d anyhow.'’ Though somewhat lacking in religious 
 
 fervor and logical symmetry, this is tlie most pointed argument 
 ever advanced in support of the enslavement of man ; thougli not 
 very forcible, it has the merit of being absolutely unanswerable. 
 It was short, easily wielded, and, on the whole, the best argument 
 ever offered in defense of the inclefensil)le. To such straits are 
 they reduced who seek Divine sanction of any theory which per- 
 mits any luiman being, except the unfortunate, to appropriate a 
 greater share of the fruits of industry than those to wkich his 
 services entitle him. 
 
 Casting aside the economic theories of the past as they have 
 already abandoned the cotemporary mechanical inventions, let 
 
90 OF THK OONKLrOT BKTWKKS CAFiTAL AND LABOR. 
 
 the wealth producers, rich ami poor, adopt tliat one which assigns 
 to each the products of his own industry, and instead of spend- 
 ing lime and energies in an ignoble game of chance for the pro- 
 ceeds, let each striv'c to advance the welfare of all, thereby in the 
 greatest possible degree enhancing his own individual welfare. 
 At this time t!\e population of the United States exceeds 50,000,- 
 000; at the beginning of the Twentieth Century it will, possibly, 
 be 100,000,000; before its close, 5(X),000,G<)0. Tf wise enough to 
 utilize the bounties of nature, and distribute them among the 
 producers, giviug to each tlie products of his own industry, each 
 of the 500,000,000 may possess vastly more wealth than those of 
 to-day. Lacking the wisdom requisite to make the best use of 
 the opportunities, instead of a nation of freemen, through human 
 folly, and not Vi\o fjit of Omvipoterv'ie, this will become a land of 
 ignoble serfs— modern civilization having given place to ancient 
 barbarism. ‘^‘Eterual vigilance is the price of liberty.” The aly 
 imps ordespotism an; ever vigilant; with sentinels sleeping on the 
 watch-towers, Liberty is ever in peril. 
 
 Such dire calamity, not to this republic alone, but to all man- 
 kind is not inevitable; the tendency is not the result of an innate 
 inability of man to work out a nobler destiny. The theory of the 
 “Divine Right of Kings,” the seed of tyranny, accompanied the 
 early settlers to America. Like noxious weeds, such principles 
 thrive without cultivation ; hence, in time, the tyrannical princi- 
 ple flouiishcd in all the vigor manifested in its native soil. A 
 few appreciated the fall significance of liberty; others caught 
 merely glimses of its grandeur; others, still bowed down in ador- 
 ation in the presence of kingly power. The English government 
 in the hands of the enemies of liberty, encouraged the growth of 
 the spirit of tyranny in the New World, and sought the extinc- 
 tion of the spirit of liberty; not because the Englishman, by na- 
 ture, differs from v)ther men; the environments erected by the 
 folly of tliousauds of years iiad impressed upon the people the 
 doctrine of the necessity of a governing class, composed of a few, 
 commissioned by the authority of Heaven to rule the many; 
 obedience alone being the duty of the latter. 
 
 From conditions like those specified above, but one result is 
 possible: sooner or later there must be a conflict between the 
 antagonistic governmental theories; no liuman power cun avoid 
 
CAtlSKS OF TUB CONFLICT IIETWKKN CAI’ITAL AND LABOR. 91 
 
 this, except by ridding the land of one or the other of the oppos- 
 ing forces. The Heaven-endowed spirit of liberty may be repreas- 
 ed, but it cannot be extinguished; as well might puny man 
 attempt the extinguishment of the Sun. The spirit of tyranny, 
 being the rvvSuU of humiiii ignorance uud, folly* may be extin- 
 guished, or, at least, totally obscured, in the brighter light of a 
 higher civilization. This spirit, therefore, l>eing an officious med- 
 dler in human affairs, is responsible for all conflicts between itself 
 and the spirit of liberty ; the former has no rights which entitle 
 it to even live, mucli lass to dominate the world ; the latter is 
 placed, by the Creator, in charge of ail men ; no higher duty 
 than its defense, is imposed upon man. 
 
 It ivS no proof that men are rebellious or in favor of anarchy 
 simply because they interjmse a defense against an invasion of 
 their rights. The dissatisfaction manifest in the industrial world 
 is not without cause; the taboier’s family, whose welfare is in 
 his keeping, are without the means iieceBsary for present phys- 
 ical needs and future intellectual attainments. Notwithstanding 
 he works diligently, early and late, his income is ina<lequace to 
 meet the demands legitimately made upon him. He sees others 
 less industribus'than himself, with families no mote worthy tluiin 
 his own, living in luxury, while his family is pinched with pov- 
 erty. It is not mere instinct that suggests the existence of a 
 wrong. Pie and so far reasons c(.n'i‘ectly\ he knows tliat 
 
 all means of subsistence, for rich as well as poor, is produced by 
 labor. Evidcutly. then, there is something wrong, othenviae 
 those who labor most would receive most, and, un.le.ss extravagant, 
 would have most. Unless industry is without merit, the argu- 
 ment is irrefutable. Immaterial in what capacity he lat)ors, such 
 is the condition of the laboring-man today; it is, not only his 
 right, it Is his duty to protest against the conditions tlms imposed 
 upon him. He must be the perpetrator or the victim of extor- 
 tion; the fact that he may, by bare possibility, become a million- 
 aire by ehoslng the former alternative, will he plead in vain in 
 dnfe,ase of that system for distributing wealth, which assigns the 
 lea.st to those who produce the most. The deMderatum in the 
 industrial world is a system of e.xchimge which will assign to 
 each the products of his own industry, allowing none to appro- 
 priate tho,se rightfully belonging to another. Those of the pa.st 
 
0:^5 ('AUSES OF TIIF COiSFLK’T BETWEEN CAFITAL AND LABUJl. 
 
 liad uo such system; we of to-day have no'sueh system; tliose of 
 the future, immediate or remote, will have. The man of to day, 
 Avith all his faults, is an improvement on him of the past- century ; 
 he of the past was an im})rovement on him of the preceding cen- 
 tury; the latter was a vast improvement on his remote ancestor, 
 primitive man. The man of the coining century will be an im- 
 provement on him of this; he of the next succeeding century will 
 still further advance; and eventually, though he will not be 
 without imperfections, he will learn ; that it is nobler to live on 
 the products of his own industry tlpin on those produced by 
 others. Lot no one despair: Man’s iMissuon to Earth is not yet 
 fulfilled. 
 


 
 
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