Illinois Industrial tjnlver C«^lv^FtArJ€3-lsr, ILL. are net to he taken from the Library J^oom 1 Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. University of Illinois Library o P vi l . , • r 1 i \ BUiLDiNG 1 USE ONLY MAR 21 . 1978 MAR 2 11978 L161 — H41 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/reportsonparisunOOgrea GoG- 1 P^lLo- 0 REPORTS ON THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION; PART I. Presented, to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty. LONDON: PRINTED BY GEORGE E. EYRE AND WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, PRINTERS TO THE QUEEN’S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY. FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE. 1856. : -** MO ' ' n n M- o n or vatmuM* CONTENTS of PART I. C o ' .>• 21 & £ a On the General Management, by Henry Cole, C. B, . . aS | Appendix to the same Report . . . .33 On the Fine Arts Arrangements, by R. Redgrave, R.A. . . 73 Appendix to the same Report . , . .85 On the Industrial Arrangements, by Richard Thompson, Superintendent of Arrangement .... On Linen Manufactures, by the Deputation from the Belfast Chamber of Commerce On Woollen and Worsted Manufactures, by the Deputation from the Bradford Chamber of Commerce ..... On Wool, Woollen Manufactures, and Machinery, by the Deputation from the Huddersfield Chamber of Commerce 89 109 121 133 On Woollen and Worsted Fabrics, and Iron Manufactures, by the Deputa- tion from the Leeds Chamber of Commerce . . .161 On the Samples of general Produce and Cotton, by the President of the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce , , . .169 On Agricultural Implements and Produce, by J. Evelyn Denison, M.P. 181 On Coachmaker’s Work, Harness, &c. by the Right Hon. the Earl of Shelburne, M.P. . . . # # .213 On prepared and preserved Alimentary Substances, by Professor Owen, F.R.S. . , . . t > t ,227 On Birmingham Manufactures, by George Wallis . . . 237 On Silk Manufactures, by Thomas Winkworth . . . 259 On Furniture and Decoration, by M. Digby Wyatt . , .275 On Printing, Printing Machines, &c., by Charles Knight . .347 On Military Arts, by Francis Fowke, Captain, R. E. . .367 Results of Experiments on various Colonial Woods, by Francis Fowke, Captain, R.E. . . . . . 402 A 2 ,500 . ' REPORTS, Report on the Management of the British Portion of the me. c©lb ’tsi'E Paris Universal Exhibition. — By Henry Cole. C.B. general J Manage- mEnt. To the Right Hon. the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, &c., &c., &c. Marlborough House , London, My Lord, 12 th February 1856. 1. Having been directed, on the part of the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, to superintend the management of the British portion of the Paris Universal Exhibition, I have now the honour to lay before your Lordship an account of the proceedings, so far as they concern that section of the Exhibition. 2. When this has been done, I propose to submit for consideration some remarks on the policy and extent of any Government interference in such exhibitions, and on the appointment of Juries, in the hope that my observations may be found useful in any future Exhibitions which may take place. 3. The principles on which the French Government con- Principles ducted the Paris Exhibition of 1855 resembled for the ment of tie most part those of the London Exhibition of 1851. The {Sed°with chief differences consisted in the admission of pictures and those ° f the engravings, which were prohibited in London ; in the hibition x * adoption of a special Customs' tariff of 20 per cent, ad valorem on all articles which were prohibited either absolutely or partially by the ordinary French tariff, a measure necessary in the case of France, or there could have been no exhibition, but not required in the London Exhibition ; in the permission given to exhibitors to mark prices on articles exhibited, which was not granted in London ; and in the award of prizes to foremen of works, workmen, &c., who were not direct exhibitors. 4. The whole cost of the central management of the Exhibition was borne by the French Government, whereas the risk of the London Exhibition was undertaken by a voluntary association of individuals in their private capacity, and was in no respect shared by the Government, which only gave a sanction to the undertaking and named a com- mission to communicate with foreign countries. The 6 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Colb on THE General Manage- ment. Appoint- ment of an Imperial Commission. Government guarantee to a company. Assistance afforded by the British Govern- ment. Parliamen- tary vote of 50 , 000 ?. Assistance of public associations, management in Paris was confided to a special commis- sion appointed by the Emperor, but their powers appeared to have been somewhat controlled by a private company who were owners of the Palais de V Industrie in the Champs Elysdes. This was the principal building used for the Exhibition, which had been erected at a cost exceeding half a million of pounds sterling, upon a guarantee from the Government of 4 per cent., together with a share in any contingent profits. These contingent profits, which did not arise, constituted the company the actual receivers of the fees for admission, and they made certain regulations of their own, of doubtful convenience to the success of the Exhibition. The regulations made by the Imperial Com- mission for the management of the Exhibition are appended to this Report. (See p. S3.) The administration of them was directed by His Imperial Highness the Prince Na- poleon, the President, who always acted with a liberality, which greatly facilitated the duties of the British Com- mission. (See p. 53.) 5. As it appeared to the British Government to be very doubtful if voluntary association and private enterprise would produce an adequate representation of British art and industry in Paris, corresponding to the efforts which the French Government had made in 1851, estimates for aiding the formation of a proper Exhibition were submitted to Parliament, and a sum of 50,000£. voted to be adminis- tered under the responsibility of the Board of Trade. This estimate, with its details, together with the Minutes of the Treasury and the Board of Trade, regulating the control of it, and appointing the chief officers, are given. (See Appendix C., pp. 54, 57.) 6. The names of the officers acting in Paris on behalf of the Board of Trade and of the Commissioners appointed by the Colonies, and agents for the exhibitors, are also appended. (See p. 58.) Besides these officers, the Board of Trade requested various noblemen and gentlemen to act as J urors in the several classes into which the Exhibition was divided; their names and the classes in which they gave their services gratuitously will be found in the Appendix (p. 60.) 7. In obtaining British exhibitors, and adapting their de- mands to the space afforded by the Imperial Commission, it was a ruling principle to invite the co-operation of voluntary associations of the country representing Science, Art, and Industry, and to induce them to take an active part in the work of organization. Entire success attended this course. The Royal Agricultural Society charged themselves with . superintending the exhibition of agricultural machinery ; Mr. Cole on the General Management. 7 the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers, that of Mb.col machinery in general, whilst the Royal Society superin- Geneeax tended that of scientific and philosophical instruments. M men?. e * 8. Local committees for the representation of manufac- — tures were formed at Aberdeen ; Arbroath ; Belfast ; Bir- kocadC°m. mingham ; Bradford ; Bristol ; Derby ; Dublin ; Dudley ; formed. Dundee; Dunfermline; Edinburgh; Glasgow; Huddersfield; Leeds; Macclesfield; Manchester; Nottingham; Paisley; Preston ; Sheffield ; Staffordshire Potteries ; Sunderland ; Trowbridge; Walsall; and Wolverhampton. Whilst, in Metropo. the metropolis, committees were formed for the trades of, — coSuttees. Bookbinders ; Boot and Shoe Makers ; Brush Makers, Comb Makers, and Turners ; Cabinet Makers, and Decorators in Relief ; Carpet Makers ; Carriage Builders ; Chemists, Clock and Watch Makers ; Copper-plate, Lithographic, and Anas- tatic Printers; Furriers; General Metal Workers; Gold- smiths and Silversmiths; Hat and Cap Manufacturers ; Letter-press and Surface Printers, and Type Founders; Musical Instrument Makers ; Paper Makers and Stationers ; Paper Stainers and Surface Decorators ; Philosophical ^In- strument Makers ; Rope, Twine, Canvas, and Mat ing Makers ; Saddlers, and Harness Makers ; Shawl and Mixed Fabric Manufacturers ; Silk Trade ; Tailors and Clothiers ; Tanners, Curriers, and Leather Dressers. 9. A very small proportion of the exhibitors acted inde- Objects ex* pendently of committees, and there were but few cases in tie^vem- which the Government itself appeared as a direct exhibitor. ment - The instruments and maps of the Ordnance Survey ; the Geological Survey ; a full-sized model of the Transit Circle used at Greenwich Observatory ; a collection of the appa- ratus and diagrams used for instruction in Science and Art ; a collection of the varieties of Coal obtained in the United Kingdom ; and a collection of Agricultural Produce, the chief part of which was procured with the valuable assist- ance of Messrs. Lawson, of Edinburgh, constituted the contributions of the Government to the Industrial Division. 10. As a whole, the British section, although necessarily much less in quantity, more completely represented the pro- productions ductions of the United Kingdom and its Colonies, than the ‘ 1 e * Exhibition of 1851. The comprehensiveness of the Colonial collections left little to be desired, and they promise to he of great mutual benefit to the Colonies and the mother country. The British Colonies which sent collections of their produce to the Exhibition were the Bahamas, Barbadoes, British Guiana, Canada, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, the East Indies, Jamaica, Mauritius, New South Wales (Sydney), New Zealand, Van Diemen’s Land, and Victoria (Melbourne). The productions sent from British Guiana, Canada, the 8 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. mb. Cole East Indies, and South Australia were, in some respects, General more useful and complete than those which were sent to the 1 went. * London Exhibition. The quality of the Machinery displayed was very good, but owing to the employment of some of the principal machine makers in preparations for the war, several important kinds of machinery were not represented ; and curious as the fact is, perhaps, the weakest part of the British portion, considering the real position of its producers with those of the rest of Europe, was the machinery. The prin- cipal seats of Manufactures were thoroughly well repre- sented, except Leeds, Birmingham, and Belfast ; Manchester appeared much more completely represented than in 1851, and its display attracted great attention. Glasgow and Bradford, Sheffield and the Potteries, were thoroughly represented. Nottingham showed well, although not so extensively as might "have been wished. Kidderminster well. The Glass trade was but partially represented ; the Furniture, almost wholly from London, was excellent, but not great in quantity ; the Musical Instruments consisted only of a single organ, and a few pianofortes ; Civil Engi- neering was abundantly illustrated by the best models of the chief works of recent times. The three principal gold- smiths and jewellers made a full display ; but the exhibition of watches and clocks and philosophical instruments was less complete than it might have been, several of the chief pro- ducers not having exhibited at all. S^darraiige- An account of the shipping of the British goods (well goods ° f the con ducted by Messrs. Lightly and Simon), their reception in Paris, their arrangement in the several buildings, and the difficulties attending this duty, the space occupied, the causes of delay, the value of the exhibits, and of all other matters of this nature, has been prepared by Mr. Bichard Thompson, the general superintendent of arrangement, and is printed. (See p. 89.) Catalogue. 12. The names of the British exhibitors, and their pro- ductions, were published in an English and French cata- logue, illustrated by notes on the industry of the United Kingdom, which excited considerable interest in France.* portsb/ 6 * ^ The relative position which the productions of the Chambers of United Kingdom were considered to hold in comparison with an^jurors, those of other nations exhibiting on this occasion, the pro- kc ' gress which has been made since 1851, and the necessity for improved industrial education in the United Kingdom will be found treated of in several reports prepared by deputations from various Chambers of Commerce, and by Jurors and others. * Published by Messrs. Chapman and Hall, 193, Piccadilly, London, and sold in the Palais de l’lndustrie, by permission of the Imperial Commission. Mr. Cole on the General Management. 9 14. The Chambers of Commerce which have published Mr. Colb such reports are — Belfast, Bradford, Huddersfield, Leeds, general and Liverpool. (See pp. 109-178.) M men?. e * 15. The Jurors and others who have engaged to furnish reports on various classes of the Exhibition are, — On Mining and Minerals, Professor Warington Smyth. *On Agriculture, Mr. J. Evelyn Denison, M.P. On Vegetable Produce, Sir Wm. Hooker. On Machinery in general and Iron, Mr. Fairbairn. *On Carriages and Harness, Lord Shelburne, M.P. On Machinery for Woven Fabrics, Professor Willis and the'Chambers of Commerce of Leeds and Huddersfield. On Philosophical Instruments, Sir David Brewster. On Heat, Light, and Electricity, Professor Wheatstone and Dr. Arnott. On Chemical Manufactures, Dr. Hofmann and Mr. W. De la Hue. *On Alimentary Substances, &c., Professor Owen and Dr. Boyle. *On Military Arts, &c., Captain Fowke, R.E. *On General Metal Work, Mr. G. Wallis and Mr. A. Tylor. On Pottery, Mr. Arnoux (with Messrs. Mintons'). On Glass, Mr. Bontemps (late with Messrs. Chance). *On Cotton and other Imports, The Liverpool Chamber of Commerce. *On Woollen and Worsted Goods, and their Machinery. The Leeds, Bradford, and Huddersfield Chambers of Commerce. *On Silk, Mr. Winkworth. *On Linens, The Belfast Chamber of Commerce. *On Furniture and Decorations, Mr. M. Digby Wyatt. *On Printing, Mr. C. Knight. On Design in Manufactures, Mr. B. Bedgrave, B.A. 16. The number of exhibitors in the industrial branch statistics., who finally exhibited was 1,555 from the United King- dom, and about 1,070 from the British Colonies. *J- The * These Reports are printed in this volume. The others will appear in a second part. f Analtsis op thIe Number of Exhibitors Fifty-three foreign states and twenty-two foreign colonies took part in the Universal Exhibition of 1855, in addi- tion to France herself, the three Algerian provinces, and eight French colonies. The first edition of the Catalogue, published on the 12th of May, contained the names of 16,944 exhibitors, viz., 8,968 from the French Empire, and 7,976 from foreign countries. In the last edition of the Catalogue, after deducting the names of 765 exhibitors which appeared in the first edition, and who did not send their contributions, the number of exhibitors amounts to 20,839, viz., 10,691 from the French Empire, and 10,148 from foreign states, and were divided in the following proportions : — France had 9,790 ; Algeria. 724 ; and the French colonies, 177 ; total, 10,691. The Duchy of Anhalt had 15; the Argentine Confederation, 6; Austria, 1,296; Grand Duchy of Baden, 88 ; Bavaria, 172 ; Belgium, 686 ; Brazil, 4 ; Duchy of Brunswick. 16 : 10 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Cole ON THE General Manage- ment. Commercial results. Reductions in the tariff. number of British exhibitors who demanded space and did not exhibit, was 124. The value of the goods sent to the Exhibition was 173,441?., exclusive of the goldsmiths' and jewellers' work, which was estimated at 520,186?.* The number of packages sent was 6,420 ; the weight, 1,303 tons, 6 cwt. 25 lbs. The number returned to England was 3,978, and the weight was 764 tons, 8 cwt. 3 qrs. 22 lbs. 17. With the view of ascertaining if the Exhibition had been considered by those who had contributed to it pro- ductive of commercial or other advantages, inquiries were made of a few of the principal exhibitors, in reply to which it appeared that the sales of goods exhibited had been in general remunerative. This was chiefly apparent in the case of articles of strictly British manufacture, which had hitherto been absolutely prohibited, such as earthenware, woollen, cotton, steel, and other manufactures, or excluded from France by the high duties levied upon them, but which, on this occasion, had been reduced to 20 per cent. ad valorem. The advantages in the formation of new con- nexions to be derived from an exhibition, must be prospec- tive in a great degree, and many exhibitors appear to anticipate future benefit from the steps which they took during the Exhibition to establish them, especially if modi- fications of the French tariff should continue to be made, and actual prohibition removed, as is confidently expected in the present French Session. During the Exhibition reductions were made in the duties on machinery and metals, and since the Exhibition, modifications have been made in the duties on wool and worsted. Other reductions are in progress, and a statement of all will be furnished in the Second Part of these Reports. Mr. Evelyn Denison has pointed out that the important reduction of the tariff made during the Exhibition in favour of agricultural implements is due to the representations of the Jury on Agriculture. (See p. 191.) Republic of Costa Rica, 4 ; Denmark, 90 ; St. Domingo, 1 ; Egypt, 6 ; Frank- fort-on-the-Main, 24 ; Great Britain and Ireland, 1,589 ; British colonies, 985; Greece, 131; Republic of Guatemala, 7; Kingdom of -Hanover, 18; Hanse Towns, 89 ; Grand Duchy of Hesse, 74 ; Electorate of Hesse, 14 ; Principality of Lippe-Detmold, 2 ; Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, 23; Mexico, 107; Duchy of Nassau, 59 ; Netherlands, 411 ; New Granada, 13; Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, 13; Ottoman Empire, 2 ; Sandwich Islands, 5; Papal States, 71 ; Portugal (including colonies), 443; Prussia, 1,313; Principalities of Reuss (Elder and Younger Branches), 2 ; Sardinia, 198 ; Saxony, 96 ; Duchy of Saxe- Altenburg, 2 ; Duchy of Saxe-Coburg, 6 ; Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1 1 ; Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, 3 ; Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, 1 ; Principality of Schaumburg- Lippe, 2 ; Principality of Schwarzburg - Rudolstadt, 1 ; Spain, 568 ; Sweden and Norway, 538 ; Switzerland, 408 ; Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 197 ; Tunis, 1 ; United States, 130 ; Wurtemburg, 207 ; — total, 10,148. These figures are taken from the French Catalogue. * This estimate is exclusive of the Fine Arts, valued at 137,560/. Mr. Cole on the General Management. 11 18. The Fine Arts portion of the British Exhibition excited me. Colb gieat attention in Paris. Undoubtedly it was a complete general display of the state of the Fine Arts of the United Kingdom. M ment. e ' Mr. Redgrave, who had the superintendence of it, has pre- Tq pared a separate report, which renders further allusion to Finelrts? this portion of the exhibition unnecessary. (See p. 73.) 19. The Exhibition opened on the 15th of May, and the opening, concluding ceremony took place, with great success and punctuality, on the 15th of November, owing to the excel- lent arrangements of M. Le Play, the Commissioner General. The clearance of the goods commenced immediately after- wards, and continued, although the public were admitted up to 1st of Dec. to concerts given in the Palais de V In- dustrie, and to other portions of the buildings. 20. The total number of visits to the Paris Exhibition, Number of was 4,533,464 ;* 3,626,934 visits were made to the Indus- visits ’ trial Section, and 906,530 visits to that of the Fine Arts. Forty thousand British subjects visited the Paris Exhibition, of whom, 2,768 were persons who obtained workmen's passports from the Foreign Office without payment. 21. Her Majesty the Queen, His Royal Highness Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal paid several visits to the various departments of the Exhibition in the month of August. 22. The scale of fees charged for admission to the Palais Entrance de lTndustrie, and to the Palais des Beaux Arts respectively was as follows : — At the opening of the Exhibition, (15tli of May 1855,) Sunday,f - - - - 20 centimes, (2 d.) Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Saturday, - 1 franc, (10c?.) Friday, - - -* - 5 francs, (4s.) * The total number of visitors to the London Exhibition of 1851 was 6,039,195. f On Sunday the 27th of May the Exhibition Buildings were thrown open to the public gratuitously. On the 3rd of August the admission fees were altered as follows : — ’ Monday - - - ~ - - 20 centimes (2d.) Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday, and \ ^ f raQC ( 10 ^) Sunday » - - J \ -J Friday - - - - - - 2 francs (Is. 8 d.) On the 11th of August the admission fees were again changed as follows, this final modification being maintained until the close of the Exhibition, on the 15th November : — Sunday ------ Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and 1 Saturday J Friday - 20 centimes (2d.) 1 franc (lOd.) 2 francs (Is. 8 d.) The price of season tickets was 50 francs (40s.), for each of the Exhibitions. The holder of them was entitled to admission every day, as well as to the opening ceremony. 12 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Receipts. Cost of the British assistance. Future Industrial Exhibitions. It was a novelty to have such charges for an exhibition in France, and may be considered to have been proved suc- cessful. The receipts were 2,941,668 francs, a sum equal to 117,666/. 15s. The receipts at the London Exhibition amounted to 356,8081. 2s., but the scale of admission was higher, and the lowest fee taken Is. A statement of the expenditure has not yet been published, but I have been informed by a high authority, that it will exceed 500,000/. exclusive of the cost of the Palais de lTndustrie, which was above 500,000/. As this building will have to be purchased by the Government, the total cost will have exceeded a million of pounds sterling. 23. The work of the British portion will be brought to a conclusion, with an expenditure not exceeding 40,000/., being 20 per cent, less than the sum voted in Parliament. Since the great commercial success of the Exhibition of 1851, there have been Exhibitions at Dublin, New York, and the Crystal Palace in London, in all of which the esti- mates have been largely exceeded, but in the present case, as far as the action of the British Government is concerned, as with the Exhibition of 1851, the satisfactory state of the balance sheet is greatly due to a steady maintenance of the self-supporting principle by which the efforts of exhibitors were aided, but not weakened, and to their having been encouraged to do their own work as much as possible.* 24. I proceed now to submit to your Lordships some considerations — On the P oligy and Extent of Government Inter- ference in future Industrial Exhibitions. 25. The utility of the London and Paris Universal Exhibitions in teaching nations the comparative strength and weakness of their respective industries, and showing their mutual means for supplying each others wants ; in dissipating the prejudices of ignorance, and awakening desires for improvement, has been so manifest and generally admitted, that, notwithstanding the cost and trouble of them, and the great interruption they cause to ordinary trade, it is probable these Exhibitions will extend and become periodical, at least in some of the principal capitals of Europe. Before the Paris Exhibition had closed, it was rumoured, with some appearance of authenticity, that the next Universal Exhibition would take place at Vienna, in 1859 ; and preparations were also discussed for holding such Exhibitions at Berlin and Turin. * Even had the estimates been exceeded, in the present case, perhaps, some excuse might have found in far the greater excess of bulk, weight, and quantity of the goods sent for exhibition than the estimates provided for. Mr . Cole on the General Management. 13 26. It seems desirable, therefore, to inquire whether the ON THE principles on which the British Section of the Paris Exhi- manI&e^ bition was organized and conducted are applicable to future MENT - Exhibitions in which the United Kingdom may be invited to take a part, or are to be regarded as exceptional merely to the Paris Exhibition. 27. The ultimate purpose of all Industrial Exhibitions is Extension °f commercial. It is true that various motives, besides those the induce- of direct trade, induce some few exhibitors to display their Sbit? productions, but the bulk of exhibitors will be always attracted by the hopes of extending commerce. 28. It is also true that a great feature of the London Exhibition was its comprehensiveness, embracing, as it did, the display by foreign exhibitors of numerous classes of objects not directly matters of general commercial interest, — such as the Queen of Spain's jewels, the Austrian furni- ture, the malachite of Prince Demidoff, &c. Such objects were more rare in the Paris Exhibition. There was no royal jewellery from Spain; malachite from Russia could hardly be expected. There was very little costly Austrian furniture, but an increased quantity of Austrian cloth. The tendency of future Exhibitions, in their foreign de- partments, will be to exhibit not rare and costly produc- tions, required by very few purchasers, but manufactures ; and especially those manufactures the use of which is universal, and not merely national or peculiar. 29. Exhibitions will therefore lose in completeness, but gain Exhibitions in utility. Nations by this means, will learn how each one interna- may best exchange with the other the productions in which tlonal fairs ' they naturally excel, and these Exhibitions will become in- ternational fairs. Thus, England is likely in any future Universal Exhibition to send more cotton and woollen goods than furniture or stained glass, more common earthen- ware than decorated porcelain, and more tools and cutlery than polished steel grates. 30. The French Government, looking to the commercial utility of the Paris Exhibition, introduced for the first time an exceptional Customs' tariff of 20 per cent, ad valorem in favour of all goods exhibited, and took every means, short of compulsion, to induce exhibitors to affix prices to their goods. 31. The Imperial Commission, the French Customs, and th^enc) the French Government, all behaved most liberally in authorities- admitting large quantities of British goods to the Exhibi- tingTaies.' tion, which were not very necessary to it, but which were allowed to enter to oblige exhibitors and to gratify the 14 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. A future French Exhibition would over- flow with manufac- tures in general demand. desires of the French purchaser, who eagerly sought to make the Exhibition the channel for obtaining those things which were otherwise prohibited. Of course, British manufacturers were not backward to avail themselves of these concessions, and were only too eager to supply any quantity of pottery, alpacas, woollen cloths, cotton goods, agricultural machinery, fee., which the French consumer would purchase.* Even the large quantity sent, supplied but a very limited amount of the orders (especially for pro- hibited articles of the cheapest kind) which were given by all classes, from the lowest to the very highest, in France. Large purchases of earthenware were made. The delicate cotton quiltings of Manchester and cotton fustians attracted great notice, even from the nobility of France, and all the population of Paris seemed willing to clothe themselves in black alpacas. But many more orders were refused than executed. 32. My instructions from the Board of Trade being to limit the admission of British articles, as far as possible, to the real object of the Exhibition, the payment of the transport of articles at the cost of the public was stopped soon after the opening of the Exhibition ; but the French people were urgent to buy, the British producer was not unwilling to sell, and the Imperial Commission relaxed their rules in the most lenient way, although British traders still thought them too stringent. It is almost needless to add, that, having to stand at least neutral between buyer and seller, both eager for action, the position of the British authorities was difficult, and, to say the least, unusual for officers of the British Government to be placed in. 33. A second Universal French Exhibition, conducted under the same rules as the last, would be very different. The British producers, made wise by experience, would send chiefly, if not wholly, those manufactures which were likely to sell at the close of the Exhibition, such as cotton goods, cloths, flannels, pottery, machinery, &c. They would pile up the space allotted to them in the building, from the floor as high as the authorities would allow them, and no autho- rity could practically control the extent of transmission without preventing the Exhibition altogether. * Upwards of 296 crates of pottery, weighing 58 tons, were introduced into the Exhibition after its opening; and 100 crates, weighing about 15 tons, were admitted by the French Government even after the close of the Exhibi- tion. The Manchester Committee, keeping the object of the Exhibition strictly in view, preferred rather to discourage than permit sales of cotton goods. The Bradford exhibitors thought a wide distribution of alpacas among the French would be most useful to both parties. Mr. Cole on the General Management. 15 34. Thus, the Exhibition would be overflowing with certain kinds of goods, and destitute of others, unless a moderate" Customs' tariff were made a permanent law, and not adopted for the occasion. Then exhibitors would send samples, and take orders, and the Exhibition would be carried out strictly as an Exhibition and not as a fair. The relations therefore should be settled directly between the two parties — the foreign Government which invites the Exhibition for the benefit of its people, and the exhibitor who accepts the invitation for his own honour and profit. 35. If such are likely to be the future results, under a pro- hibitory or a special temporary tariff, in France, the nearest neighbour to England, they would be still more exaggerated at a greater distance. For example, at Vienna, a Universal Exhibition, in which British industry should be adequately represented, must be nearly, if not quite, a failure, unless one of two courses were adopted. It would either be for the Austrian Government to furnish adequate motives to exhibitors, so that the British action might be voluntary ; or, for the British Government to purchase specimens of manufactues, and exhibit them on its own responsibility, a course that would hardly seem to be feasible. 36. It is not likely that such an interference with com- merce as this would be supported by public opinion in England. Even the interposition of Government in the management of the Paris Exhibition was the reverse of its course with the London Exhibition, where the voluntary principle was carried so far, that the expenses of the Police and the Sappers were not defrayed out of the public Exchequer, but out of the funds of the Exhibition. The partial interference in the Paris Exhibition, I submit, can only be justified as exceptional, and should not be treated as a precedent for future Exhibitions. 37. But it may be said that Austria and the various Governments of Europe courteously assisted in the London Universal Exhibition, and the question may be asked, Can the British Government decline the invitations of other Governments in future ? The answer wnuld seem to be, Certainly noo ; provided the circumstances under which a foreign Exhibition is invited are the same as those under which the British Exhibition took place. There, however, is this material difference, that foreign exhibitors were invited in 1851, having a full knowledge of their chances of future commerce under a free trade. Therefore, until foreign tariffs are placed on the same footing as the tariff of the United Kingdom, every application for the assistance of the Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. The induce- ment to exhibit only the most saleable articles in- creased by the distance of the Exhi- bition. Non-inter- ference of the Govern- ment in the London Exhibition. 16 Repcnis on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Cole on the; Genekal Manage- ment. Inter- ' ference un* necessary if the induce- ments to exhibit are adequate. The advan- tages are on the side of the country holding the Exhibition rather than the foreigner. British Government in a foreign Exhibition may fairly be dealt with on its own merits. 38. It would seem, however, to be far better to have some general principles for the future, regulating the nature of the assistance to be given on the part of Government, and the course to be followed in managing foreign Exhibitions, which should be as self-acting as possible, and consistent with the ordinary practice pursued by Government in com- mercial matters ; and I will endeavour to submit such principles to your Lordship's consideration. 39. It is admitted to be a maxim of sound politics, at least in England, that Government should do only those things for public advantage which the public is unable to do for itself, and that the less it interferes in trade, so essen- tially regulated by private enterprise and intelligence, the better. The least possible interference with all future Universal Exhibitions would be most in accordance with the usual Government action and public opinion in England. And in truth, very little interference would be necessary for success, if foreign Governments held out adequate induce- ments to producers to exhibit. The function of Govern- ment would then be limited to receiving the invitation of the foreign Government, organizing preliminary measures, and reporting the results of them to the Government issuing it. 40. It may be useful to enter somewhat into detail as to the course which might be followed, using the experience which has been obtained in the Paris Exhibition. 41. It may be laid down as an axiom, that the chief and direct advantages of an Exhibition are derived by the country which holds it. It cannot be doubted that Eng- land with its Exhibition of 1851 and France with its Exhibition of 1855 respectively derived a much greater proportionate benefit than any of their foreign contributors. In the case of the English Exhibition, besides the stimulus to trade, an immense impulse to industrial improvement was originated by the Exhibition, the effects of which are only beginning to be felt. London reaped a large harvest from visitors to the metropolis* So indeed has Paris during its Exhibition. It is stated that nearly 160,000 foreigners visited Paris, upwards of 40,000 being British subjects, as I am informed by M. Pietri, the Commissioner of Police, being more than two thirds of the number of all foreigners that visited London. The police returns show that upwards * Upwards of 70,000 of these were foreigners. How many came from part* of the United Kingdom is not known. Mr. Cole on the General Management 17 of 350,000 visitors from the provinces of France came to Mr. Cole ' ON THE Paris during the Exhibition, and it would probably be a general low estimate to say that an additional sum of 6,000,000£. was M ment. e * spent in Paris during the year 1855 by visitors. I may be permitted to mention that a high authority in France is of opinion that the extra expenditure occasioned by the Exhibition more than repaid the great cost itself of the Exhibition, already mentioned as estimated at half a million of pounds sterling, independent^ of the cost of the prin- cipal building exceeding 500,00CK, on which an interest of 4 per cent, has been guaranteed by the French Government for several } T ears. 42. It is, therefore, in every point of view the interest of the foreign Government inviting an exhibition to offer the most liberal inducement to exhibitors to exhibit, and especially in respect of British goods, for which foreign pro- ductions may be freely exchanged, and imported into the United Kingdom. I consider it necessary that there should be either a permanent tariff as low as that of the United Kingdom, or an absolute temporary suspension of all Absolute Customs dues on articles exhibited and sold during the of customs Exhibition. This measure would not be at all too liberal g“ t n a ot to ° to insure the best exhibition of British goods in the capitals ^ distant 01 * of Germany or Italy. Exhibition. 43. With a rule so simple, it would only be for the foreign Government to offer free carriage of goods and general assistance in the reception of the articles, whilst the pre- paration of goods and the other expenses would be borne by the exhibitors themselves. 44. In the Paris Exhibition the expenses of many items were borne by the French and British Governments. The French paid the transport of articles from and to the French Transport, frontiers, the British Government paid 7,531 1. 2 s. 11 cl. for the transport between London and Dunkirk. The French undertook the unloading of the goods in the Exhibition building, and depositing them in their places ; but practically the placing them was performed by the British authorities. (See p. 97.) For promoting the general effect of the Exhi- bition, and towards its general . maintenance, upwards of 7,000£. were applied out of the Parliamentary vote. 45. In proportion as all these and the like expenses are borne by the parties most interested, namely the Exhibitors, the better and more smoothly the work will be done. 46. It is impossible to overstate the desire which the Division of Imperial Commission, and especially its President, the and respon- Prince Napoleon, uniformly displayed to render the admi- Slblllty ‘ B 18 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole OK THE General Manage- ment. Assistance of foreign Govern- ments is a bounty on high tariffs. United States : nistration of the Paris Exhibition perfectly acceptable to the Foreign Commissioners ; but when three separate interests, each again somewhat subdivided, have to work together, it becomes difficult always to define the relative shares of responsibility, and insure prompt action. If these three interests can be reduced to two, then the action is simplified. In the present Exhibition there was, first, the Imperial Commission, with their contractors, being the Company finding the building ; the Manutention du Com- merce de Paris, and the Customs; — secondly, the British Commission, responsible to Board of Trade, and representing both the interests of Government and the exhibitors ; — and, thirdly , the British exhibitors, who, as taxpayers, felt that they ought to have a voice in the expenditure of a Parlia- mentary vote made on their behalf. 47. Moreover, the more the British Government assists, the less are the motives on the side of the foreign Govern- ment to offer liberal inducements to the exhibitors ; and the conclusion I have been led to form is, that henceforth the soundest policy for the best interests of all parties, in any future Universal Exhibitions, will be to leave the entire management of them to the Government inviting the Exhibition and the foreign exhibitors. 48. The function of the British Government would be to publish the invitation of the foreign Government, and organize the exhibitors into action ; and afterwards to abstain from taking any active part in the management, or be responsible for the success of the Exhibition. It should make this resolution, if adopted, fully known. 49. This course would be only a further development of that followed in the Paris Exhibition, where every effort was made to leave the execution of the work in the hands of the exhibitors. The action of the British Government did not comprehend any responsibility whatever over the property of the Industrial exhibitors, either during transit, or arrangement, or any agency in the Exhibition or for sale ; whereas in Prussia, Austria, Bavaria, Spain, Portugal, and other foreign Departments, the duties of actual arrangement and sale were performed or superin- tended by the respective Commissioners. 50. It should be pointed out that the Government of the United States took no part whatever in the Paris Exhibition. The American Constitution never contemplated any united action of its States for International Exhibitions, and it seems that it cannot be effected. The National Institute at Washington acted as a centre of union in 1851, but no such Mr. Cole on the General Management . 19 organization seems to have been provided in 1855 ; the result, however, was, that there was little or nothing ex- hibited direct from America, and, in fact, there was little commercial motive on its part to exhibit its productions. 51. The fact that the Canadian, Australian, and other Colonial Governments undertook the entire responsibility of their respective displays, making direct purchases for exhibition, conducting the sale, &c., does not affect the question of the interference of the Government of the United Kingdom. The East Indian Government acted in like manner. Indeed, had the management of the Colonial exhibitions depended upon the exhibitors' sense of their own interests, there is no doubt that the Exhibitions would not have taken place,* or have been very insignificant, whereas they were complete. 52. But the commercial instinct of the producers of the United Kingdom is adequate to provide for their own interest. The best course of action for the United Kingdom would not suit the East Indian possessions, or that for the East Indies prove the best for Australia. It therefore becomes impossible to lay down any absolute principle of Government interference in Industrial Exhibitions appli- cable to all countries, on the contrary, each one must be treated according to its peculiar circumstances. Policy of naming Juries. 53. Should the Government decide to take no part in the actual management of future Exhibitions, still it may be requested to name British Jurors. Its consent to do so, I submit, is a point open at least to grave doubt. 54. The decision of your Lordship that neither Mr. Bed- grave nor myselfj should act as Jurors, or take any part in their proceedings, enabled me to watch the w r orking of the juries dispassionately, and I beg leave to lay before you the conclusions I have formed on the subject. 55. First arises the question of expediency of juries, and next their practicability in any Universal Exhibition. The institution of a jury in such Exhibitions is based upon the assumption that the public is unable to discover merit and to judge rightly for itself, but wants the assistance of an * This happened with Malta, which exhibited well in 1851, and not at all in 1855. The Governor, Sir William Reid, did his best to induce the Maltese producers to exhibit, but without effect. The commercial results of their exhibition in 1851 were not sufficiently satisfactory. Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. and British Colonial Ex- hibitions in Paris. Expediency of juries considered. 20 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. The public will not sur- render the right of private judgment. Juries, if expedient, are imprac- ticable in working. authoritative judgment. Is this assumption, in the present state of public intelligence, founded on facts ? Do the judgments of these juries do anything more than affirm the judgments already made by the public ? A glance at the names of those who have received the Grandes Medailles d'Honneur will show that they do not. Among the 138 recipients, is there one who is now revealed for the first time to the public? I venture to think not one. The judgment therefore merely follows and confirms public opinion to a certain extent, but in so far as serious omissions are made, and they are many, it is absolutely in this respect in arrear with public opinion, and becomes unjust. 56. Even conceding the point that the public at large do not judge rightly for themselves, it cannot be affirmed that they are willing to surrender their right of judgment, and be led by any jury in this question of buying and selling, — the most common-place business of every day, — upon which everyone is practically the absolute and ir- responsible judge. It would seem at the present time that private judgment, at least in the United Kingdom, hesitates to submit itself to authority in forming opinions on subjects of more vital importance than the quality of a cotton print, or a piece of pottery, or the beauty of a picture. The very terms “ civil and religious liberty ” show that the spirit of the times is not to bow, even in political or religious faith, to the verdict of any human tribunal. 57. Authoritative judges in investigating discoveries and experiments, in which the world has little or no experience to guide it, may be, and often are, useful. But the prin- ciple of juries in Industrial Exhibitions hitherto has not been thus limited. On the contrary, juries in Universal Exhibitions are called upon to investigate the most trifling of details, and determine the relative merits as well of a discovery in electro-magnetism as the make of a lady's corset ; while the fact is, that every one assumes the right, and exercises it, of judging for himself what articles he shall purchase for his subsistence or enjoyment. 58. But should it be granted that the principle of juries in an Exhibition is expedient, the experience of their work- ing is conclusive that they are impracticable means for arriving at impartial, comprehensive, and correct judgments. 59. I hope it will not be inferred that these remarks arise from any feeling that injustice was done to British productions on the late Exhibition. On the contrary, I am led to believe that, compared with other foreigners, more than ample justice was done to our exhibitors, and that if Mr, Cole on the General Management. 21 aoy complaint were to be made in the general interest, it would be that British exhibitors received too many rewards. 60. The theory of the judgments given in an Universal Exhibition is that all countries are treated alike, and the best works are eliminated for reward, without respect to country ; but the steps taken do not insure this result. On the contrary, the estimation of the goods of each country is ultimately determined very much in proportion to the number of its Jurors. 61. In the Paris Exhibition, as at London, juries generally of thirteen persons were named for each class ; half the number of each jury being named by France, and half by foreign Governments, each foreign country obtaining a number somewhat proportioned to its number of exhi- bitors. But this seemingly impartial division of numbers is fallacious in preventing a national, or in insuring an inter- national judgment.* * As many as fifty-nine Jurors, including those for the Fine Arts, were thus allotted to England, and consequently it was possible to name one or more Jurors on every one of the thirty classes, an arrangement which insured, in some degree, a more or less complete recognition of all kinds of British produc - tions. Hardly any other foreign country received a number of Jurors equal to the number of classes, and some had only two or three Jurors in all. The total number of Jurors was 398 : — The number assigned to France, 208 ; the number assigned to Foreign Countries, 190 ; in the following propor- tions : — Class I. Mining and Metallurgical Products. — Austria, 2 ; Belgium, 2 ; British Colonies, 1 ; Great Britain, 2 ; France, 5; Prussia, 1. — Total, 13. Class II. Forestry, Hunting, Shooting, and Fishing, and Products obtained without Cultivation — Great Britain, 1 ; France, 8 ; Portugal, 1 ; Tuscany, 1 ; United States, 1. — Total 12. Class III. Agriculture. — Austria, 2 ; Grand Duchy of Baden, 1 ; Belgium, 2 ; Denmark, 1 ; France, 9 ; Great Britain, 3 ; Spain, 1 ; Sweden and Norway, 1. —Total, 20. Class IV. Machinery in general, as applied to Industry. — France, 6 ; Great Britain, 1 ; Portugal, 1 ; Spain, 1. — Total, 9. Class V. Special Machinery and Apparatus for Bailways and other Modes of Transport. — Belgium, 2 ; France, 5 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 1. — Total, 10. Class VI. Special Machinery and Apparatus for Workshops. — Austria, 1 ; France, 7 ; Great Britain, 1 ; Prussia, 1 ; Sardinia, 1 ; Sweden and Norway, 1 ; Tuscany, 1. — Total, 13. Class VII. Special Machinery and Apparatus for the Manufacture of Woven Fabrics. — Austria, 1 ; France, 5 ; Great Britain, 1 ; Spain, 1 ; United States, 1. Total, 9. Class VIII. Arts relating to the Exact Sciences, and to Instruction. — Bavaria, 1 ; France, 6 ; Great Britain, 3 ; Prussia, 1 ; Switzerland, 2. — Total, 13. Class IX. Manufactures relating to the Economical Production and Em- ployment of Heat, Light, and Electricity. — Austria, 1 ; France, 5 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 1. — Total, 9. Class X. Chemical Manufactures, Dyeing and Printing, Paper, Leather, Skins, India-rubber, &c. — Austria, 1; Belgium, 1 ; France, 9; Great Britain, 2; Grand Duchy of Hesse, 1 ; Portugal, 1 ; Prussia, 2 ; Switzerland, 1. —Total, 18. Class XI. Preparation and Preservation of Alimentary Substances.— Me. Cole ON THE Geneeal Manage- ment. Judgments depend on the numbers of jurors assigned to a nation. Action of juries in Paris. 22 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. 62. The juries were summoned to assemble on the 15th June, and the greater part of them met, and proceeded to organize themselves for working, excepting the Fine Arts juries, who were adjourned to the 1st, and again to the 15th, October. However desirable or convenient this adjournment may have been to the French Jurors, who pro- posed it, it was not equally so to the foreign Fine Arts Jurors, who had come expressly to Paris from all parts of Europe, and some of whom were unable to remain, or return to their duties at a later period. 63. Many of the Industrial juries proceeded to examine the goods in June. Others were unable to do so, because Austria, 2; France, 4; Great Britain, 1; Prussia, 1; Wurtemburg, 1. — Total, 9. Class XII. Hygiene, Pharmacy, Surgery, and Medicine. — France, 7 ; Great Britain, 3; Nethei'lands, 1. — Total, 11. Class XIII. Naval and Military Arts. — Belgium, 2 ; France, 7 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Greece, 1 •, Prussia, 1. — Total, 13. Class XIV. Civil Engineering and Building. — France, 9; Great Britain, 2 ; Turkey and Egypt, 1. — Total, 12. Class XV. Steel and its Products. — Austria, 1 ; France, 6 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 2 ; Sardinia, 1 ; Sweden and Norway, 1. — Total, 13. Class XVI. General Metal Work.— Austria, 1 ; Belgium, 1 ; France, 7 ; Great Britain, 2; Hanover, 1 ; Wurtemburg, 1. — Total, 13. Class XVII. Goldsmith’s Work, Jewellery and Bronzes. — France, 5 ; Great Britain, 1 ; Netherlands, 1 ; Prussia, 2 ; Turkey and Egypt, 1. — Total, 10. Class XVIII. Glass and Pottery. — Austria, 1 ; Belgium, 1 ; France, 7 ; Great Britain, 3 ; Netherlands, 1 ; Prussia, 2. — Total, 15. Class XIX. Cotton Manufactures. — Austria, 2 ; Belgium, 1 ; France, 6 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 1 ; Switzerland, 2. — Total, 14. Class XX. Woollen and Worsted Manufactures. — Austria, 3 ; Belgium, 1 ; France, 9 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 3 ; Saxony, 1 ; Wurtemburg, 1. — Total, 20. Class XXI. Silk Manufactures. — Austria, 3 ; France, 7 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 1 ; Switzerland, 1. — Total, 14. Class XXII. Flax and Hemp Manufactures. — Austria, 1 ; Belgium, 1 ; France, 5 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 1; Wurtemburg, 1. — Total, 11. Class XXIII. Hosiery, Carpets, Embroidery, Lace of every kind, Gold and Silver Fringe, &c. — Austria, 1 ; Belgium, 2 ; France, 9 ; Frankfort-on-the- Maine, 1 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 1 ; Spain, 1 ; Switzerland, 1. — Total, 18. Class XXIV. Furniture and Decoration. — Austria, 1 ; Bavaria, 1 ; France, 6 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Hanse Towns, 1 ; Mexico, 1. — Total, 12. Class XXV. Articles of Clothing, Objects of Fashion and Fancy. — Austria, 2 ; France, 6; Great Britain, 1; Switzerland, 1. — Total, 10. Class XXVI. Drawing and Modelling applied to Industry, Letterpress and Copper-plate Printing, Photography. — Austria, 1 ; France, 5 ; Great Britain, 2 ; Prussia, 1. — Total, 9. Class XXVII. Manufacture of Musical Instruments. — Austria, 1 ; Belgium, 1 ; France, 4 ; Great Britain, 1. — Total, 7. Class XXVIII. Painting, Engraving, and Lithography. — Austria, 1; Grand Duchy of Baden, 1 ; Bavaria, 1 ; Belgium, 3 ; France, 16; Great Britain, 4; Netherlands, 1 ; Prussia, 2 ; Spain, 1 ; Sweden and Norway, 1 ; Switzerland, 1. — Total, 32. Class XXIX. Sculpture and Die-Sinking. — Austria, 2 ; Belgium, 1 ; France, 1 1 ; Great Britain, 3 ; Papal States, 1 ; Prussia, 1. — Total, 19. Class XXX. Architecture. — France, 7 ; Great Britain, 2 Prussia, 1.— Total, 10. Mr. Cole on the General Management. 23 all the members had not assembled. When the absentees cole arrived the first comers had departed.* general 64. Nearly all of the British Jurors were pre sent at the M ment. e * summons on 15th June, and attended punctually during the months of June, July, and August, when, for the most paid, they left Paris, having examined at least the British goods, as well as the circumstances permitted, and agreed with their colleagues upon the decisions. 65. The examination of French articles was continued till the very close of the Exhibition, being rather more active at the close than at the beginning ; thus the final decisions assumed a different phase to what they had at the commencement of the work, when the foreign Jurors were present in the greatest numbers. This was, no doubt, un- avoidable. It is not to be expected that men of business The labours should neglect their own affairs, to act as dilettante judges great tobe 0 incessantly for six months,! and it is obvious that the deci- a^given 3 sions could not fail to be influenced by all kinds of accidents, the fortuitous absence or presence of the Jurors being one of the principal ; and even the very residence of the Jurors on the spot becomes a material ingredient in judgments, which take several months to form. 66. The work of a Juror is excessively laborious and irk- impedi- some. To begin work as early as eight in the morning — ments - to wait for companion Jurors who are not punctual — to pace literally over miles of exhibiting ground — to examine stalls and cases, and meet with no exhibitor or agent present to show or explain them, or to find the glass-case locked and no key producible — to haunt committee -rooms and get no quorum for business, — and to do this day after day is what most of the British Jurors did scrupulously for many weeks, and one at least throughout the whole period of the Exhibition, without missing a single day or a single meeting. But to expect that judgments can be satisfactorily formed with justice by four hundred persons, of all nations, subject to all the difficulties enumerated, virtually irresponsible, * The spring and summer are not opportune periods for insuring the presence of Parisian residents in their metropolis. f The very duration of the work makes it quite a different thing to the labour which, the judges at agricultural meetings, botanical shows, &c. are willing to perform. What may be possible, if done under vigilant supervision and concentrated responsibility, in a short period of two or three days, is im- possible if extended ad libitum over months. At a cattle show, or trial of agricultural instruments, judges and exhibitors are both present, and prompt to do the work at once ; but in an Industrial Exhibition the examinations are in all respects very much a matter of chance. Mr. B. Gibbs has furnished me with a statement of the methodic proceedings adopted with the Judges for agricultural shows. (See Appendix, p. 72.) 24 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Inadequate knowledge of techni- calities in the juries. Impossible to avoid omissions. liable to numerous accidents beyond control, and impeded somewhat by the difficulties of language, in an Universal Exhibition, is to expect what human nature cannot perform. The work becomes impossible. 67. Another defect in the system of juries, is the incom- petency of the tribunal to deal satisfactorily with all the numerous technical subdivisions necessarily grouped under one heading. Not thirty juries, but at least a hundred are wanted. It must be admitted that the judgment should be based upon technical knowledge, or it is of little worth. It would be difficult to name many classes in which the variety of technical knowledge possessed by their juries was ade- quate to pass judgment on all the technical subdivisions of the class. Besides, the very national varieties— each one peculiar to its own country — which exist in every sub- division of every class, render it impossible to fix any stan- dard of excellence. 68. In the Paris Exhibition five kinds of rewards of dif- ferent grades were established, so that the difficulty of assigning the reward exactly suitable to every case was greater than in London, where there were only three.* 69. Next is the impossibility of avoiding oversights in the enormous mass of objects which a Universal Exhibition brings together. The rules of the Imperial Commission were intended to provide against oversights. Special Commis- sioners were to have been appointed, to see that the goods of no exhibitor escaped examination, but no appointments were made ( see page 44. Art. 74.) The responsibility of looking after everything devolved entirely upon the Jurors themselves ; and perhaps it may be allowable to remark, that the local arrangements of the objects in the Paris Exhibition were not calculated to assist the Jurors in their examinations. Some difficulties, inherent in the case ( see pars. 75, 76. pages 25 and 26), have been already noticed. 70. Attempts were made in the British section to secure for every object its proper examination, at least by the British J urors, but they all failed. Repeated notices were given to * In Paris, for the Industrial Division, there was, — 1. A large Gold Grande Medaille d’Honneur. 2. A small Gold Medaille d’Honneur. 3. A Silver Medal. 4. A Bronze Medal. 5. An Honourable Mention; and perhaps the Legion of Honoui’, largely distributed by the Emperor, may be considered a sixth. In London, it was Sir Bobert Peel who suggested that all the medals should be of bronze, and there were only two, a Council Medal and a Prize Medal, and an Honowable Mention. In Paris, considerable efforts were made to maintain a distinction between the value of the medals, whilst in London the tendency was the reverse, carried so far, that a bronze medal was presented to every exhibitor, as a recognition of the aid he gave. Mr. Cole on the General Management 25 agents and exhibitors of the visits of the Jurors, but stili Mr.Cole there were many things which passed unnoticed at all. I general will only glance at four. Two, the like of which were not ment. e ' exhibited by any other countries, were eagerly sought for Inst ^J e s of by several foreign Governments at the conclusion of the omissions. Exhibition ; a third, a marked type of civilized progress in all its developments, the product of the most perfect com- mercial organization of its kind at the present time, demand- ing the most varied powers in its management, extending its influence over the whole globe, and the non-appearance of which for a single day would excite the inquiry of the world ; whilst a fourth was a modern invention, produced within the last fifteen years, which every State in Europe has successfully adopted from England and made part of its financial system. 71. Indeed, it must be confessed that the local arrange- ment of the articles in the building in Paris, placed con- siderable impediments in the way of any satisfactory comparison of the articles either by the public or by the juries. 72. The local arrangement of the articles is so important, The local and is so influential upon a proper examination of them, that mentofthe I venture to digress somewhat from the subject of the juries, hiiited^may to say a few words on that of the arrangement. phS 0 ?’ 73. In London, the geographical principle of arrangement scientific, was adopted, although a scientific one had been much desired by H.RH. the President of the Commission in 1851 ; but the total want of knowledge of the details of the probable extent of the various groups of foreign goods, rendered it impossible to attempt a scientific arrangement within the limits of the time, and it became necessary to abandon it. 74. The experience obtained in London and Paris of the scientific space occupied by the several kinds of goods would render ™t now the scientific arrangement of any future Universal Exhibition practicable, comparatively easy, provided the subdivision was not carried too far. Thirty classes, however, is not sufficiently numerous, but probably 100 would be. Such a number of scientific groups of goods, a portion of space for each group being offered to each exhibiting nation, might have been readily laid out in a series of buildings like those of the Paris Exhibition. But such an arrangement ought not, on any account to be attempted, without adhering to a well-matured plan, definitively settled before-hand, and which ought not to be altered. 75. In Paris, the principle of the arrangement was in- graphical tended to be geographical, the goods of each country being adoptedln Paris. 26 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. Cole together. But from the very beginning there were two General distinct buildings, the Palais and the Annexe, and subse- M ment. E ' quently the Panorama ; and three other structures, for — agriculture, carriages, and cheap articles were added. The principal building, the Palais, had its basement and a gallery above. The Annexe was divided into two parts, one having upper galleries on each side. Besides, there were large spaces on the staircases, at first intended for refreshments, and subsequently used to exhibit goods. There were also exhibiting spaces in the open ground. In fact, the goods of the larger exhibiting nations were placed in seven or eight distinct localities, whilst those of France were to be found in all parts of every building and open space.* ( See map.) jiassifica- pg. The theoretical classification of the articles on paper did not agree with the local arrangement of them, and afforded no assistance in the consultation. Indeed, it may be said that the first was not practical, and many instances might be cited where the same articles might be found placed under different heads of the classification. Stoves, for example, might be found as “objects for heating'" in one class, as iron manufactures in another, as steel manufactures in a third, &c. 77. The several structures of the Paris Exhibition being so varied in character were particularly adapted to a scien- tific arrangement of the goods, whereby the labour of the juries would have been materially assisted. But the principle of the arrangement had been settled before the nature and extent of the buildings had been determined.f * Thus, British goods, as such arranged professedly on the geographical principle, were to be found in the following places : — 1. Remarkable objects, as trophies, in the nave of the Palais. 2. Manufactures in the basement of the Palais. 3. Manufactures in the gallery of the Palais. 4. Colonial productions, & c. on the staircase of the Palais. 5. Manufactures in the panorama. 6. Manufactures in the outbuilding appropriated to cheap articles. 7. A miscellaneous collection of heavy and other manufactures in the grounds outside the Palais. 8. Raw produce, chemical manufactures, agricultural machinery, and Canadian productions, in the basement of the east end of the Annexe. 9. Colonial productions and agriculture in the south gallery of the east end of the Annexe. 10. Colonial productions chiefly in the north gallery of the east end of the Annexe. 11. Machinery and carriages in the basement of the west end of the Annexe. ■j- The buildings expanded according to the demands made by French exhibitors for space, until the exhibiting area was nearly double its original extent ; and the original proportions of the division of space between France and foreign countries became altogether changed. At the first the space was Mr. Cole on the General Management. 27 To revert to the subject of juries, it may be said that juries Mr. cole are found to act well in agricultural and flower shows, but general it has already been pointed out that the work is of small M ment. E * and manageable extent, occupying only a few days, whilst The “ k of similar work in an universal exhibition occupies months, jurors is and practically gets beyond control. control. 78. The most remarkable instance of this was furnished in the Paris Exhibition. The awards had been made by mldeand the several juries, confirmed by the groups of juries, and revised, revised by the Council of Presidents of Juries, strictly according to decrees. The labours of five months seemed to have ended, and almost everyone had departed. Totals were made of the number of gold medals which had thus been awarded, when they were considered much too nume- rous to the Imperial Commission. This information was obtained only within a fortnight of the ceremony of dis- tributing the prizes, and it was thought absolutely neces- sary to appoint a new committee of seven persons — four being French, and three foreigners, — to classify the Medailles d’Honneur into two grades, and to resolve who should receive the higher or the lower grade ( see page 49). 79. Thus the work of several hundred persons, possessing all kinds of knowledge, who had been brought together from all parts of Europe, was finally revised by a very small committee created at the last moment, and whose know- ledge was necessarily limited. 80. The foregoing brief observations which I have ven- tured to submit to your Lordship on the proceedings of the juries, seem to me to justify the conclusion that it is impossible in an Universal Exhibition to render the working of them satisfactory, and that it would he best, and most in accordance with the spirit of the present times, to abandon them altogether. This, at least, appears to be certain, that the judgment of any so-called international jury prac- tically becomes a national judgment of the country where the exhibition is held, and that it would be much sounder equally divided, but before the end of the Exhibition France occupied nearly two-third parts of the whole. The preparations of the panorama, lying between the Palais and the Annexe, were not even commenced till within fifteen days of the opening as first announced. The postponement of the opening, and the incompleteness of the arrangements, must be attributed chiefly to the absence of any settled plan of the extent and size of the Exhibition at a sufficiently early period to insure completeness and punctuality. The Paris Exhibition could not be said to be complete till nearly the 1st August instead of the 1st May. Owing to this circumstance, great latitude was allowed in the admission of goods ; indeed, the admission lasted during the whole period of the Exhibition. But such licence is very much opposed to a proper per- formance of the duties of the juries,, and was a source of disturbance to their judgments in London to very limited extent, but to a great one in Paris. 28 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . ^on the E * n P r i nc ipl e to recognize this fact, and to leave the judg- general ment and the appointment of J urors entirely in the hands 1 men? e " of the country which holds the Exhibition. This, indeed, Nomination was very much the feeling of the Board of Trade even on should be the P resen t occasion, when in consenting to appoint Jurors, country 1 * 3 the I m P er i a l Commissioners were informed that the Board holding the would have been quite content to leave the duty in their Exhibition. liandg 82. In conclusion, I proceed to lay before your Lordship a brief summary of the measures which I submit, might be taken in any future Universal Exhibition. I. Those on the Part of the Government. Measures to a. Having received the invitation to co-operate from the the Govern- foreign country, it would be for the Board of Trade to future Ex- ma ^ e known the terms of the proposed Exhibition to hibitions. Chambers of Commerce, &c., to assist in forming committees, which should consist rather of exhibitors and those having a status in the Exhibition, than of persons or bodies not contributing to it. b. When committees had been formed, to induce them to agree in constituting a central management for themselves. c. To accredit such management to the authorities managing the proposed foreign Exhibition. d. To assist in causing reports on the departments of the foreign Exhibition to be made, inducing the preparation of them rather by commercial and scientific authorities than direct nominees of the Government. First editions of such reports should be certainly published whilst the Exhibition was open, as their utility would be much increased. It was found that such reports were much wanted both in London and Paris. e. Should the Government think fit itself to exhibit such objects as national surveys, models of ships, or other objects in which it acts as the producer, it would do so as a simple exhibitor conforming to the ordinary regulations. /. With respect to the Colonies exhibiting, the Government would accredit the agents named by the Colonies, and in like manner induce the agents to elect a general manager among themselves. g. It would prevent difficulty if the Board of Trade should undertake to divide the space between the United Kingdom and the Colonies, in case such space should be allotted in bulk by the foreign Government. h. To obtain facilities from the Customs in returning goods at the close of the Exhibition. i. To decline to appoint Jurors. Mr. Cole on the General Management 29 Me. Cole II. — On the Part of the Exhibitors. gjwebal a. To form themselves into trade committees. M ment? b. The committee to elect, in concert with the Colonial Measures to committees, a manager, with ample powers, to proceed to the exMWtors' V foreign country. When there, he must he invested with full authority to deal with defaulters, and do whatever is neces- sary to complete the Exhibition and insure punctuality. In spite of all efforts, some few exhibitors will be unpunctual, and such parties always contend for the reservation of privileges, which if conceded would render the Exhibition imperfect. c. To print a list of the proposed exhibitors and their addresses as soon as they are ascertained. This will be found of great convenience in shipping the goods, in re- ceiving them abroad, and making the arrangements in the Exhibition, and in conducting correspondence. It was one of the most useful steps taken in the Paris Exhibition, and should be carried out at as early a stage of the proceedings as possible. It is very important to keep the exhibitors fully informed of the necessary regulations as they are made in the progress of the work. It saves much cor- respondence with individuals, secures uniformity of action, and creates in the minds of the parties interested an ac- curate sense of the necessities of the work. Moreover, short documents issued frequently attract more attention than lengthy ones issued at long intervals. These, collected together when the work is done, may appear numerous, and many of them superfluous ; but their utility is to be judged by the general result. A list of those issued on the present occasion is appended (see page 64), and it may be safely asserted that the economy of twenty per cent, effected in the management would hardly have been obtained without a generous outlay in distributing information. It is hardly possible to err on the side of giving information too fully, where it is important to enlist voluntary assist- ance. d . To organize for the shipping of the goods. The eni' ployment of a single agent at only one port of departure will be found both economical and convenient. e. Before any goods are shipped it will save much cost and trouble to ascertain that the Exhibition buildings abroad are quite ready to receive them, and to send no goods until there is satisfactory assurance of this feet. At least two months' delay and vexation would have been spared in Paris if no goods had been sent until the floor, the shafting, and 31 r. Cole on THE General 31anage- ment. 80 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. galleries of the Annexe had been completed ; and it would be best for all parties to decline courteously to send goods until the building is quite fit to receive them. /. It may be somewhat costly, but will prove cheapest in the end, to send abroad a sufficient staff of workmen and tools, especially carpenters and men accustomed to place machinery. The importation of one or more moveable cranes would have been most useful. Not a single one was em- ployed in Paris to assist in unloading the goods. The safest course is to be self-reliant for executing all such details. This was followed especially in the exhibition of the Fine Arts where English workmen were employed. Had it been different, the arrangement and closing of the British part of the Fine Arts Exhibition would have been much delayed. g. To engage a separate warehouse in the foreign country to store the empty packing-cases during the Exhibition. This will be found a convenience well worth paying for. The extent of accommodation should be regulated by the number of cases likely to be returned at the close of the Exhibition. h. An effort should be made to obtain sufficient office accommodation in the Exhibition building itself, which supersede the necessity for separate offices out of it. i. The preparation of cases, stands, &c., will be best left to each exhibitor or group of exhibitors who may please to act in concert. The fewer rules on this point, the better ; glass cases, in fact, are undesirable. In the Exhibition of 1851, the fewest possible rules were prescribed to exhibitors in the preparation of their glass cases, the principle being to allow as much freedom and exercise of individual judgment as possible; on the contrary, in 1855, the Imperial Commission were very anxious that glass cases and frames for exhibiting should be adopted, of an uniform character, and in the nave of the Palais ifc was absolutely enforced upon British ex- hibitors to use cases ot a particular height and size, and pattern, as the condition of occupying that position, however unsuitable they might be for displaying their goods. The exhibitors submitted, and incurred some thousands of pounds expense to prepare them, although quite against their own judgment. These cases proved to be most unsuitable for their purpose, and were a serious defect in the general appearance of the nave This was apparent in those parts where French exhibitors having been less obedient to the rules of the Imperial Commission than British exhibitors, had declined to erect the prescribed form of case. In 1851, the rule was to prohibit glass cases in the nave. In 1855, the Mr. Cole on the General Management. 31 contrary rule prevailed, and, notwithstanding every effort was made to prevent the flat, dusty tops of the cases from being an eyesore from the galleries above, by erecting a kind of roofing to them, they were felt to be a great defect throughout the whole period of the Exhibition. The result proved the superiority of the plan in the London Exhibition, and has confirmed the wisdom of the rule that glass cases and high stands should be avoided as much as possible ; indeed, except where absolutely necessary, it would be better to prohibit them. Another lesson taught by the arrangement of the Paris Exhibition was to keep high erections rather to the sides than place them in the centre of galleries. 83. Upon the basis of the expenditure incurred by the Government for the Paris Exhibition, namely, 40,000^. out of the vote of 50,000£. ; it may be estimated that the cost of management of any future Exhibition, excluding the Fine Arts Division, ought not to be more. It would not be less, as expenses can be controlled all the more in proportion as the executive management is central, and the responsibility individual. Should the course of action now pointed out be adopted, an expense of 10,000£. might be defrayed by the Government for preliminary expenses, distributing infor- mation, and assistance in preparing reports on the Foreign Exhibition, on condition that the balance of 30,000£. should be undertaken by exhibitors, in order to pay the expenses of transit and general management. A guarantee fund exceeding this amount should be obtained from intending exhibitors, and a deposit paid, each committee or exhibitor contributing in proportion to the amount of space allotted to them. I have the honour to be, &c. Henry Cole. Me. Cole ON THE General Manage- ment. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). S3 APPENDICES to Mr. COLE'S REPORT. APPENDIX (A.) (I.) DECREES, REGULATIONS, AND INSTRUCTIONS OF THE IMPERIAL COMMISSION. Decrees. Napoleon, by the grace of God, and the national will, Emperor of the French, to all whom it may concern, greeting : On the report of our Minister, Secretary of State for the department of the Interior, We have decreed and do hereby decree, as follows : Art. 1 . — An Universal Exhibition of agricultural and manufacturing pro- ducts will be opened at Paris, in the Palace of Industry, on the Carre de Marigny, on the 1st May 1855, and will close on the 30th of September fol- lowing.* The products of all nations will be admitted to this Exhibition. Art. 2. — The quinquennial Exhibition, which, by the terms of Art. 5 of the Decree of the 4th of October 1853, was to cpen on the 1st May 1854, will be united to the Universal Exhibition. Art. 3. — A future decree will fix the conditions under which the Universal Exhibition will take place, the regulations under which the goods exhibited will be placed, and the various kinds of objects capable of being admitted. Art. 4. — Our Ministei', Secretary of State for the department of the In- terior, is charged with the execution of the present Decree. Given at the Palace of the Tuileries, this 8th of March 1853. (Signed) Napoleon. (Countersigned) F. de Persigny, Minister, Secretary of State for the Interior. Napoleon, by the grace of God, and the national will, Emperor of the French, to all whom it may concern, greeting : Considering that one of the most efficient means of contributing to the pro- gress of the arts is an Universal Exhibition, which, by throwing open a field for competition to all the artists of the woi'ld, and by placing so many various works in face of each other, ought to be a powerful motive to emulation, and present an occasion for fruitful comparisons ; Considering that the improvement of manufactures is closely connected with that of the Fine Arts ; That, however, all the Exhibitions of industrial products which have been hitherto held, have admitted the works of artists in only a very insufficient proportion ; That it belongs especially to France, whose manufactures owe so much to the Fine Arts, to assign to them in the coming Universal Exhibition, the place which they merit ; * The date fixed for the closing of the Exhibition has been extended to October 31. ( Vide Art. 1. of the General Regulations.) C Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Decree ordering the Exhibition. Decree ordering the Exhibition of Eine Arts. 34 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Cole on THE Geneeal Manage- ment. Appendix A. Decree appointing the Imperial Commis- sion. We have decreed and do hereby decree, as follows : Art. 1. — An Universal Exhibition of the Eine Arts will be held at Paris at the same time as the Universal Exhibition of Industry. The place in which this Exhibition will be held will be designated hereafter. Art. 2. — The annual Exhibition of the Eine Arts of 1854 is postponed to 1855, and united with the Universal Exhibition. Art. 3. — Our Minister of State is charged with the execution of the present Decree. Given at the Palace of Saint Cloud, this 22nd of June 1853. (Signed) Napoleon. (Countersigned) Achili.e Eocld, Minister of State. Napoleon, by the grace of God, and the national will, Emperor of the Erench, to all whom it may concern, greeting : On the report of our Minister, Secretary of State for the department of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works; Taking into consideration our Decrees of the 8th of March and 22nd of June last, declaring that there will be opened at Paris, on the 1st of May 1855, an Universal Exhibition of the products of Agriculture, Manufactures, and the Eine Arts ; We have decreed and do hereby decree, as follows : Art. 1. — The Universal Exhibition of the products of Agriculture, Manu- factures, and the Eine Arts is placed under the direction and superintendence of a Commission, of which our well-beloved cousin, Prince Napoleon, will be the President. Art. 2. — That Commission is composed of the following members : MM. Baroche, president of the Council of State ; Elie de Beaumont, senator, member of the Institute ; Billault, president of the Legislative Body ; Blanqui, member of the Institute, director of the Upper School of Commerce ; Eugene Delacroix, painter, member of the Municipal and Depart- mental Commission of the Seine ; Jean Dollfus, manufacturer ; Arles Dufour, member of the Chamber of Commerce of Lyons ; Dumas, senator, member of the Institute ; Baron Charles Dupin, senator, member of the Institute ; Ilenriquel-Dupont, member of the Institute ; Count de Gasparin, member of the Institute ; Greterin, councillor of State, director-general of Customs and Indirect Taxes ; Heurtier, councillor of State, director-general of Agriculture and Commerce ; Ingres, member of the Institute ; Legentil, president of the Chamber of Commerce of Paris ; Leplay, engineer-in-chief of mines ; Count de Lesseps, director of consulates and of commercial affairs at the Ministry of Eoreign Affairs ; Merimee, senator, member of the Institute ; Michel Chevalier, councillor of State, member of the Institute ; Mimerel, senator ; General Morin, director of the Conservatoire Imperial des Arts- et Metiers ; Count de Moray, deputy to the Legislative Body, member of the Superior Council of Commerce, Agriculture, and Manufactures ; Prince de la Moskowa, senator ; Duke de Mouchy, senator, member of the Superior Council of Commerce, Agriculture, and Manufactures ; Marquis de Pastoret, senator, member of the Institute ; Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 35 Emile Pereire, president of the board of directors of the Southern Railway ; General Poncelet, member of the Institute ; Regnault, member of the Institute, administrator of the Imperial Manufactory of Sevres ; Sallandrouze, manufacturer, deputy to the Legislative Body ; De Saulcy, member of the Institute, curator of the Museum of Artillery ; Schneider, vice-president of the Legislative Body, member of the Superior Council of Commerce, Agriculture, and Manufactures ; Baron Seilliere (Achille) ; Seydoux, deputy to the Legislative Body ; Simart, member of the Institute ; Troplong, president of the Senate, first president of the Court of Cassation, member of the Institute ; Marshal Count Vaillant, grand marshal of the Palace, senator, member of the Institute ; Visconti, member of the Institute, architect to the Emperor. Art. 3. — The Commission is divided into two sections: That of the Fine Arts, and that of Agriculture and Manufactures. The following are the members of the section of the Fine Arts : MM. Baroche, Eugene Delacroix, Henriquel- Dupont, Ingres, Merimee, Count de Morny, MM. Prince de la Moscowa, Duke de Mouchy, Marquis de Pastoret, De Saulcy, Simart, Visconti The following are the members of the section of Agriculture and Manu- factures : MM. Elie de Beaumont, Billault, Blanqui, Michel Chevalier, Dollfus (Jean), Arles -Dufour, Dumas, Baron Charles Dupin, Count de Gasparin, Greterin, He ur tier, Legentil, Leplay, MM. Count de Lesseps, Mimerel, General Morin, Emile Pereire, General Poncelet, Regnault, Sallandrouze, Schneider, Seilliere, Seydoux, Troplong, Marshal Count Vaillant. Art. 4. — In the absence of Prince Napoleon, the Commission, when assembled at a general meeting, will be presided over by the Minister of State, or by the Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works ; and in default of these gentlemen, by a vice-president, ballotted for at the first sitting. The section of the Pine Arts will be presided over by the Minister of State ; and the section of Agriculture and Manufactures, by the Minister of Agri- culture, Commerce, and Public Works. Each section will elect a vice-president. Art. 5. — M. Arles-Dufour is appointed Secretary of the Commission, and M. Adolphe Thibaudeau, Assistant -Secretary. M. de Mercy, chief of the section of the Fine Arts at the Ministry of State, is named Secretary of the section of the Fine Arts. M. Audiganne and M. Chemin-Dupontes, respectively heads of the depart- ments of Manufactures and of Commerce and Navigation at the Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, are nominated Secretaries of the section of Agriculture and Manufactures. c 2 Mr. Cole ox THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A Me. Cole ON THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Address of Prince Napoleon. 36 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Art. 6. — Our Minister of State, and our Minister, Secretary of State for the department of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, are charged with the execution of the present decree. Given at the Palace of the Tuileries, this 24th of December 1853. (Signed J Napoleon. (Countersigned) Achille Pould, Minister of State. P. Magne, Minister, Secretary of State for Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. The Imperial Commission assembled for the first time on the 29th of December 1853, at the Palais-Royal, Prince Napoleon presiding. His Imperial Highness, after reading the Decrees appointing the Commission, delivered the following address : Gentlemen, The Emperor confides to us a noble and honourable mission, when he charges us to organize this grand competition, in which Prance will show herself worthy of her name, by the eagerness with which her artists and her manufacturers will respond to the appeal which is made to them. Our duty towards foreigners is to receive them with a liberal and kind- hearted hospitality. All opinions in matters of political economy are represented in our body, not for the purpose of entering into fruitless discussions, foreign to our mission, but of co-operating with equal ardour, whatever may be their point of view, in the success of this work, which is calculated to throw so great a lustre on the Prance and Europe of the nineteenth century. On that point, Gentlemen, there cannot be any difference of opinion amongst us. The Emperor has testified his high impartiality in assembling in the same body the leading men in politics, science, arts, manufactures, and commerce. Por the first time, an Universal Exhibition of the Pine Arts will be joined to an Universal Exhibition of Industry. It belongs to our country to set the example of this alliance, which is so well suited to our initiatory genius. I hope, Gentlemen, that the most entire confidence will reign in our relations, and I ask you to grant me, as your President, that indulgence of which I stand in need. Peeling my insufficiency for the great mission which the confidence of the Emperor has teen pleased to confer on me, I shall at least devote to it my most ardent zeal, and the firm determination to act for the best, which is the first condition of success. The questions which we shall have to solve are numerous and complicated, and are connected with a multitude of diversified interests : I propose to submit them to your decision successively, as they present themselves, in order not to overburden ourselves uselessly at the commencement of our labours. They naturally divide themselves into two great parts : — the questions which may call for decrees on the part of His Majesty, and those which we can solve on our own authority. In execution of the Decree which has been published, our first operation is the nomination of the vice-president of the General Commission, and of the two vice-presidents of the sections of Manufactures and of the Fine Arts. I shall afterwards request you to appoint a sub-commission to assist me in the execution of the measures which you shall have decided on. Business can only be got through in a practical manner by a small number of persons devoting to it their special aptitude and their time. The first question to occupy the attention of that sub-commission will be to draw up a series of regulations for the prompt despatch of the numerous affairs which we shall have to settle. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 37 The general regulations, framed by the Imperial Commission for the manage- Mr. Cole ment of the Universal Exhibition, were approved of by the following Decree : r 0N THE Napoleon, by the grace of God, and the national will, Emperor of the manage^ Erench, to all whom it may concern, greeting : ment. Considering the draft of the general regulations proposed by the Imperial — “ Commission for the Universal Exhibition of the products of Agriculture, pp en l xA ' Industry, and the Fine Arts, Decree ap- proving the We have decreed and do hereby decree, as follows : Regula- The general regulations for the Universal Exhibition, annexed to the present Decree, are hereby approved of. Given at the Palace of the Tuileries, this 6th of April 1854. (Signed) Napoleon. (Countersigned) Achille Fould, Minister of Slate. P. Magne, Minister, Secretary of State for Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. GENERAL REGULATIONS. General Arrangements. Art. 1. — The Universal Exhibition, appointed to be held at Paris in the year General Re- 1855, will receive the agricultural and manufacturing products, as well as the Stations, works of Art, of all nations. It will open on the 1st of May, and will close on the 31st of October of the same year. Art. 2. — The Universal Exhibition of 1855 is placed under the direction of the Imperial Commission, nominated by the Decree of the 24th of Decem- ber 1853. Art. 3. — In every department, a committee, nominated by the Prefect, in accordance with the instructions of the Imperial Commission, will be charged with the necessary measures for the success of the Exhibition, and with the admission and rejection, at the proper time, of the articles presented. There shall also be appointed, should the Imperial Commission deem it ne- cessary, local sub-committees or special agents, in every town and centre of industry, where the necessity of them may be felt. Art. 4. — Special instructions will be addressed, in the name of the Imperial Commission, to the Ministers of War and Marine, with regard to the exhibition of the products of Algeria and of the French colonies. Art. 5. — Foreign Governments will be invited to appoint, for the examina- tion, selection, and transmission of their national products, committees, the formation and composition of which should be notified as soon as possible to the Imperial Commission, in order that it may immediately place itself in communi- cation with such committees. Art. 6. — The departmental committees, as well as the foreign committees authorized by their respective Governments, will correspond directly with the Imperial Commission, which will not hold any correspondence whatever with the exhibitors themselves, or with other private persons, either French or foreigners. Art. 7 — Such French subjects or foreigners, as intend exhibiting, should apply to the committee of the department, colony, or country which they inhabit. Foreigners, residing in France, may apply to the official committees of their respective countries. Art. 8. — No article will be admitted to the Exhibition, if not sent with the authorization and under the seal of the departmental or foreign committees. Art. 9. — The foreign and departmental committees should make known, as soon as possible, the presumed number of exhibitors in their division, and the space which it is supposed they will require. Art. 10 — On receipt of that intimation, the Imperial Commission will, with- out delay, proceed to the division of the general space amongst France and the other countries, in proportion to the demands sent in. 38 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Art. 11. — When that division has been effected, notice of the same will be immediately sent to the French and Foreign committees, who will have to sub- divide the space thus allotted to them amongst the exhibitors of their divisions. Art. 12. — The lists of the exhibitors who are admitted must be sent to the Imperial Commission, by the 30th of November 1854, at the latest. These lists ought to mention : 1st. The names, Christian names (or name of firm), profession, and address of the parties applying ; 2nd. The nature and number or quantity of the articles which they desire to exhibit ; 3rd. The space which they require in height, width, and depth. These lists, as well as all other documents coming from foreign countries, ought, as much as possible, to be accompanied by a French translation. Admission and Classification of Products. Admission Art 1 3. — All the products of Agriculture, Manufactures, and Art are admis- «f Products. s ibi e t 0 the Universal Exhibition, with the exception of those included in the following categories : 1st. Living animals and plants ; 2nd. Fresh vegetables and animal substances of a nature liable to be spoiled from keeping ; 3rd. Detonating substances, and, in general, all such as may be considered dangerous ; 4th. And, finally, products in such quantities as would exceed the objects of the Exhibition. Art 14. — Spirits or alcohols, oils and essences, acids and corrosive salts, and generally substances easy inflammable, or of a nature to produce combustion, will only be admitted to the Exhibition when contained in solid and perfectly closed vessels ; the owners of such articles will, besides, be bound to conform to such measures of safety as may be prescribed to them. Art. 15. — The Imperial Commission will have the right of excluding, on the proposition of the competent agents, such French objects as may appear to it injurious or incompatible with the objects of the Exhibition, and those which have been sent in excess of what is required or are unfit for exhibition. tkmofPr' Art. 16.* — The objects sent for exhibition will form two distinct divisions : ducts. r °" Products of Industry and Works of Art. They will be distributed, for each country, into eight groups, comprising thirty sections, viz. : 1st Division. — Products of Industry. 1st GrROUP. — Industrial pursuits having for principal object the extraction of production of raw materials. 1st Class. Mining and metallurgical products. 2nd — Everything relating to the management of trees, or to hunting, shooting, and fishing, and products obtained without cultivation. 3rd — Agriculture. 2nd Group. — Industrial pursuits having specially for object the employment of mechanical power. 4th Class. Machinery in general, as applied to industry. 5th — Special machinery and apparatus for railways, and other modes of transport. 6th — Special machinery and apparatus for workshops. 7th — Special machinery and apparatus for the manufacture of woven fabrics. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. * A document entitled “ System of Classification,” and specifying the division of all branches of manufactures and of all the arts, of their raw materials, their means of action and their products, amongst the thirty sections established in this article, was published. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 39 3rd Group Manufactures specially based on the employment of physical and Mr. Cole chemical aqents, or connected with the sciences and instruction. THE General 8th Class. Arts relating to the exact sciences and to instruction. Manage- 9th — Manufactures relating to the economical production and employ- MENT - ment of heat, light, and electricity. Appendix A. 10 th — Chemical manufactures, dyeing and printing, paper, leather, skins, India -rubber, &c. 1 1th — Preparation and preservation of alimentary substances. 4th Group. — Industrial pursuits specially connected with the learned professions. 12th Class. Hygiene, pharmacy, surgery, and medicine. 13th — Naval and military arts. 14th — Civil engineering and building. 5th Group. — Manufactures of mineral products. 15th Class. Steel and its products 1 6th — General metal work. 17th — Goldsmith’s work, jewellery, and bronzes. 18th — Glass and pottery. 6th Group.— Woven fabrics. 19th Class. Cotton manufactures. 20th - — Woollen and worsted manufactures. 21st — Silk manufactures. 22nd — Flax and hemp manufactures. 23rd — hosiery, carpets, embroidery, lace of every kind, gold and silver fringes, &c. 7th Group. — Decorative furniture and upholstery, millinery , industrial design, printing, and music. 24th Class. Furniture and decoration. 25th — Articles of clothing, objects of fashion and fancy. 26th — Drawing and modelling applied to industry, letter-press and copper-plate printing, photography. 27th — Manufacture of musical instruments. 2nd Division. — Works of Art. 8th Group. — Fine Arts. 28th Class. Painting, engraving, and lithography. 29th — Sculpture and die-sinking. 30th — Architecture. Keceftion and Placing of Goods. Art. 17. — The various objects, both French and foreign, will be received at Reception the Exhibition Palace, from the 15th of January to the 15th of March 1855, of goods, inclusive. Nevertheless, an extension of time will be granted for such manufactured articles as are likely to suffer from being too long packed up, on condition that the arrangements necessary for their exhibition shall have been made before- hand. This delay cannot in any case extend beyond the 15th of April. Heavy and cumbersome articles, or any others the placing of which would require considerable labour, must be sent before the end of February. Art. 18. — The committees of each country and of each French department, are requested to send, as much as possible, in one consignment, the products of their divisions. Art. 19. The consignment of each exhibitor, whether sent with those of other exhibitors or separately, must be accompanied by the bulletin of admis- sion delivered by the competent authority. This bulletin drawn up in tripli- cate and in the form prescribed by Art. 12, must likewise contain the number and weight of the packages, as well as the particulars and price of every article composing the consignment. Forms of these bulletins will be sent to all the committees, French and foreign. 40 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Art. 20. — The French objects intended for the Universal Exhibition "will be forwarded from the places appointed for the purpose by the departmental and colonial committees, and taken back from Paris to the same places, at the expense of the State. Foreign articles, having the same destination, will likewise be conveyed to Paris at the cost of the State, but only from, the French frontier, and will be sent back under the same conditions. Art. 21. — They must be addressed to the Commissioner of Arrangement at the Exhibition Palace. Art. 22.— The address of each package, destined for the Exhibition, ought to indicate, in clear and legible characters — i. The place from which it comes, ii. The name of the exhibitor, iii. The nature of the contents. Form of Address. A Monsieur 1e Commissaire du Classement de V Expo- sition Universelle. Au Palais de V Exposition — Paris. Envoi de (here come the name and Christian names of the person sending, or the name of the firm,) demeurant d (residence or address), exposant de (nature of the produce). Art. 23. — Packages containing articles sent by several exhibitors must have the names of all those exhibitors on the address, and be accompanied by a separate bulletin of admission for each of them. Art. 24. — Exhibitors are requested not to send separately packages of less dimensions than half a cubic metre, but to place in the same packing-case with other packages of the same class, such as come within these dimensions. Art. 25. — The admission of articles to the Exhibition will be gratuitous. Art. 26. — Exhibitors will not be subjected to payments of any kind, either for entrance or space, or on any other pretext whatever, during the whole time of the Exhibition. Moving and Art. 27. — The Imperial Commission will provide for the moving, placing, placing of and arranging of articles in the interior of the Exhibition Palace : as well as goods. for the works necessary to set the machinery in motion. Art. 28. — Tables or counters, flooring, enclosures, barriers, and partitions between the various classes of products, will be furnished gratuitously. Art. 29.— All special arrangements and requirements, such as steps, shelves, supports, suspenders, glass-cases, hangings, draperies, paintings, and ornaments will be at the charge of the exhibitors. Art. 30. — These dispositions, arrangements, and ornamentations can only be executed in conformity with the general plan, and under the superintendence of the inspectors, who will determine the height and form of the frontage of the stalls, and likewise the colour of the paint, hangings, and draperies. Art. 31. — Contractors, designated or approved of by the Imperial Commis- sion, will hold themselves at the disposal of the exhibitors, and their bills will be examined by agents specially appointed for the purpose, should the exhibitors desire it. Nevertheless, exhibitors will be at liberty to employ such workmen as they may think fit, having previously obtained the authorization of the Commission. Art. 32. — Manufacturers wishing to exhibit machinery or other objects of very great weight or size, and which will require foundations or special con- structions, must make a declaration to that effect, on their demand for space. Art. 33. — Likewise, persons intending to exhibit machinery which is to be set in motion by steam, or fountains throwing up water, or hydraulic engines, Mr. Cole ox THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Form of address. Mr. Cole on the General Management ( Appendix ). 41 ought to make a declaration of their intention at an early period, and state the Mr. Cole quantity and degree of pressure of steam or water which they will require.* General Art. 34 The various products will be arranged together by nations, in the Manage- order of the classification indicated in Art. 16. Nevertheless, the different ment. pi’oducts exhibited by an individual corporate body, city, department, or colony, ^ , ~jT y ^ may, with the authorization of the Executive Committee, be exhibited in ‘ separate groups when that disposition does not materially interfere with the Arrange- regular arrangements. ment. Art. 35. — The Imperial Commission will take every measure to preserve Care of the from damage the articles exhibited. Nevertheless, if notwithstanding these goods, precautions, some disaster should chance to happen, the Commission will not hold itself responsible for the damage which might occur. These risks exhi- bitors must take on themselves, as likewise the expense of insurance, should they consider that precaution necessary. Art. 36. — The Imperial Commission will likewise take care that the goods shall be watched over by an active and numerous staff ; the Commission will not, however, be responsible for any thefts or frauds which may take place. Art. 37. — Each exhibitor wiil have the privilege of having his goods at the Agents may Exhibition taken care of by an agent chosen by himself. Notice must be given, pQ^ed from the outset, of the name and position of this agent. A personal card of admission will be given him, which, as long as the Exhibition remains open, he is neither to transfer nor lend, under pain of forfeiture. Art. 38. — The agents of exhibitors must confine themselves to answering such questions as may be addressed to them, and to delivering cards of address, prospectuses, or lists of prices, when asked for them. They will be interdicted, under pain of expulsion, from soliciting the attention of visitors, or trying to induce them to purchase the articles exhibited. Art 39. — The wholesale current trade price of any article, at the period of p Affixed ^to the Exhibition, may be prominently affixed to it.f the articles. Any exhibitor who may wish to avail himself of this permission must announce his intention beforehand to the local committee of his division, who will sanction the prices, after having ascertained their correctness. The price thus affixed must, in case of a sale taking place, be strictly adhered to by the exhibitor, as regards the buyer. In case the declaration should be found to be false, the Imperial Commission may order the goods to be removed, and the exhibitor precluded from exhibiting any longer. Art. 40. — Articles sold cannot be removed until after the close of the Exhi- bition. Foreign Goods. — Customs. Art. 41. — With respect to foreign goods admitted to the Exhibition, the Exhibition Palace will be constituted a bonded warehouse. Art. 42. — These goods accompanied by the bulletins mentioned in Art. 19, wilt enter France by the ports and frontier towns here mentioned, viz : — Lisle, Valenciennes, Forbach, Wissemburg, Strasburg, Saint-Louis, Les- Verrieres-de-Joux, Pont-de-Beauvoisin, Chaparellan, Saint -Laurent-du-Var, Marseilles, Cette, Port Vendres, Perpignan, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Nantes, Havre, Boulogne, Calais, and Dunkirk. Customs ar- rangements for Foreign goods. * The following additional information relating to machinery in motion has been supplied by the Imperial Commission 1. The steam pressure will be 75 lbs. on the square inch (5 atmospheres), or less if required. 2. The available pressure of water will be equal to a head of 32 to 48 feet (10 to 15 metres) ; but it is desirable that all the water-wheels, and other hydraulic machines should be adapted to a fall of not more than 10 feet (3 metres.) 8. Neither gas, nor any other combustible, can be permitted to be burned in the building. 4. The shafting provided for driving machinery will be generally above the floor, though it may be placed below to suit particular cases, and the main horizontal shafts will be driven at a speed of from 60 to 80 revolutions in a minute. 5. Neither the produce of machines in motion, nor any other merchandise can be sold in tiie building, during the Exhibition. t The Imperial Commission understands these words to apply to the selling price of articles on leaving the factory where they were produced . 42 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Special duty fixed. Interior organiza- tion. Protection to inventors. Ac. Art. 43. — Packages may be directed to agents designated by the Imperial Commission in each of these ports or towns. These agents, for a certain amount of remuneration fixed beforehand, will undertake the requisite custom-house formalities, and forward the goods to the Exhibition Palace. Art. 44. — Foreign goods admitted into the Exhibition Palace will be taken charge of by the custom-house officers. Art. 45. — The removal of the lead-stamps and the opening of the packages can only take place in the interior of the Palace, in the presence of the exhi- bitors or of their agents, and by the custom-house officers. Art. 46. — One copy of the bulletin sent with each package to be considered as a certificate of origin, will be retained by the customs-department ; another copy will be left with the commissioner of arrangement at the Exhibition ; and the third will be deposited at the office of the Secretary of the Imperial Commission. Art. 47. — Foreign exhibitors or their agents will have to declare, after the close of the Exhibition, whether their goods are intended for re-exportation or for interior consumption. In the latter case, they will be at liberty to dispose of them immediately, after paying the duty, in the fixing of which the customs authorities will take into account the depreciation the goods may have undergone during their stay in the Exhibition. Art. 48. — Goods, at all other times prohibited, will, by special exception, be admitted to interior consumption, on paying a duty of 20 per cent, on their actual value. This amount of duty will be the maximum levied on any article exhibited. Interior Organization and Police Arrangements. Art. 49. — The interior organization and police arrangements of the Exhi- bition are placed under the direction of an Executive Committee, composed of the different heads of departments, who will decide on all questions coming under their jurisdiction. Art. 50 A set of regulations, published before the time fixed for the recep- tion of goods, and posted up at the Exhibition building, will decide all points relative to the order of the interior service, and will designate the persons whose duty it will be to assist the exhibitors, and to watch over the order and security of the Exhibition. Art. 51. — The agents and officers, attached to the foreign divisions, must speak one or more of the languages of those nations, with which they are to be in communication. Interpreters, designated by the Imperial Commission, will besides be placed in various parts of the foreign division. Art. 52. — Foreign Governments will be requested to accredit to the Impe- rial Commission, special commissioners, whose duty it will be to represent their countrymen at the Exhibition, during the reception, classification, and placing of the goods, and in all circumstances where their interests are concerned. Protection of Industrial Designs and Inventions. Art. 53. — Every exhibitor who is the inventor or legal proprietor of any process, machine, or design admitted to the Exhibition, and not yet registered or patented, may obtain from the Imperial Commission a certificate descriptive of the article exhibited, provided he make an application to that effect before the opening, or during the first month after the opening of the Exhibition. Art. 54. — This certificate will secure to the holder of it the property of the article therein described, and the exclusive privilege of employing it to the best advantage, for the period of one year from the 1st of May 1855, without pre- judice to any patent which the exhibitor may take out, in the usual manner, before the expiration of that period. Art. 55. — Every application for an inventor’s certificate must be accompanied by an accurate description of the object or objects for which protection is sought, and, should it be necessary, by a plan or drawing of the said objects. Art. 56. — These applications, as well as the decisions arrived at with regard to them, will be entered in a register kept for the purpose, which will be after- wards deposited at the office of the Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works (department of industry), to be referred to as a proof during the period fixed for the validity of the certificates. Art. 57. — These certificates will be delivered without any charge. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 43 Me. Cole Jurtes and Rewards. General Art. 58. — The examination of the articles exhibited, and the decisions 'with Manaoe- respect to their merit, will be confided to a great international mixed jury. ment. This jury will be composed of members and deputies, who will be divided into Appendix A thirty special juries, corresponding to the thirty classes mentioned in Art. 16. - — Art. 59. — In the division of the products of Industry, the number of members Juries, for each special jury is fixed as follows : , For each of the classes : 3, 10, 20, and 23 . 2, 6, 16, 18, and 24 . 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 25, and 26 1, 4, 5, 9, 11, 15, 22, and 27 Jurors. Deputies. 14 4 12 3 10 2 8 2 In the division of the Fine Arts, Class 28 will have ....... 20 29 — 11 30 — 8 Art. 60. — The number of Jurors to be appointed, will be for “France, as well as for foreign nations, in proportion to the number of exhibitors furnished by each country. Art. 61. — The official committee of each country will designate persons to form the number of jurors which that country is entitled to nominate. The French jurors for the first 27 classes will be nominated by the section of Agriculture and Industry of the Imperial Commission, and for the last 3 classes, by the section of the Fine Arts. Art. 62. — In case the committee of any country exhibiting should not appoint jurors to represent it, the duty will be undertaken at a general meeting of the jurors present. Art. 63. — The Imperial Commission will make the division of the members of the international jury amongst the various classes. It will also fix the general rules which will sei’ve as a basis for the operations of the special juries. Art. 64. — Each special jury will have a president named by the Imperial Commission ; also a vice-president and a reporter, both of whom will be nomi- nated by an absolute majority of the votes of the jury. Art. 65. — In case none of the members should obtain the absolute majority the two candidates who have received the greatest number of votes will decide the point by lot. Art. 66- — The president of each jury, and in his absence the vice-president, will, in case of an equal division, have the casting-vote. Art. 67. — The special juries will besides be distributed into groups, represen- ting the branches of industry, connected together by certain points of analogy or similitude. These groups are eight in number, in conformity with the statement made in Art. 16. The members of each group will elect their own president and vice-president. Art, 68. — No decision of any special jury will be definitive unless sanctioned by the group to which it belongs. Art. 69. — Rewards of the highest degree will not be granted until after they Rewards, have been reconsidered by a council, composed of the presidents and vice- presidents of the special juries. The jury for the Fine Arts is excepted from this regulation. Art. 70. — Each special jury will be at liberty to call to its assistance, as associates or experts, one or more persons, technically acquainted with some of the articles submitted to it for examination. These persons may be selected from the members and deputies of the other classes, and from amongst persons who do not belong to the jury, but possess the required information. The members thus called in will only take part in the labours of the jury as regards the particular object for which their services were required ; they will only be entitled to take part in the discussion, and not to vote. Art. 71. — Such exhibitors as may accept the functions of jurors or deputies, will be, by that fact only, rendered ineligible to receive any reward. The jury for Fine Arts is excepted from this regulation. 44 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole ON THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Special ar- rangements for the Fine Arts. Decree de- termining the nature of the re- wards. Art. 72. — Such exhibitors also as have been called in as associates or experts will be held ineligible to receive a reward, but only in the particular class in which they have acted. Art. 73. — Each jury may, according to circumstances, subdivide itself into committees ; but it cannot come to any decision without the sanction of the majority of the entire jury. Art. 74. — Special commissioners, assisted by the inspectors of the Exhibition, will be charged to prepare the work for each jury ; to see that the goods of no exhibitor escape examination ; to receive the observations and complaints of the exhibitors ; to have all omissions, errors, or confusions repaired ; to take care that the established rules are observed ; and to explain these rules to the juries, whenever any part of them may require interpretation. Art. 75. — These commissioners will not interfere with the deliberations of the jury, further than to bring before them facts, remind them of rules, and present the complaints of exhibitors. Art. 76. — The nature of the rewards to be distributed, and the general prin- ciples to be adopted as the basis of such rewards, will be at a later period deter- mined by a decree framed on the recommendations of the Imperial Commission, Art. 77. — Independently pf the honorary distinctions which may be awarded, the Council of President^ and Vice-presidents will have the power of recom- mending to the Emperor such exhibitors as it may think deserving of special marks of public gratitude, on account of extraordinary services rendered to civilization, humanity, science, and art ; or of encouragements of a different kind on account of considerable sacrifices incurred with a view to general utility, due attention being paid to the position of the inventors or producers. Special Arrangements for the Fine Arts. Art. 78. — A French Jury, instituted at Paris, will decide on the admission of the works of French artists. Art. 79. — The members of the French Jury of Admission will be nominated by the section of the Fine Arts of the Imperial Commission. Art. 80. — The Jury of Admission for the Fine Arts will be divided into three sections : The first will comprise painting, engraving and lithography ; The second, sculpture and dye-sinking ; The third, architecture. Each of these sections will decide with respect to works belonging to its special department. Art. 81. — The Exhibition is open to the works of all French and Foreign artists alive on the 22nd of June 1853, the date of the Decree constituting the Exhibition of Fine Arts. Art. 82. — Artists can present to the Universal Exhibition works which have been previously exhibited ; but there cannot be admitted — 1st. Copies (excepting such as may reproduce a work in a different style, on enamel, by drawing, &c.); 2nd. Pictures and other objects without frames ; 3rd. Sculptures in unbaked clay. Art. 83. — The following articles of the present regulations are applicable to the division of the Fine Arts : Arts. 1 to 13 ; 15 to 30 ; 35, 36, 40, 41 to 47 ; 49 to 52 ; and 58 to 77. (II.) DECREE. Napoleon, by the grace of God, and the national will, Emperor of the French, to all whom it may concern, greeting : After due consideration of Article 7 6 of the General Regulations with respect to the Universal Exhibition, approved of by our Decree, of the 6th of April 1854, on the proposition of the Imperial Commission for the Exhibition ; — We have decreed and do hereby decree, as follows : Art. 1 . — The rewards to be granted by the first 27 classes of the Interna- tional Jury are to be ; — 1, the gold medal ; 2, the silver medal ; 3, the bronze medal ; 4, the honourable mention. Mr. Cole on the General Management {Appendix). 45 Art. 2. — The gold medal can only be given to the first twenty-seven classes by the Council of Presidents and Vice-Presidents, on the proposition of the class juries, approved by the group to which each class belongs. The gold medal can only be proposed and given, in the first twent}'-seven classes for very complete collections contributed by Foreign States, or by Towns, or great centres of production, being of high utility in an instructive point of view ; or for products exhibited by manufacturers, which are remarkable for extraordinary perfection due to art, to taste, to science, or to workmanship ; or for very important discoveries or inventions usefully employed in industry ; or for a very considerable increase in the utility of a product already known, and rendered, by the reduction of its cost, fit for more general consumption. Art. 3. — The silver medal may be awarded by each of the juries for the first seven groups, on the proposition of the class juries of which they are formed, for superiority of taste, design, or workmanship ; or for collections being of interest in an instructive point of view; or for real and important improve- ments introduced into a manufacture, either by invention or otherwise, thereby rendering articles of which there is a great consumption either tetter, more agreeable, more useful, or more durable, or reducing their cost. Art. 4. — The bronze medal may be awarded by each of the juries for the first seven groups, on the proposition of the class j uries of which they are formed, for good workmanship, design, or taste, or for real improvements effected either in the means of production, or in the utility of the products, or in the lessening of their cost. Art. 5. — Honourable mention may be awarded by each of the juries for the first seven groups, on the proposition of the class juries of which they are formed, to the exhibitors of those products which are distinguished by any of the above merits, when the novelty of the invention or the small importance of the production does not call for a vote of the bronze medal. Art. 6. — The groups may not give a reward unless it has been proposed by the jury of the class to which the exhibitor belongs. Art. 7. — The jury should take into consideration, with regard to the prizes to be distributed, the reduction of the price of the exhibited articles, whenever this reduction is bona fide, and appears likely to be permanent. Art. 8. — Foremen and workmen who have been pointed out for services rendered to the industry to which they belong, or for the part they have taken in the production of the articles exhibited and j udged to be worthy of reward, may receive from the juries of the first seven groups, on the proposition of the juries of the first twenty-seven classes, one of the distinctions stated in Art. 1. Art. 9. — The application of the preceding rules is left to the judgment of the International Jury, and to the interpretation of the Council of Presidents and Vice-Presidents. In doubtful cases, appeal may be made, but only by members of the jury, from the decisions of the groups, to the Council of Presidents and Vice-Presi- dents, whose decision will be final. Mr. Cole ox THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Art. 10. — Independently of the rewards to be given by the jury, We reserve to Ourselves, on the recommendation of the Council of Presidents and Vice- Presidents of the first twenty-seven classes, to grant special marks of public gratitude to the exhibitors who may be pointed out to Us for extraordinary services rendered to civilization, to humanity, to science, or art ; or encourage- ment of another kind, on account of considerable sacrifices for the general good, duly considering the position of the persons thus recommended. Special Arrangements relative to the Fine Arts. Art. 11. The rewards to be given by the three classes of the jury for the Rewards to fine arts are the following : — exhibitors 1. A first-class medal, in gold. 2. A second-class medal, in gold. 3. A third-class medal, in gold. 4. Honourable mention. of works of Fine Art. Art. 12. — Besides the rewards mentioned in the above Art. 11, a great medal of honour, of the value of 5,000f. may be awarded in each of the three fine art classes to the artists who may distinguish themselves by works of brilliant merit. 46 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole or THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Regulations for tlie guidance of jury. Election of Vice-Presi- dent ; reporter and secre- tary. Meeting of the jury. Examina- tion of the products. The great medals of honour can only he given by the general verdict of the members of the three classes of the fine art jury. Art. 13. — The number of medals of honour, and that of the medals to be given by each class of the fine art jury, will be fixed by the President of the Imperial Commission, on the proposition of the president of the eighth group, after a discussion at a general meeting of the members of the three classes composing it. Art. 14. — The total value of the rewards to be granted by the fine art jurors may amount to the sum of 150,000f. Art. 15. — Independently of the rewards to be given by the fine art jurors, We reserve to Ourselves, on the recommendation of a general meeting of the jurors of the three classes, to grant special marks of public gratitude to the artists exhibiting, who may be pointed out to Us for their extraordinary merit, or for great services rendered to the arts. Art. 16. — Our Ministers of State and of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, are charged with the execution of the present Decree. Given at the Palace of the Tuileries, the 10th of May 1855. (Signed) Napoleon. (Countersigned) Achille Fould, Minister of State. SPECIAL REGULATIONS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL JURY. The Imperial Commission for the Universal Exhibition, having under consideration the 63rd Article of the General Regulations, has decided on the following as the basis of the operations of the International Jury : Art. 1. — Immediately after their arrival in Paris, the French and Foreign Members of the International Jury will repair to the Office of the Secretary of the Jury for the purpose of receiving all necessary information. Art. 2. — The Members of the Jury will assemble on the 15th June,* in Classes, according to the division made by the Imperial Commission. Art. 3. — At the first meeting of each class, the Members will elect from among themselves a Vice-President, who shall assist the President, and replace him in his absence. The Vice-Presidents of the first 27 classes will sit with the Presidents at the Council of Presidents. Art. 4. — One or more reporters, and a secretary, whose duty it will be to take notes of the results of the deliberations, will be likewise elected in each class. Art. 5. — The same member may unite the functions of President or Vice- President and those of Reporter. One of the reporters, if he be not either President or Vice-President, may also add to his functions those of secretary. Art. 6. — In the event of any Member not obtaining an absolute majority in the elections to be made in virtue of Arts. 3 and 4 above, the decision between the two candidates who obtain the greatest number of votes shall be by lot. Art. 7. — The President of each class jury, and, in his absence, the vice-presi- dent, will have the casting vote. Art. 8. — The place, day, and hour of each meeting of the class juries will be fixed by the President, and, in his absence, by the Vice- President. Notice will be given to the Secretary’s Office, from whence summonses will be issued. The days of meeting will also be posted in the place where the jury sits and in the Secretary’s Office. Art. 9. — The products will be examined with the least possible delay by the different classes of the Jury in the manner in which they have been apportioned by the general classification. Art. 10. — In the event of the products of an exhibitor being of a complex nature, and requiring the examination of several juries, the President of the jury in whose province such products are officially placed, will appoint mixed committees, composed of a certain number of the jurors of the different classes, competent to judge, each juror having a voice in the deliberations. The rewards proposed by the mixed committee will be presented and discussed before the group by the Jury of the class under which the products are arranged in the general classification. * This meeting has since been postponed to the 2oth June. Mr. Cole on the General Management {Appendix). 47 Art. 11. — In the event of the same exhibitor displaying different products Mr. Cole appertaining to various classes, each product will he the object of a special examination by the class under which it has been placed by the system of Maxage- classification. * ment. Art. 12. — Each jury may, if necessary, divide itself into sub- committees ; ^pendix A but it cannot come to a decision except by the majority of the entire jury. — . Art. 13. — Each class-jury may take as a coadjutor, by the title of associate, Sub-com- or “expert,” one or more persons specially acquainted with any object to be mittees. examined. These persons may be selected from among the titular or supple- Associates, mentary jurors of other classes, or from among men having the knowledge or experts, required, not being members of the juries. The members so associated will take no part in the labours of the class by which they may be called, beyond the definite object which was the cause of their being required ; they will only have the right of discussion, without that of voting. Art. 14. — Exhibitors who may have accepted the functions of jurors, whether j urors they be titular or supplementary, will by that fact alone be debarred from cannot coin- competing for rewards. rewards The Jury of the Fine Arts (8th Group, Classes 28, 29, and 30) is excepted s ’ from this rule. Art. 1 5. — Exhibitors summoned either as associates or as “ experts ” will in like manner be excluded from competition, but only in the class in which they thus act. Art. 16. — Foreign exhibitors discharging the functions of jurors may, by a special decision of the Section of Agriculture and Industry of the Imperial Com mission, preserve their right of competing for prizes, but only in the classes in which they do not act as jurors. Art. 17. — In the event of the prolonged absence of a titular juror in a class, Provision steps will be taken for replacing him by one of the supplementary jurors. If for filling up the list of the supplementary jurors is exhausted, and if the number of members vacancies ‘ present, titular or supplementary, be less than the half \plus one, of the total of the titular members of which the class is composed, it shall be at once referred by the President, or, he failing, by the Vice-President, to that section of the Imperial Commission to which the class of the jury in which the vacancies occur is attached, to appoint one or more new members. Art. 18. — In the event of any nation which exhibits not having appointed the jurors which should represent it, or a sufficient number of jurors, the number will be filled up, by the general assembly of the jurors present in each class, out of a triple list prepared for this purpose by the Imperial Commission. Art. 19. — Each of the first 27 classes of the Jury, after having examined the products of the exhibitors whose papers have been sent in, will draw up, by a majority of the members present, who must represent at least half, plus one, of the members of which the class is composed, a list of propositions for rewards, conforming themselves in this respect to the conditions of the Decree of 10th May 1855. Each proposition will be accompanied by a succinct statement of the motives on which it is based. Art. 20. — Any statements made by exhibitors which the jury may consider Statements inaccurate may be returned by the President of the class to the Office of the Secretary of the Jury in order to be verified. Art 21. — The propositions for rewards drawn up by each of the first 27 Revision by Classes will be submitted to the revision of the general assembly of the group group, to which the class belongs. The approval of the general assembly of the group will definitively confirm the rewards proposed by each of the classes composing it. The definitive report must be remitted to the Office of the Secretary within 15 days after the rewards have been confirmed by the group. Art. 22. — The members of the first 27 classes of the Jury may appeal against the Appeals, decisions of the first 7 Groups to the council of the Presidents and Vice-Presi- dents, but only for violation of the conditions of the Decree of the 1 0th May 1855. Art. 23 — In order to carry out Art. 21 above, the first 27 special juries Formation shall meet together in a general assembly by groups formed in the following of groups, manner, in conformity to Arts. 16 and 67 of the General Regulations : — 48 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Council of Presidents and Vice- Presidents ; it duties. Jury for the Pine Arts. The 1st Group will be formed of a union of Classes 1 to 3 2nd Group 3rd Group 4th Group 5th Group 6th Group 7th Group 4 to 7 8 to 11 1 2 to 1 4 1 5 to 1 8 19 to 23 24 to 27 The members of each group will name their president, and their vice-presi- dent, and designate one or more secretaries. To each group will be attached an employe of the Secretary’s Office, delegated by the Secretary of the International Jury to transcribe the proceedings and record the rewards on lists. These lists will be tra nsmitted at the close of each sitting to the office of the secretary of the jury ; they will be signed by the president or vice-president and by the secretary of the group. Art. 24. — The rewards of the first order will not be given to the first 27 classes, except by the Council of Presidents and Vice-Presidents, on the propo- sition of the class juries, approved by the general assembly of the groups to which they belong. Art. 25. — The Council of Presidents will be composed of the Presidents and Vice-Presidents of the Special Juries of the first 27 classes. It will be presided over by the President of the Imperial Commission, President- General of the Jury, and, in his absence, by one of the Vice-Presidents of the Imperial Commission, in the order fixed by the Imperial Decrees. The Secretary of the International Jury will discharge the functions of Secretary to the Council of Presidents. Art. 26. — The Council of Presidents will adjudicate on the appeals which may be referred to it for the violation of the rules laid down by the Decree of 10th May 1855. It will agree to or refuse the rewards of the first order pro- posed by the classes and approved of by the groups. Finally, it will have the power of recommending to the Emperor those exhibitors who may appear to merit special marks of public gratitude on account of • extraordinary services rendered to civilization, to humanity, to science, and the fine arts, or en- couragement of any other kind on account of considerable sacrifices rendered to the cause of general usefulness, having regard to the position of inventors and producers. Special Arrangements relative to the Fine Arts. Art. 27. — Each of the three classes of the jury for the fine arts will se- parately examine the works exhibited, paying due attention to Articles 12 and 15 of the Decree on Rewards and to Article 32 below. Art. 28. — After a first examination, and before designating the names pro- posed for reward, a general meeting of the three classes will discuss the propo- sals to be submitted by the President of each class to the President of the Imperial Commission, in order to determine the number of medals of honour and of the medals of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd class, in conformity with Article 13 of the Decree of 10th May 1855. Art. 29. — The examination being ended, each class will point out by balloting those of the artists exhibiting whom they consider worthy of one of the rewards instituted by Article 1 1 of the Decree of the 10th May 1855. Art. 30. — The lists of the classes will be formed by making an abstract of the private list drawn up by each juror, indicating the name of the artist, his specialty, and the nature of the reward proposed, without, however, exceeding the limits of the number which will be determined by the President of the Imperial Commission, in conformity with Article 13 of the Decree of the 10th May 1855. Art. 31. — The rewards determined by Article 11 of the Decree of the 10th May 1855 will be voted definitively by each class of the jury of the fine arts without revision by the group. Art. 32. — After the termination of their particular work, the jurors of the three classes of the fine arts will meet in general assembly to award the great medals allotted to each class, and to determine upon the list of artists exhibiting whom they consider worthy of being recommended to the Emperor to receive special marks of public gratitude, on account of extraordinary merit, or of great services rendered to the Arts. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 49 (HI.) DECREES. In consequence of a report presented to the Emperor by Prince Napoleon, the President of the Imperial Commission, recommending that the designation of the medals to he awarded by the International Jury, which had been fixed by the Decree of the 10th May 1855, should be changed, in order that these awards should be quite distinct from those which had been given in various countries at the close of national or local exhibitions, the following Decree was issued : — Natoleon, by the grace of God, and the national will, Emperor or the French, to all whom it may concern, greeting : Mr. Cole on the General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Supplemen- tal Decree on rewards to exhibitors, and to fore- men, work- men, &c. Considering Article 59 of the Decree of the 6th of April 1854, and Articles 1 and 8 of the Decree of the 10th of May 1855, on the proposition of the Presi- dent of the Imperial Commission ; We have decreed and do hereby decree, as follows : Art. 1 . — The mixed International Jury for the section of Agriculture and Industry is definitely formed and divided. Art. 2. — The rewards to be given at the close of the Universal Exhibition by the first 27 Classes of the mixed International Jury, are as follows : the Great Medal of Honour, the Medal of the first class, the Medal of the second class, Honourable Mention. The Great Medal of Honour may be exceptionally granted in a collective manner to industrial groups of great importance which have attained a high degree of perfection, when no exhibitor of similar objects, without distinction of the country to which he belongs, has been found superior to his brother-exhibitors, and when, therefore, no Great Medal of Honour has been given to any individual in the same branch of industry. When a Great Medal of Honour is thus voted in a collective form, the jury will designate by name, if possible, the exhibitors whose collective merit has entitled their group to this high distinction. Art. 3. — The rewards enumerated in Art. 2 will also be granted by the first 27 classes of the jury, to the principal workmen in Agriculture and Industry, to foremen, designers, chemists, engineers, superintendents, inventors, &c., who may distinguish themselves by a useful and intelligent co-operation. Art. 4. — Our well-beloved cousin, Prince Napoleon, President of the Imperial Commission, our Minister of State, and our Minister of Agriculture, of Com- merce and Public Works, are charged with the execution of the present Decree. Given at the Palace of the Tuileries, the 3rd of October 1855. (Signed) Napoleon. (Countersigned) Achille Fould, Minister of State. E. Rouiier, Minister, Secretary of State in the department of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. On the 11th of November 1855, the President of the Imperial Commission addressed another report to the Emperor, informing him that the Council of Presidents had judged it necessary to appoint a committee of seven jurors selected from among their own body to reconsider the awards of the various juries, and to come to a final decision. At the same time he recommended that the gold medals should be of two kinds ; the first, under the name of Great Medal of Honour, to be given in cases of extraordinary and exceptional merit ; the second, under the name of Medal of Honour, to be given in remarkable cases, which, however, might not bear to the same extent as the former cases the stamp of inventive genius, or great usefulness. The following Decree was then issued : Napoleon, by the grace of God, and the national will, Emperor op the Decree on French, to all whom it may concern greeting: : Great ° Mprial* nf Considering Article 59 of the Decree of the 6th of April 1854 ; Honour Considering Article 1 of the Decree of the 10th of May 1855, and Articles and Medals 2 and 3 of the Decree of the 3rd October 1855, on the proposition of the Presi- of Honour, dent of the Imperial Commission, and of the Council of Presidents and Vice- Presidents ; D 50 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole OK THE GENERAL Manage- ment. Appendix A, General Re* gulations issued by the Board of Trade. We have decreed and do hereby decree, as follows : Art. 1 . — Exhibitors in the sections of agriculture and industry, or the groups and great industrial centres to which they belong, as well as the co operators and workmen in the branches of agriculture and industry, who may have been proposed for the Great Medal of Honour by one of the classes of the jury, with the approbation of the group of which each class forms a part, may receive from the Council of Presidents and Vice-Presidents either the Great Medal of Honour or the Medal of Honour. Art. 2. — The Medal of Honour awarded to groups or great centres of industry in a collective manner will he completely anonymous, and no indi- vidual may claim the merit of it for himself. Art. 3. — The regulations made by the Decrees of the 10th May and the 3rd of October 1855, which are not modified by the present Decree, will remain in full force. Art. 4. — Our well-beloved cousin, Prince Napoleon, President of the Im- perial Commission and of the Council of Presidents and Vice-Presidents, our Minister of State, and our Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, are charged with the execution of the present Decree. Given at the Palace of Saint Cloud, the 11th of November 1855. (Signed) Napoleon. (Countersigned) Achille Fould, Minister of State. E. Rouher, Minister, Secretary of State in the Department of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. (IV.) SUMMARY OF THE CONDITIONS UPON WHICH THE EXHIBITION WILL BE CONDUCTED. The Decrees and Regulations issued by the Imperial Commission of France give full information as to the principles upon which the Imperial Government pro- pose to conduct the Exhibition of 1855, and an attentive perusal of them is recommended to all those who desire to co-operate in securing a fair representa- tion of British industry on that occasion ; but it may be useful to sum up the principal conditions, showing the assistance offered to exhibitors by the French Commission, and that which the British authorities are empowered to offer : — 1. The Exhibition will open in Paris on the 1st May 1855. 2. The French Commission will communicate only with exhibitors from foreign countries through the Commission appointed by each country for that purpose. 3. No articles will be admitted from foreign countries except with the sanc- tion of such foreign Commission. 4. Every article produced or obtained by human industry, whether of raw materials, machinery, manufactures, or Fine Arts, is admissible, except, — i. Living animals and plants. ii. Substances liable to become putrid from keeping. iii. Detonating and other dangerous substances. iv. Articles of the same description in extravagant quantity. 5. All goods must reach Paris between the 15th January and 15th March 1855, which period may, in a few exceptional cases, be extended to the 15th April. 6. The French Commission offers to convey all goods from the French ports or frontiers to the building in Paris without charge. 7. No charge will be made for rent. 8. Exhibitors and their agents will be admitted free to the building during the whole period of the Exhibition. 9. Plain counters and partitions will be provided without charge. 10. The French Commission will find labourers for unpacking, transporting, and arranging goods under the direction of exhibitors or their agents. 11. The French Commission will provide shafting, steam, or water-pressure for machines in motion. Mr. Cole on the General Management {Appendix). 51 12. Exhibitors will be responsible for accidents, loss, or damage, but the fullest precautions are promised against such events. 1 3. The current trade price may be affixed to any goods, if the exhibitors desire it. 14. Goods may be exhibited in bond, and no duty will be charged if re- exported. 1 5. Exhibited goods, even those at present prohibited by the French tariff, may be admitted for consumption in France at a maximum ad valorem duty of 20 per cent. 1 6. Arrangements will be made to ensure one year’s protection to designs and inventions if exhibited, without cost to the exhibitor. 17. The goods will be examined by an international Jury, and rewards given, the nature of which will be published. 18. The British Government will undertake all expenses of general organi- zation and management, and will defray the expenses of the transport from London, and Custom-house agency, of all goods delivered within a specified time. 19. A sufficient staff will be provided for giving that attention to the goods of exhibitors which was undertaken by the Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851. 20. The expenses which must in every case fall upon exhibitors will be — i. The carriage of the goods from the manufactory or residence of the exhibitor to London. ii. The expense of glass-cases, shelves, brackets, awnings, hangings, or decorations of the stalls, which must be undertaken under such restrictions as the officers of the French Commission may im- pose for the sake of the general arrangements or appearance of the Exhibition. iii. The unpacking, arrangement, and general care of the goods during the Exhibition, except as far as provided by paragraph 19. 21. The period named as the latest at which demands for space could be re- ceived was the 1st August, but a small reserve has been made for completing those departments which appeared, upon examination, to be inadequately re- presented. 22. The measures for conducting the British department of the Exhibition have been entrusted to the Board of Trade, Department of Science and Art. Department of Science and Art , Marlborough House , Pall Mall, London, 1 st Nov. 1854. ARRANGEMENTS FOR SHIPPING GOODS. Marlborough House, London, 2nd Feb. 1855. I. Messrs. Lightly and Simon, of 123, Fenchurch Street, are appointed agents to receive goods for shipment to Paris, at the Irongate Wharf, Tower, London. Dunkirk is the French port to which Messrs. Lightly and Simon will ship goods consigned to them. II. The official rotation number ticket (to be furnished by this department) must be filled up according to the directions given in Clause III., and be firmly attached to the packages. Each package must have one such rotation number ticket on the outside, and another on the inside, for the purpose of facilitating the return of the empty packing-case at the close of the Exhibition. III. Every rotation number ticket must be filled up distinctly, in the blank spaces left for that purpose, as follows : — 1. The rotation number of the exhibitor. 2. The exhibitor’s mark (or initials') and a number. [A single package to be Number 1, and each additional package to be numbered progressively from 1 upwards.] 3. The gross weight of the package. 4. The name and address of the exhibitor. [Packages with addresses wanting in any of these particulars will be liable to rejection by the shipping agents.] D 2 Mr. Cole ON THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A. Arrange- ments made by the Brit- ish Govern- ment. Shipment from London. Rotation number and address. 52 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole ON THE General Manage- ment. Appendix A Weight. Advices. Shipment from ano- ther port. ' Allowance. Distribu- tion of the prizes. Return of f oods to london. IV. All packages and parts of machinery not exceeding three tons weight each must be delivered, free of charge, to Messrs. Lightly and Simon, at Iron- gate Wharf, Tower, London ; but such as exceed that weight are not to be forwarded until the exhibitor shall have communicated with Messrs. Lightly and Simon, and received from them directions for their delivery at the Wharf or elsewhere, as circumstances may render necessary. No charge will be made to exhibitors for the reception, shipment, or transport of goods to Paris, for their carriage to the Exhibition buildings, or for housing the empty packing- cases at Paris. V. The exhibitors must fill up two advices (No. 91) notifying the despatch of their goods, — one to be sent to Marlborough House, the other to Messrs. Lightly and Simon, 123, Penchurch Street, London. VT Exhibitors resident in Ireland or to the north of Chester, who may find it more convenient, on account of bulk, to ship their machinery or heavy goods themselves from any other port than London, must make a special application for permission to do so to the Secretary for the Paris Exhibition, on or before the 10th February 1855, naming the British port they propose to ship from, and stating which of the following French ports they prefer to ship to, namely, Havre or Dunkirk. The date when the shipment will be made must also be given. The goods must be delivered at the French port selected by the exhibitor on or before the 10th of March. In these special cases, the Board of Trade, instead of paying the charges of transport, has authorized an allowance to be made to the exhibitors at the following rates : — ^ ^ All goods and machinery up to 3 tons weight per packet 67 6 per ton. (inclusive) From 3 tons to 10 tons per package (inclusive) . , 72 6 „ From 1 0 ton to 30 tons per package (inclusive) . . 75 0 „ This allowance is to cover all expenses to the French port of discharge, and will only be paid upon the delivery by the exhibitor of a voucher, cer- tifying that the arrival of his goods took place at the said French port on or before the 10th March 1855. The Regulations of the Imperial Commission Direct that all goods must reach Pails between the 15th January and 15th March 1855, which period may, in a few exceptional cases, such as Silks and Jewellery, be extended to the 15th April. Francis Fowke, Capt. R.E., Secretary. CLOSING OF THE EXHIBITION. British Executive. 1. It is officially announced that the Exhibition, in all its parts, will finally close on Thursday, 15th November, when the prizes will be distributed. 2. Exhibitors who desire to be present at the ceremony of the distribution of the prizes are requested to inform Captain Fowke, the secretary, accordingly on or before 1st of November. 3. To prepare for the distribution, the nave of the Palais de 1’Industrie will be closed on 1st November, and measures taken to have this portion of the building cleared of all goods, glass-cases, &c., as quickly as possible. British exhibitors and their agents are therefore requested to show their hearty co- operation with the Imperial Commission, and commence the removal of their goods and glass-cases, &c., from the nave, punctually on the morning of the 1st November at 7 a.m. 4. The articles in the nave, if sold, must he taken out of the building, and if to be returned to England, must be packed by the exhibitors or their agents and forthwith despatched. 5. The carriage of articles to be returned will be paid by the Imperial Com- mission and the Board of Trade respectively, as far as London, provided the Mr. Cole on the General Management {Appendix). 53 articles are properly re-packed before 8 th December; but the Board of Trade Mr. Cole will not pay the carriage to London of empty packing-cases or any glass-cases general without special permission. The articles returned will be shipped to the care Manage- of Messrs. Lightly and Simon, Irongate Wharf, Tower, London, who will imme- went. diately forward them by the usual mode to their addresses, unless the exhibitors . T. . advise Messrs. Lightly and Simon to the contrary. The charges for carriage Al>p en I X from Irongate Wharf must be borne by exhibitors. 6. The whole work of re-packing must be done by the exhibitors or their agents, and if the articles are not re-packed on or before the 8th December the charges for the carriage, &c., must be borne by the exhibitors themselves. 7. Empty packing-cases left in the Exhibition building after the 8th Decem- ber will be liable to be confiscated and sold to pay expenses. 8. The offices of the British Commission will be closed for the transaction of Close of business as soon as possible after the 8th December. No letters of exhibitors 0® ces * should be addressed there after that day, or they will be liable to be returned. All communications should then be sent to Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London. 9. The Manutention du Commerce de Paris, through M. Moreno, are pre- Customs, pared to give every assistance at reasonable charges, in passing through the Customs, goods either sold or to be returned to England ; and exhibitors are recommended to avail themselves of the facilities offered, and to prepare at once their lists of sales and articles to be returned, so that the lists may be completed before the 1st November, if possible. M. Moreno is recognized by the Imperial Commission, and his office is at the north-east corner of the Palais de lTndustrie. Erancis Fowke, Capt. R.E., Paris, 17th October 1855. Secretary. APPENDIX (B). Appendix B. Letter addressed by the Board op Trade to H.I.H. Prince Napoleon, President of the Imperial Commission, when the Duties of the British Commission ceased. Department of Science and Art, Marlborough House, Sir, London, 9th February 1856. Tiie relations which have been established between the Imperial Com- Letter ad- mission for the Universal Exhibition of 1855, and the Lords of the Committee ^ es |> e(1 *\ y of Privy Council for Trade having nearly arrived at their conclusion, I am Trade°to C ° directed by their Lordships to express to your Imperial Highness their high Prince sense of the success with which the Imperial Commission has carried out the Napoleon arduous duties of the late Universal Exhibition, and especially of the very great of the Exhi- assistance which my Lords have uniformly received from your Imperial High - bition. ness as President. Their Lordships feel that their Officers and the British Exhibitors have reason to remember gratefully the generous aid which your Imperial Highness afforded on all occasions in the solution of many difficulties. My Lords direct me to request your Imperial Highness to express their thanks to the several Officers of the Imperial Commission w r ho carried its orders into execution, for their hearty co-operation, and particularly to the Secretary- General M. Arles Dufour, the Commissioner- General M. Le Play, and M. de Mercey, the Special Commissioner for the Beaux Arts. In the difficult administration of the exceptional tariff on articles hitherto actually or partially prohibited, which was established for the first time by His Majesty the Emperor, to facilitate the holding of a Universal Exhibition, their Lordships consider that especial thanks are due to M. Desseche and the other Officers of the Customs. 54 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. M y Lords further direct me to request your Imperial Highness to acknowledge General on behalf the manner in which the Commissioner of Police, M. Courteille, Manage- executed his delicate office in the British portion of the Exhibition. ment. My Lords have had great satisfaction in having acted on behalf of Her Appendix B. ^- a j est y’ s Government on this occasion, and they venture to hope that the new connexions which the French Exhibition has been the means of forming between the two countries, may be extended and cemented, and may confer reciprocal benefits on the people of both nations. I have the honour to be, &c. His Imperial Highness Henry Cole. Prince Napoleon. Appendix C. APPENDIX (C.) An Estimate of the Sum required to be Voted in the Year 1854, ending 31st March 1855, for Expenses to be incurred for the Management of the British Department of the Universal Exhibition at Paris in 1855. Fifty Thousand Pounds. Note. — The following Correspondence explains in detail the objects to which the proposed Vote is to be applied. (No. 1.) Department of Science and Art, Marlborough House, Sib, 19th May 1854. Letter from I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade the Board of to transmit an estimate of management of the British portion of the Universal mittinl'the Exhibition to be held at Paris in 1855 ; and I am to state for the consideration Estimate to the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, that upon receipt of the Trea- the general regulations for conducting the Paris Exhibition, which were trans- swy. mitted by Lord Clarendon to this Department, their Lordships lost no time in procuring the information necessary for the preparation of this estimate. My Lords have reason to believe that the Paris Exhibition will be divided into three parts ; one to be included in the large stone building now in course of erection, in which it is estimated that about 80,000 square feet will be allotted to British produce and manufactures ; the second division will consist of machinery, and the third of fine arts, for both of which it is proposed to erect adjacent temporary buildings. The space to be allotted to machinery, as well as to fine arts, will be in proportion to the demands made. The first division will be arranged in twenty -three classes, or six groups, whilst the division of machinery will have four classes. In order to fill the space assigned to British exhibitors with a complete exhibition of industry in each class, and to subdivide the space among the candidates for it, it will be necessary to provide superintendents, with proper clerical assistance, for these groups. Upon the data furnished by the Exhibition of 1851, it is estimated that the expense of this preliminary work will amount to 3,700/. It will be seen by the Regulations of the French Commission (Article 20), that the cost of paying the transport of all articles whatever from the French port of arrival to the building in Paris, has been liberally undertaken by the French Government ; and with a view of promoting punctuality in British exhibitors, my Lords consider that it would be advisable to offer to pay the transport of articles from a given spot in London to the French port, provided Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). they were delivered within the specified time. For this service, for Customs charges at the Trench port, and for assisting in unpacking goods at Paris, it is estimated that 2,750/. will be required.* It will be necessary to provide an office and management in Paris during the period of the Exhibition, which is estimated to cost 3,375/. The cost of glass cases and fittings will be placed upon exhibitors ; but to whatever extent this may be borne by exhibitors, there will certainly be some charges under this head for the completion of the Exhibition and its general decoration which exhibitors will not bear, and which cannot be estimated at less than 5,000/. Proper maintenance, cleaning, and watching of the Exhibition itself will have to be ensured, and a sum of 5,200/. may be necessary for this item, besides a sum of 1,500/. for the cost of removing and warehousing the packing-cases of exhibitors, and for general assistance in re-packing at the termina tion of the Exhibition. In addition to these specific charges, there will be general expenses for printing and advertising, postage, stationery, clerkship, and incidents, which may be estimated at 3,800/. ; and it will probably be found necessary, in order to secure a proper representation of raw materials and produce, to incur an ex- penditure of 2,000/. It appears, therefore, that a sum of 27,325 /. would be necessary to ensure a successful representation of British Industry, and to provide effectually for that kind of service which cannot be expected from exhi- bitors or voluntary subscribers, and is analogous to that which was borne by the Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851. It has been observed already that a third division of the Paris Exhibition will con- sist of Pine Arts. This will constitute one of its distinguishing features, and will form not the least interesting part of it. But as it is one in which neither artists nor the proprietors of works of art can be expected to bear any portion of those expenses which manufacturers will undertake, it will be necessary that the whole expenses should be borne by a central administration, to enable it to offer such assistance to exhibitors as may induce them to co-operate in pro- moting an Exhibition of Pine Arts worthy of the country. The Art Super- intendent is of opinion that if proper provision were made for bearing the expenses of forwarding pictures and works of art, and ensuring their safe return, an exhibition most creditable to the national talent might be sent to Paris. The expenditure on this head is estimated at 5,055/.f It will be seen by the Regulations of the Prench Commission that juries are to be appointed and awards made. It will be indispensable that the services of the most distinguished professional men should be engaged to perform this onerous and delicate duty ; they will have to reside for some weeks at Paris, and cannot be expected to do so at their own expense. It will therefore be necessary to pay for their services, and for the preparation and printing their reports, &c. ; and a lower estimate than 1 1,250/. ought not to be made. Considering the untried nature of the business to be undertaken, and having regard to the cost, namely, 68,000/., which the Prench Government are stated to have incurred in exhibiting French industry in this country in 1851, although pictures were excluded, my Lords have deemed it prudent to add 20 per cent, for contingencies to all these items ; making a total estimate of 52,356 1% Their Lordships consider that by careful and judicious management the expenditure may be kept within these limits, and that no increase beyond the sums named should take place without the special authority of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury. As no time ought to be lost in issuing General Regulations for British exhi- bitors, and ascertaining the willingness of the principal producers to exhibit, an immediate decision is of great importance. With the view, therefore, of commencing the preparations for filling the space already mentioned, of * This sum did not provide for the payment of the transport back. It was based upon the amount paid by France in 1851, but owing to the greater weight and quantity of the goods sent than was expected, the estimate was insufficient. The sum paid for the transport of the goods sent and returned was 7,531/. 2s. 11 d. t The payments on behalf of the Fine Arts have been 5,202/. 11s. 2d., exclusive of the cost of transport to and from Paris. t Only 50,000/. was voted, and notwithstanding the excess of expenditure over the estimate for transport and for Fine Arts, the total expenditure will not exceed 40,000/. Mr. Cole ON THE General Manage- ment. Appendix C. 56 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole announcing to intending exhibitors that the transport of their goods to a French Genera P ort P a ^’ P r °viding for printing, and general office expenses, and of Manage- ensuring a proper representation of a raw produce, as well as for the exhibition ment. of the Fine Arts, their Lordships have to suggest that the Lords Commissioners . “ of Her Majesty’s Treasury should sanction at once an expenditure not exceeding pp enc x x . 12,250/. for the Industrial Division, and 5,000/. for the Fine Arts. I have, &c. The Secretary, Her Majesty’s Treasury. (Signed) Henry Cole. (No. 2.) Copy of Treasury Minute, dated 26th May 1854. Minute/ Write to Mr. Cole, that my Lords approve generally of the arrangements proposed for the management of the British portion of the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1855 ; but before giving their sanction to the appropriation of specific sums to the different purposes referred to herein, or to an immediate expenditure for such purposes, their Lordships would wish to be furnished with a more detailed and complete account of the manner in which it is intended to carry out the object in view. Letter transmit- ting the Minute of (No. 3.) Department of Science and Art, Marlborough House, Sir, 31st May 1854. 1 am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 26th May, by which you acquaint me that the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury approve the Board of generally of the arrangements proposed for the management of the British portion Trade to the 0 f the Exhibition, and wish to be furnished with a more detailed and complete reasury. accoim t of the manner in which it is intended to carry out the object in view. My Lords desire me to state, that the first steps to be taken will be to ascer- tain by personal inquiries in the manufacturing districts, and by correspondence, the willingness of producers to exhibit, and the amount of space likely to be required by them ; also to ascertain what works of Fine Art the proprietors of them v/ill be disposed to lend to the Government for exhibition in Paris. It is proposed to procure the assistance of competent persons to obtain and methodise this information, whose engagements will be from month to month only. It was estimated that the cost of these inquiries, and the action to be hereafter taken upon them, would entail an expenditure of 10,250/. for the Industrial, and 5,055/. for the Fine Arts branch ; but it should be stated, that this total cost would not be ascertained until the close of the Exhibition, or the outlay positively incurred. It is also proposed to incur an expense, if found to be necessary, of 2,000/., for ensuring the representation of the raw produce of the country, for which measures should be taken forthwith. For the purpose of conducting this business, my Lords have passed a Minute, a copy of which I am directed to enclose for the information of the Lords Com- missioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury (See No. 4.), and I am to request that they will give their sanction to the arrangements proposed, and direct the Pay- master-General to advance the sum of 3,000/. upon an order signed by the parties named in the Minute. I have, &c. The Secretary, Her Majesty’s Treasury. (Signed) Henry Cole. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 57 (No. 4.) Department of Science and Art. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. My Lords have under consideration the preliminary arrangements necessary Appendix C. for assisting in the French Exhibition of 1855. The Secretaries will visit the principal seats of industry in the provinces, and Board will make such arrangements as can be made in the present state of the corres- Minute, pondence with the Treasury, with a view to carry into effect the objects set forth in the letter of this Board of the 19th May. Mr. Redgrave will, so soon as the further answer from the Treasury is received, submit to the Board the arrangements which he thinks necessary for the Exhibition of Fine Arts. To ensure that promptness of action which is indispensable to success in an undertaking of this character, the following are to be the general arrangements for transacting the financial and other business. From time to time the Board will pass Minutes directing applications to the Treasury for such imprests as they may think necessary, to be drawn upon the Paymaster- General. The money is to be paid into a bank in the names of the Secretaries and Mr. Red - grave and Captain Owen, and drawn out upon their orders by cheques, signed by either of the Secretaries, or by Mr. Redgrave, countersigned in each case by Captain Owen. Captain Owen will have the assistance of Mr. Mayo in the superintendence and control of the accouuts. All engagements are to be made from month to month, and all accounts are to be paid and audited monthly, and charged to the heads of the estimate as sanctioned by the Treasury. No liabilities exceeding 50 ?. for each separate account are to be incurred without first obtaining the authority of the Board, in all cases where possible. Printing and stationery may be obtained otherwise than through the Stationery Office, and works may be ordered without appli- cation to the Office of Works, contracts for outlays exceeding 50 ?. being first obtained, as far as may be practicable. At the termination of the Exhibition, the accounts, with proper vouchers, are to be sent to the Audit Office. The correspondence with the French Commission and exhibitors will be conducted for the present by Captain Owen, R.E., in the name of this depart- ment, under the orders of my Lord«, communicated to him by the secretaries. Let a copy of this Minute be sent to the Treasury, with a request that the Lords Commissioners will direct an imprest of 3,000?. to be made for the purpose of giving effect to this minute. (No. 5.) Copy of Treasury Minute, 2nd June 1854. Direct the Paymaster-General to pay to H. Cole, Esq., C.B., and Dr. Lyon Treasury Playfair, C.B., Joint Secretaries of the Department of Science and Art, the Minute, sum of 3,000?. to defray the expenses of certain preliminary arrangements undertaken by that department, for the management of the British portion of the Industrial Exhibition to be held in Paris in the year 1855, and to charge the same to Civil Contingencies, as an advance to be hereafter repaid. Acquaint Mr. Cole, and state that my Lords sanction the arrangements herein proposed. 58 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix D. Staff of officers. Colonial Commis- sioners : — Australia. Bahamas. Barbadoes. British Guiana. Canada. APPENDIX (D.) BOARD OF TRADE (DEPARTMENT OE SCIENCE AND ART). THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE LORDS OE THE COMMITTEE OF PRIVY COUNCIL FOR TRADE. Officers employed on the Paris Exhibition. Henry Cole, Esq., C.B., General Commissioner. Richard Redgrave, Esq., R.A., Special Commissioner for Eine Arts. Francis Fowke, Captain R.E., Secretary. George Francis Duncombe, Esq., Assistant Secretary. Richard A. Thompson, Esq., Superintendent for Arrangement. Philip C. Owen. Esq., Deputy Superintendent for Arrangement. C. S. Parker, Esq., Assistant for the Fine Arts. C. Thurston Thompson, Esq., Henry Sandham, Esq., and Edward Hall, Esq., Assistants for Arrangement. Falconer Atlee, Esq., Inspector for the Admission of Goods. Assistant, Mr. Edmund Joy. William Match wick, Esq., Financial Clerk. Assistant Clerks, Mr. C. G. Quinton, Mr. Henry Gasparini. Sergeant Jenkins; Corporals Key, Mack, and Clabby ; Privates Kelly and Hart, Royal Sappers and Miners. Mr. Harris, Messenger. Mrs. Harris, Housekeeper. Offices : — 14 Rue du Cirque. Commissioners and Agents for British Colonies. AUSTRALIA— Sydney : William M‘ Arthur, Commissioner. E. D. Thomson, „ M. H. Marsh, „ Fred. Bousfield, Secretary. M. Doc, of the firm of MM. Desgrands et fils, 35, Rue de l’Entrepot, Agent. Victoria : Edward Bell, Commissioner. Narcisse Domis, 36, Rue de la Paix, Batignolles, Agent. BAHAMAS : Lightly and Simon, Agents in London (123, Fenchurch Street). BARBADOES : Thomas Hill, Agent in London (126, Piccadilly). BRITISH GUIANA ; W. H. Holmes, Commissioner (67, Victoria Street, Westminster). CANADA : J. C. Tache, Commissioner. W. E. Logan, „ 35, Avenue d’Antin. W. H. Boulton, Honorary Commissioner, 14, Rue du Dauphin. Hector Bossange, „ 25, Quai Voltaire. R. Forsyth Maitland, „ 21, Avenue des Champs Elysees. Donald Bethune, „ Robert Smiley, „ James Beaty, „ A. de Puibusque, „ 52, Rue de Bourgogne. A. Perry, Curator. W. Chapman, Agent in London (21, Old Broad Street). Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 59 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE : CapeofGood J. R. Thomson and Harrison Watson, Commissioners (St. Peter’s Chambers, Hope ‘ Cornhill, London). CEYLON : Ceylon. Capt. H. Layard, Commissioner. G. Bajllie, Agent in London (5, Cannon Row, Westminster). INDIA : India. Chairman and Directors of the Hon. East India Company, Commissioners. Dr. J. Forbes Royle, F.R.S., Special Commissioner, East India House. Dr. P. H. Green, „ JAMAICA : Jamaica. A. Ridgway, Agent in London (42, Leicester Square). E. Fremont, 28, Rue Trevise, Agent in Paris. MAURITIUS: Mauritius. J. Morris, Agent in London (8, Great Ormond Street, Queen’s Square). M. Aubin, 45, Rue du Luxembourg, Agent in Paris. M. Husson, 11, Rue Rumfort, „ NOVA SCOTIA : Mr. Archibald, Agent in London (Conservative Club). NEW ZEALAND. A. Ridgway, Agent in London (42, Leicester Square). E. Fremont, Agent in Paris (28, Rue Trevise). YAN DIEMEN’S LAND : R. W. Nett, Commissioner. F. A. Ducroz, Agent in London. J. Gibson. „ M. Steiner, Agent in Paris (35, Rue de l’Entrepot). Nova Scotia. New Zea- land. Van Die- men’s Land. List of Agents for Exhibitors of the United Kingdom. Agents for Exhibitors Bennett, H., Hotel Folkestone, 9, Rue Castellane. Representing single Exhi- and Com- bitors. mittees. Brandon, D., 21, Rue Gaillon. Representing Exhibitors. Brown, J. G., 14, Rue du Cirque. Representing Sunderland Committee. Cappe, E., 30, Rue Jean Goujon. Representing single Exhibitors. Combes, E., 4, Rue Neuve des Mathurins. Representing Hull. Desgands et fils, 35, Rue de l’Entrepot. Representing Colonies and single Exhibitors. Devlin, J. D., 14, Rue du Cirque. Representing the London Boot and Shoe Trade. Dowson, J. E., 14, Rue du Cirque. Representing Aberdeen, Birmingham, Huddersfield, Kidderminster, Sheffield, Trowbridge, and Walsall Committees. Metropolitan Cabinet Makers, Carpet Makers, Chemists, and Curriers. Fontaine-Moreau, M. de, 39, Rue de l’Echiquier. Representing single Ex- hibitors. Harding, S., 18, Rue de l’Echiquier. Representing Glasgow Committee. Hartman, J., 17, Rue Bleue. Representing the Leeds Woollen Exhibitors. Henocque andVAMVERS, 14, Rue Basse des Remparts. Representing Saddlery. Hickling, M. Representing Nottingham. Houston, J. M. and G, W., 14, Rue du Cirque. Representing Paisley Ex- hibitors. Hunt and Heslop. Representing Exhibitors. Murray, B. A., 41, Rue Miromenil. Representing Dublin Committee. Murray, J. 0., 14, Rue du Cirque. Representing Manchester Committee. 60 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. AppendixD. Appendix E. British Jurors for the Indus- trial Divi- sion. Nourse and Company (through Mr. Yapp), 27, Boulevart des Italiens. Repre- senting single Exhibitors. Ryder, W. H., 14, Rue du Cirque. Representing Potteries Committee. Saglier, V., 42, Rue des Jeuneurs. Representing single Exhibitors. Simon, Theodore, 14, Rue du Cirque. Representing Class VIII. Smith, R., and Howitt, G., 14, liue du Cirque. Representing Bradford and Halifax. Spiers, Frederick, 13, Rue de la Paix. Representing the Carriage Makers of London and the Provinces. Stout, Stephen, 64, Rue de la Ville l’Eveque. Representing Colonies and single Exhibitors. Sutton, William, 11 , Rue St. Pierre, Montmartre. Representing Silk Manu- facturers. APPENDIX (E.) BRITISH JURORS. Class I.— MINING AND METALLURGY. Jurors. W. J. Hamilton, President of the Geological Society. Warington Smyth, F.G.S., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Government School of Mines, and Inspector of Mines to the Duchy of Cornwall Class II.— FORESTRY, &c. Juror. Sir W. Hooker, F.R.S., Director of the Royal Gardens, Ivew. Class HI.— AGRICULTURE. Juror. J. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Member of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Supplementary Jurors. John Wilson, F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edin- burgh. C. E. Amos, Consulting Engineer to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Class IV.— MACHINERY IN GENERAL AS APPLIED TO INDUSTRY. Juror. George Rennie, C.E., F.R.S. Class V.— RAILWAY MACHINERY, COACHES, AND HARNESS. Jurors. T. R. Crampton, C,E., Engineer to the Submarine Telegraph between France and England, for Railway Machinery. Rt. Hon. the Earl of Shelburne, M.P., for Carriages and Harness. Class VI.— MACHINERY FOR WORKSHOPS. Juror. W. Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the French Institute and Juror in 1851. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 61 Class VIL— MACHINERY FOR WOVEN FABRICS. Juror. Rev. R. Willis, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Cambridge, and of Mechanics in the Government School of Mines, and Juror in 1851 ; aided by the Jurors for Woven Fabrics. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix E. Class VIII.— ARTS RELATING TO THE EXACT SCIENCES, AND TO INSTRUCTION. Jurors. Sir David Brewster, F.R.S-, Member of the French Institute, and Deputy- Chairman and Reporter of the Jury of Philosophical Instruments in 1851. J. Carter, Alderman of the City of London, and Chairman of the Metropolitan Committee of Watch and Clockmakers. Supplementary Juror. Dr. Tyndal, F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Class IX.— HEAT, LIGHT, AND ELECTRICITY. J URORS. C. Wheatstone, F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Philosophy, King’s College, Corresponding Member of the French Institute. Dr. Neil Arnott, F.R.S. Class X.— CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, INCLUDING PAPER. Jurors. Thomas Graham, F.R.S., Master of the Mint, Corresponding Member of the French Institute, and Deputy-Chairman and Reporter of the Chemical Jury in 1851. Warren De la Rue, F.R.S., Reporter and Juror in the Exhibition of 1851. Class XI.— ALIMENTARY SUBSTANCES. Juror. R. Owen, F.R.S., Corresponding Member of the French Institute, and Chair- man of the Jury on Alimentary Substances in the Exhibition of 1851. Class XII.— HYGIENE, PHARMACY, SURGERY, MEDICINE. Jurors. Sir Joseph Olliefe, Physician to the British Embassy in Paris. Dr. Royle, F.R.S., Professor of Materia Medica in King’s College, Scientific Referee to the H.E.I.C. on the Vegetable Substances of India, and Juror in 1851. Supplementary Juror. Edwin Chadwick, C.B., late Member of the General Board of Health. Class XIII.— NAVAL AND MILITARY ARTS. Jurors. Lieutenant-General Sir John Burgoyke, G.C.B., Inspector-General of For- tifications, and Juror in 1851. J. Scott Russell, F.R.S., Shipbuilder, late Secretary to the Royal Commis- sion for the Exhibition of 1851. 62 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Class XIV.— CIVIL ENGINEERING. J UROR. Joseph Locke, C.E., M.P., E.R.S. Appendix E. Supplementary Juror. Charles Manby, C.E., Secretary to the Institution of Civil Engineers. Class XV.— STEEL AND ITS PRODUCTS. Juror. T. Moulson, the Master Cutler of Sheffield . Supplementary Juror. J. J. Mechi, F.S.A., Juror in the Exhibition of 1851. Class XVI.— GENERAL METAL WORK. Jurors. W. Bird, Deputy-Chairman of Jury on Iron in the Exhibition of 1851. Alfred Tylor, E.G.S., Manufacturer in London. Class XVII.— GOLDSMITHS’ WORK, JEWELLERY, AND BRONZES. Juror. The Most Honorable the Marquis of Hertford, K.G. Class XVIII.— GLASS AND POTTERY. Jurors. J. Hartley, Manufacturer of Glass in Sunderland, and Medallist in 1851. J. Webb, Juror for Furniture in 1851. Supplementary Juror. Dr. Hofmann, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Government School of Mines, and Juror and Reporter in the Exhibition of 1851. Class XIX.— COTTON PRINTING AND DYEING. Jurors. T. Bazley, President of the Chamber of Commerce, Manchester, one of Her Majesty’s Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851. Walter Crum, F.R.S., Calico Printer and Bleacher, Glasgow. Class XX.— WOOLLEN AND WORSTED MANUFACTURES. Jurors. S. Addington, Woollen Merchant, London, and Reporter of the Jury on Woollen Cloths in the Exhibition of 1851. Richard S. Butterfield, Merchant, of Bradford, Yorkshire. Class XXI.— SILK. J UROR. T. F. Gibson, one of Her Majesty’s Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851. Supplementary Juror. T. Winkworth, Reporter to the Silk Jury in the Exhibition of 1851. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 63 Class XXII.— FLAX AND HEMP. Juror. Erskine Beveridge, Linen Manufacturer, Dunfermline. Supplementary Juror. James MacAdam, jun., Secretary of the Royal Society for the Promotion and Improvement in the Growth of Flax in Ireland, and Honorary Secretary to the Belfast Committee for the French Exhibition. Class XXIII.— HOSIERY, CARPETS, &c. Jurors W. Felkin, Chairman of Jury on Clothing in 1851. Peter Graham, Upholsterer, and Juror in 1851. Class XXIV.— FURNITURE AND DECORATION. Jurors. His Grace the Duke of Hamilton. Digby Wyatt, Architect, Secretary to the Executive Committee of the Exhibition of 1851. Class XXV.— MISCELLANEOUS AND ORNAMENTAL OBJECTS. Juror. Rt. Hon. Lord Ashburton, F.R.S., Deputy-Chairman of Jury on Furniture in the Exhibition of 1851. Class XXVI.— PRINTING, PHOTOGRAPHY, &c. Juror. Charles Knight, Publisher. Supplementary Juror. Thomas De la Rue, Chairman of the Metropolitan Committee of Paper Makers and Stationers for the Paris Exhibition, and Juror in 1851. Class XXVII.— MUSIC. Juror. Rt. Hon. Sir George Clerk, Bart., F.R.S., President of the Royal Academy of Music. Class XXVIII.— PAINTING, ENGRAVING, and LITHOGRAPHY. Lord Elciio, M.P. Daniel Maclise, Esq., R.A. Frederick Tayler, Esq. J. H. Robinson, Esq., Engraver. Class XXIX.— SCULPTURE. The Rt. Hon. Henry Labouciiere, M.P. R. Westmacott, Esq., R.A. W. Calder Marshall, Esq., R.A. Class XXX.— ARCHITECTURE. Sir Charles Barry, R.A. Professor Cockerell, R.A. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix E, British Jurors for the Eine Arts. 64 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix F. Printed documents issued by the Board of Trade. APPENDIX (F.) Catalogue of Printed Documents used in the Operations of the British Commission in carrying on the Business of the Paris Exhibition. No. Date. Nature of Document. 1 8 March 1853 - Decrees, Regulations, and Instructions of the Impe- rial Commission. 2 28 May 1854 - Summary of Conditions on which the Exhibition will be conducted. 3 59 Form of Demand for Space. 4 4 a 5 28 May 1854 - Circular Letter accompanying Nos. 1, 2, and 3 8 March 1853 - 99 99 # 99 Decrees, Regulations, and Instructions of the Im- perial Commission. 6 6 June 1854 - Circular Letter summoning Committee (Precious Metals). 7 99 Circular Letter summoning Committee (Furniture and Decoration). 8 99 Circular Letter summoning Committee (Clocks and Watches). 9 59 Circular Letter summoning Committee (Silks). 10 26 June 1854 - „ „ (Blank). 11 8 June 1854 - Correspondence relating to the interests of British Manufacturers to exhibit in Paris in 1855. 12 20 June 1854 - Resolutions of Committee (Musical Instruments). 13 99 Resolution passed by Council of Civil Engineers. 14 22 June 1854 - Resolutions of Committee (Saddlery and Harness). 15 - Blank Form for summoning Committee. 16 - List of London Papers for Advertisements. 17 26 June 1854 - Resolution of Committee (Philosophical Instru- ments). 18 1 July 1854 - Resolution of Committee (Letterpress and Surface Printing, and Type founding). 19 4 July 1854 - Resolution of Committee (Hats and Caps). 20 12 July 1854 - Circular Letter inviting Sculptors to exhibit. 21 99 Circular Letter announcing that a Secretary has been appointed to the Associate Committees of the Metropolis. 22 14 July 1854 - Circular to Agricultural Implement Makers. 23 - Form of Demand for Space (Sculpture). 24 - Regulations as to Works of Sculpture. 25 - Directory. 26 19 July 1854 - Report of meeting held at Manchester on the subject of the Exhibition, on the 13th July 1854. 27 20 July 1854 - Resolution of Committee (Paper and Stationery). 28 22 July 1854 - Circular Letter to Secretaries of Local Committee 29 - Form of Estimate of the Number of Exhibitors to accompany Circular to Local Committees (28). 30 25 July 1854 - Circular Letters with respect to a due Representa- tion of Agricultural Produce. 31 - Blank Circular accompanying No. 3. 32 m .• m Regulations as to Paintings. 33 ... Form of Demand for Space (Painting). 34 - Regulations as to Engraving and Lithography. Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 65 No. Date. Nature of Document. 35 - Form of Demand for Space (Engraving and Litho- graphy). 36 12 July 1854 - Circular Letter to Painters inviting them to exhibit. 37 12 July 1854 - Circular Letter to Engravers inviting them to exhibit. 38 29 July 1854 - Circular Letter calling attention to Error in Article 1 3 of Decrees, and Paragraph 4 of Summary. 39 ■ Circular stating Form of Demand for Space has been filled in from particulars given. 40 - Form of Demand for Space after 1st August 1854. 41 - Circular Letter to Architects, inviting them to ex- hibit. 42 4 Aug. 1854 - Regulations as to Architecture. 43 - Form of Demand for Space (Architecture). 44 " Corrected Translation of Decrees, &c. of the Impe- rial Commission. 45 - Letter to Artists respecting the examination of their Works. 46 6 Aug. 1854 - Circular to Persons proposing to exhibit Machinery. 47 8 Aug. 1854 - Circular Letter to Secretaries of Local Committees accompanying Directory (25). 48 - Circular Letter accompanying No. 40. 49 Circular Letter on Agricultural Implements to be exhibited. 50 - Circular to Applicants for Space after 1st August. 51 Extract from “ London Gazette ” of 1 5th Sep- tember 1854. 52 5 Oct. 1854 - Circular to Exhibitors distinct from any Local Committee. 53 5 Oct. 1854 - Circular to Exhibitors having a Local Committee. 54 10 Oct. 1854 - Memorandum with reference to Allotment of Space by Local Committees to accompany No. 53. 55 12 Oct. 1854 - Circular to Agricultural Implement Makers. 56 Schedule to be filled up by makers of Agricultural Implements. 57 12 Oct. 1854 - Circular to Exhibitors of Machinery. 58 Oct. 1854 - „ „ of the Metropolis. 59 31 Oct. 1854 - Circulars to Local Committees, enclosing Circular of Imperial Commission, No. 60. 60 Oct. 1854 - Translation from the “Moniteur” of the 19 th October 1854. 61 24 Oct. 1854 - Circular to Metropolitan Exhibitors, A. 62 „ „ B. 63 Circular to Exhibitors distinct from any Com- mittee, A. Circular to Exhibitors distinct from any Com- mittee, B. 64 65 Oct. 1854 - Committee for Iron Trade. 66 Oct. 1854 - Special Demand for Space (Iron Trade). 67 1 Nov. 1854 - Summary of Conditions (No. 2) revised to this date. 68 - List of Exhibitors to whom Space has been allotted by each Committee. 68 a ■ List of Exhibitors to whom Space has been allotted by Associate Metropolitan Committees. 69 • List of Exhibitor's to whom Space has been allotted by Associate Metropolitan Committees. 70 - Circular to Exhibitors to whom Space has been allotted. 71 ... Form of Statement of Payments on account of Vote of £50,000. Mr. Cole on the General Manage- ment. Appendix F. Printed documents issued by the Board of Trade. Me. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix F. Printed documents issued by the Board of Trade. 66 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. No. Date. Nature of Document. 72 Fine Art Circular to Owners of Pictures, &c. 73 9 Dec. 1854 - Allotment of Space Circular (Machinery). 74 75 15 Dec. 1854 - 13 Dec. 1854 Circular on Appropriation of the Offices in Paris. Explanation of Plan of Space allotted to each Com- mittee. 76 16 Dec. 1854 - Instructions to Architects sending their Works to Gore House. 77 - Ticket to be pasted on the back of the Frame of each Work sent by Architects. 78 78 a 79 Jan. 1855 Letter requesting Loan of Paintings. Letter requesting Loan of Engravings. Invitation from Chemical Committee of Royal Society to exhibit. 80 10 Jan. 1855 - Allotment of Space (Agricultural Machinery). 81 Jan. 1855 List of Works of Art asked for. 82 Jan. 1855 Circular on Collection of Coals of the United Kingdom. 82 a Jan. 1855 Form of Demand for Space (Coal Collection). 83 16 Jan. 1855 On the Superiority of Collective over Individual Exhibitions. 84 18 Jan. 1855 - Notice to Exhibitors on Glass Cases, Fittings, & c. 84 a Jan. 1855 Suggestive Modes of erecting Glass Cases and Fittings, for the consideration of Exhibitors. 85 18 Jan. 1855 - Questions to Exhibitors on Fittings and Cases. 86 - Acting Local Committees. 87 19 Jan. 1855 - List of Proprietors of Works of Art made up to this date. 87 a 31 Jan. 1855 - List of Proprietors of Works of Art made up to this date 88 - Circular Letter stating Works of Art will be called for. 89 Jan. 1855 Circular Letter allotting Space (Fine Arts). 90 : Form for apportioning the Exhibitors among the various classes. 91 - Advice of Shipment. 92 - Form for Travelling Expenses. 93 - - - Fine Arts Form of Receipt Note. 94 - Arrangements for Shipping Goods. 95 - Shipment of Goods (accompanying Nc. 94). 96 97 ~ Shipment of Goods by way of Dunkirk. Special Shipment of Goods by way of 98 Jan. 1855 Circular Letter accompanying No. 99. 99 Jan. 1855 - Circular Letter stating assent or dissent from joining in Expense of Glass Case. 100 “ Circular Letter accompanying Papers for Despatch of Fine Arts. 101 - Circular Letter announcing Despatch of Fine Arts. 102 - Address Card (Fine Arts). 103 * Circular Letter acknowledging Arrival of Works of Art. 104 - Contractors in Paris for Glass Cases, &c. 105 1 Feb. 1855 Circular Letter stating Rotation Number of Ex- hibitor. 106 Feb. 1855 - Instructions as to Safe Transmission of Works of Art. 107 1 Feb. 1855 - Notice on the Employment of Agents in Paris. Contracts for Cases, &c. 108 ... List for the Information of the French Customs (Bulletin d’Expedition). Mr. Cole on the General Management (Appendix). 67 No. Date. Nature of Document. 109 5 Feb. 1 855 - Notice of Insurance of Works of Art sent to the Paris Exhibition. 110 13 Feb. 1855 - Notice on Addressing the Packages. 111 _ Circular of Introduction. 112 March 1855 - Notice of Insurance of Works of Art sent to the Paris Exhibition. 113 20 Feb. 1855 - Circular Letter on filling up of the Exhibitor’s Bulletin. 114 16 Feb. 1855 - Request for the immediate Return of Circulars on Shipment. 115 - Rules for Receiving and Delivering Works of Art. 116 - Circular Letter to Owners of Cattle Pictures. 117 - Form of Demand for Space for Cattle Pictures. 118 - List of Pictures in Oil. 119 - „ Water Colours. 120 22 Feb. 1855 - Circular Letter on Time for despatching Goods to Paris. 121 - Circular Letter stating last Day for receiving Spe- cimens of Coal. 122 - Circular Letter stating Works of Architecture have been passed. 122 a - Circular accompanying No. 122. 123 1 March 1855 Circular Letter stating Mr. Cole has been appointed to Superintend the Arrangements of the British Section of the Exhibition. 124 15 March 1855 Circular Letter on Price Lists and Trade Circulars. 125 - Report on the preliminary Measures adopted. 126 16 March 1855 Notice, enclosing Circular, with Information re- quired for Catalogue by Imperial Commission. 127 23 March 1855 Notice on Correspondence. 128 29 March 1855 Notice on the Despatch of Goods. 129 31 March 1855 Notice on Postage of Letters. 130 - Special Instructions for the Guidance of the Inter- national Jury. 131 - Circular stating all Correspondence to be addressed to Paris. 132 - Notice on Passports to Workmen visiting the Paris Exhibition. 133 28 May 1855 - Circular Letter on Rewards to Workmen. 134 . Agency and Distribution of Prospectuses, &c. 134 a - Form for Names of Workmen. 135 25 June 1855 - Notice to Exhibitors on Meeting of the Juries. 136 2 July 1855 - Resolution of a Meeting of the British Jurors held this day. 136 a 14 June 1855 - Appointment of British Jurors. 137 16 July 1855 - Circular Letter accompanying No. 136. 138 27 July 1855 - Circular Letter on inserting Woodcuts of Objects exhibited and Statement of Prices, & c. in Cata- logue. 139 17 Oct. 1855 - Notice announcing Closing of Exhibition to take place on the 15th November. 140 30 Nov. 1855 - Notice to Exhibitors to whom Prizes have been awarded. 141 •• List of Awards. Me. Cole on THE Genebal Manage- ment. Appendix F. Printed documents issued by the Board of Trade. G. F. Duncombe. 68 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Colb ON THE General Manage- ment. Appendix F. Extracts from printed documents. Appropria- tion of the offices in Paris. No. 74, 15th Decem- ber 1854. Superiority of collective over indi- vidual exhi- bitions. No. 83, 16th Jan. 1855. Extracts from Printed Documents issued by the Board of Trade. The following extracts from some of the circulars, which were from time to time, as the occasion required, transmitted to exhibitors, may be found useful as embodying a few important principles, which were followed in the management of the British section of the Exhibition. As soon as a house had been hired in Paris for offices, exhibitors were informed that — “ It is the wish of my Lords to make this house as extensively useful as possible to the committees who have been co-operating with them in securing a creditable representation of the industry and of the Pine Arts of the United Kingdom, as well as to the officers who may be sent to Paris by my Lords to yield the necessary assistance, information, and support to the exhibitors.” “ My Lords consider that it is very desirable not only that the French people should see the British goods displayed in the Exhibition, but that facilities should be given for obtaining all the information possible with respect to price, rate of production, the facility with which orders can be executed, &c. ; and it is considered that an office in a central situation, adjoining the Exhibition, where such information could be obtained with readiness, would be of great service to the French public, and to the exhibitors of the United Kingdom and its dependencies.” “ The accommodation will not be sufficient to allow of the same facilities being offered to the agents of individual exhibitors ; but it is proposed to pro- vide means by which during the arrangements, and during the Exhibition itself, exhibitors may, should they think proper, have their letters sent to the same address.” The superiority of a collective over an individual display of the manufac- tures belonging to one class having been appreciated by the Board of Trade, the adoption of the plan suggested by the Secretary of the Imperial Commission was urged upon the exhibitors in the following circular : — “ I. Many important seats of manufacture, like Manchester, Sheffield, and Glasgow, and branches of trade, like the silk trade of Spitalfields, the printing, boot and shoe, and saddlers’ trades of the metropolis, have already combined to exhibit collections complete and illustrating the details of each trade in all its branches, to be arranged in groups in stalls, or in one or more glass cases, accord- ing to circumstances. This mode of action has been adopted in order that the local display should not be left to accident to be made by individuals on their own judgment alone, but with the judgment of all who are interested in the complete representation of the industry of the locality ; and as these arrange- ments conduce in a high degree to rendering the necessarily limited amount of space all the more effective for the object of an exhibition of national industry, it has been judged desirable to explain in some detail to those local committees, who may not have adopted already the collective principle of exhibition, the means by wffiich such mode adapts itself to the limited amount of space, and, at the same time, promotes the interests of individual exhibitors and the perfect display of British industry. “II. The great object on the present occasion is to convey to the French public and the visitors to the Exhibition, likely to come from all parts of the world, a complete and general impression of the industry and resources of each of our great seats of manufacture. M. Dufour, the Secretary of the Imperial Commis- sion, has pointed out how this may be easily done without destroying the individuality of each exhibitor. For instance, a stall may be headed as the “Lock Trade of Wolverhampton,” or the “Silk Trade of Spitalfields,” repre- sented by the following houses (here to follow the names in alphabetical order) : A. B. C. D. E. F., &c. And instead of showing a specimen of every description of goods v'hich every firm was able to produce, a complete collection may be formed of all the different kinds of locks and silks made in those localities, from the cheapest to the dearest, Mr. Cole on the General Management {Appendix). 69 correctly classified and arranged, each house being called upon to supply speci- Mr. Cole mens of those particular goods in which it has the largest trade or the greatest r 0N THE celebrity. Each specimen might, or might not, bear, on a small card, the name of the actual manufacturer, but on the stall and in the catalogue each firm ment would not only appear as the contributor of the few specimens shown, but as — “ v one of the manufacturers representing that particular industry of their locality, App enctl x * ' and able to supply orders for all kinds. “ III. Doubtless there are other principles upon which such a collective exhi- bition might be formed, and the same objects attained by different means ; but it is evident that the general impression of such arrangements would be infi- nitely superior to a number of little cases occupied each by a distinct exhibitor. Not only will it be more useful to the country and to the locality, but to the individual exhibitors themselves. In furtherance of the above plan, the Associate Committees of the metro- Q] ass caseg> poiis requested the issue of a special circular on the subject : — No. 98, “ The Associate Committee for the representation of the above branch of 3 l s ^ J an. industry are of opinion that it would be greatly to the advantage of the exhi- 1 ° 5j * bitors, if they united in the expense of a glass case, wherein to exhibit their goods ; inasmuch as it would be a great saving of expense, and ensure a judicious display : the* individuality of each exhibitor being still preserved.” A number was given to every exhibitor, in order to facilitate his identifica- Rotation tion, and was found of great service in the transport arrangements, & c. ; the number, following is the special use he was requested to make of this designation : — istF^’lSSS “ I am directed to acquaint you that your rotation number for the Paris e * Exhibition is , and I have to request that in order to prevent error in all future correspondence, you will have the kindness to put this number at Ihe top of the first page of all letters or documents (in the same manner as it is inserted above), and that you will be particularly careful that it is attached to every package you may forward.” It was thought that time and trouble would be saved, if information respect- Employ- ing persons willing to undertake agencies and contracts for glass cases, &c., men t of were communicated to exhibitors, leaving them to make their election between p^is 111 their own friends, and the persons who were accredited by the Imperial Com- No. 107, mission. The names of agents communicated to this Department by the French lstFeb.1855. authorities were therefore sent to exhibitors, who were, however, told that — “ The responsibility of employing agents in Paris rests wholly on exhibitors ; and in affording any information on the subject of agency, the Department of Science and Art leaves the question of using it or not entirely to the discretion of the exhibitors. “ Exhibitors are able to make their own inquiries respecting agents in this; country, and require no information from the Department ; but it may perhaps be convenient to them to learn the names of those parties in France offering themselves as agents, which have been communicated by the Imperial Commis- sion. In all cases, when exhibitors think fit to employ persons in Paris as agents or tradesmen, their communications must be sent direct to those parties, and not to this Department. “ Exhibitors should be cautioned against employing persons not accredited by the Imperial Commission.” Complaints having been frequently made during the Exhibition, that answers Agency, dis- to inquiries respecting the prices, &c., of the British productions could not be tribution of obtained, in consequence of the neglect of exhibitors to provide means of afford- tuses^&c ing this information, and of their having simply placed their goods in the No. 134, ’ building and then left them, it was thought advisable urgently to recommend, — 19th June “ That exhibitors should either attend themselves, or appoint a proper repre- 1855, sentative of their own to attend for them in the building, and that when this may not be possible, they should make arrangements so that some suitable person, if not stationary at their own spaces, may at least be always found in the building, and able to give information, lists of prices, &c.” 70 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Cole on THE General Manage- ment. Appendix F. Appendix G. Law for the protecti&n of designs and inven- tions. “ It is recommended that every exhibitor should cause a proper supply of cards of address, prices current, prospectuses, &c. to be provided, in order that they may be taken away by inquirers. The French Government has remitted the usual stamp attached to these documents, in order to promote the circulation of commercial information. These prospectuses, &c. should be translated into French and German. Copies should always be found at every exhibitor’s space.” “ The exhibition is not intended to be a mere show, entailing unprofitable trouble on the exhibitors, and creating wishes among visitors which cannot be gratified. The President of the Imperial Commission, the Prince Napoleon, stated in his address that the term ‘ prohibition ’ had been abolished in the Exhibition, and it is the duty of exhibitors, as well as their interest, to spare no exertions to make the Exhibition as useful as possible.” G. F. Duncombe. APPENDIX (G.) Statement of the Operation of the Law which guaranteed from Piracy the Designs and Inventions exhibited, as far as concerned British Exhibitors. The law, passed in the early part of May 1855, enabled exhibitors of inventions and designs to obtain gratuitously from the Imperial Commission a certificate, containing a description of the object exhibited. This certificate, which was only granted after the object had been ascertained to be actually in the Exhibition building, guaranteed to the exhibitor the same rights as a patent of invention up to the 1st of May 1856. The number of certificates applied for by exhibitors from the United Kingdom, under the rules laid down by this law, was as follows : — Table showing the Number of Applications for Certificates by British Exhibitors. Class. No. in Catalogue. Name of Exhibitor. Object. IV. 133 Walker, Thos. Botary steam engine. Y. 200 Davies and Sons Improved brougham, and new wheel. 99 227 Miles, Ezra System for coupling pipes and tubes. 99 209 Bock and Son “ Carriage diaropha,” new rail- way truck, new tent. YI. 292 Donkin, Bryan Bag and rope cutting machine. VII. 334 a Crossley, John Designs for carpets. VIII. 406 Smyth, C. Piazzi Improvements in astronomical instruments. X. 584 Hodges, B. E. Improved doors. XII. 726 Gray, J. Flushing apparatus. 99 766 Little, B. J., Major, B.M. Cocks for fire engines, &c. XIII. 839 Harris, Bichard Improved sponge for cannon. XVII. 1,164 Bisson, Hyacinthe . Jewellery. XIX. 1,256 Clarke, J. F. . Improved bobbins. XX. 1,384 Clabburn, Sons, and Crisp. New shawl. XXV. 1,755 Atloff, J. G. . New shoes and cheap boot. 99 1,759 Coles, W. F. . Cork linings for boots and shoes. 1,769 Hall, Spark es New kind of clog. 1,740 Smith, Charlotte Corset and fastener. 1,750 Wansbrough, J. India rubber garments. XXVI. 1,897 Aresti, J. New process in lithography. G. F. Duncombe, Mr. Cole- on the General Management (Appendix), *71 APPENDIX (H.) Return showing the Number of Letters received and despatched by the British Commission from 30th of April 1853 to the end of January 1856. Year. Month. Number of Letters re- gistered as received, exclusive of Forms returned for Cata- logue, Jury, Cus- toms, &c. Number of Letters despatched not including Circulars. Number each Month. Total. From London. From Paris. Total. 6 a 1853 May 3 into with Mr. J. Green, who has had great experience in like duties, to pack them for transmission to Paris. To secure the careful, judicious, and impartial hanging For hanging and placing of the various works, the Board requested the works! 8 three artists to advise with the Art Superintendent for the paintings, engravings, and architecture, and one for the works of sculpture. The gentlemen so named were T. Creswick, Esq., B.A., F. Y. Hurlstone, Esq., and Copley Fielding, Esq. ; but the latter gentleman being obliged to decline on account of failing health, Mr. H. Warren was named instead. John Bell, Esq., was requested to aid in the arrangement of the works in scujpture. Previous to sending the works to Paris, a survey of the fiShSidin"- buildings appropriated to receive the Fine Arts was made in Paris, by the Secretary to the Commission, Captain Fowke, B.E., and as it appeared that the means of averting danger from fire were very insufficient, and that a sugar refinery was in most dangerous proximity to the Palais, the Board ordered an examination to be made by the surveyor to the London insurance companies. On receiving his report and sugges- tions, requisition was made to the French Government for an increased supply of water, that it should be laid on out- side the building for the Fine Arts, as well as inside, and * This would show an average value of about 411/. for each of the works in oil; of about 108/. for each of those in water-colours ; and of about 244/. for each work in sculpture ; for obvious reasons a calculation of this kind would be useless as regards architectural works and engravings. 78 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Red- grave on the Pine Arts Arrange- ments. Nature of the galleries allotted to British Works of Art. Reports on arrange- ment. Particulars as to the size of galleries and mode of lighting, &c. Oil paint- ings. that the cases and waste packages should be removed from the vaults beneath. This the French Government most readily undertook to do, and also, in order to skreen the danger from the sugar refinery, to build on the narrow strip of ground between it and the Palais a wall of great length, 40 feet high, towering above both buildings. During the time the pictures were being packed in London, Mr. Braid- wood, of the Fire Brigade, was requested to give the building containing them continuous supervision, as also the wharf whence they were to be shipped, to assure their safety as far as was possible. When the arranging Committee arrived in Paris, and examined the galleries intended for the works from the United Kingdom, it was found, that although small in com- parison with the vast and lofty salons appropriated to French and German Art, they were not unsuitable to British pictures, consisting as these do mainly of works whose average size is small, and their character of careful execution such as to render it impossible to hang them so far above the eye as was necessary in the larger halls. The line space at first offered to the Committee was much shorter than had been promised, and would have required the works to be hung much higher than was proposed ; this was strongly objected to, and although more space was gradually accorded, it was found desirable to lower the line of hanging in the British space, so as to bring two lines of pictures to the eye, instead of one as in the French hanging. Thus the base line (above which the pictures were to be arranged) was lowered from three feet, the French line, to two feet six inches, adopted in the English space. Below this nothing was placed, and by arranging works of small size first, an excellent upper line was obtained for kit-cat and half length works. The other difficulties of arrangement and the steps taken to overcome them, as well as to arrange the sculpture to the best advantage, are fully detailed in two reports which will be found appended (see Appendix A and B). It may be well to record here a few particulars as to the size and mode of lighting these galleries, and the height of the pictures from the floor, since it is not contained in the above reports, and may be found useful as a reference in such matters. The gallery appropriated to British pictures in oil was on the north side of the “ Palais des Beaux Arts ” running the whole length of the building. It was 440 feet long, 25 feet wide, and 28 feet high. Of this gallery, about 300 Mr. Redgrave on the Fine Arts Arrangements. 79 feet in length was, on two sides, occupied by British pictures ME - Red * in oil. It must be remembered, however, that the walls the pine were broken by twelve openings of large size, thereby arrange- reducing the actual wall space for hanging to a length of M ™ s * 420 feet. The numerous short spaces occasioned by these openings, rendered still shorter by their being subdivided by large projecting water pipes conducting the waste water from the roof of the building, made the task of arrangement very difficult, preventing the usual proceeding of hanging the works from centres, and was only to be overcome by great care, labour, and consideration. This long gallery was lighted throughout the whole length by a flat sky-light, occupying about half the width of the ceiling, as shown in the section. The line A A, as lowered by the Committee of Arrangement, was 2 ft. 6 in. from the floor, leaving a space of about 24 ft. above it for arranging the works. The upright space B B, under sky- light, was pierced the whole length for ventilation ; and the flat sky-light itself covered with a sloping glass roof c C. It was first required of the Arranging Committee to hang Modegar- the British pictures to the top of the space ; but this was pictures, wholly objected to on our parts, since, besides the other considerations before spoken of, the narrowness of the gal- 80 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Red- grave ON the Fine Arts Arrange- ments. Space occu- pied by tlie Works of Art in oil. Water- colour paint- ings, engrav- ings, &c. Space occu- pied. lery prevented works, however large, from being seen at that height from the floor. As it was, when the pictures were finally hung, the average height of the tops of the frames of the highest pictures was 5 French metres from tlie floor, or about 1 6 ft. 6 in. ; a few of the very large pic- tures being about 3 ft. higher. In the larger and far higher salons of France and Germany, the works, when hung, averaged 10 metres, or about 33 ft. to the top of the frame, and many of the larger works 1 1 metres, — while the bottoms of the frames of many pictures were 5 metres above the floor. The lighting of this gallery was excellent, and it required very little slope in the pictures to accommodate the angle of incidence of the rays of light to the picture and to the spectator. The gallery, however, would have been much improved by being 5 or 6 ft. wider. Taking the above lengths and the average height above the line at 15 ft., the space occupied by British pictures in oil would be about 6,300 square feet, or rather less than an average of 27 square feet to each picture, and 63J square feet to each artist. The water-colour paintings, engravings, enamels, and architectural designs were hung in an upper gallery, which ran all round tlie principal building. This gallery was 21 ft. in width, and about 1 9 ft. in height, and lighted, as the oil- colour gallery, with a flat sky-light, occupying about hal the centre of the ceiling. The lighting was excellent, and the only defect arose from the glazing of the works acting as so many mirrors, and reflecting the opposite side of the gallery, thereby interfering with the view of the spectator. Two hundred and twenty feet on each side in the north gallery were taken up by British works. Of these four hundred and forty feet, one hundred and thirty feet in length were occupied by paintings in water-colours ; and one hundred and thirty feet, opposite the water-colour paint- ings, by engravings ; while, for the rest of the length, ninety feet on each side were hung with architectural designs. A much shorter space was originally marked off for British works. Here, as in the gallery below, it had been urged on us to hang the works up to the ceiling ; but strong objections being made on the part of the Hanging Com- mittee, greater length was afforded, although not equal to the original demand. Here also the line was lowered to 2 ft. 6 in., which formed the base of the lowest works, and, when all were finally arranged, the tops of the frames of the water-colour paintings (with the exception of five or six works) ranged under eleven feet six inches. Taking Mr. Redgrave or the Fine Arts Arrangements. 81 tlie average height at nine feet six inches the water-colour Me. Red- clra wings would occupy a space of about 1210 square feet, the fine being about 8 ft. 6 in., on an average, to each picture, and aeeange- 24 square feet to each artist. MENTS - Taking the same average height for the engravings and for architecture, it would allow, in the first case, a total of 1,240 ft., being about 6-j ft. as the average of each work, and 20 ft. as the average snace to each artist ; whilst in architec- ture it would give a total of 1,710 feet, being about 18 ft. 6 in. to each work, and about 83 square feet to each archi- tect exhibiting, independently of the seven architectural models which were ranged down the middle of the gallery. Adopting a suggestion of Her Majesty when visiting the artist and Vernon collection of pictures, the name of each artist and subject^ 1 ’ the subject of his picture or statue, both in French and tachedto English, was attached legibly to. the picture or statue, as and\Sue. re well as inserted in the catalogue. This was highly appre- ciated by the public, and increased th£ attraction of the British collection of works from the ready information it afforded. The space assigned by the French Imperial Commission Sculpture, to the works of sculpture from the United Kingdom was a long gallery running parallel to that appropriated to our oil paintings, and communicating with it at each end. The dimensions of this hall were as follows : width, 21 ft. 6 in. ; height, 20 ft. ; length, 96 ft. It was lighted on the north side, throughout its whole length, by windows 1 1 ft. 9 in. from the ground, and 6 ft. 8 in. high. As an exhibition room Tor sculpture it could hardly be considered satisfactory, either in respect of lighting, pro- works, portion, or means of access ; nevertheless, after the fullest consideration, it was accepted, as leaving Mr. Bell more at liberty to choose his own mode of arrangement, as to the position, light and shade, height, and background of the various works. It was, however, not nearly spacious enough for the purpose, even with the six places for- large statues afforded by the intercolumnations in the picture gallery. After many applications, the Imperial Commission at length assented to statues being placed down the centre of our picture gallery, where they were most judiciously dis- posed by Mr. Bell, who thus found places for thirteen statues. When arranged, the general effect was so satisfactory that it led to a like treatment being adopted for foreign statues in the corresponding galleries of the building. The whole of the works of Fine Art were properly Ready for i arranged and everything ready for opening on the 1 st of May, St May.° n F 82 Me. Red- grave on the Fine Arts Arrange ments. Jurors named by the Govern- ment. Reports on the Paris Exhibition. according to the original intention of the Imperial Com- mittee ; but as tiie industrial section of the Exhibition was not in a proper state of forwardness, the opening was necessarily deferred to the 15th of May. By the terms of the Imperial Decree, various prizes and medals were to be awarded to the works of Fine Art by international juries, composed of Frenchmen and foreigners, in proportion to the number of exhibitors in each class. In conformity with this Decree, the Board of Trade were requested by the Imperial Commission to nominate four British jurors for painting and engraving, three for sculp- ture, and two for architecture. The experience as to medals and awards derived from the Great Exhibition of 1851, rendered it a subject of much consideration whether it would not be desirable to decline naming jurors for Great Britain, and to leave the entire decision of these rewards to the French themselves ; but finally it was thought better to comply with the wishes of the Imperial Commission, and the following noblemen and gentlemen having been requested to undertake this honour- able duty, kindly acceded to the wishes of the Board : For painting and engraving, — Lord Elcho, M.P. Daniel Maclise, Esq., R.A. J. H. Robinson, Esq. F. Tayler, Esq. For sculpture, — The Right Honorable H. Labouchere, M.P. W. Calder Marshall, Esq., R.A. R. Westmacott, Esq., R.A. For architecture, — Sir Charles Barry, R.A. Professor Cockerell, R.A. After various delays and postponements, the mixed juries made their final report, including the following medals and awards, for the United Kingdom, for the three classes of Fine Arts, — 2 Great Medals of Honour, 10 1st Class Medals, 12 2d ditto ditto, 7 3d ditto ditto, 34 Honorable Mentions ; being 65 awards among 299 artists, or about 1 to every 4^. Mr. Redgrave on the Fine Arts Arrangements. 83 These awards, made in juries wherein French jurors Me. red- largely preponderated, must of necessity be considered the Pine rather French than international. From the first it was Aerange- apparent that the} T could hardly prove satisfactory to MEJfTS - British artists; and, while every acknowledgment is most Their justly due to those jurors who devoted their time and fallacy * labour to a delicate and critical office, there is no doubt that the result only cumulates the experience of 1851, and proves the fallacy and insufficiency of this mode of deciding on the comparative merits of those exhibiting. It only remained, on the close of the Exhibition, to take Return of every precaution for the safe package and return of the of Art.° rks- works. The workmen who had collected and packed them were sent over by Mr. Green ; and the whole of the pictures and statues were carefully repacked by them, under my superintendence, for re-shipment by way of Dunkerque, and re-distribution in England. In this report, which is intended solely to relate the General con- steps taken to form a collection of British Art in Paris, to siderations * ensure its proper display and safe transit, it would be out of place to enter upon any comparison between British Art and the Art of other countries. It may, however, be allowed to speak of the great value of the Fine Art Section of the Universal Exhibition, as affording a means of making the various contributing nations acquainted with their relative progress and standing in Art, and of doing away with many traditional errors and national prejudices. Herein it was seen that Art was not limited to any clime or country ; countries far north sending works of genius which were wanting from Italy, the land of their birth-place. In this collective exhibition, the student of Art could see and weigh the relative merits and defects of the modern schools in invention, imagination, form, colour, and execution ; and each learning of each, it may be hoped that greater general excellence will be the result. Nor will its effects be lost on the industries of the various lands, since there can be little doubt that the industrial arts in any country progress with the advance in Fine Art, and decline with its decline ; and that the nation that would add taste to skill in its manufactures can little hope to do so unless by a general and generous cultivation of the Arts. It is satisfactory to be able to report that the work has Damage been completed without any extensive damage or loss. Such works. 0 1 10 breakage as has occurred has been chiefly confined to works of sculpture in marble and plaster, and the large glasses of water-colour and architectural drawings. This, although F 2 84 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. RED- GRAVE ON the Pine Aets Arrange- ments. Risks to which, they are exposed. Conclusion. much to be lamented, has arisen notwithstanding every possible care and precaution on our part.* It is impossible, however, not to have seen, in the course of these duties, the great risk of injury to which invaluable works of Art, — works which no money can replace, — are exposed by these distant voyages ; risk not only arising from the natural dangers of the road, from transition from rail to ship-board, and from ship-board again to rail, but, in the case of these exhibitions, aggravated by the confusion caused by sudden and extreme pressure on the usual accommodations of the transit ; the provisions for which, more especially on the return of the works, are clogged by a sudden and overwhelming increase of freight, wherein the heaviest machinery and the bulkiest merchandise are of necessity mingled with statues and pictures, without proper arrangements for their separation and safety ; while the very ports of shipment, perhaps, are wholly unprovided with sufficient means of lading and unlading. In the face of these dangers, it would hardly be prudent to re- commend that these continental exhibitions of works of Art should be repeated except at very distant intervals, or that, in any case, Government should again undertake the risk and responsibility of transporting such fragile and precious objects as marble statues, or w’orks covered by glass, whose breakage may at once destroy a priceless labour. In conclusion, it is almost unnecessary to add, that I have received every attention and courtesy from the Imperial Commission and its officers, in the discharge of the duties entrusted to me. I have the honour to be, &c. Rich. Redgrave. * The insurance cost 2,71 bl 12s. 6d., and the claim on the underwriters at Lloyd’s amounts to 423/. 18s. bd. Mr. Redgrave on the Fine Arts Arrangements (Appendix). 85 APPENDICES to Mr. REDGRAVE’S DEPORT. APPENDIX (A.) Report on the Arrangement of the Pictures, &c. contributed by Great Britain and Ireland to the Paris Universal Exhibition. Mr. Red- grave on the Fine Arts Arrange- ments. Appendix A. Having been deputed by the Lords of Her Majesty’s Committee of Privy Report on Council for Trade to proceed to Paris to aid Mr. Redgrave with our advice ^^ge- as to the hanging and arranging the Paintings, Architectural Designs, men ’ and Engravings contributed by the Artists of the United Kingdom to the Paris Universal Exhibition, we beg to submit the following Report of our proceedings . — On our arrival in Paris, we found that a long side hall of the main floor of the Description “ Palais des Beaux- Arts ” hid been appropriated to the British Oil Pictures, and an upper gallery, on the same side of the buildipg, to Water-colour Paintings, Architectural Designs, and Engravings. This appropriation has been made partly because the British works were mostly of a cabinet size, and partly because the allotted space was that part of the building the farthest possible removed from apprehended danger by fire; which danger is, however, now greatly abated by the increased precautions adopted by the French Government. The space allotted in the lower hall to the Oil Pictures is well lighted, and sufficiently low to prevent the necessity of hanging the works at a great eleva- tion ; it also affords the opportunity for all the works of this kind to hang in one continuity. The space, however, presented many obstacles to an agreeable arrangement of the pictures ; it was broken into short lengths by numerous openings and doors, and interrupted by many projections. The light and space in the upper gallery provided for the Water-colour Paint- ings, the Architectural Designs, and the Engravings, are quite unobjectionable. There were, however, other difficulties to be surmounted in the prosecution Arrange- of our labours. It might have been desirable to adopt an alphabetical arrange- merit of the. ment, and to hang all the works of each Artist in close proximity ; but this was p r * found to be wholly impracticable, not only from the causes before mentioned — the divided nature of the space — but more especially from the extreme irregu- larity in the arrival of the works, many of which were not deposited in the building until the last week in April, while others by the same Artists had already been placed on the walls. This irregularity arose from the cir- cumstance of the varied localities in England whence the pictures were obtained from the various proprietors. Notwithstanding, however, the hindrances and obstacles, we trust that we may safely report that a very satisfactory arrangement has been made of all the works intrusted to us ; that all are well seen ; that the space allotted to British Art has been occupied with the least possible loss of room; and the whole com- pleted and in order, so that nothing on our part prevented the opening of the “Exhibition of Beaux- Arts” on the first of May, had other circumstances permitted the adherence to this date. It has long been felt desirable to exhibit a suitable collection of British Art Q en era i on the Continent, where hitherto the works of the British School have been but considera- little known. While we regret that the date determined by the Decree of the R° ns * French Imperial Commission has prevented the exhibition of the works of many of our most eminent artists lately deceased, we still venture to believe that the present collection will redound to the honour of British Art. At the same time, impressed with the many excellences of the French and other foreign works in this collection, we feel satisfied of the general benefit to art that will arise from the assembled Exhibition. Each will learn from all ; many prejudices will gradually be eradicated ; and we may trust in future to a better appreciation of one another. In conclusion, we would venture to hope, that in the event of the British Government, as in the Great Exhibition of 1851, devoting a sum of money to 86 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Red- the purchase of rare works contained in the Exhibition, the department of the grave ox Fine Arts, now, as a whole, for the first time, combined with industry in a -!Rxf E universal Exhibition, may not be excluded from a proper share of con- Arrange- sideration. MEyTS - Thomas Creswick. Appendix A. Henry Warren. May 1855. Irederick Yeates Hurlstone. Appendix B. 4 APPENDIX (B.) Report on the Arrangement of the Works of Sculpture of Great Britain and Ireland in the Beaux- Arts Exhibition in Paris in 1855. Exhibiting space. Arrange- ment of the statues. ■Special apartment for British sculpture. To the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade. Mr Lords, When I arrived in Paris on the 10th of April last, according to your Lordships’ request, in order to arrange, in concert with Mr. Redgrave, the Sculpture of the United Kingdom in the Beaux-Arts Department of the Uni- versal Exhibition, its location in the building was not fixed. One of two situa- tions was offered by the French authorities. We had the option of a portion of the great Hall of French Sculpture combined with that of other nations, or of an apartment rather scanty of both space and light parallel and close to the Gallery of British Oil-paintings, with which it directly communicated by two doorways. After some consideration, deeming it, for various reasons, better that we should stand alone, and that our Sculpture should group with the other art- works of Britain, so as to better illustrate her school, with the concurrence of Messrs. Cole and Redgrave, I accepted the latter arrangement from the French autho- rities, on condition of being allowed to re colour the walls of the apartment differently, and to make what further special arrangements I thought fit ; with the permission also of occupying with statues certain intercolumniations occurring on one side of the Gallery of British Oil-paintings, and also of placing groups of statues and single statues at certain points down the centre of the same gallery, and of placing busts against the columns on either side of the principal entrances. The two latter propositions were at first demurred at by the French autho- rities, but eventually, by their kind permission, they were carried into effect. The staircase to the upper gallery, on the British side, was also granted for the arrangement of busts ; in consequence of which I placed on the centre of the first flight of four or five steps facing the entrance, a bust of His Majesty Napoleon III. by Mr. Park, and on the centre of the next landing a bronze bust of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, by Mrs. Thorny croft, and a few other busts and two relievi on other parts of the staircase leading to the gallery of British water-colours, engravings and architectural drawing and models ; just within which room I placed a case of medals. The collection contained in the special apartment of British Sculpture con- sists wholly of works of a poetic character. This room is lighted wholly by a line of upright windows tolerably high up on one side. The two side entrances, one toward either end, and which are opposite to the windows, open into the gallery of British oil-paintings. At first sight this apartment appeared very dark, but I judged that this was greatly owing to the sombre green with which its walls, like those of the rest of the Exhibition, were coloured. However this tint may suit a gallery of paintings where the wall is much covered, it does not appear calculated for a sculpture-room, where so small a portion is hidden. Moreover, its effect is harsh and cold, and it casts livid reflections on the statues, where cheering ones are more desirable ; and these evils are enhanced where the light is scanty. With this impression, I judged that a different treatment of colour would do much toward lightening and adapting this apartment for sculpture. In accordance, the tint of its walls was changed to a warm grey, of an atmospheric character, that is, of a nature that retreats from the eye instead of advancing towards it, as do most violent colours, especially those wherein red has the preponderance. Its degree of force was regulated by the requirements Mr. Redgrave on the Fine Arts Arrangements {Appendix). 87 of affording sufficient relief to the general colour of the statues in the case in Me. Red- which it was applied, and at the same time of being sufficiently light for their c^ve os- outlines to merge and soften into the background. Too violent a contrast of TH Aets NE shade and colour in the background of sculpture makes the statues look flat and Aeeange- stony, and gives to a marble figure an opaque appearance like plaster, whereas it ments. is to he sought rather so to adjust the tints as to assimilate the effect of plaster to the soft and fleshy character of marble by rounding and melting the edges Appendix B. into the background. I had accepted the honour of arranging the British Sculpture on this occa- Special ar- sion with a hope that such top centre lights and other requisites would have rangements. been available that I should have been able to put in execution a cherished plan of mine for greatly enhancing the effect of sculpture by special arrangements of which much drapery forms a part, but on seeing the best advantages which could be afforded us on this occasion, I at once relinquished as impossible the idea of introducing it in this case, and addressed myself to do the best I could under the circumstances. In carrying out these arrangements, the Sculpture-room being lighted wholly from one side, opposite the doorways, the wall of which, therefore, appearing very dark on entering the room, I had it coloured much lighter than the other sides of the apartment, so as to make it look the same tint, and to give the room a more cheerful appearance ; also there being no proper light under the windows, I placed no works whatever on that side, but left it wholly for passage and for couches and seats placed against it opposite the statues, which are arranged in little more than the opposite half of the room, not more being available as re- gards light. Between the doors the statues advance to the light in two bays or waves, retreating from it in the centre. At the ends of the room also the lines of arrangement are waved. A waved line of arrangement was adopted to avoid the abrupt and mutually interfering effect of statues, when numerous and - near together, coming at once upon the eye in a straight line. By a waved line, the statues are in turn presented in various views in passing through the room, and each has its front to itself as the spectator comes opposite to it. The works are placed on separate pedestals, of varied height, to meet the requirements of each work. Each work of the forward line may be walked round and seen in various views, and those few only are placed against the wall which present but front views, or require a low angle of light. The waved line afforded the means of accommodating each statue as to its front or the side whence it would receive the most favouring light, and also of adapting the angle of light to its require- ment, giving, for instance, a more vertical light to the upright figures, and one more horizontal to those in recumbent positions. These waves of arrangement left in front certain spaces, which are occupied by Mr. Baily’s “ Eve at the Fountain,” and Mr. Gibson’s “ IJylas and the Nymphs.” Mr. Macdowell’s “ Reading Girl ” occupies also the point of another line that projects into the third space, which was obliged to be so arranged on account of the scantiness of room at that end. The walls of the Sculpture-room being of a wa ! m grey, the pedestals are covered with a cloth of a full green, as also the couches and seats, and the floor is painted of a dark reddish brown. I could not get it stained. According to the permission that statues might be arranged in connexion Works with the oil-paintings, such works were chosen for the intercolumniations as chosen for were in some degree architectural, as Mr. Foley’s “ Hampden and Selden,” intercolum- which thus form a pair, one on either side of a doorway, entering on the centre ma 10ns * of the British Gallery of Oil Paintings. Other statues occupy certain points down the centre of the gallery. There occur three times in the British part of the gallery, doorways, opposite each other, being the meeting of four ways. At two of these a symmetrical group of upright statues are placed, back to back, facing the four approaches. “The Concordia,” by Mr. Marshall, a figure emblematic of the alliance between France and England, being one of these, and facing the principal entrance from the French side. Such figures were chosen for these groups as lost least by having their backs hidden, and although this arrangement was suggested greatly by the small amount of room at our disposal for sculpture, yet it did not appear to me that any of the works so placed were injured in effect in consequence. Had, however, the gallery been 88 Repots on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Red- GEAVE ON the Fine Aets Aekange- MENTS. Appendix B. Tickets have been affixed. Number of works. Ready by the 1st May. wide enough to allow of such arrangement without impeding the free circula- tion of the visitors, on which much stress was laid by the French authorities, I should have separated the statues in these groups more from each other, and supplied in their common centre a background of drapery, arranged in some simple ornamental form. The third crossway is occupied hv Mr. Gibson’s “ Hunter.” Four other statues, singly, occupy four other points down the centre of the gallery, opposite doorways existing only on one side of the way, no place in the centre being occupied by a statue except opposite a doorway. “ The House- less Wanderer,” by Sir ilichard Westmacott, is one of these, and occupies a point in front of one of the entrances to the Sculpture-room. Six busts are also placed on pedestals, close to the columns of the three prin- cipal entrances. The pedestals in this gallery, as also those of the busts on the staircase, are covered with a cloth of a full red. In all cases tickets have been affixed, with the name of the artist, and the subject, in French and English. On the green pedestals in the Sculpture- room these tickets are of the warm grey of the wall. On the red pedestals, in the Gallery of Paintings, they are green, of the same colour as the wall there, the lettering, in all cases, being in gold. The Sculpture-room contains thirty-five works, viz., thirty statues, two poetic busts, and three relievi. The Painting Gallery accommodates twenty-five works of sculpture, viz., two groups of four statues each, and five single ones down the centre ; also six statues in the intercolumniations, and six busts close to the columns. Arranged on the staircase are ten works, viz., eight busts and two relievi ; and in the upper gallery is placed a case of medals. The examples of Sculpture from the United Kingdom thus amount to seventy- one. The arrangement of the Sculpture was completed by the J st of May, with the exception of the non-arrival of two works, which were delayed at Dunkirk, but for which pedestals were ready and fixed. I beg to add, that I met with the greatest civility and kindness on the part of the French authorities, and though seveVal of the arrangements we desired differed from their own conceptions, they gave way on each point. I have the honour to be, &c. John Bell. Mr. Thompson on the Industrial Arrangements. 89 Report on the Measures taken for collecting and arrang- M t 0 N H o# P ing the British Objects. — B y Richard A. Thompson, General Superintendent of Arrangement. Arrange- r ° MENTS. Allotment of Space. The preliminary measures necessary for securing a proper Local Com- representation of the industry of Great Britain were com- mittees ‘ menced as early as June 1853. Associate trade and local committees were afterwards formed in the metro- polis, and in the great manufacturing towns of the United Kingdom. Demands for space in which to exhibit were mostly sent Division direct to the Department of Science and Art, Marlborough aLongX House, London, and then, as a general rule, referred to the exhibitors, various metropolitan and local committees who decided on the merits of the application, and sub-divided the space placed by the Department at the disposal of the committee, according to the merits of the productions proposed for exhibition. The number of demands for space received at Marlborough Number of House up to the 11th of August inclusive, was for the indus- and amount trial classes 1,487, and for the fine arts 349 , making a total appEfor. of 1,836 applications. The area applied for amounted to 139,450 superficial feet of horizontal or floor space, and 81,873 feet of vertical or hanging space. A classified list of these demands, together with the area required, was forwarded to the Imperial Commission on the 14th of August 1854, and in September the official allot- ment to Great Britain, amounting to 162,000 superficial feet, was received from them. Tins, on deducting sixty per cent, for passages, left a net exhibiting space of 64,800 feet, which was allotted to the industrial classes only, and was divided between the two buildings in the proportion of 90,000 feet in the Palais de lTndustrie, to 72,000 feet in the long gallery annexed. Nearly all the Colonial, and a great many miscellaneous demands, were received subsequently to this period. Space for the Fine Arts was provided in a third building adjoining the long gallery of the Annexe. The area allotted in the Industrial Buildings was, on several subsequent occasions, considerably increased, the total hori- zontal space occupied by Great Britain and her colonies amounting to upwards of 183, 000 feet, including passage room. The division of the entire space among the industrial classes was made by the Department of Science and Art, 90 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Thomp* SON ON THE IN- EUSTRIAX Arrange- ments. Number of exhibitors, and space occupied. due consideration being given to the relative commercial value of the different manufactures, the importance of the various trades, and the actual bulk of the articles to be exhibited. It was then subdivided amongst the local and metropolitan committees according to the number of demands and importance of the manufactures represented, and was by these committees allotted to the individual exhibitors. The following table shows the number of demands received up to the 25th of October 1851, the amount of space allotted to each of the industrial classes, the number of persons who actually exhibited, and the amount of space occupied : — Horizontal space occupied. OCO^COl>COCCl>»OHXH O i rH rH CO^(N (» W »0 00 O ©f ^ * ©f * * rH ri H W wT CO H H rH H H ©f 53,029 Space demanded in superficial feet. Vertical. “SH - 3 #m SllpiiPI : | 93,873 Horizontal. 3 ElltllSSSIlSl g|s ! s 1. oT O 00 00 C5 CO r-rHC©00©fO' Fine Arts . . . . 30J Mr. Thompson on the Industrial Arrangements. 91 It will be perceived that the number of exhibitors and mr.thomp- the space actually occupied in each class is not in accor- dance with the number of demands and the space originally ^strial allotted. ments. This discrepancy arose from several causes, such as the Causes of withdrawal at the last moment of many manufacturers to between the whom space had been allotted ; the distribution of the gj^ce nt ° f space thus resigned amongst numerous applicants whose anStedand demands for space had not been sent in until after the the space time prescribed by the Board of Trade for receiving such occupied - demands ; and the allotment of space for important objects of manufacture and science not represented, for which, in order to secure a creditable representation, the Board of Trade requested the co-operation of various scientific bodies and private individuals, and voted considerable sums of money in order to enable them to carry out the object intended. The display of Philosophical Instruments formed by the Royal Society, and the collections of Raw Produce exhibited by the Board of Trade were the results of such co- operation. Another cause of discrepancy between the proportions of the space originally allotted and that occupied by each class was, that the French authorities took upon themselves to re-arrange the British catalogue according to their own views of the system of classification adopted, transferring many exhibitors from the classes in which the British authorities had placed them, to others which they con- sidered more suitable; for instance, kitchen ranges, tallow candles, galvanic batteries, were respectively transferred from Classes 16, 10, and 8 into Class 9 as manufactures relating to the economical production of heat, light, and electricity. The demands for space from our Colonies are not included Demands in the foregoing Table as information sufficient to make a Colonies, classified list of their contributions did not arrive until a much later period of the proceedings. Some in fact were only received a few days prior to the proposed opening of the Exhibition. In one case, that of Canada, it was found that the space reserved was totally insufficient to accommodate the fine collection forwarded from that colony. This difficulty was, after some little delay, overcome by the Americans resigning •to the Canadian Commissioner, with the consent of the Imperial Commission, a portion of the space they were themselves unable to occupy. 92 Reports on the Parris Exhibition . Colonial The following Table shows the relative number of exhibitors e 11 1 01 in each class, and the space occupied by each colony : — New Zealand. •poxdnooo ooeag jo junoxny •jooj pnogaadns ni •s.xojxqxqxtf jo .lequm^ !N CO 1 I r-. | | | rH I .1 | I I | | 1 | | 1 | 1 - 1 1 o Barba- does. •poxdnooo ooudg jo junouxy •*09j puogaadns f 8 •saojxqxqxa; jo ao’qdux^; 1 1 r-l 1 | 1 | | ,| rl | | | 1 | | | | | | rl 1 | 1 I | | j CO Bahamas. •poxdnooo ooudg jo junoiuy •josj [uxogaodns gei •saojxqxqxy; jo aoquxn vr 1 1 1 _ 1 1 o India. — •poxdnooo ooudg jo junouiy qo9j [eiogaadns Z69 l £ •sjopqxxjxg; jo aoquuifl[ oooOTjiataw^^ci. ^onooho hH t- i-H (M H CO T* (M H M H C5 id? Victoria (Austra- lia). •pOldlXOOO OOBdg jo junoxny •}99j psiogaadns 685 •saojxqixixg; jo aoquxxx^; O'J'n 1 eoeo | « | I 31st . 68 13 13 2 13 Aug. 7th 43 5 19 1 17 55 14th . 78 13 2 0 20 55 21st . 32 2 13 0 6 28th . 28 4 16 2 14 Sept. 4th 22 3 14 0 3 55 11th . 19 6 6 1 15 19th . 17 3 7 1 4 55 26th . 14 1 3 1 2 Oct. 3rd 7 0 17 0 16 55 10th . 10 0 16 2 7 17th . 11 1 17 3 23 55 24th . 5 0 17 0 19 31st . 19 3 15 1 2 Nov. 7th 2 0 4 3 1 55 14th . 6 1 8 0 9 Dec. 1st 1 0 1 0 0 Total . 6,319 1,303 7 0 25 It is a remarkable fact that there was a total absence of all the usual mechanical appliances in Paris for moving large and heavy packages, not a single crane being provided for that purpose, consequently the work of unloading the waggons was of the most laborious description. Moving and lowering heavy weights by hand must of necessity involve considerable risk of damage, and great loss of time. The general arrangements for the reception of goods at Paris were as follows : — Some of the porters ascended the waggon Mr. Thompson on the Industrial Arrangements . 95 to the top of the packages, and lowered down by hand to mr.thomp- other porters beneath them such cases as the} 7 could lift; if theIn- too heavy for them to move, the packages were slid down a arranoe- plank, and no precautions were taken to break the force of MENTS - the concussion on reaching the ground. If very heavy , indeed, the packages were unceremoniously thrust from the waggons. Packages of several tons in weight were thus un- loaded. The damage done through this cause was very great ; the loss to English exhibitors by breakage of glass alone amounting to several hundred pounds. The French Executive preferred to receive the goods at only one door in the Palais, and for a long time only at a single entrance in the Annexe. The doors for the reception of goods were situated at the western ends of both buildings, whilst the space allotted to England was, with the exception of the machinery portion, mostly at the eastern end, conse- quently our packages had to be carried, or wheeled on trucks, the whole length of the building through the space allotted to other countries, and over a floor but ill calculated to bear heavy weights, to the great annoyance of our neighbours and with inconvenience to ourselves. This will be better under- stood by reference to the accompanying plan of the building. In the Annexe, the delays arising from this cause were most serious, packages of all shapes and descriptions, and belonging to exhibitors of all nations, became piled up together in one confused mass ; and hundreds of English cases intended for the east end of the building, being nearly three quarters of a mile from the place destined to receive them, had subsequently to be re-carted from the western end of the building, and weeks elapsed before the packages were sorted. The goods naturally came from the railway to the Annexe sorted, those of each country by themselves, and as the building was of great length, it would have been easy to have deposited the goods of each country on its own site ; but, by the plan adopted, the natural separation was super- seded, and the confusion followed which has been men- tioned. By regulation No. 27 of the Imperial Commission, the Distribu- French authorities undertook to distribute the packages as pSages they arrived at the exhibit ion, and deposit them near the Exhibition, places allotted to receive them, but the delay was found to be so great that it became necessary to organize a gang of men for the special service of British exhibitors. These men were kept in the pay and employment of the English Com- 96 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Thomp- son on the In- dustrial Arrange- ments. Classifica- tion of ob- jects in the different buildings. Difficulty in providing vertical space. mission until the final closing and clearing out of the O O Exhibition. Classification and Arrangement of Goods. From the unavoidable distance between the different buildings, the divided nature of the allotments to each country, and the unsuitableness of some portions of the building to the class of goods to be placed in them, the classification of objects, either geographically or systemati- cally became impossible. Thus it will be seen on reference to the ground plan of the Exhibition, that the space allotted to England was situated in not less than nine distinct places, namely, the Beaux Arts, the Palais, Palais Gallery, east end of Annexe, north Gallery of Annexe, south Gallery of Annexe, west end of Annexe, the Rotunda, and the space outside the buildiug. These different portions could not be visited without passing through the allotments of almost every other country contributing to the Exhibition. The Fine Art section might, perhaps, be considered as a separate exhibition, the building being detached from the industrial portion, and a distinct charge being made for entrance. The French authorities, in determining the place to be occupied by the industrial classes in the two buildings (the Palais and the Annexe), placed Classes I. to XI. inclusive, consisting of raw produce, machinery, alimentary substances, chemical manufactures, philosophical instruments, and manu- factures relating to heat, light, and electricity, in the Annexe, and the remaining sixteen classes, considered more as manu- factures proper, in the Palais ; but owing to numerous causes, such as the backward state of the building of the Annexe, the porous condition of its roof, and the objection of countries occupying small spaces to have their contribu- tions divided, this arrangement could not be retained, and portions of most of the elementary classes intended for the Annexe were arranged with the manufacturing classes in the Palais. The large amount of vertical or hanging space demanded rendered it absolutely" necessary that numerous walls or par- titions should be constructed. At the same time, it was felt that owing to the great breadth under the galleries and the insufficiency of the lighting of the building in that part, such walls would be greatly detrimental to the proper in- spection of articles exhibited. Mr. Thompson on the Industrials Arrangements. 97 To meet this difficulty, and prevent as much as possible Mh.Thomp- the construction of partitions in close proximity to each SS br- other, it was determined to arrange the space when practi- arSge- cable in courts, placing the solid goods in the centre, and MENTS - the soft goods requiring vertical space round the sides. On the arrival of the Executive staff in Paris early in March, steps were immediately taken for marking on the floors of the Palais the plans of the counters and partitions to be constructed and furnished gratuitously to exhibitors by the Imperial Commission. Platforms constructed of a less height than the counters were considered as not coming within the regulation No. 28, and were therefore paid for by the British Commission. The plan or arrangement of the nave, or that portion of Arrange- the Palais extending from column to column in the great ^ticiefin central hall, was made by the Imperial Commission, and its the nave - adoption as regards the English portion was strictly insisted on, the slightest deviation from it being objected to. A con- siderable amount of space was lost by this arrangement, and exhibitors were put to great expense in glazing and fitting up large spaces that could not be used for exhibiting purposes. Unfortunately the British exhibitors were too prompt in their arrangements, and had ordered their fittings before the French exhibitors had commenced the erection of theirs, so that when these stringent measures were relaxed in favour of the French exhibitors the British exhibitors could not derive any advantage therefrom. Great delay in the arrangement of the goods was caused Construe- by the cutting, within a fortnight of the 1 st of May, of two neis for the large tunnels for ventilating purposes through the space v3°ation. allotted for foreign contributions. These tunnels were com menced in April, and not only stopped the work of arrange- ment going on, but necessitated the undoing of much that was already completed. The flooring was taken up, and counters removed. The work of the tunnels and the re-flooring of the English space was not completed until the 26th of April, four days before the proposed opening of the Exhibition. Each tunnel was eight feet in depth and six feet in width, and they extended in two parallel lines through the allotments of England, Austria, Prussia, Belgium, Wurtemburg, and Saxony. Instead of bringing fresh air into the building the contrary was the case. Exhibitors who had close glass- cases over the ground through which the tunnels passed were obliged to paste up the apertures in the flooring to prevent the effluvia from injuring their goods. These G 98 Reports on the Par is Exhibition . Me. Thomp- son on the In- dustrial Arrange- ments. Removal of empty pack- ing cases. Postpone- ment of the opening of the Exhibi- tion. tunnels were both cut through the space allotted to foreign exhibitors, causing great delay and inconvenience, and some injury to the partly-arranged contributions. It was to be regretted that the other side of the building allotted to France had not been used, as there the tunnels might have been constructed without inconvenience or injury to anyone, as no works of arrangement had been commenced. The empty packing-cases were removed from the Exhibi- tion every morning and stowed away in a large building hired for that purpose by the British Commission. Causes of Delay. The opening of the Exhibition, which was to have taken place on the 1st of May was from many causes postponed until the 15th. The Beaux Arts arrangements were sufficiently complete ; but the Palais was in a very unfinished state. The opening of the Annexe and Rotunda did not take place until a much later period. Punctuality in opening at the time specified should be, on any future occasion, most rigorously adhered to. The non-fulfilment of the Imperial Decree, announcing the open- ing of the Exhibition on the 1st of May, was the cause of great dissatisfaction to foreign contributors, a great many of whom had journeyed to Paris for the express purpose of arranging their goods and attending the opening ceremony. The announcement by the French authorities of the post- ponement of the opening from the 1st to the 15 th of May was made at so late a period, namely, the 27th of April, that it was not possible to communicate to exhibitors the alteration decided on by the Imperial Commission in time to save a useless journey to Paris. The English portion, though far from being finished, would have presented a good appearance on the 1st of May, as many of the exhibitors were in Paris, and the goods were being rapidly unpacked and arranged. Nor would the con- tributions of France have been in a much more backward state than they were on the 1 5th of May. Directly the announcement of the postponement was made the work of arrangement, which for the last few days had been going on rapidly, come to a stand-still, so that little advantage was gained in this respect by the alteration. On the other hand, the foreign contributors who, believing in the inviolability of the Decree, kept strictly to the regu- lation of the Imperial Commission, and had completed their Mr. Thompson on the 'Industrial Arrangements. 99 fittings and unpacked and arranged their goods, were placed in a worse position than those who, by their neglect and indifference, had jeopardized the success of the whole under- taking. Their goods were left unprotected, and exposed to all the dust and dirt caused by the fitting up of the stalls of their dilatory neighbours. The Exhibition scarcely, if ever, recovered from the bad effect produced throughout Europe from this cause. Some of the principal causes of delay that prevented the English arrangements being completed by the 1st of May were, in the first place, the floor of the Palais which had been laid down as a close floor, without apertures for the dust to escape through, being found so objectionable that it was determined to take up and relay it. This opera- tion was commenced in the English portion on the 31st of March, and was not completed until the 26 th of April. Secondly, the cutting of the two great ventilating tunnels before mentioned through the English space ; this work was not completed until the 26th of April. Another and serious cause of delay was the non-fulfilment by contractors of their engagements with exhibitors in the preparation of their glass-cases and fittings ordered in Paris. There were very few instances of the works contracted for by the Parisian houses being performed within, or even near the time specified in their agreements. And lastly, the failure of the chief contracting carpenter in the construction of the necessary rough counters and partitions, as promised to exhibitors in Article 28 of the regulations ; in fact, the last of the partitions was not com- menced until the 11th of May. In the Annexe, the state of the building rendered any attempts at arrangement totally impossible. At the western end, devoted to machinery, neither roof nor flooring were finished, and the construction of the columns for carrying the shafting, which were of a most stupendous character, was not completed until after the 1st of May. At the east end of the Annexe the gallery staircases and the rough counters were in progress of construction on the day fixed for the opening of the Exhibition. The Exhibition. The Exhibition of the Beaux Arts and a part of the Industrial Buildings were opened to the public on the 15th of May, the industrial portion being still in a very unfinished state. • The Annexe, Rotunda, and outside buildings were not opened until a much later period. G 2 ■ Me. Thomp- son on the IN- DUSTRIAL Arrange- ments. Causes of delay. V Backward state of the Annexe. Opening of the Exhibi- tion. 100 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Thomp- son on the In- dustrial Arrange- ments. Duration of the Ex- hibition. Number of visits. Receipts. Prepara- tions for the closing cere- mony. J uries : The exhibitors of machinery in the Annexe had to con- tend against many disadvantages. Their goods arrived before the building was ready to receive them ; there were no mechanical appliances for moving heavy pieces of ma- chinery ; the backwardness of the foundations, flooring, and shafting, prevented the fixing of the machinery ; the unsatis- factory state of the roof permitted the rain to penetrate in all directions ; and, finally, when all these difficulties had been surmounted, and the machines erected, the delay and insufficiency of the supply of steam to work them, which was so inadequate that the whole of the English machinery could rarely be put in motion at the same time, and never for any very long period. The Exhibition remained open 198 days; the number of visits to the industrial portion was 3,626,934, and to the Beaux Arts 906,530 —total number of visits 4,533,464. The number of season tickets sold was, for the industrial buildings 4,617 ; for the Beaux Arts 170. The total receipts were 2,941,668 francs, equal to 117,666^. 15s. The nave portion of the Palais was closed to the public on the 1st of November 1855, in order to allow of preparations being made for the ceremony of distributing the prizes, and the final closing of the Exhibition on the 1 5th. The clearing out of the articles exhibited, and the con- struction of seats and platforms for this occusion, was an extraordinary performance considering the magnitude of the work, and the short time taken to accomplish it, and fur- nished a proof, that had proper measures been take at the commencement, the Exhibition might have been opened with punctuality and success. The Exhibition was formally closed by the Emperor in person on Thursday the 15th, and re-opened the next day for a series of concerts, and was kept open for that and other purposes until the end of the month. Owing to the distance between the several buildings, the scattered nature of the arrangements, and other causes, the work of the juries was one of great labour and difficulty. Notices stating the time and place of meeting for each jury were furnished to the Commission daily, and were printed and distributed among exhibitors and their agents, and also posted up on the English Bureaux in the Palais and Annexe ; appointments were made, and exhibitors requested to be in attendance at stated hours to open their glass-cases, and give any explanations that might be required, but for reasons before stated, great difficulty was experienced in keeping these appointments, and it frequently happened that Mr. Thompson on the Industrial Arrangements. 101 the exhibitors had left before the juries arrived, conse- Mb.thomp- quently another appointment had to be made, or the goods SSiS- were inspected without opening the glass-cases, to the great abbSge- disadvantage of the contributor. ments. The following table shows the number of exhibitors, and their the value of their contributions in eacli of the industrial &c ’’ classes from the United Kingdom ; also the number and Kingdom; description of awards made by the juries. Awards of the Juries. Class. Number of Exhibitors. Value of Contributions. Grand Medaille d’Honneur. Medaille d’Honneur. First Class Medal. Second Class Medal. Honourable Mention. Total Awards. 1 97 £ 2,454 5 . 0 d. 4 1 19 19 16 55 2 7 670 5 0 — — 1 — — 1 3 32 6,073 18 0 — 5 10 13 8 36 4 40 9,187 5 0 — 1 4 11 8 24 5 89 15,602 4 1 — 6 9 20 35 6 54 5,705 8 3 1 1 10 12 5 29 7 36 4,813 6 0 1 1 11 10 3 26 8 74 8,599 9 5 — 2 5 7 7 21 9 52 5,155 5 0 1 6 10 7 24 10 128 4,005 5 5 1 3 28 27 21 80 11 19 533 2 3 — — 2 7 3 12 12 43 2,580 8 6 1 — 8 11 8 28 13 70 8,782 10 0 1 — 17 3 9 30 14 29 1,763 2 3 2 — 8 8 4 22 15 72 6,892 3 2 1 3 18 23 11 56 16 66 7,888 12 8 — — 13 22 15 50 17 30 520,186 18 10 — 3 8 4 2 17 18 42 24,506 2 11 1 — 9 16 1 27 19 62 10,436 8 1 2 1 13 17 4 37 20 77 10,207 8 0 1 2 18 11 8 40 21 27 2,186 4 4 1 10 7 4 22 22 60 3,439 15 3 1 1 3 10 5 20 23 77 7,794 8 7 — 3 18 23 10 54 24 51 7,283 8 6 2 6 13 10 31 25 111 11,456 4 6 1 — 9 32 25 67 26 86 5,830 17 1 — 1 33 23 15 72 27 18 1,593 0 0 — 3 — 1 4 31 Included in the above. i — 1 5 5 — 11 Totals 1,549 693,627 1 6 15 32 301 353 230 931 The number of awards in Class 3 exceeds the apparent number of exhibitors; this was caused by the jury award- ing medals for goods placed in other classes, as for instance, specimens of flax exhibited in conjunction with linens in Class 22, by the Belfast Local Committee. Class 31, Domestic Economy, formed after the opening of the Exhibition, consisted of articles remarkable for utility 102 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Thomp- son ON THE IN- DUSTKIAL Aeeange- MENTS. their awards, &c., British Colonies ; their awards to workmen. and cheapness, which were mostly selected from the goods exhibited in other classes. Table showing the Awards of the Juries to the British Colonies. Name of Colony. Grand Medaille d’Honneur. Medaille d’Honneur. First Class Medal. Second Class Medal. Honourable Mention. | TotalAwardsfor each colony. Value of Contri- butions.* Bahamas . 1 1 £ 20 Barbadoes . • • 1 • 1 — British Guiana . • 2 2 7 11 800 Canada 1 • 12 31 48 92 — Cape of Good Hope • 2 3 • 5 — Ceylon 2 8 5 15 — India . . • 12 37 42 91 50,000 Jamaica • 3 5 9 17 — Mauritius . • 1 3 10 14 — New South W ales 1 8 8 21 38 6,000 Van Diemen’s . 6 7 I 20 Land. Victoria # 3 i 4 4 11 Total Awards . 1 1 51 ! 109 1 154 316 The following additional Awards were made to Co-opera- tors and Workmen of the United Kingdom and her Colonies who were not exhibitors, but who had been connected with the invention, production, or arrangement of the articles sent for exhibition. Grand Medaille d’Honneur. Medaille d’Honneur. First Class Medal. Second Class Medal. Honourable Mention. Total. 4 1 27 56 42 130 * The value of the contributions has been given in every case in which it could be obtained from the proper authorities. Mr. Thompson on the Industrial Arrangements. 103 The foregoing tables have been compiled from the last corrected List of Awards, published in the “ Moniteur " of the 8th of December 1855. Clearing out of the Exhibition and Return of the Goods to England. The first step necessary to be taken for returning the goods to England was, to bring into the Exhibition the empty packing-cases. This operation commenced on the morning of the 17th, and was completed on the evening of the 21th of November. The cases for the Fine Arts had all been sorted and re-delivered at the Palais of the Beanx Arts, prior to the 15 th. The packing cases, on their arrival in the building were placed as near as possible to the stalls of the exhibitors, whose goods were to be repacked in them. Some little con- fusion arose from exhibitors taking cases that did not belong to them, and also from neglecting to place, as they had been requested to do, their rotation numbers inside as well as outside their packing-cases. Consequently, if the direc- tion label was rubbed off the outside, which was very fre- quently the case, it was not possible to ascertain to whom the case belonged. In order to facilitate the immediate removal of goods from the Exhibition, and economise the time of English exhibitors in Paris, endeavours were made to complete the necessary Customs arrangements for goods to be returned to England between the 1st and 15th of November. Goods declared for consumption in France were allowed, on payment of the duties, to be removed from the Exhi- bition on and after the 1st of November. Great credit is due to the officers of the Customs for the efficiency and simplicity of their arrangements, for the faci- lities invariably afforded, and for the energy and good feeling displayed on all occasions in the fulfilment of their duties. Previous to the 15th of November a circular was for- warded to every exhibitor, announcing the close of the Exhibition, and stating that if the goo.ds were repacked, and the Custom-house forms completed on or before the 8th of December, the Board of Trade would pay the expenses of the carriage from the French port to London, but that if the packing was delayed beyond that time, the expenses of carriage between the French port and London must be borne by the exhibitors themselves. Me. Thomp- son on the Ix- DUSTBIAIi Aeeaxge- MENTS. Return of empty pack ing eases to the Exhibi- tion. Customs ar- rangements. Expenses for the carriage of goods from the French port to London. 104 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. son on But this regulation was not enforced on account of the biSxkiai, Imperial Commission requesting exhibitors to permit their A men?s E " &°°d s 1° remain undisturbed in the building until the 25th — of November, a visit to the Exhibition being expected from the King of Sardinia. goods f?om The French authorities, though making the request the build- stated above, gave every facility to persons desirous of removing their articles immediately from the building, and for this purpose two doors were opened in the English department in the Palais, and two in the Annexe. The work of repacking was, however, in some measure stopped in the afternoon, no hammering being permitted after two o’clock, in order to allow of concerts being carried on in the nave portion of the Exhibition. SiTwefght Table showing the Number of Packages, and Weight, of packages, 0 f the Goods returned to England. Date. No. of Packages. Weight. For the week ending — Tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. November 12 th 107 18 4 3 7 „ 19 th 193 26 19 2 27 December 3rd 153 31 15 0 12 „ 10th 422 86 5 0 15 » 17th . 709 99 17 1 3 „ 24th 608 113 7 0 24 „ 31st 299 50 17 0 17 January 7 th 645 144 8 3 15 „ 14th . 452 121 19 0 18 „ 21st 389 68 9 1 24 „ 28th 1 2 5 0 0 Totals . 3,978 764 8 3 22 The Offices of the British Commission in Paris were closed to the public for the transaction of business on the 8th of December, due notice having been given to Ex- hibitors to the effect that after that date the business of the British Section would be transferred to Marlborough House, London. Richard A. Thompson, Superintendent of Arrangement. REPORTS ON THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION; DEPUTATIONS FROM THE BELFAST CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, ON LINEN MANUFACTURES; THE BRADFORD CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, ON WORSTED MANUFACTURES; THE HUDDERSFIELD CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, ON WOOLLEN GOODS, AND MACHINERY USED IN THEIR PRODUCTION; THE LEEDS CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, ON WOOLLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS, AND IRON; THE LIYERPOOL CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, ON THE SAMPLES OF GENERAL PRODUCE, AND COTTON. Letter from the Board of Trade. 107 Letter from the Board of Trade inviting the Chambers letter of Commerce of the United Kingdom to send Depu- Board tations to the Exhibition. of ^f DE * In accordance with a Minute passed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, the following form of letter was addressed to the various Chambers of Com- merce throughout the United Kingdom : — BOARD OF TRADE. — (Department of Science and Art.) British Section of the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855. “ 14, Rue du Cirque, Paris, “ SlR, “ 9th day of August 1855. “ I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade to request that you will bring before the notice of the Chamber of Com- merce, the various kinds of machinery for producing manufactures, together with the manufac- tures themselves, which are exhibited in the Paris Exhibi- tion, by France and other European countries. “ My Lords are given to understand that the progress of manufacturing production shown on this occasion, and its probable competitive influence on the markets of the world, will be found to be well worthy of the serious con- sideration of the producers of the United Kingdom. “ It is the opinion of their Lordships that much useful information would be likely to be obtained if your Chamber were to depute some of its members, possessing technical knowledge on the subject, to visit the Paris Exhibition, for the purpose of reporting in detail to the Chamber the result of their observations. My Lords have addressed similar communications to other Chambers of Commerce in the United Kingdom, and they consider that, shou]d the suggestion be carried out, a series of reports on the industrial position and recent pro- gress of Europe would be obtained by these means, far more practical and useful than any reports which the Board of Trade could hope to obtain itself through its own agency. “ I am directed to state that there is every reason to believe that it will be easy to obtain samples and prices of the manufactures from the various foreign exhibitors. 108 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Letter prom THE Board op Trade. “ Such office accommodation in Paris as may be neces- sary for the purpose will be placed at the disposal of your Chamber, and every assistance which may be in the power of their Lordships to afford will be given. “ I have the honour to be, Sir, “ Your obedient servant, “ Francis Fowke, Capt. RE., “ Secretary. t( To the President of the Chamber of Commerce, at Five only of the Chambers of Commerce adopted the sugges- tions offered in the above communication, and sent depu- tations to Paris. These Reports, presented to the Belfast, the Bradford, the Huddersfield, the Leeds, and the Liver- pool Chambers of Commerce, contain the view taken by these deputations of the present industrial position of the world, with reference to the special subjects to which they confined their inquiries. Belfast Chamber of Commerce. 109 Report of the Deputation appointed by the Chamber of cumber Commerce of Belfast on the Linen Manufactures in n OF the Paris Exhibition. — At a meeting of the Council of the Belfast Chamber of Commerce, held on Saturday, 1st September 1855, a letter received from the Board of Trade was read (see p. 107). The following resolution was unanimously passed : — Resolved : — “ That a deputation be sent, in accordance with the request of the Board of Trade, to report upon the various kinds of machinery for producing flax manufactures, together with the manufactures themselves, which are ex- hibited in the Paris Exhibition, by France and other Euro- pean countries ; the deputation to consist of Messrs. John Herdman, James Grimshaw, jun., and John Patterson/’ At the Council meeting on the 6th Oct. 1855, the depu- tation appointed to visit the Paris Exhibition presented to the Chamber the following valuable Report. On our arrival at Paris, on the 15th of September, we received from the British Commission every facility for making the inquiries entrusted to us, and were in every instance, treated by the foreign contributors and commis- sioners with courtesy and attention. The linen machinery exhibited was not very extensive. Machinery. The new patent machines for combing tow, and a hackling machine for long flax, by Messrs. Coombe & Co., of Belfast, were worthy of observation. Some power-looms for weav- ing linen deserved attention, as the trade here must soon adopt this system of weaving, in order to keep up a regu- ar supply and uniform quality of goods. The linen manufactures exhibited embraced a large range Manufac- of qualities and prices, and nearly every nation in Europe tures ‘ had a fair representation of its various fabrics. France presented the greatest number and variety of French hempen as well as linen manufactures, and when we observed lmens * how large a portion of the French division of the building was devoted to these goods, we were impressed with the conviction of the important position the linen trade must hold in the manufactures of France. The goods exhibited were in almost every instance of excellent quality ; they had little starch or finish, made of a firm round thread of yarn, and, although well adapted for immediate use, were 110 Reports or the Paris Exhibition. Belfast Chamber of Commerce. Consump- tion of linen in France. Use of linen by French army and navy. Adoption of linen for British army and navy. Linen of Hanover. Linen of Wurtem- burg, Saxony, and Rhenish. Prussia. not so sightly as Irish linens. A great variety of drills, fancy goods, and damask, either all linen or mixed with cotton, wool, or silk, were exhibited, and from the great taste and ability displayed by the French linen manufac- turers, there is little doubt that were not the trade crippled by the high duties on linen yarns, they would soon be able to rival any country in Europe, and compete successfully in the market of the world. At present, as far as we can ascer- tain, the French linen manufacture is only for home consump- tion, and little or none is exported. The home consumption of linen is, however, very great. Linen napkins, as well as table-cloths, are used at table by all classes. Linen is generally used for underclothing, and the linen blouse, either dyed or undyed, is the universal outer garment. In consequence of this general use, the linen manufacture of France is of great magnitude, being reckoned at 7 yards for each person, or about 250,000,000 of yards per annum. Estimating the value at l^f., or Is. English, per yard, the annual value must be about 312,500,0001, or 12,500,000^ sterling. It is our opinion, after a careful examination, that the same fabrics could be produced in Ireland and Scotland at 20 per cent, less, on account of the lower price of our linen yarns, which are now excluded from France by prohibitory duties. An interesting portion of the French linen goods is the various descriptions used for the army and navy. In both these services, the shirts, trowsers, sheets, &c., are all linen, as the Government wisely judges that, though the first cost may be a little higher than cotton, yet, that the greater strength and durability of linen makes it much the cheaper article to expend the public revenue upon. We were informed that the other continental nations also use linens for the same purpose. Should the authorities here adopt the use of linen for the British army and navy, we consider it would be a saving to the nation, and would, of course, have a beneficial effect upon the linen trade. We requested the British Commission to procure for us the statistics of the linen fabrics supplied to the French army and navy and also patterns ; but as yet have not obtained them. The linens of Hanover were well represented, and we ex- amined the various qualities, but did not observe anything in them that called for particular remark. Wurtemburg, Saxony, and Rhenish Prussia exhibited a great variety of fabrics, from the coarsest to the finest. The lower and medium goods were similar to our own, but they Belfast Chamber of Commerce . Ill exhibited specimens of very fine linens, which we fear our manufacturers will have difficulty in equalling, being made or of fine hand-spun yarn, regardless of expense, for the Rus- 0M ^ RCE sian market. One piece equal to a 3800 4-4 was 155. 0 d. per yard. „ 2800 4-4 „ 6s. 9d. „ 2600 4-4 „ 3s. 9d. . „ 2400 4-4 „ 3s. 4 d. „ In the linens made for exportation, they imitate the Irish marks and finish, and, in many instances, even the same paper ornaments used by the Irish trade. This is an inte- resting phase in the history of the linen trade, that Germany, from whom we borrowed the names of a great variety of our linen fabrics, and still export them under these names, is now, in her turn, borrowing from us, and imitating our goods, both in names, material, and finish. Some of the Saxon damask is beautifully fine ; but we think, in design, some of the Scotch and Irish goods were quite superior. Austria makes a very creditable display of linens and linen Austria, yarns. The latter were particularly clean, and free from imperfections. Some of the linens made in the prisons were as cheap as any other goods in the Exhibition ; but whether they could be produced in quantity for export we did not ascertain. Belgium makes a large display of goods, and appears a for- Belgium, midable competitor. We do not refer to the finer linens and cambrics, for which, at all times, there must be only a limited consumption, but in the lighter export goods, lapped and finished in the Irish form, and with Irish labels, the prices were quoted nearly as low as they can be purchased here. This is, no doubt, partly owing to the advantage they have gained by the permission to import duty free all linen yarns that are to be used for the manufactures of linen for export ; but, while they are anxious to export cheap linen to foreigners, they appear to consider it for the good of Belgium that their own population should pay a high price for what they consume, as this boon is not extended to goods for home consumption. The exhibition of linens and canvas from Dundee, and §^ c s h damasks from Dumfermline, is highly creditable to the exhi- bitors. A considerable proportion of the goods are woven by the power-loom, and some of the large manufacturers have gone to great expense in displaying their goods advan- tageously, and prove they can meet successfully all compe- titors. The Dunfermline damasks are worthy of much praise, and we think our continental neighbours are surpassed not only in price, but in the beauty of the designs exhibited. 112 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Belfast Chamber of Commerce. Irish linens. Exertion to improve manufac- tures in Ger- many and Belgium. Advantage of power- loom. Suggestions. Considering the magnitude of the Irish linen trade, and the fact that Irish linens are exported to all parts of the world, competing successfully with hostile tariffs, it created some surprise to find so scanty a supply of linen yarns and linen fabrics from Ireland, and the samples were so ill- arranged as to give an unfavourable impression of our spinners and manufacturers, and the linen trade generally. It would have required a much more general interest to have been awakened, and larger funds contributed, to have enabled a proper display to have been made. When we consider the advantages possessed by our manufacturers in their geographical position, allowing their goods to be ex- ported with the various manufactures of England, their command of ample capital to carry on their business on the best principles, and their climate, which enables them to produce that pure white colour so essential in linens, we have no doubt that in price, colour, and finish our Irish linens can compete successfully with any others exhibited in Paris. Still it would have been most desirable that our superiority should have been better displayed, in a place where such a display might have led to important com- mercial advantages. In the Austrian department for linens the prices and lengths were put in German, French, and English money and measures ; and even yet it would be desirable that a similar explanation should be put on the Irish goods exhibited. It is our duty to state for the information of the Chamber of Commerce, that great efforts are making by Germany and Belgium to extend their export linen trade. We have already stated that they are imitating our finish and quality ; they are, also, encouraging intelligent persons from this neighbourhood to settle in both countries, to instruct them in the various processes of spinning, weaving, and bleach- ing ; and are, in many instances, introducing the power- loom to cheapen production and improve quality. A general opinion appears to prevail that as the power- loom gave a new impetus to the cotton trade, that a similar effect will be produced when it is generally employed in the manufacture of linen. It will require our manufacturers, therefore, to see that our continental neighbours do not get before them in the march of improvement, and we would recommend their adoption of every new principle of produc- tion that ensures economy and despatch, and so, by pro- gressive advancement, maintain the advantageous position they now possess. We would take the liberty of suggesting to the Chamber the propriety of drawing the attention of our Irish linen Belfast Chamber of Commerce. 113 manufacturers to the advantages they might derive from a careful examination of the highly interesting and varied of display of linen manufactures exhibited at the Paris Exhi- Coa ^f ECIS - bition. We cannot conclude our report without calling the atten- injury to tion of the Chamber to the fact that Belgian linen yarns Belgian^ and linens are still admitted into France under a special treaty - treaty, at much lower rates than the yarns and linens of Great Britain and Ireland. We annex a table, showing the rates paid on each article by each country, and it is worthy of note that the greatest difference in favour of Belgium is given on the description of goods most largely used in France. We think if this matter were properly brought before the Government of France, the tariff on linen and linen yarns would, at least, be assimilated to that of Belgium. When the treaty was made between France and Belgium, the latter was bound to keep up the same prohibitory duties as France, but a few years since a law was passed in Belgium permitting the manufacturers to import linen yarns free of duty, on giving a bond to export an equal weight of linen. We have reason to believe that this permission is largely availed of, and no doubt a good deal of our cheap linen yarn passes the Belgian frontier into France, manu- factured into Belgian linen, and paying the low duties ac- cordingly. It would appear to us to be more the interest of France to admit our linen yarns direct, at the low duties, and allow their own manufacturers to reap the profit of the manufacture. We have little doubt that the present Exhibition will tVrrance'by lead the public mind in France to desire the advantages of ^tieifon a more liberal commercial system. For the article of linen linen and the French nation pays at least one -fifth more than it would lmen yarns * do under a moderate system of duties, the loss amounting annually to at least 2\ millions sterling, or 62^ millions of francs. The French Government loses a handsome revenue formerly derived from this source, while the aggregate capital employed in the flax spinning trade in France is not greater than the annual loss sustained by that nation in keeping up these prohibitory duties. We have the pleasure to give the Chamber, for the infor- mation of the linen trade, a list of some of the articles examined by the deputation, with a description of the sets, the kind of yarns used in the manufacture, and where practicable, the prices. We also hand over to the Chamber a copy of the Belgian treaty, which was at once given us, on application to the H 114 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Belfast Customs authorities, and we have requested the British hamber 0 0 mmission to procure a copy of the French general tariff Commerce. f or £] ie use 0 f 01 iam ber. John Herdman, James Grimshaw, jun., John Patterson, Belfast, 6th Oct. 1855. f Members of f Deputation. Yarns from Great Britain. Duties Yarns of New Zea- land. payable in France on Linen Yarns Britain and from Belgium. from Great Duties on Eng- Duties on lish and Irish Belgian Linen Yarns. Linen Yarns. Unbleached linen yarns, weighing 6,000 metres, 100 kil. qp- 100 kil. or less to the kilogramme (equal to No. 9’s, francs. francs, and under English count), ... ... 41.80 ... 17.60 More than 6,000 to 12,000, 9’s to 1.9’s ... 52.80 ... 26.40 „ 12,000 to 24,000, 1 9’s to 38’s ... 86.50 ... 44.08 „ 24,000 to 36,000, 38’s to 57’s ... 133.70 ... 76.00 „ 36,000 or upwards, 57,000 and upward 175.70 ... 89.60 Bleached Linen Yarns — 6,000 metres, or less ... ... ... 59.20 ... 28.60 6,000 „ to 12,000 ... ... ... 71.80 ... 39.00 12.000 „ to 24,000 ... ... ... 113.80 ... 61.30 24.000 „ to 36,000 ... ... ... 173.60 ... 102.20 More than 36,000 ... ... ... 225.10 ... 139.00 Dyed Linen Yarns — 6,000 metres, or less 6,000 „ to 12,000 12.000 „ to 24,000 24.000 „ to 36,000 More than 36,000 Yarns of New Zealand. Flax (Phormium Tenax) Abate and Jute — brown „ „ ,, bleached „ ,, » dyed of 63.40 76.00 113.80 170.50 212.50 65.50 87.50 86.50 39.60 50.60 71.80 112.70 160.00 less than i than 8 threads From the United Kingdom. 60f. 4^100 k. ... From Belgium. , 25.50 f. qp- 100 k. 8 99 80 99 . 30.60 99 9 to 12 99 126 99 • • . 55.25 12 99 144 . 63.75 99 13 to 16 99 201 99 . 89.25 99 16 99 267 . 127.50 99 17 287 99 • • . 144.50 99 18 & 19 D 297 99 . 153.00 99 20 99 342 99 • • . 191.25 99 ove 20 99 467 99 • • ' , 297.50 99 ■bleached linen, 8 threads 90 99 • • ' , 51.00 99 of 8 99 116 99 • • ' , 61.20 99 Belfast Chamber of Commerce. 115 Bleached or half-bleached linen, of 12 threads Prom the United Kingdom. 219f. 100 k. ... Prom Belgium. 127.50 f. ^ 100 k. 13 to 16 306 yy 178.50 16 417 yy • • • 255.00 yy. 17 yy 457 yy 289.00 yy 18 & 19 477 yy • • • 306.00 yy yy 20 yy 567 yy • • • 382.50 yy yy above 20 817 yy 595.00 yy Dyed linens, less than 8 yy 90 yy • * • 52.00 of 8 yy 116 yy 61.20 yy yy 9 to 12 146 yy • • • 72.25 yy yy 12 yy 167 yy • • • 83.30 13 to 16 yy 216 yy • • • 102.00 yy yy 16 yy 289 yy • • • 145.69 yy yy 17 yy 317 170.00 yy yy 18 & 19 yy 329 yy 179.99 yy 20 yy 380 yy 223.12 yy above 20 53 7 yy • • • 357.00 Particulars of various Fabrics at Paris Exhibition, September 15th to 22nd, 1855. 7205. — Be'gue Sf Tournier, a Pau. 30 X 40 in. damask serviette, 14 X 23 threads, @ 27 s. per doz. 28 X 36 in. old diaper, 10 x 10 „ „ 11s. 3c?. „ 30 X 38! in. D. damask, 17 X 22 „ „ 2 7s. „ 31 X 40 in. D. damask, 22 X 36 „ ,, 75s. „ Ino Casse Sf Fils de Lille. 29 X 38 in. damask, full harness, 17 X 20 threads, @ 20s. per dozen. Fine and sightly, good patterns ; many of the patterns have birds, which do not look well. 7296. — Fournet , a Lisieux. 31! in. wide linens, 13 X 12! threads. Flax, fine round thread, heavy half- bleached yarn, cleared and shrunk finished. 35| in. creamed, 8x7 shots, 10s. tow. 7202. — M. Beaulieu, a Fougeres. 35 in. linen, 12x11 threads, 3 boils, or creamed yarn, @ 11 id., 30-35 Lea* 29 ,, „ 14 X 13 threads, @ 11 d., 40-45 „ 7476. — Henry Verdier. 105 inch sheeting, bleached yarn, @ 13s. per yard, 25°° reed. 102 „ „ „ ,, @ 6 s. 3d. „ 260 porters, or 17°° reed 37i „ linens, @ 5s. 5d. „ 3,600 reed. 7208. — Billon Jils, a Fernay sur Sarthe. 32 inch wide ; natural colour linen duck ; military “ tents a abri .” Mill spun, yarn; double yarn warp; single weft, @ 16c?. per yard. 32 inch military sheets for beds, 7x7 threads, @ 9! per yard, 16 or 18 Lea. Natural colour. H 2 Belfast Chamber oe Commerce. Yarns of New Zea- land. Various fabrics. 116 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Belfast Chamber of Commerce. Various fabrics. 7198. — Eugene Bary. Trellis brown hand spun hemp. 35 in. herringbone drill for military trousers, 9x7 threads, creamed colour, @ 13 id. per yard. 35 in. linen, 15x13 threads, f white yarn, @ 18icl. per yard, 40-50 Lea. 35 in. linen, 24 X 17 threads, full white yarn, @ 4s. Id. per yard. 37 in. linen, 13 X 12 threads, f white yarn, @ 1 7 id. per yard. 16. — Socie'te industrielle du Royaume de Hanover. 34 in. whitel inen, 15 X 14 threads, @ 2s. 2d. per yard. Beetle finish very dear ; poor make of goods. 50 x 60 in. old diaper cloths, @ 5s. 10*7. per cloth, 18x14 threads. 137. — C. 8f H. Leeman, Wurtemherg. 33 and 35 in. bleached mill spun linens, medium heavy. 15c?. 17c?. 19c?. 25-hd. 14 x 12 16 x 15 18 X 16 22 x 17 threads. 4-4th hand spun, first quality, like heavy medium linens. 34 in. 34 in. 35 in. 35 in. 19c?. 22|c?. 2s. lid. 2s. 4c?. 17 X I2i 20 x 16 20i X 19 22 x 20 threads. 23 and 24 in. linen handkerchiefs in cartoons. @ 8s. 4c?. 12s. 5c?. per dozen. 18 X 16 22 X 19 threads. 7-8th linen platillas for exportation. @ 2 2d. and 17c?. De La Rue and Co/s Paper Bands. 4-4th linens, 21-22 yards. @ 12*c?. 15c?. 16c?. 13x13 15x15 16 x 17 threads. 4-4th Bretannas for exportation. 16 X 14 19 x 18 20 X 17 threads. @ 15i c * rugs, of great variety and excellence. The black and white tweeds from Kendal are very good in colour and mixture. SCOTLAND. Scotland: — Glasgow. Seven exhibitors of fancy woollens, woollen and cashmere shawls and tweeds. Glasgow. A. Paul and Co. exhibit fancy woollen goods, which in colour, style, and make are good samples of this class of manufacture. 160 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Hudders- field Chamber of Commerce. Hawick. Paisley. Selkirk. D. Macfarlane and Co. show excellent samples of Scotch tweeds. Henry Brown and Co. exhibit printed shawls of good design and colour. Wingate, Sons, and Co. exhibit shawls of fine soft woolly handle, and clean fast colours. Hawick. — Three exhibitors of plaids and tweeds. Wilson and Armstrong exhibit good samples of Scotch tweeds and plaids. W. Wilson shows Scotch shawls and tweeds, all wool, in neat styles and colours. Paisley. — Two exhibitors. John Morgan and Co. exhibit shawls of woollen and silk, of fine light texture, and woollen tartan plaid shawls, in rich colours and fine soft handle. Hutchinson and Forbes also exhibit a good assortment of shawls. Selkirk. — Two exhibitors of tweeds and plaids. The Kendal and Scotch tweeds, shepherds plaids, grey mixtures, and tartans, in shawls and trowserings, are superior to any exhibited, in purity and firmness of colour, and fine soft woolly handle. Compared with them, the Continental manufactures of this class are of very inferior quality. Leeds Chamber of Commerce. 161 REPORTof the D eputation appointedby the Leeds Chamber of Commerce on the Woollen and Worsted Fabrics HA of and the Iron Manufactures in the Paris Exhibition. CoM j^ KCE< At a Meeting of the Council of the Leeds Chamber of Commerce, held on Wednesday, September 12, 1855, the following resolution was unanimously passed : — Resolved, — “ That in order to carry out the views of the Board of Trade, (see p. 107) the following gentlemen be appointed a deputation to visit the Exhibition, and report accordingly. The deputation to have power to add to their number, or to avail themselves of the observations of any practical persons from this district who may visit the Exhi- bition and assist them in their labours ; namely, Darn ton Lupton, Esq., Vice-President; Edward Irwin, Esq.; Walter Stead, Esq.; George Smith, Esq.; James Kitson, Esq. ; George S. Beecroft, Esq. ; John Wilson, Esq., and the Secretary. The deputation was accompanied and assisted by two of the Trustees of the Colored Cloth Hall, Mr. Samuel Ellis and Mr. Robert Hardaker, also by the following delegates from the Clothiers, Mr. George Stansfield, of Pudsey, Mr. William Winterburn, of Yeadon, and Mr. John Wilson, of Calverley. REPORT. The deputation examined with minute attention the various sections of the Exhibition, and they believe that much good will arise from the great amount of information obtained, and which will be disseminated through the district, tending to stimulate the energy and encourage the enterprise of all classes of producers in this part of the West Riding. Several important branches of Leeds manufacture were Trades not almost entirely unrepresented. Of these may be mentioned re P reseilted - the flax spinning trade in which Leeds stands in the fore- most place for the extent as well as the character of its productions. The leather trade was only represented so far as the Spanish leather manufacture is concerned, in which branch a prize was obtained ; no heavy goods were exhibited L Leeds Chamber of Commerce, "Woollen ma- nufactures. Space occu- pied by Brunn. Excellence of foreign cloths. 162 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. from this neighbourhood. The manufactures of glass, silk, , pottery, stoneware, and several other considerable items of Leeds production had no representation whatever, which is much to be regretted, as the opportunity may not speedily occur again of bringing so completely under public notice the varied character of the industry of the town and neigh- bourhood, respecting which the ordinary notion is probably confined to the knowledge of its large trade in woollen goods. In forming an estimate- of the comparative position of the woollen manufactures of the various countries of the Continent, and especially in contrasting them with ©ur own, it is very needful to distinguish as far as possible between the special efforts made for the Exhibition and the general character of the goods entering into consumption and forming the bulk of the products of the respective districts. The Exhibition in itself is to a considerable degree misleading in respect of this essential point, as the magnitude and excellence of particular countries are not at all an index of the relative importance of the districts represented. Brunn, in Moravia, for instance, fills a space four or five times more extensive than the West Riding woollen manufactures occupy, and to this circum> stance, aided by the truly admirable manner in which the goods exhibited are arranged and displayed, together with the tasteful selection of colors for contrast, must in some measure be attributed the impression prevalent in various quarters that this district is surpassed by Austria in its leading article of production. The deputation did not there- fore confine themselves to a comparison of the goods in the Exhibition among themselves, but took into consideration the producing powers of the different districts, so far as they could obtain information, in order to judge whether the displays represented a special effort, or merely, as in the case of Leeds, a selection of such goods as were daily selling and producing in quantity without any reference to a compe- tition for honours. Tried by this practical test, and com- pared with the general productions of the West Riding, the woollen manufactures of the Continent do not, in the judg- ment of the deputation, equal our own in the very important requisite of adaptation by both price and quality to the consumption of the great masses of the population of most countries. It is impossible to deny to the cloths of France, Austria, Prussia, and Belgium great excellence of make and beaut}' of finish and colour, but in the majority of instances where superiority can be fairly claimed by them over the English goods, it is in the finer class of fabrics, those suited only to Leeds Chamber of Commerce. 163 a limited demand, or to particular markets, rather than in the common and more popular descriptions. or The fine cloths of Belgium are light, thin, and fine-looking,. CoM ^L ECE and well adapted to hot climates ; are generally well made j?iotS. an and some well finished, but there appears great diversity in value, and as a general rule prices run high. From Klagenfurth, in Carinthia, there are some fine army Fine army goods in maroon, white, rose, amber, orange, and scarlet, of cloths ' which the colours are even and superb, but the prices running from 20s. to 24s. per yard, take them out of the category of ordinary consumption. The Briinn goods generally are excellent ; and especially Cloths of should be noticed army goods in all colours, reds, greys, whites, and yellows, 42 to 44 inches wide ; are cropped and pressed, stout, and very well made, perfectly sound, and the prices from 3s. 9 d. to 5s. per yard. The French goods in the low qualities are coarse but French o jl woollens. strong, and mostly very badly finished ; middle qualities, principally blues, from 9s. to 12s, the yard, are stout and well made, and are admirably adapted for military, naval, and police purposes, and apparently prepared chiefly for those services ; they are made of strong wool and very highly finished, and would no doubt turn a heavy shower of rain. Finer qualities from 14s. to 20s. are well made but dear. The Prussian goods, Aix la Chapelie, Duren, Eupen, &c., are in general excellent goods, and well finished, but the deputation were not permitted to examine the majority of the goods from the former place ; the displays from Verviers and some other Belgian towns were also so exhibited as to preclude an accurate judgment of their value, but there seems no reason to suppose that any change of opinion would have resulted from a closer inspection. From Gorlitz and Sommerfeld there are exhibited excel- g 0 5 ^g and lent goods, the middle and finer qualities very superior, feid. Reversibles from 14s. to 20s., 24 lbs. per yard, are magnifi- cent, and the colours of mixtures are beautiful. In useful common qualities of woollen goods, at prices of l Lceds ity within the reach of the poorer classes, as displayed in the cheap wool- department of the Exhibition termed the museum of do- mestic economy, and which was specially devoted to low- priced productions of every kind, the deputation unhesita- tingly claim the superiority for Leeds and its neighbourhood, there can be no question upon this point. The fact that the French Government have ordered in this Pencil ° f neighbourhood large quantities of goods for army and navy Govem- use during the past year, sufficiently indicates their coinci- menc ' dence in opinion in this respect. L 2 Leeds Chamber of Commerce. Leeds stall. Exertions made on continent to improve. Machinery. Dyers and finishers. Education of workmt; 164 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Generally, the goods from foreign countries were beauti- fully put up, and contrasted in this respect favourably with the Leeds stall, which had every disadvantage of situation, deprivation of light, and want of taste and judgment in the method of exhibiting. The attention of our manufacturers and merchants ought to be awakened to the spirit of enterprise which evidently characterizes in a great degree their Continental competitors. It is certain that the latter are making every effort to attain a position of superiority. All new processes are tried with a disregard to immediate outlay, which cannot but give great encouragement to inventors, who find their reward certain if their improvements are practical ; and the deputation earnestly urge upon the manufacturers of Yorkshire a greater degree of liberality and of enterprise in the adoption of new machines and improved methods than has appeared latterly the case. A consideration of the machinery generally in use upon the Continent cannot but conduce to a conclusion similar to that now expressed by the deputation. The machinery for scribbling and preparing wool at present chiefly employed here, has been totally cast aside by the Continental manu- facturers, and it is presumable that they have done this from a fixed conviction of the superiority to the new methods. At the same time the deputation are perfectly satisfied that machinery can be obtained from the machine makers of this town, and in a few cases is already working, which is equal, and in some important instances decidedly superior, to that in universal employment in France, Belgium, Prussia, and Austria. Let our manufacturers in the true spirit of improve- ment commence at once the trial of the methods which ex- perience has shown to be an advance on the old ones, let them strive resolutely after excellence, whilst keeping eco- nomy in view, and in the judgment of the deputation, the West Riding may with confidence anticipate the mainte- nance of its manufacturing position. The same appeal should be made to the dyers and the finishers, both of whom require to be made aware of the remarkable degree of science and practical skill displayed by the foreigner, and to be stimu- lated to greater efforts and a higher standard of excellence. An improved scientific education for the class engaged in ' practical superintendence of our factories, a better acquain- tance with the chemistry of the arts, with the principles of mechanics, and with the investigations of scientific men into the nature and character of the infinite variety of raw material ; these are objects to which the efforts of all well- Leeds Chamber of Commerce . 165 wishers of England as a manufacturing country should be Chamber turned with unceasing energy. Commerce. There is perhaps nothing more striking in the Exhibition irontrade. than the evidence of the progressive development of the iron trade on the Continent, particularly in France and the Prussian dominions, and in an especial manner as applicable to railway and marine purposes ; although it ought to be observed that the specimens exhibited indicate that neither labour nor expense have been regarded in their preparation, and it is manifest that great efiorts have been made to pro- duce a powerful impression on all who are interested by this demonstration of their large capabilities. The magnitude of many of the specimens shown is very Jf^c£ de striking, as indicating remarkable powers of manipulation ; mens, for instance, a bar of iron 10^ inches diameter, length 23^ feet, weighing 6,518 lbs., and a boiler plate 17 feet by 5 feet 5 inches, and ^ inch thick, weighing 2,003 lbs. English. Also a hammered plate for a floating battery measuring 18 feet by 374 inches, and 4 inches thick — this latter is a eautiful specimen of workmanship in every respect. The largest boiler plate exhibited, measured upwards of 24 feet by 5 feet, and its weight was 2,500 lbs. Those able to judge of the comparative qualities of iron Railway tire would certainly look with no ordinary interest on the excel- axleSl lent specimens of railway tires and axles exhibited by several makers. A few years ago these articles were imported exclusively from England, and in fact chiefly from our own district ; it therefore behoves our manufacturers to use strenuous exertions, if they intend or desire to maintain their well earned position of superiority. The sheet iron exhibited by Belgium deserves special Sheet iron, notice ; their mode of manufacture securing a beautiful evenness of surface which the English manufacturers have not hitherto equalled. One the most interesting and extraordinary groups ofKrupp’s specimens connected with the metal trades, is Krupp's exhi- cas,t &teeI * bition of cast steel, adapted to various purposes, as railway tires, axles and cranks, and polished steel rollers. He shows one ingot of cast steel weighing 1 J ,030 lbs. Although the progress made in the iron trade upon the ^vantages Continent is so marked, still it requires only the continuance Engfand. b,v of the energy and enterprise for which the manufacturers of England have always been distinguished, to hold their ad- vanced position in respect of the combined requisites of excellence of quality and cheapness of production. In the important points of abundance, variety and excellence of the 166 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Leeds Chamber op Commerce. Locomotive engine building. English engines. Exertions of foreign makers. Simplicity the great object. Machine tools. raw material, both coal and iron, and in the facilities of transit by railway or water carriage, England, and this district in an especial degree, possesses advantages that are enjoyed by few if any of her rivals. As the construction of locomotive engines is a department of mechanical and engineering science of great interest to this locality, although no contributions were sent to the Exhibition by the Leeds manufacturers, the deputation examined with care and interest the specimens sent by various countries. Only two engines were sent from England ; one was an ordinary express engine of the form made by one of our leading manufacturers, and the other was exhibited to illus- trate the principle of some recently patented modifications of the parts of the locomotive connected with the combus- tion of the fuel. Each of these engines may be safely said to have sustained the high reputation of this country in this department. Great efforts appear to have been made by the Continental manufacturers to exhibit engines of first-rate character. France, Belgium, Prussia, and Austria have, all of them, shown very creditable workmanship ; and an examination of their details of finish shows that the operative mechanics of the Continent are making considerable progress in manual skill and powers of manipulation. Several of the specimens of locomotives exhibited were, however, simply copies of engines made in this country five or six years ago. Some of the contributors have evidently attempted to produce novelty of design, but the changes made do not seem, for the most part, to be improvements ; — that which our English makers have long aimed at, viz., simplicity of construction, has not, apparently, been an element sufficiently taken into consideration by the designers of the engines alluded to. In no department of the Exhibition has the practical character and adaptive capability of the English mind been more strikingly manifested than in that of the locomotive engines ; this must have impressed the most casual observer upon comparing the beautiful simplicity of construction of the English engine first alluded to, with any of the novel engines of the Continental exhibitors. Machine tools have now become a' very important item in the general machine making business, and Leeds may fairly claim to stand in the very first rank as regards this branch of industry, both in respect of the quality of the workman- ship and the amount of production. It is satisfactory to report that the reputation of the town has been worthily Leeds Chamber of Commerce . 167 sustained by several exhibitors, whose contributions yielded to none in the exhibition in point of excellence both in HCB design and workmanship. So far as the deputation can - — judge, no serious competition is yet experienced from the Continent in this department, but with the general progress of the metal trade an advance in the manufacture of machine tools may be anticipated. The awards of the Jury suffi- ciently attest the eminent position attained by the Leeds machine makers in their respective branches. There is much reason to hope that the tendency of the Tree trade. Exhibition will prove to have been strongly towards a relaxation of the strict protective system of France. Fami- liarizing the people with the productions of England and other countries, which in innumerable instances, and parti- cularly in the useful and necessary articles of everyday life, are far cheaper than those of France, it may well be hoped that the Universal Exhibition has promoted the growth of a sound public opinion which will afford a powerful support to the Government, whose desire for a more liberal system of tariff duties can hardly be doubted, in the event of the introduction of measures having that object in view. The fallacious system of drawbacks on exportation would Drawback^ probably be revised or given up altogether, simultaneously with the introduction of a more reasonable tariff. The injustice is so palpable of taxing the community to enable manufacturers to carry on a profitable export trade, whilst the home consumption remains at its natural high price, that this mistaken policy must yield to the adv ancing en- lightenment on economic subjects, which will result from the increased attention these questions now receive in France. It will be satisfactory to the public of Leeds to observe Exhibitors that the town has issued from the competition with considera- anThonour ble credit, as will be seen from the annexed list of honors awarded * awarded by the mixed International Jury. In justice, however, to the exhibitors of woollens, it should be men- tioned that a • distinction which was drawn by the Jury betweeen merchants and manufacturers, and of wdiich no previous notice was given, has unquestionably prevented the award of a larger number of prizes for woollen cloths. The jury declared that they could take no cognizance of any goods exhibited by others than the actual manufacturers, thus excluding from the competition some of the best and most characteristic specimens of the productions of this district. To those acquainted with the system of manufac- turing pursued in the West Riding, and the great division of labour in the production of cloth, this distinction will appear, as it undoubtedly is, unfair and invidious. . 168 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. chamber The following is a list of the exhibitors from Leeds and its : of vicinity, with the prizes and honors obtained : — Commerce. _ r — D. & J. Cooper, Woollen Cloths. Gill, Bishops, & Hewitt, Woollen Cloths ; Honourable Mention. Hagues, Cook & Wormald, Blankets ; 1st Class Medal. Hargreave & Nusseys, Woollen Cloths ; 1st Class Medal. Hudson and Bousfield, ditto 2nd Class Medal. Edward Irwin, ditto. Wm. Lupton & Co., ditto. Pawson, Son, and Martin, ditto Medal of Honor. Wm. Smith, Son, & Co., ditto. Stow, Brothers & Co., ditto and Blankets, Honourable Mention. James Walker & Co., Billiard Cloths. Darnton Lupton, Esq., Vice-President of the Chamber of Commerce, Cheap Woollens, Decoration of Legion of Honor, and 1st Class Medal. Joshua Buckton & Co., Machine Tools, 1st Class Medal. Shepherd, Hill, and Spink, ditto 2nd Class Medal. Smith, Beacock, and Tannett, ditto 1st Class Medal. John Hattersley, Spindles and Flyers, 2nd Class Medal. Wilson, Walker, & Co., Fancy Leather, 2nd Class Medal. J. W. Leather, Designs and Models, 2nd Class Medal. Edw. Sewell Fulneck, Models. Wm. Clark & Sons, Saddlery. Carrett, LI arshall, & Co., Pumps, 2nd Class Medal. C. Pegler, Linen Damasks. J. & J. Hopkinson, Pianofortes, 1st Class Medal. John H. Saddler, Wheels. W. Hill, Design for Town Hall, Preston J. Gill, Bleached and Dyed Goods. Liverpool Chamber of Commerce. 169 Report of tlie President of the Chamber of Commerce, Liverpool Liverpool, on the Samples of General Produce and of CHA 0 * BER Cotton in the Paris Exhibition, 1855. commerce. In order to discharge the duty imposed on me by the Arrival in Chamber, of carrying into effect the suggestion made by the ans ' Board of Trade for making a report on the various kinds of imports of raw produce exhibited in the Paris Exhibition, and especially by the Colonies of the United Kingdom, &c., on arrival in Paris I conferred with Mr. Cole, the Commis- sioner, and Captain F. Fowke, the Secretary, of the British section of the Exhibition, from whom I received every attention and assistance in their power to give. Owing to the very few visits which the shortness of my stay in Paris enabled me to pay to the Exhibition, and the immense area over which the various articles of interest are spread, I found it expedient to limit my attention to those which might be considered as peculiarly relating to Liver- pool commerce. With regard to the great staple, cotton, I was entirely Cotton, relieved from the responsibility of reporting, by the close and persevering examination given to every kind exhibited by my colleague, Mr. I. B. Cooke, whose able report, already presented to and highly appreciated by the Association of Cotton Brokers, is herewith laid before you. Next to cotton, the importation of palm oil and the fabri- Palm oil and cation of soap being more particularly a Liverpool branch soap * of trade, I carefully sought for samples and illustrations of both the raw material and the manipulated articles prepared therefrom. Of palm oil, in its raw state, I found two or three samples, probably imported into Marseilles. It is mentioned also among the productions of Algeria. Of soaps, besides the toilette kinds, in which it is well known France excels, she also exhibited the ordinary palm oil and tallow soap of commerce. Prussia also showed similar specimens. Specimens of stearine and stearine candles made from stearine. tallow, oils, and greases, were exhibited by France, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, Sardinia, Portugal, and a few other countries. The candles of Sweden were conspicuous for their fine, glossy, and well got up appearance ; and the tablets of white stearine were very hard, and of great bril- liancy. The display of these articles, however, by our own 170 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Liverpool Chamber op Commerce. Woods. Cordage. Iron, cotton, and woollen manufac- tures. Coal, countrymen, Price and Company, exceeded all others ; and in their case was shown also a series of acids used in the process for separating neutral fats. I know not whether it may he new information to the stearine manufacturers of this country, hut I learnt from one of the able notices on this class appearing in the Moniteur , that a young French chemist had discovered in castor oil ( Vhuile ricin) a sebacic acid, which supplies a desideratum in the manufacture of stearine from fats and tallow by giving a hardness hitherto unattainable. Woods . — Numerous specimens of woods were exhibited by Norway, Sweden, Austria, Algeria, Canada, British Guiana, Australia, and other countries, applicable to the various purposes of ship -building, joiners' work, carpentry, and furniture-making. Many samples are in the form of discs or horizontal sections of the whole tree. The Swedish white pine excelled. Some Austrian specimens of oak were interesting as coming from extensive forests bathed by the river Styr, which falls into the Black Sea, the free navigation of which, with ready access to all its ports, it is to be hoped will now soon develope new elements of trade. Captain Fowke was engaged in a series of experiments for testing the relative strength of the woods suitable for ship- building and carpentry, and would probably extend his experiments to cordage and iron chains, when the consent of the exhibitors could be obtained. He informed me that so far as his trials had enabled him to form conclusions, the woods of British Guiana bore the heaviest strain. Cordage . — Numerous specimens were exhibited by France, from the smallest marline and cord, to large cables made both from Russian hemp tarred, and from the Manilla, and other hemps known as white cordage. These exceeded in the beauty of the manufacture anything I ever saw. Can- vass was exhibited by France, Belgium, Holland, and Great Britain. That of Belgium was rough and inferior ; the Hutch better ; but the French came nearest to the Dundee fabrics, which on the whole excelled all others. Illustrations and specimens of iron, cotton, and woollen manufactures were more general throughout the Exhibition, but I cannot pretend to report on them. I would only mention that France and England take the lead, especially in machinery, partly owing, no doubt, to the facilities they possess for sending the weightier specimens to the Exhi- bition. Prussia and Belgium exhibited in all these depart- ments. All four countries also showed specimens of their coal, which is found in sufficient quantities in the neigh- Liverpool Chamber of Commerce . 171 bourliood of the iron ores to enable it to be used in ^J^pool smelting ; an advantage wanting to Sweden, whose native CoM ° EKCE iron, worked chiefly by the heat of charcoal, cannot vie A — with that of the coal-producing countries in cheapness. There was one two-inch chain manufactured from the celebrated Dunnemora (Sweden) iron, which was admirably made. I would fain have seen it tested against the English and French chains. If the specimens shown by France of articles connected Models of with the equipment of vessels are more ' numerous than ships * those of England, the models of shipping of various classes exhibited by our own country take the lead of every other nation, both in number and importance. Sunderland, as a port, occupies the most conspicuous place ; her models, from the fishing boat or coble to the large clipper, are exceedingly well prepared. I noticed also a few models from Liverpool, of which I wish to particularize a very large one of the colossal passenger ship the James Baines, showing on one side by vertical section lengthwise the whole arrangement of berths, cabins, &c. Judging by the con- stant groups assembled round this model, it appeared greatly to attract the curiosity and interest of visitors. Any notice of the French Exhibition would be incom- T’roductious plete without some allusion to Algeria, belonging to our great neighbour. This department is full of interest, and whether we consider the multitude of its natural produc- tions, and great capabilities, its various, soils and tempera- ture, its proximity to the shores of France, or the marked attention paid to the development of its riches by successive French governments, it is impossible not to foresee that this extensive possession is likely to become to France of more importance than all the colonies she ever pos- sessed. As I am enabled to present to the Chamber, together with the Official Catalogue of the whole Exhibition, a particular one of the Algerian colony, full of interesting details, it is unnecessary for me to do more than to allude to three or four of its chief productions, and of which several specimens were exhibited. The first is Grain. — When I quote from the above cata- Grain, logue, that Algeiia exported last year to Europe 1,034,000 hectolitres of wheat, 3,727,000 kilogrammes of flour, and 2,697,000 of bread and biscuit, besides quantities of other grain, the greater part of which was sent to the French army in the East, it needs no great stretch of imagination to believe that with a few more years of tranquillity in the 172 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. i Liverpool Chamber oe Commerce. Cotton. Tobacco. Minerals. Other pro- ductions. Canada and Australia. Canadian productions. colony, this part of Africa may again realize its ancient character for boundless fertility, and may contribute largely to the increasing requirements of Europe for cereal sup- plies. Concerning Cotton, I gleaned, in addition to the informa- tion collected hy Mr. Cooke, that the 520 hectares of land under cultivation in 1853 increased in 1854 to 1,720, and that the Algerian cotton is greatly liked by the French manufacturers. Many specimens of tobacco were exhibited, both it and the cotton being chiefly from the provinces of Algiers and Oran. Of Algerian woods, three were particularly attrac- tive ; — a celebrated furniture wood called Thuya ; 2, the Olive tree, a specimen of which was exhibited about three feet in diameter ; it also is admirably adapted for cabinet work, though little used in this country ; and, 3, the true Cedar, which is stated to be found in an indigenous state only in this and two other countries in the world. Of mineral specimens shown, were white marble, gypsum, salt, lead, copper, antimony, iron ; this last is stated to be as well adapted for steel as the celebrated Dunnemora of Sweden. Among the other more important vegetable productions of Algeria may be mentioned sugar, rice, olive oil, flax, opium, &c. Silk and cochineal are also easily raised. The only other countries to which my observations extend, are the British colonies of Canada and Australia. Considering the great distance from which the articles exhibited were brought, both these departments reflect the highest credit on the parties who collected and arranged them, and perhaps no small portion of the success obtained was owing to the excellent plan adopted by the colonists of having a preliminary exhibition last year in their respec- tive capitals. The Canadian Department was, as might have been expected, the most extensive of the two, and I heard in several quarters, that it was the most frequented and popular of the foreign and colonial portion of the exhibition. Perhaps in our day, the great commercial staple of Canada is its woods, and specimens of these were got up in the most admirable manner. Most of them are too w T ell known here to need description. I will only mention, that I counted upwards of twenty different sorts ; but what seemed chiefly to attract attention was some specimens of doors and window frames complete, with the price affixed so low as Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, 173 evidently to excite the astonishment of the visitors.* The Liverpool cereal products of Canada also were very numerously Cha ^ ber represented ; several specimens of red and white wheat, Co ^f ECB * oats, and peas, were particularly fine, and the best proof of the appreciation in which all this class of Canadian pro- ducts was held, was that every specimen, including flour, was marked as “ sold/’ In many manufactured articles Canada compared favourably with Europe. I may mention biscuits, some kinds of harness, furs, refined maple sugar, axe-handles of peculiar form, fire-engines, leather hoses, and some agri- cultural implements, also a few models of steam-boats adapted for lake and river navigation. With regard to her minerals, specimens of copper and copper ore were shown from the mines on Lakes Huron and Superior, and native copper and iron from sundry localities in Lower Canada, also a few specimens of gold and lead. Australia . — Judging from the resort of visitors to this Australian department, this colony and its products seemed to excite P roductlous - almost as great an interest as the foregoing ; perhaps the frequent attendance of the intelligent commissioner, Mr. M ‘Arthur, and his ready and interesting explanations, may have added to its attractiveness. This country appears to possess within its continental extent every production, or the capabilities of furnishing them, which the calls of civilized life can demand. Her wools, which were largely represented, need no description here. It would also be waste of time to enlarge on her gold, numerous specimens of nuggets were displayed, as well as of the auriferous earths found in the diggings, the richness of which varied from half an ounce per load to eight ounces. The localities of these earths vary as greatly as of the nuggets, they being, in fact, equally the debris of ancient water-courses ; some still near the surface, and others now buried 100 to 200 feet beneath it. Mr. M ‘Arthur confirmed the conclusions generally drawn from the circumstances of the distribution of these golden treasures, namely, that whilst the search for gold in its pure state, whether as nuggets or in auriferous earths, must ever remain a lottery to the digger, its presence in the rock affords to Jhe scientific miner a more certain, permanent, and probably in the long run a more profitable source of emolument. The mineral department generally * These are remarkable specimens for quality and cheapness. The doors are pannelled, and have moulded jambs. The windows are not hung with lines but open and shut with a catch, and the degree of light may be regulated in the blinds. The makers will execute orders at Montreal at the following prices:— door and framing complete for 19 francs (about 15s.); the window, 9 francs ; the blinds at 9 francs each. They are made by machinery. 174 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Liverpool Chamber op Commerce. Wheat. Woods. Anthracite and coal. Other pro- ductions. of the Australian exhibition is particularly rich and inter- esting. Next to the auriferous rocks, and earths, and coal, the samples of her iron and copper, and their respective ores are well worthy of attention. The samples of wheat from Australia Ithought excelled all others that I saw in size, cleanness, and fulness of the grain. The specimens of her woods are highly attractive, and bid fair to yield plentiful supplies for the requirements of the ship-builder, the joiner, and cabinetmaker, as popu- lation spreads around the districts where they grow. As Mr. M ‘Arthur informed me, that it was his intention to reprint the original Australian catalogue, with full details of the articles exhibited, and promised at my request to forward a copy to this Chamber, it is unnecessary for me to enumerate the specimens. I will only advert to three. The first is a white close-grained wood, without knots, the pro- duce of a magnificent pine, found in lats. 35° to 24° S., which grows 120 feet high, with a diameter of 2 to 4 feet near the ground. Its planks are described as of great beauty, and useful for the joiner and cabinet-maker. The next is called, locally, the Black Butt, and grows from 100 to 200 feet high, by 3 to 6 feet diameter, producing a car- penter’s wood excellent for ship-building, or any other object where strength and durability are required. The Flindora, another white wood, 150 feet by 4 to 5, is soft on being cut, easily worked, and of great durability. As furniture woods, the beef wood and blood wood, I believe, are already known in this town ; but the specimens of woods of great beauty and taking a high polish were numerous, and several articles of furniture made from them in the colony were exhibited. One table alone, of inlaid woods, showed speci- mens of no less than sixty -four kinds. Several samples of anthracite and coal were exhibited, with full particulars of locality, the conditions of the seams, and their properties. The well-known Newcastle coal is described as being applicable to both household and steam purposes ; and the price, which, before the gold discoveries, was 9s. 6d. per ton at the ship’s side, had risen during the excitement to 40s., and is now quoted at 15s. 6d. per ton. Iron is found in proximity with the coal ; a providential fact, which seems to foreshadow the important part this magnificent country is destined to take in the future history of the southern hemisphere. Australia also shows specimens, among many other arti- cles too numerous to be named, of colonial-made soap, pre- served meats, native tobacco, cigars and snuff, hees-wax, splendid Indian corn, dripstones, and gutta percha made Liverpool Chamber of Commerce. 175 from a species of fig. Nor is she to be dependent on the Liverpool O ld World for her wines. Numerous samples of native Cn ^ BER grown were exhibited; they were described to me by Commerce - Mr. M £ Arthur as both red and white ; the former kind has been placed by judges between the Rhone and the Spanish, and the white as approaching Tokay. Those I tasted resembled the wines of Sicily, but as they had been standing in the Exhibition throughout the summer, the condition could scarcely be accepted as a true test of quality. I was obliged, by the shortness of my stay in Paris, to Other coio- O'*/ %/ y X110S, pass by most unwillingly the collections of produce exhibited by our other colonies ; but I judge from the Catalogue, which I have since gone carefully over, that Ceylon, Tasmania, Cape of Good Hope, British Guiana, have contributed articles of indigenous and other produce well worthy of attention. With a few exceptions, no prices or statement of cost Prices, were affixed to the samples of either the great staples of raw -produce or the manufactures.; and in the absence of this important element it becomes impossible to draw prac- tical conclusions for commercial enterprise. Mr. Cole, the British Commissioner, on my stating this matter to him, kindly undertook to endeavour to obtain for the Chamber the cost price of some of the articles I enumerated.* Report on the Cotton Wool exhibited as the Produce of different Nations in the Paris Exhibition. To the Association of Cotton Brokers of Liverpool. Gentlemen, Your Deputy has been enabled to make the special Difficulty in examination with which you have charged him, in some mSatfrn respects, under favourable circumstances. The influence of SeSSlitiea the Board of Trade, in the Department of Science and Art, siven * was most obligingly exerted to furnish him with effective introductions to the gentlemen who represented the various countries from which cotton was exhibited. These intro- ductions sufficed to procure not only perfect freedom of access, which was of course denied to the public, to the * Several letters have been received in consequence by the Chamber, con- taining particulars of cost, which the Secretary is engaged in arranging. The last day that I visited the Exhibition, I found a step had been taken in this very direction, by the opening of an economic collection of articles suitable for the use of the humble classes, with the prices affixed. This department promised to be very attractive, and it may lead to the extension of this necessary kind of information to the class of articles which should mainly interest a commercial body like the Chamber. 1*76 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Liverpool Chamber op Commerce. Cotton wool. United States. Brazil. Egypt. East Indies. samples which it was necessary to examine, but also, in several cases, explanations of new features in the article exhibited, and information, from the best sources, of the powers of production of the countries in question. Notwithstanding these facilities, the various specimens were scattered so widely, in a most extensive range of build- ings, and often so closely hidden amongst a multiplicity of other objects, appointments also were so difficult to arrange, with any regard to economy of time, that this Report will necessarily prove very defective. The article of cotton wool is not, on the whole, very well represented in the Exposition. From the United States, the chief source of supply, only a few specimens are shown, and those chiefly of the finer descriptions of Sea Island, one of which was of extremely fine quality. In this article, of which the United States has hitherto had almost the exclusive possession, she is destined, in the future, to find one, and possibly more than one, young and vigorous rival. From Brazil not a single sample appeared. The Commissioner from Egypt most willingly made an appointment with your Deputy, and showed him various parcels, contributed both by the Egyptian Government and from private sources, which, however, did not differ mate- rially from the good and fair qualities which the Trade have constantly before them in Liverpool. The Commissioner explained that a trade was springing up in oil, which, in Egypt, was expressed from the seed of the cotton plant. This oil, in its grosser forms, is used as a substitute for tar, and, in different stages of purification, for illumination, lubrication, soap-making, and, in its purest form, for human food. Each qualit}^ is exposed along with the samples of cotton. It was the opinion of the Commissioner that this additional produce from the same plant would serve even- tually to cheapen the production of the staple. Dr. Royle, who presides over the display of the produce of British India in the Exposition, and who, from his con- nexion with the East India Company, his personal know- ledge of the climates and soils of India, and of all the experiments instituted by the Company for the improvement of cotton, is probably the person of all others best competent to give information on the subject, most obligingly gave his assistance in the examination of this department. He does not, however, appear to be very hopeful of the result of any attempts to improve the character of Indian cotton, except to the extent yielded by the specimens of Dharwar cotton Liverpool Chamber of Commerce. 177 lately sent to England. He also gives expectation that the opening of the extensive Berar district, by railway, to the of B ombay side, and by improvement of the navigation of the Co ^f ECE - Godavery river on the east coast, may furnish us with an arti- cle more nearly approaching to the American staple than any which has hitherto been permanently imported from India. The several colonies of New South Wales are represented NewSkmiih by Mr. M‘ Arthur, who, after long residence and travel- aes ' ling in that country, is perfectly acquainted with all its varied products. With great politeness, this gentleman devoted a whole morning to promote the objects of your mission. He exhibited several samples of cotton the produc- tion of land in the neighbourhood of Moreton Bay, and some also from the interior in the same latitude, about 27° South, which were all from Sea Island seed, but cultivated without much care. Those from the coast, especially, are very favourable specimens as to length and fineness, but are defective in point of clearness of staple, which Mr. M‘ Arthur attributed to the want of care in the cultivation. He asserts that in this wonderful country there is an enormous extent of territory on the east coast perfectly suited to the produc- tion of our commodity, and only waiting the labour which, were it not for legislative enactments unequally distinguish- ing this dependency from the other British colonies, would not be difficult to procure. The prohibition of the importation of Coolies, which to all our other colonies has been reduced to such restrictions as are required by humanity, continues, apparently by oversight, in full force in Australia, and forms, according to Mr. M ‘Arthur, the chief impediment to a large production of cotton. After several vain attempts, both by personal calls and Janies: correspondence, to obtain an interview with the gentleman who was entrusted with the products from the Cape of Good Hope, Island of Ceylon, and several of our West Indian colonies, it is necessary to pass over in silence the few speci- mens exposed from these localities, which, however, did not appear to present any new features. Several samples are exhibited from Greece, and several from Mexico, on which no particular information has been obtained. None were shown from Carthagena or Demerara and Surinam. The only other source of cotton is the French colony in Algeria. Algeria, and great pains have been taken to render the exposition of the produce of this territory as perfect as possible. M. de Bouville, a gentleman practically acquainted with the cultivation of cotton in Algeria, and acting in the M 178 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Liverpool Chamber op Commerce. Algeria. Conclusion, Exposition under the immediate authority of the Minister of War, was, in conjunction with Mr. M ‘Arthur above men- tioned, the intelligent guide and informant in reference to the large accumulation of samples of Algerian cotton. In this fifth year of the growth of the article in the colony there are no fewer than 150 exhibitors of their produce, and upwards of 250 samples, chiefly of Sea Island cotton. During last year 1 ,800 bales were exported to France, and this year 9,000 acres are under cotton cultivation. The soil all along the coast, and in some parts for upwards of 200 miles into the interior, is represented to be of the siliceous and salty description, which exactly suits the nature of the Sea Island plant. A full production is yielded to the acre ; and whereas in America it is not profitable to cultivate except as an annual, in Algeria the produce is greater the second year than the first. A specimen of some which has been spun into yarn, by Messrs. Gardner and Bazley, the yarn and cotton being exhibited together, is nearly, if not quite, eqtlal to the finest produced in the United States. A few favourable samples of Louisiana and other kinds of cotton are also shown, but the character of the soil, especially in the province of Oran, as well as the genius of the culti- vators, appear to lead to the selection of the longer staple and best quality rather than to the production of large quantity of an inferior article. An important company, with large capital, on the principle of limited liability, has been formed to promote the cultivation ; and a judicious prize is awarded by the Emperor to the estate producing the largest quantity in the year. It may not be out of place, in conclusion, to offer a willing and grateful testimony to the courtesy and consideration which was awarded by both the French and English autho- rities connected with the Exposition, to the representative of a Commercial Association from Liverpool. Every assist- ance and facility were afforded by them which could in any way promote the purposes of the mission. I am, &c. Isaac B. Cooke, President of the Cotton Brokers’ Association. Liverpool, 21s£ September 1855. REPORTS OF JURORS AND OTHERS, ON THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF THE EXHIBITION. Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements , &c. 181 On Agricultural Implements and Produce, by J. Evelyn Denison, M.P., Vice-President of the Jury for Class III. Agriculture. To the Right Hon. the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Board of Trade, &c. My Lord, The International Jury of Agriculture (Class III.) of the Paris Exhibition consisted of, — Count de Gasparin, President . France. Evelyn Denison, Vice-President . . England. Count Herve de Kergorlay, Secretary . France. Boussingault ..... . France. Barral ...... . France. Yvart ...... . France. Dailly ...... . France. Vilmorin (Louis) .... . France. Monny de Mornay .... . France. Robinet ...... . France. Delehaye ...... . Belgium.. De Mathelin (Leopold) . Belgium. Ramon de la Sagra .... . Spain. Dietz f Grand Duchy \ of Baden. Baron de Riese Stallbourg . . Austria. Dr. Arenstein ..... . Austria. Baron Delong ..... . Denmark. Wilson, J. . . England. Amos, C. E Natliorst, J. T. . j Sweden and \ Norway. It was quite time that France and England should be better known to each other, and that it should be made apparent what great benefits would accrue to both countries from an improved acquaintance and extended intercourse. Mr. Deni- son on Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. Members of Jury. Mr. Deni- son ON Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. French opinion respecting agriculture in England. Result of th Exhibition Subjects reported on. 182 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Up to the year 1851, till the time of the Exhibition of London, we are told by a French writer of high authority,* “ that in France, more perhaps than elsewhere, notwith- standing our near proximity, an opinion had prevailed that in England agriculture had been neglected in favour of trade and commerce. The tariff regulations of Sir R Peel, not well understood in their design or in their consequences, had tended to fortify this assumption. Nothing, therefore, created more surprise than the vast collection of agricultural implements which the Exhibition of London contained, and the proof they afforded of the high development of agri- cultural skill and science in the United Kingdom/" It has been reserved for the Paris Exhibition of 1855 to give new force to these impressions ; to carry into the heart of France, and to display before the eyes of hundreds of thousands of spectators, these evidences of the skill of our machine-makers, placed in immediate contrast with the works of their competitors from all quarters of the world. The approach between the two nations, which was invited by the Exhibition of 1851, has been advanced and quickened by the Exhibition of 1855. The cordial and friendly re- ception given to Englishmen of all classes in Paris has been thoroughly appreciated and responded to, — new interests have been called into action. The advantages to be derived by both people from a more free communication have forced themselves upon public attention, and have taken root in public opinion. Such a result alone would be worth all the labour and all the cost of both Exhibitions. It was not till the 25th of October, shortly before the close of the Exhibition, that I was made acquainted with your Lordship's wish, that I should furnish a report on the Class of Agriculture. If I had known this wish at an earlier period, some matters, especially matters of detail, might have been noted, which it would not be easy now to go back upon. But I bear in mind that this is not a report, accompanying and justifying an adjudication of prizes. Such a report will be furnished to the Imperial Commission * M. Leonce de Lavergne, author of “ Essai sur rEconomie Eurale de l’Angleterre, de l’Ecosse, et d’lrlande.” This essay formed part of a course of lectures delivered at the “ Institut National Agronomique.” The information it contains, as regards the condition and prospects of agriculture in these islands, is so correct, and exhibits such a thorough knowledge of the subject in all its branches, that it is a reasonable assumption, that a writer who -writes so accurately about the affairs of a foreign country, may be relied upon when treating of his own. This essay has gone through two editions in France, has been translated into English, and has undergone the ordeal of Scotch criticism. Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements, &c. 183 by officers specially appointed in eacli class, and will be ^o/on 1 * accessible to all. eaxlSie " The terms of the letter addressed to me by your Lord- ments, &e.* ship's directions are, That I would furnish a report, to be laid before Parliament, of the position which the United Kingdom held in the Paris Exhibition, compared with foreign countries, in the Class of Agriculture, and the pro- gress, if any, which has been made since 1851 in respect of this class of objects." I propose to follow the course pointed out in this letter of instructions. It may be well to consider at the outset the position of Position of the two countries as regards agricultural practice at the England, as present moment. Such a picture, full of life and interest, agffcuiture. has been drawn to our hands by the able pen to which I have already referred. As the comparison is very favourable to this country, I prefer to employ the words of a French author, rather than to make use of my own. In natural gifts of soil and of climate, the advantages are beyond all question on the side of France. It may be that France has relied too much on these excellent gifts, while England, less favoured, has been urged by her necessities to increased exertions. Systems of Cultivation. “ France has devoted herself too exclusively to the pro- Different duction of corn crops, which are the immediate food of man, pursued in without sufficiently considering the means necessary to ^England, uphold the fertility of the soil under this exhausting pro- cess. England, on the contrary, has been led, partly by the nature of the climate, partly by design, to take a sort of by-path, which reaches corn crops through the intervention of green crops ; finding, in the rearing of cattle and the supply of manure, the restorative process which is necessary. “ The experiment has entirely succeeded, and is extending Success of itself day by day ; and the remarkable fact is, that in pro - pi^ nslish portion as the head of cattle increases, the quantity of corn increases also; the gain in intensity exceeds the loss in extent. Thus, on a surface of 31,000,000 of hectares, reduced to 20,000,000 by the waste lands, the British isles produce more food for animals than the entire surface of France, of double the extent.* Hence, the supply of manure is in pro- * I preserve the French measures, together with the calculations of the author. French hectare is equal to 2’471 English acres. 184 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. portion three or four times greater. The average produce Agricultu- per hectare in France is 6 hectolitres of wheat, about 5 of ments, &c* rye, and 1 of maize or buckwheat, — collectively about 11 hectolitres. In England, 25 hectolitres of wheat (3J quarters per acre), more than double in quantity, and three times more in saleable value. Scotland and Ireland are included in this estimate. If the comparison is made with England alone, the results are far more striking. This little country, not larger than one fourth of France, pro- duces 38,000,000 of hectolitres of wheat, 16,000,000 of barley, 34,000,000 of oats. If France produced as much in proportion, she would produce, deducting seed, 150,000,000 hectolitres of wheat, 200,000,000 of oats and other grains ; that is, at least double her actual production. “ Taking all products into account, animal and vegetable, it appears that the produce of England per hectare, nearly doubles that of France. Relation of “ The great lesson which these figures teach, beyond vegetable the disproportion of the results, is the relation of vegetable products. £ 0 animal p roc } uc ts. In France the vegetable products form four- sixths of the whole, and the animal products two- sixths only ; showing at first sight an exhausting cultiva- tion, and one at least stationary. In the United Kingdom, the animal products are equal to the vegetable. Thus the animal products alone of an English farm are equal to the entire products, animal and vegetable, of a French farm of the same extent. Sheep. Sheep; “ The most remarkable feature of British farming, in com- parison with that of France, is the number and quality of the sheep. According to the statistical returns raid esti- mates, the number of sheep in France and in England is about equal, about 35,000,000 of sheep in France, and 35,000,000 in England. But this apparent equality con- ceals an inequality the most marked. 35,000,000 of sheep in the United Kingdom live on 31,000,000 hectares of land. 35,000,000 of sheep in France live on 53,000,000 hectares. France, in order to have as many sheep in proportion as the United Kingdom, ought to have 60,000,000. If the com- parison is made with England alone, the difference is far greater. England feeds 30,000,000 of sheep on 15,000,000 hectares of land ; that is, proportionally, three times as many as France. their qua- “ But the great difference is in the quality of the sheep, uty * upon the breeding and improving of which, with a view to Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements, &c. 185 Mr. Deni- weight and early maturity, so much care and attention has been bestowed. The weight of an English sheep is twice ralImple- that of a French sheep. So that an English farm on an c * equal surface gives six times as much mutton as a French farm. Horned Cattle. “ In the case of cattle, the same care in breeding from Homed cat- selected animals in the United Kingdom, and continually e ’ improving the races, in studying meat-producing qualities and early maturity, has effected results similar to the results produced in sheep. France possesses 10,000,000 head of cattle, the United Kingdom 8,000,000. In France, three products are demanded from cattle, — labour, milk, and meat. In England, only two, — milk and meat. The yield of these tw~o valuable productions is materially interfered with by requiring work also from cattle. It might appear, at first sight, that the work of cattle could not in an impor- tant degree influence the supply of meat, and it is not difficult for people to persuade themselves, that labour in utilising the life of an ox enables meat to be sold at a lower price. But experience has proved, that if this is sometimes a truth in detail, it is an error in the gross. “ The habit of labour forms hardy, vigorous races, which, their labour; like men devoted to hard work, eat much, fatten slowly, develop their bony structure, make little flesh, and make it slowly. The habit of inaction, on the contrary, forms races, gentle, tranquil, which fatten early, assume round and fleshy forms, and give with equal food a far larger yield to the butcher. If we look to labour, the ox is killed when he has finished his task. If we look to meat, the ox is killed at the moment when he yields the largest amount. Cattle, in France, are killed too young or too old ; among the 4,000,000 head killed, figure 2,000,000 calves, giving each only 80 kilogrammes of meat. Those which survive are killed at an age when the growth has long ceased, i.e., when the animal has long been consuming nourishment which has not added to his weight. “ In England, on the contrary, animals are killed neither their meat, so young, because in their youth they make the most meat, nor so old, because then they make none. The moment is seized when the animal has reached his maximum of increase. 186 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Deni- son ON Agkicultu- bal Imple- ments, &c. Agricultural show at Paris. Durham short-horns. South Down sheep. Foreign breeds. “ In France, the number of animals killed annually is about 4,000,000 head, producing 400,000,000 kilogrammes of meat, averaging therefore 100 kilogrammes per head. “In the United Kingdom, the number killed is 2,000,000, producing 500,000,000 kilogrammes of meat, averaging 250 kilogrammes per head. “Thus, with 8,000,000 head of cattle and 30,000,000 hec- tares of land, British agriculture produces 500,000,000 kilogrammes of meat; while France, with 10,000,000 head of cattle, and 53,000,000 hectares of land, produces only 400,000,000 kilogrammes." Such a description of the high attainments of English agriculture having been placed before the public of France, it was natural that great expectations should have been formed, both as to the display of live stock and the exhibi- tion of agricultural implements. Nor, I venture to say, were these expectations disappointed. The cattle of our improved breeds found a crowd of admirers, and many pur- chasers. The Durham short-horns have been imported largely into France for some years by the agents of the French Government, and very good specimens of this race, bred in France, were exhibited. The first prize, for young bulls of the Durham breed, was awarded to the Marquis de Talhoust, for a bull sixteen months old. More surprise was created by our sheep, especially by the large size and admir- able symmetry of our South Downs. The jury decided that a gold medal of the first class should be struck in the name of Mr. Jonas Webb, for the collection of South Down sheep, bred and exhibited by himself. The cattle Show took place before the juries for the Palace of Industry were summoned to Paris ; I had not the good fortune myself to see the show. The deputation who accompanied the Presi- dent of the Royal English Agricultural Society were greatly pleased with the excellent arrangements of the show, and with some of the continental breeds of cattle, especially with the French Charolais race, as very good in themselves, and offering a stock very suitable for crossing with short-liorn bulls ; also with the M&is-merino sheep, pointing out the road which French breeders must pursue to accomplish the end of their mission, — the supply of meat at a reasonable price to the markets of France. Though horses formed no part of the show, I must not omit to mention the race of draught horses, known by the name of Percheron. They are strong, muscular, hardy horses, of great power and activity, worthy the attention of English Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements , &c. 187 breeders, better suited for the quickened step of improved farming than the heavier sort of English cart horse. Ageicultu. The collection of agricultural implements was formed by meets, &c.' Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, under the direction of the Board of Agricultural. Trade, assisted by a committee of the English Agricultural implements. Society. The selection was made with great judgment ; the implements sent were not too numerous, and they were all of established excellence. They consisted of ploughs, harrows, cultivators, broadshares, drills, horse-hoes, rakes, rollers, reaping machines, haymakers, &c., portable steam- engines, threshing machines, chaff cutters, corn crushers, and machines for making draining tiles. But the French system of classification placed in the list of agricultural implements those implements only which are used in the fields. It removed the articles last on the list, threshing machines, chaff cutters, corn crushers, machines for making draining tiles, from the jury of agriculture, and placed them in Class VI., “ M^canique sp^ciale.” This led to some practical inconvenience in the conduct of the trials, and to a seeming inconsistency, connected with the change made in the tariff of duties, of which I shall presently speak. The first trial of implements took place on the 7th of Trials im- J uly, at Trappes, about ten miles beyond Versailles, on the p emen 8 farm of M. Dailly, a member of the jury, who afforded every possible accommodation and the most liberal hospitality both to the exhibitors and the members of the jury. The day was chiefly devoted to the trial of ploughs ; an English hay -maker was exhibited, and tried on newly mown lucem. In England it is employed generally only for meadow grass, for which it is best suited. Though a machine of very long standing in this country, it appeared to be a novelty in France, and was much admired and approved. Subjoined is the report of the experiment on ploughs, furnished by Mr. Amos, my colleague, consulting engineer of the English Agricultural Society, who assisted at the trials. Experiments on Ploughs. Trappes, July 7th, 1855. Fifteen were used from various countries. A great diffi- Report on culty was experienced in obtaining the names and addresses ploughs? 0 of the exhibitors, through the cards or marks not being — 188 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. 3Ir. Deni- son ON Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. Report on the Trial of Ploughs. Dynamo- meters. Results of the experi- ments. placed on them. This accounts for the imperfection of the first column, viz., cc Makers' Names." The land was light, and offered but little resistance to well-made ploughs, but the experiments would have been more valuable had more “field room " been given, so that each plough could have made three or four turns before the dynamometer was applied. Each plough should also have worked to the same depth , as the ground was harder at bottom. The “ ground " is also usually harder near the old “ water furrow," and lighter near the old “ ridge ;" hence each plough should have had a “ land " or “ ridge " to itself, and then, had the dynamometer been applied at an equal distance from the old “ furrow," greater truth would have been obtained. The dynamometers tried were one provided by the French, one from Denmark, and one from England (by Bentall). The latter was used, but it is imperfect when used with ploughs of “ light draught," as it gives the “ resistance " of such ploughs too small. This arises from the driving “ disc plate " having a hole in its centre, and although that hole is of no consequence or inconvenience when ploughs are used on “ heavy land," yet when used with ploughs of small resistance on “ light lands " the spring of the dynamometer is not compressed enough to keep the “ driving disc ” clear of the hole; hence the “registration" is too small with light ploughs. This may account in degree for the differ- ence (as recorded) in the draught of the ploughs of our best makers. The following table gives the length, breadth, and depth of “ earth removed." which, being multiplied together, gives a “ total " in cubic feet. The tabular number in the seventh column is the number recorded by the dynamometer. This number in each case multiplied by 100, and the product divided by the number of cubic feet of earth removed in each experiment, gives the tabular numbers in the eighth column. The numbers in the eighth column show the “ comparative cost " or “ expenditure of poiver " of removing an equal quantity of land, the lower number showing the greater degree of excellence of the implement. In carrying out the details of the experiments, the able assistance rendered me by Mr. Edward Combes, C.E., of Paris (a gentleman recommended by Professor Wilson), was eminently useful. C. E. Amos. Experiments on Ploughs at Trappe, near Versailles. July 7th, 1855. Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements , &c. 189 Mr. Deni- son on Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. Results of the experi- ments. 190 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Objections to English machines. ^o'non 1 * The trials, for the reasons above-mentioned, could not be a S _ considered entirely complete or satisfactory. The indica- ments,&c. tions of the dynamometer were unduly favourable to the ploughs of the lightest draught, but making the fullest allowance for this, the difference between the resistance offered by the different ploughs will appear very remark- able. The best French plough, the “ Grignon,” was light, cheap, simple in construction, and did very good work, but in comparison with Howard’s plough, the dynamometer marked 29 as against 16, in comparison with the best Belgian plough “ Odeur,” 57 as against 16.* It was objected against the English ploughs, and indeed against the English machines in general, that they were too heavy and too costly, but the trials showed that a light plough does not always make light work, nor is an imple- ment, cheap at first cost, always the cheapest in the end. The same objections against iron ploughs, and in favour of the old wooden ones, have been freely made at home, but they are passing away under a longer experience. To do good work in the field you must have strong and well constructed implements. The best implements are the cheapest in the end, they are fast superseding inferior machines at home, and they will no doubt in time obtain the same preference, wherever they shall be put fairly to the test.f The value of solidity and strength was fully recognized in the implements akin to ploughs, drags, scarifiers, and broadshares, by which so much of the labour on the best cultivated farms is now effected. The implements by Garret, Bentall, and Coleman were the first of their class, and their superiority was not contested. The position of the English exhibitors of agricultural implements was not an encouraging one. They sent speci- mens of their newest inventions, and most approved ma- chinery. These might be examined, copied, purchased as models, by foreign competitors. The individual machines ex- hibited might, indeed be sold at the close of the Exhibition, on the payment of a duty of 20 per cent., ad valorem . But the sale of a single machine was, of course, a most inadequate compensation for the trouble and expense incident upon the Exhibition ; nothing more, however, was in view. The Position of English exhibitors. * Further trials on the 1st and 2nd of August, and on the 14 th and 15th of August, made with the dynamometer of General Morin varied in some degree these results. They were made in the absence of the English makers and their workmen. They were favourable to the light draught of the Grignon plough. f Howard’s plough was bought on the ground for the Government Esta- blishment at Grignon. Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements, &c. 191 duty on the importation of machinery was so high, that it amounted to a prohibition. It was not to be expected, Agricultu under such circumstances, that any great zeal or enthusiasm ^ents, P &c* should prevail among the English machine-makers, busy at that moment in preparation for the Carlisle show. Still, when notice was given of the intended trials at Trappes, at a few days’ warning only, several of the makers themselves Came over, bringing with them their workmen, and they appeared on the ground ready to contend for the honour of victory, though victory should be barren of all but honour. At the close of the day their conduct through the trials drew from Count de Gasparin, the President, these compli- mentary words : — “ Your countrymen have, indeed, set an example to all. They have brought good implements, men to manage them, an interpreter to speak for them, an engi- neer to advise with. This is the way in which business should be done/' An international exhibition, which had broken down no Reduction barriers of prejudices or partial laws, which had ended of the duty * without exciting friendly sympathies, or promoting friendly intercourse, would have been but a barren display. The enlightened Frenchmen, with whom I had the good fortune to be associated, were the first to pronounce in favour of free exchange. Our class agreed unanimously to make a representation to the Imperial Government in favour of a reduction of the duty on foreign agricultural machinery. The representation was successful : an Imperial Decree appeared in the Moniteur of September 7, making a con- siderable reduction in the duty on many manufactured articles, and specially reducing the duty on agricultural machinery to 15f. per 100 kilogrammes. This duty being by weight, 1 5f. per 100 kilogrammes (equal to 2 cwt.) operates unequally in different classes of machinery. On an iron plough, for instance, in which the weight of the raw material, in comparison to workmanship, is con- siderable, the duty will be something above 20 per cent., ad valorem. In the more complicated machines, in which labour enters more largely, as in drills, horse-hoes, &c., &c., the duty will be from 15 to 20 per cent., ad valorem. This concession was accepted with much satisfaction by our machine-makers ; orders to some extent were received for machines. The barrier, at all events, which had hitherto stood between the industry of the two countries was broken down, and ground was laid for a trade, which may be ripened and matured into results of mutual benefit to both countries. 192 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Deni- son on Ageicultu- eal Imple- ments, &c. Duty on threshing and tile- making ma- chines was not reduced. Advantage derived from draining. Cost of im- porting a tile machine into France. I have said that portable steam-engines, and threshing machines, and tile-making machines were not included in the list of agricultural implements. Unfortunately the classification in the books of the Cus- tom-house corresponds with the classification in the cata- logue of the Exhibition, consequently those machines, not falling under the denomination of agricultural machines, do not partake of this reduction of duty. Of all machines connected with agriculture, there are none in which greater improvements have been made in late years than in machines for making pipe tiles for drain- ing. There is no class of machinery which would be more useful in France. The excellent results of draining are there thoroughly understood and appreciated. Specimens of draining were exhibited by the Marquis de Bryas (Gironde) and the Viscount de Bougd (Aisne) from the opposite extremities of France. The draining of the Medoc vineyards by Count Duchatel has been attended with complete success. It is computed that one-seventh of the surface of France requires draining. It is understood now that draining not only keeps land drier during the rains of winter, but keeps it cooler and more moist during the heats of summer, preventing the baking of the surface by the sun, and promoting the con- stant progress of vegetation. It is the foundation of all improvements, — the first step in the path of good cultivation. No machines attracted so much attention as the tile ma- chines of Messrs. Clayton and Whitehead, exhibited in work. They were surrounded, from morning to night, by a crowd of spectators. I cannot think it probable that the Government of France, anxious to promote improvements, and to strengthen the hands of French agriculture, will de cline the benefit which is offered to them by the possession of these approved machines. Under the law, as it at present stands, the cost of intro- ducing a tile machine into France exceeds the prime cost of the machine. Mr. Clayton thus reports his ex- perience : — “ The sale of tile machines for France would have been much greater, but the numerous applicants were deterred by the high rate of duty ; it amounts, indeed, almost to a prohibition. I sold, the other day, a tile machine and pug mill, to be delivered at Fresnes, near Paris. The sale value of this machinery amounted to 58 1.; the cost for trans- port and Douane charges amounted to 62?. — 4?. more than the entire cost of the machinery.” Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements , <&c. 1 93 The threshing machines were tried by the jury of Class VI. Mb. Deni- The English machine by Hornsby, and the American by Ageicultit- Pitts, of Buffalo, State of New York, were the most approved, ^xxsf&e.' The details of the trials have not yet been published, and they are not in my possession. These trials do not appear to have been conducted with all the care and exactness necessary to place the decisions beyond the reach of cavil. Reaping Machines. Though reaping machines have, up to this time, dis- Reaping appointed the sanguine expectations which were formed of them at their first appearance, the various specimens in the Exhibition were regarded with much curiosity, and the trials of them excited a lively interest. Mr. W. Fairbairn, President of Class VI., has favoured me with the following report on these machines. The name of Mr. Fairbairn will be a sufficient warrant for the value of this report. Report on Reaping Machines. Machines of this kind are of great antiquity. They were Report of known to the Romans, but we hear nothing of them during bSrn^n" the middle ages ; and from those remote times we have ^Shines few traces of improvement, or any successful attempts to substitute machine-reaping for the sickle. It was reserved for Mr. Bell, of the Carse of Gowrie, in Scotland, in 1826, to construct a machine that answered all the purposes of a good reaper. Mr. Bell has used his machine, and gathered his harvest by it, for the last twenty-nine years, and it is not too much to say that most of the machines now in use are based upon the principle of Bell. There is great simi- larity in nearly the whole of these machines, and the Uni- versal Exhibition of Paris exhibits nearly the same charac- teristics in principle and construction as those shown at the Exhibition of 1851. It is true there are some slight improvements introduced by Mr. McCormick and others, but the principle of the machine remains unaltered, except- ing only the receiving boards, which in those brought forward for competition at the Paris Exhibition are exceed- ingly variable, and some of them very ingenious. The period of the General Exhibition at Paris was most Tn.Uof^tiie favourable for giving a fair trial to machines of this m description, and the month of August afforded an excellent opportunity for testing the merits of each machine by actual experiment. Through the liberality of M. Dailly, a distin- guished agriculturist, and member of the jury, a field of oats N 194 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Deni- son ON Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. Trial of the machines. Coumier’s machine. on his farm at Trappe was set apart for the exclusive purpose of ascertaining the properties and proving the value of each machine. The Imperial Government, always alive to the interests of the community and the advancement of mechanical art, took a deep interest in the trials, and in order that the jury might not be incommoded, several mounted gens d’armes, a few soldiers of the line, and a drummer, were sent forward to Trappes to prevent the crowd from inconveniencing them. On the 2nd August, at 11 o’clock, the machines were divided into three groups, and the contest for superiority commenced as follows : Group 1st , — M. Cournier’s allotment M. Atkins’ „ M. Lawrent’s „ Group 2nd , — M. Mazier’s „ M. Manny’s „ M. Crossbills „ Group 3rd , — M. McCormick’s „ M. Dray’s „ Canadian ., Metres. 1,628 1,733 1,825 1,826 1,900 1,958 1,987 2,256 1,650 Having grouped the machines as above, the conditions were, as far as I could learn, — the time required to cut the allot- ment, the number of hands employed, and the perfection with which the work was executed without injury to the grain. These conditions being ascertained, the first group commenced operations, by beat of drum, at 11 o’clock, all three starting at the same time. Group 1. Cournier’s Machine (French) on Bell’s principle. — This machine, with one horse, cuts clean, but is liable to get entangled in the cutters with straw. A great deal of time was lost from this cause, and this defect appears to be common to all the machines when the speed happens to be reduced under two miles and a half an hour. In this respect I found the maximum velocity of the machines to be as nearly as possible three miles an hour, and the knives for every eighteen feet in distance made eleven single or twenty- two double cuts for one revolution of the wheel. This machine had a sliding rake motion for the convenience of Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements, Ac. 195 the reaper, and in order to enable hifn to clear the receiving- j 1 " board of the grain as it is cut. With some improvements, 4 al ikSe* this machine may be made much more effective, and would ments, &c. work much better with two horses and a wider cutting board, so as to take a greater width of grain, and maintain the speed necessary to accomplish a maximum result. From the frequent clogging of the cutters it required sixty-seven minutes to cut 1,628 square metres of corn. The reel in this machine for gathering the corn went too fast, and proved injurious by striking the grain too high up the stalk. M. Atldns Automaton Machine (American) executed Atkins* 1,733 square metres in twenty- four minutes. This machine is nearly self-acting, and only requires the driver ; one attendant, indeed, following the machine in case anything goes wrong. Its novelty consists in a rake worked from the wheel that drives the cutter shaft. It is attached by an arm or connecting rod to the bevel wheel, and by a combina- tion of levers it receives a rotatory motion, which, along with that in a longitudinal direction, drags the grain forward over the side of the board. In order, however, to make sure of the discharge, another rake or cleaner strips the before-mentioned one of its load, and lays the straw in parallel lines ready to be bound into sheaves. This machine, like Courniers, has some clever devices about it ; but like all new attempts at improvements, there still remains some further improvements to simplify and make the machine more effective and complete. Lawrent (French). — This machine, like Cournier’s, was Lawrent’s constantly choking with the straw round the cutters. It is machine - a copy of Bell's, and requires two men at the pole, a driver and a reaper, to work it. It is a heavy machine, and almost too much for two horses to work, and the reason of its en- tanglement was a falling off in the speed. In all these machines speed is an element of success, as might be seen whenever the velocity of the knives and the speed of the machine were reduced ; on such occasions, choking or en- tanglement of the straw was the result. This being the case, it is therefore a consideration of much importance to have all these machines of such dimensions as to enable the horses to work them with ease at the required velocity. Group. 2. Mazier s Machine (French). — This machine is of light Mazier’s # ✓ o machine. construction, adapted for one horse, and cuts a breadth of two feet seven inches in line all round the field. It cuts N 2 196 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Mb. Deni- son- ON Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. Manny’s machine. Crosskill’s machine. either right or left, by 'means of the frame containing the cutters turning on a central axis. The knives are worked by a wheel and worm, and are well calculated for cutting light grain, such as oats and barley, but might prove ineffi- cient in operation on a field of heavy wheat. The machine, as a whole, was rather slender for the work it had to perform, but if well constructed, and the parts judiciously propor- tioned for two horses, there is no reason why it should not reap any description of grain. In the attempt to cut the allotment it unfortunately broke down by some of the parts giving way, J. M. Manny (United States}. — Mr. Manny’s allotment consisted of 1,900 square metres, which he cut in twenty- six minutes. The machine is worked by two horses, and cuts a breadth of four feet six inches. Mr. M. speaks highly of his machine, and gives numerous testimonials of its efficiency, exclusively of medals, premiums, and awards from different districts in America, and from different countries in Europe, for its performance. According to Mr. Manny’s account, “it will cut either grass or corn when down, wet or dry, and in whatever direction the wind blows, without being stopped for a single instant.” Mr. M. further observes, “ that it can easily be converted, in a few seconds, from a reaper into a mower, and the only thing required is to with- draw the platform, and change the scythe of the reaper for the cutting scythe of the mower. The cutting apparatus, for corn or for grass, is made in such a way that it cuts as well backwards as forwards when the machine is reaping ; the wheat is received on the platform, gathered, and put into a heap by the action of a wing-board, and by a single stroke of his rake the attendant puts down on the ground at the back of the machine the already made sheaves, which only require tying.” It will not be necessary to follow Mr. Manny further in his description, which evinces great con- fidence in the superior performance of the machine ; suffice it to observe, that it did its work, with the exception of some parts not very clean cut, moderately well, and in twenty-six minutes completed the quantity it had to perform. GrosskilUs Machine (English) is an improvement upon Bell’s, and in great repute amongst the farmers of the North Biding of Yorkshire and other parts of England. In the hands of Crosskill it has received several improvements, but unfortunately, on this occasion, the key of the connecting- rod that works the knives got loose, dropped out, and stopped the process of reaping. Under these circumstances Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements, &c. 197 it was thought desirable to withdraw the machine, and leave the field open to the other competitors. Group 3. M l Cormick (American). — This reaper is probably one of the best machines of its class. It reaped 1,987 square metres in seventeen minutes, and judging not only from the quantity of work done in so short a time, but from the manner in which the ground was cleared, and the grain cut, it evidenced much greater perfection in its operations than any of the others whose powers were brought to the test. It cuts a clean track of five feet six inches wide, and performs the operations with a degree of certainty and precision sufficient to account for the very short time in which the allotment was cut down. This machine, like most others, is suscepti- ble of still further improvements, and I am glad to find that Messrs. Burgess and Key, the makers, are about to introduce a new moveable apparatus, consisting of three Archimedean screws, for delivering the grain from off the receiving board as it is cut. The great defect of this machine was the im- perfect way in which the grain was delivered from the platform after being cut, and the evident want of some method of laying the heads and straw parallel and in bundles and sheaves, and also for clearing the ground and leaving the track clear for the horses on the return cut. This defect in distributing the cut grain as it falls from the knives appears to be the principal objection to this machine. Burgess and Key's clearing apparatus, if properly constructed, may probably remedy this evil, and render the machine much more perfect in its operations than it has been heretofore.* W. M. Dray and Co.'s Machine (English) is of an exceed- ing compact form. It is entirely without a reel for gather- ing in the corn to the cutters, and requires only one man as a reaper to watch the cutters and discharge the corn as it is received upon the board or wooden platform behind. The cutters are five feet wide, and it reaped 2,250 square metres in 35 minutes.f The peculiar features of this machine are, its portable construction and the receiving-board, which * A trial has been made of this apparatus since the above was written, but without success. 1 am not prepared to state from what cause, hut will take an early opportunity of ascertaining the facts or of witnessing its preformance at some future trial. f Some say 34 minutes. Mr. Dent- son ON Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. M'Cormick’s machine. Dray & Co.’s machine. 198 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Deni- son on Agricultu- ral IMPLE- MENTS, &c. Canadian machine. Results of the trial. moves upon an axis. By the pressure of the reaper's foot the platform is tilted, and the grain drops behind, ready for the person who follows to bind and tie it up. The only objection to this process is that it requires the binding to be done immediately, otherwise the horses, at every succeeding cut, would trample over the previously reaped corn, and, moreover, would effectually impede the working of the machine. Under these circumstances the track previously cut must be entirely cleared in order to prepare for that which succeeds. This operation of the tilting board, which throws the grain upon the track behind, appears to be the chief defect in the machine. A different clearing apparatus, to effect the discharge of the cut grain in a lateral direction would render this machine much more valuable. It would give time for binding up the grain into sheaves, and at the same time it would clear the track for the horses and machine in their return for the next cut. The last machine (the Canadian), which completes the three groups, was withdrawn, from some cause that was not explained. On a careful examination of the several machines entered for the prizes, it will be observed that in every one of them an attempt was made to effect a certain purpose by certain means of transmission, calculated to retard rather than facilitate the progress of cutting. In machines of this description, where horses are employed as a motive power, it is desirable to make the action as easy as possible, and to effect the motion of cutting, reaping, &c. with as light wheels and gear as practicable. Now, these small wheels and their attachments at present in use appear to me to be the very worst and heaviest parts of the machine, and I would earnestly urge upon the makers of reaping machines the absolute necessity of increasing the diameters and dimensions of the gear which works the cutters, and at the same time to fix and attach the journals and ends of the shafts into one casting, so that they cannot vary in position, but must move, and, technically speaking, go and come with the machine. These alterations being made, the proper clearing apparatus being attached to the receiving- boards, we might then look forward to the labours of the harvest being performed with much greater certainty and effect than is now accomplished by the present machines. The following table, which Mr. Edward Combes has kindly handed to me, gives the results of the different trials as follows ~ Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements, &c. 199 Trial of Reaping Machines on the farm of M. Dailly, at Trappes, near Paris, 2nd August 1855. No. Name. Country. Breadth of cutting. Square metres. Time. No. of horses. Price. Remarks. 1 Cournier Prance . ft. in. 4 3 1,628 67 1 £ \ 26 ! Driving-wheel 3ft. 3in. ; crank 2 Atkins American 5 3 1,733 24 2 36 makes 11 revolutions to 1; knives not serrated. Diameter of driving-wheel 3 Lawrent Prance . 5 0 1,823 66 2 * 4ft. 4in. ; crank makes 24 to 1. Diameter of driving-wheel 4 Mazier Prance . 2 7 Brok< 3 down 1 3ft. ; crank makes 15 to 1 ; similar to Bell. Small machine, cutting either 5 Manny American 4 6 1,900 26 2 26 right or left, by means of the cutting-frame turning on a central moveable axis ; knives worked by wheel and worm. Diameter of driving-wheel 6 Crosskill, 1 Bell’s. $ England 5 0 Brolu 3 down 2 45 j 2ft.6in. ; crank makes 13 tol. 7 M'Cormick American 5 6 1,987 1 17 2 30 8 Dray . England 5 0 2,250 1 35 2 25 9 The Canadian 6 6 Retired 2 Mr. Deni- SON ON Agricultu- ral Imple- ments, &c. Results of the trial. From the above table it will be seen that McCormick's American machines performed the most work in the least time ; that Atkins' and Manny's executed as nearly as possible the same quantity of work in the same time, there being a fraction in favour of Manny ; and that Dray was the next in the order of time and the quantity of work done. Keducing the whole work done to a standard of 2,000 square metres, the competing machines will stand thus : — M‘Cormick's would cut 2,000 metres in 17 ’00 minutes. Manny's „ „ 27 3 6 „ Atkins' „ „ 27*69 „ Dray's „ „ 31*11 If we are, therefore, to takes the quantity of grain cut in the least time, Mr. McCormick's machine will stand first on the list, and the others according to their position in the above scale. In the investigation of this subject, we have hitherto Preparation confined our observations to the machines. There is, how- veryfmport- ever, another element equally important and essential to ant * the efficiency of the process of reaping, and that is, the preparation of the land : and in fact, before we can look forward to ultimate success, the surface must be levelled, and the present injurious system of ridges dispensed with. To a casual observer it is obvious that the present state of culture, as pursued in most parts of Europe, is not calculated 200 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Mb. Deni- son on Agbicultu- bal Imple- ments, &c. Preparation of the land very import- ant. Steam cul- tivation. to afford tlie necessary facilities for ensuring a successful progression to machinery. To apply machinery successfully to the labours of a farm, the land must be prepared, not for hand, but machine labour ; and the successful introduction of reaping machines will chiefly depend upon the prepara- tions that are made or their reception. The system of ridges may be tolerated, and overcome by the sickle, but to give to the new process of reaping' by machinery its full effect, a totally different plan of operations must be pursued, and the fields laid down witli a perfectly smooth surface. The larger description of stones and other obstructions should be removed, and in place of the superfluous water not required for the nourishment of the plants, being- allowed to flow between the ridges on the surfaces of the field, sweeping in heavy streams, as it now does, everything before it, the new system of drainage will require to be adopted, and the water carried under in place of running over the surface. To make a machine, such as a reaping machine, vrork well, everything must not be left to the machine ; the agri- culturist must do his duty as well as the engineer, and that duty once duly performed on both sides, a certainty of action will be secured, which will solve the problem, and effect satisfactory results. Having arrived at these happy results, we may then, and not till then , reasonably look forward to the crops being well and quickly gathered by machinery, to the exclusion of a laborious process, effected with difficulty, and often imperfectly, by the human hand. W. Fairbairn. I regret that the Exhibition closed without any declared progress in the great problem of steam cultivation. Hopes had been entertained that a steam cultivator, the invention of Mr. Romaine, brought from Canada, promoted by funds voted by the Canadian legislature, would have been so far perfected, that it might have been presented to the jury for examination ; but unforeseen difficulties beset the path of the inventor, and he was compelled reluctantly to give up the cherished hope of signalising his machine by a public display at Paris. Still it is just to Mr. Romaine that I should bear testi- mony to what I saw, and to the point which he had attained. I saw in a field, near the walls of Paris, Mr. Ro- maine’s machine, carrying its own boiler and engine, travel by its own locomotive power 100 yards up the field, and break up and cultivate the land in its course. Mr. Denison on Agricultural Implements , f forms in which filagree was shown in the Universal Exhibition. The revival by the French of niello work as applied to Niello work, the decoration of snuff boxes, cigar cases, &c., is a point worthy of attention by English manufacturers, and it is also worthy of consideration, how far the electro-deposit process may be brought to bear upon an economic reproduction of a number of the same designs. In the illustration of the manufacture of dress-fastenings Dress of a plain but useful character, such as buckles, hooks and as enings * eyes, pins, &c., the Birmingham contributions were singu- larly deficient. This was the more to be regretted, inasmuch as from the specimens shown the inference was inevitable that in this important branch of industry Birmingham would have stood pre-eminent, had a proper display been made ; yet, notwithstanding the fact that many tons weight 250 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me.¥alii 3 of metal are consumed weekly in the production of an mingham immense variety of articles, all of an indispensable character factuSs ^ ie f ,a ^ or > dressmaker, and milliner, and in constant — demand in a variety of forms all over the world, it would have been difficult to have realized from the comparatively few exhibits, that the production of these articles formed more than a small staple of the manufactures of Birmingham. The ingenuity in construction and adaptability to a given purpose which characterize English productions of this class, not to mention extreme lowness of price, could not have failed to command attention, had a systematic display been made; and thus that which at first sight may appear an insignificant department of British industry would have taken its true position, since none of the continental nations;' Prussia excepted, gave evidence of any special power in the manufacture of that infinite variety of useful articles, coming under the generic head of dress-fastenings, steel pens. In the smaller kind of steel articles, such as steel pens, and needles. fish hooks, and needles, the examples exhibited from Bir- mingham, stood comparison with similar productions from other localities, British and continental, and in some re- spects surpassed them. The illustration of the present position of the steel pen manufacture was, however, very incomplete, as several leading Birmingham makers, and those too of the highest repute, did not exhibit. Works in The extent to which ornamental zinc work is manufac- tured upon the continent has no parallel in England. In this respect Birmingham may be said to have a new field before it, and it is more than probable that attention to this growing industry in its more readily applied forms, such as repetitions of ornamental details for architectural decorations, would have a useful effect upon other and kindred branches of manufacture. Garden The application of zinc in the production of garden de- decorations. cora ti 0 ns i s a point deserving special mention, and one Prussian exhibit by Be Diebetsch, of Berlin, illustrated in an admirable manner the adaptability of this metal for producing at once tasteful and useful results. The example in question consisted of a series of jardinieres , so to speak, of complicated construction and highly decorative detail in the Moresque style of ornament. Some of the specimens were gilt, and painted in polychrome, other portions being treated with acids : a variety of tint in the metal itself being Flower-pots obtained thereby. Even as suggestive of a method of pro- ducing ornamental flower pots in zinc, this contribution was worthy of special examination and attention. Mr. Wallis on Birmingham Manufactures. 251 Articles in galvanized zinc, as a cheap substitute for bronze, appear to be largely manufactured in Paris. This mAgham process of depositing a coating of copper upon the surface of pactuees. the zinc is also frequently applied to large and important GaifiAizeci works. Little or nothing has been done in this direction zinc - in England, at least for commercial purposes, nor is it desirable that so questionable a mode of production should be encouraged. Ornamental castings in iron can scarcely be said to have Ornamental been represented amongst the special Birmingham contribu- iugs. £ tions ; but as the Coalbrookdale Company appeared as the Midland Counties representative of this valuable and in- creasing branch of British industry, the specimens exhibited by this house may be taken as illustrations of the highest class of productions in cast-iron, especially as devoted to the purposes of the park and garden. The articles exhibited by the Coalbrookdale Company were of a very varied character alike as regards purpose, and style of decoration ; but excellent as they were in many respects they certainly lacked the refinement in ornamental detail so fully mani- fested in the stoves exhibited in the French department of the Annexe of the Palais de lTndustrie, by Laury, of Paris. Still for the special purpose which most of the Coalbrook- dale articles were intended to fulfil, there is no reason to suppose that they were in any material respect inferior to continental productions of a similar class ; on the contrary, so far as workmanship in construction, and their thoroughly practical adaptation to the use for which they were intended, was concerned, they were superior to the majority. The ornamentation was at times a little too exuberant, in fact, too much in the French taste, and was not always appro- priately arranged so as to become subservient to the uses of the article decorated. In this respect, however, as much might be said of many Austrian, Prussian, and Belgian productions. It is worthy of notice that the generality of French ornamental iron castings are as remarkable for severity of style and freedom from over-elaboration, as French castings in bronze, &c., are for excess of detail and obtrusive decorative adjuncts. The iron used for the best French castings is evidently charcoal-made iron, the surface being very clear and smooth, and very similar to the best American castings of the same class ; the various parts of the work being given with great sharpness and accuracy, and thus requiring very little “dressing." In the more useful cast-iron articles, such as kitchen Kitchen^ utensils, especially enamelled hollow- ware, the exhibits of iron 31 3 m 252 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Glass enamel on sheet -iron. M onBir- IS Austria and Prussia presented features which evidenced a mingham great improvement during the last three or four years ; but factures. it is quite clear that English exhibitors of these useful articles have been fully alive to the importance of improve- ment, and two leading representatives of this branch of industry, Messrs. Clark, of Wolverhampton, and Messrs. Kenrick, of Westbromwich, certainly more than sustained their position, not only by the character of the work, but the variety of the utensils to which they had succeeded in applying the process. The Birmingham productions of the Patent Enamel Company under Paris’s patent, were not represented in the Exposition. These consist of a great variety of utensils stamped in sheet-iron for culinary and other purposes, the surfaces of which inside and outside are covered with a glass enamel. Though originally a French invention, it is now likely to form an important feature in British manu- factures, since it can be applied to man} 7 articles made in wrought iron, which require to be protected from the atmos- phere or the action of water. Plates, dishes, &c. produced by this process for table use are susceptible of any amount of decoration in the manner and by the methods applicable to ordinary earthenware or porcelain, and are peculiarly suitable for ship purposes from their lightnesss and non-liability to fracture. In many decorative purposes this method of enamelling on sheet iron is likely, under proper direction, to become of great value and importance. The manufacture of ordinary tinned ware, both japanned and in the metallic form, was very fully and ably repre- sented, and certainly stood unrivalled by anything exhibited by the French or any other continental people. The utility of the articles exhibited, their price, and the very unexceptionable manner in which most of the articles were decorated, must have conveyed to the continental visitor a very favourable idea of the practical character of this in- dustry. Excellence of material, perfection of workmanship as regards form, adaptation to use, and finish in the non- ornamental articles, were a few of the points which un- doubtedly rendered the British display as complete and effective as other portions were remarkable for the opposite result. Two of the exhibitors were Wolverhampton houses, three only being Birmingham firms. The five, however, illustrated the tin and japan ware trades of the Midland counties in so satisfactory a manner as to leave little to desire, especially when considered in comparison with the productions of France, Belgium, and Austria. Tinned ware. Mr. Wallis on Birmingham Manufactures. 253 The Birmingham contributions in papier machd were of M o’n bir- IS the average character, alike in design and execution. There ™gh^ m was, however, some evidence of improvement in the selec- facturiss. tion of the subjects used in the decorations, . as also in a p aP iW tendency to try geometric arrangements ; but rather as a mach6, vehicle for colour and gilding than as the absolute basis of the details employed. The examples exhibited in the French and German departments bore marked evidence of improve- ment in some of the best articles, but with all their artistic errors the Birmingham productions were certainly very superior, in point of workmanship and finish, to any other works of the same class. With the exception of a colossal candelabrum manufac- Glass, tured by Messrs. Osier, the Birmingham glass trade may be said to be almost unrepresented so far as any special points of interest were concerned. Messrs. Lloyd and Summerfield illustrated their new method of applying glass to the construc- tion and decoration of window frames, &c., and contributed a few specimens of table glass ; but beyond this and a small contribution from another house, no means were afforded for a just comparison of the position of the domestic and ornamental glass trade of England with that of the Continent. It is tolerably certain, however, that our leading manufac- turers had little or nothing to lose by the comparison, had they afforded materials for instituting it by contributing, and probably they also felt that they had little to gain. Hence the apathy manifested. The candelabrum above alluded to, certainly stood un- approached, alike in the design or adaptation of the forms to the materials, as also in the execution of the work. A thoroughly crystal type was followed throughout, and a varied effect produced by the arrangement of the whole as a series of prisms, and cutting of facets. In this respect it formed a marked contrast to similar productions exhibited in the French department, in which architectural effects were attempted to be produced by the aid of scroll-work, acanthus foliage, consoles, bosses, &c. As the ornamental details of the various parts of a candelabrum constructed of glass transmit the light through the forms in precisely the same manner as the constructive parts, it must be evident that the use of decorative forms or details, in which the effects depend upon the light and shade as seen in an opaque material, is a mistake which can only result in diappoint- ment. The sound principle upon which the Birmingham candelabrum was constructed and decorated served to prove 254 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. Wallis ON BlE- M INGHAM Manu- EACTUEES. Decorated window glass. Stained glass. Inter-crystal ornamen- tation. Fire-arms. this in a remarkable manner ; and there is no doubt the lesson will have its value, both at home and abroad. The method, introduced by Messrs. Chance, of decorating window glass by the transmission of impressions from litho- graphic stones, either drawn in chalk or ink, was illustrated by a few contributions ; but unfortunately the subjects and style of execution were not of such a character as to attract much attention. This was to be regretted, as, with a judicious adaptation of a means at once simple and effec- tive where a proper mode of treatment is adopted, highly decorative effects may be obtained in an economic manner. The stained glass windows of Messrs. Hardman, executed for Westminster Hall and the House of Lords, stood the comparison with the best works of the class in the Exposi- tion, and in point of truth of principle in design were nearly alone in this special style. In connexion with the decoration of glass, although classi- fied with and exhibited amongst works in gold and silver, it may be desirable to name a novel method of introducing decorations in gold and silver between two surfaces of glass. The effect was very satisfactory, the process being termed inter-crystal by the inventor, M. Grichois, of Paris, by whom the process is patented. Ho details, however, were given as to its economical use ; but from the specimens exhibited it is applicable to a great variety of articles, and equally so to curved as to plane surfaces. In fire-arms the contributions from Birmingham were very few, and this was the more striking from the extent to which France, Belgium, and Prussia illustrated their respective products in this wide-spread industry. On examining the military fire-arms produced at Liege of about the same standard as the arms most extensively manufactured at Birmingham, forming in fact, its great staple in this trade, there can be little doubt that had the Birmingham gun trade organized a thorough display of its usual productions, commencing with the cheaper kind of arms, and gradually illustrating each department until the higher class was reached, such a display would have done honour, not only to Birmingham, but to the country, and have been pre-eminently useful to the parties most interested, the manufacturers themselves. As it was, the gun trade of England, taken as a whole, was practically ignored, and therefore no useful comparison can be insti- tuted between its productions and those so judiciously exhibited and so admirably arranged by the Belgian and Mr. Wallis on Birmingham Manufactures. 255 Prussian manufacturers. It may be remarked that the M ^™ s artistic talent brought to bear upon the decoration of the ming-ham; higher class of arms, especially those exhibited by Prussia FACTURE3. was of a high character ; not always judiciously applied, but still giving evidence of refinement in the producers of these arms, which is somewhat rare amongst ourselves, since the engraving of gun-locks and furniture is mostly very pretentious in execution and vulgar in design. In harness and coach furniture, saddlers’ ironmongery, names.?, and lamps for carriages and railway purposes, the Binning- ture, &c. ham and Midland Counties exhibits were certainly both useful and effective. These extensive industries giving employment to whole populations, as in the case of Walsall, and assuming as they do such a variety of forms, each adapted to the demands of some distinct cuiarter of the globe, were riot so completely illustrated as could have been wished, considering the extent of the interests in- volved therein. But it must be borne in mind that a thorough exposition of the whole of the peculiarities of a trade assuming so many phases, would have involved the systematic collection of the products of a consider- able district, in which from the sub-division of labour, very few individuals could be expected to take a suffi- cient interest to incur the necessary labour and expense. The general character of these productions was, however very fairly shown ; and certainty the excellence of some portions of the harness and saddlers' ironmongery were unrivalled, so far as workmanship and finish was concerned. Contrasted with the French productions of the same class, it was less ornamental, and occasionally looked heavy from abundance of metal. Nor were the attempts fit ornamental arrangement always so successful as they might have been, there being few departments of industry more susceptible of improvement than the metal mountings of harness and carriages; since in the majority of cases the ornamental work is either absolutely thrown away, from not being so adapted to the forms demanded by the use as to at once become part of those forms and yet decorate them, or, on the other hand, the decoration is so clumsily adapted as to become an excresence. Nor did the English productions in the Universal Exposition stand alone in this respect, since something of the same kind characterized those of France and other continental countries. In the speciality of railway and carriage lamps, the andS Birmingham contributions were confined to one or two ria ^ lamps. 256 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Wallis on Bir- mingham Manu- factures. Table lamps. Locks. Builder’s iron- mongery. exhibitors. Those adapted to railways were of a character far superior to similar articles exhibited in other places in the Palais de lTndustrie ; but it is to be regretted that in so important a branch of trade as that of ordinary carriage lamps a more satisfactory display was not made. Whilst upon the subject of lamps, it may be as well to remark that the greater portion of table and bracket lamps exhibited from Birmingham were little more than re-pro- ductions, though not, perhaps, absolute copies of the ordinary French moderator lamps. They frequently showed good workmanship, and occasionally a happy and tasteful com- bination of materials, and were calculated, as a whole, to sustain the industrial, if not the artistic, position of Birming- ham in this particular department of trade. In locks, the exhibitors were few, but the specimens con- tributed were of a good character, and there is no reason to suppose that the relative position of the British and con- tinental producers of these articles is in any way changed to the detriment of the former. Certainly in the three great points of ingenuity of construction, excellence of workman- ship, and lowness of price, English locks keep their posi- tion. In the question of form and decoration, opinions may be in favour of some of the continental productions ; but these were not always so judiciously ornamented as they might have been. Probably the point in which the hardware industry of the Midland Counties of England may be said to have been most defective in representation, was in the extensive and numerous branches of industry, coming under the general head of builders’ ironmongery, such as common locks, latches, bolts, hinges, screws, nails, &c., and it is to be re- gretted that some organized plan was not adopted by the local committees of Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Walsall, for the thorough and complete illustration of this highly important and useful branch of British trade and commerce. If this had been done, and prices attached to the various samples when exhibited, the result could not have failed of being highly beneficial, alike to the home manufacturer and merchant, as to the foreign buyer and consumer ; and it is feared that an opportunity has been lost for extending a knowledge of British powers of produc- tion in a most valuable and profitable range of articles always in demand, which it is not likely will occur again for some years at least. In conclusion, it may be as well to state as a brief sum- Conclusion. Mr. Wallis on Birmingham Manufactures. 257 maiy, that in nearly tlie whole of those departments of Me. wallib industry in which the manufacturers of Birmingham really sSgjiam took the trouble to show what they were doing, British ^cttjres industry stood well, and that the deficiency did not lie so — - much in the standard of excellence as in the poverty of representation, and the often careless and tasteless manner in which the exhibits were displayed. I have the honour to be, &c. George Wallis. . V. ;<*: v * *&¥••' L Wfo * . ■ ■ / •■ ■■ ' j : '■ r: ; l :: r'i Mr. Winkworth on SilJc Manufactures. 259 On Class XXL, Silk Manufactures. — By WORTH, Juror for that Class. Thomas Wink- mr.wink- WORTH ON Silk Manu- factures. My Lord, Having been requested to report upon “ the position which the United Kingdom held in the late Paris Exhibi- tion compared with foreign countries, and upon the progress, if any, which has been made since 1851,” in respect of the class of objects on which I acted as Juror, viz., silk manufac- tures, or Class XXI. I beg to submit to your Lordship the following observations : — • It would not be difficult to render in a few words such a reply to these questions as, under ordinary circumstances, might be deemed sufficient for a comparison, of the pro- portion which the awards given to Exhibitors in 1855 bear to their number in each country with that of 1851, would seem to be the measure of relative position and pro- gress. An obvious reason, however, exists why no such answer could be taken as other than a proximate opinion of the different Juries on those two occasions. The basis on which they were instructed to decide in 1851, was to be a comparison with each other of the articles exhibited by each country taken separately, while in 1855 they were desired to view and award upon the collection as a whole, without reference to the particular or separate countries from which it was supplied. I must, therefore, claim for myself rather more latitude than, under other circumstances, I might have required, and endeavour to evolve out of a mass of indi- vidual opinion with which I have been favoured by co-jurors and others, and of statistical detail more or less official, such facts as may enable me to report satisfactorily to myself on the foregoing questions. I propose, in the first instance, to present an epitome of of* the silk manufacture of the United Kingdom, and then to the United notice, as far as may be necessary, the position which other n m ' exhibiting countries appear at this moment to occupy. There is probably no manufacture in this country, the his- torical incidents of which are so anomalous as that of silk. It appears to have had a recognised existence so early as the 14th century, and in 1454 an Act was passed for the pro- R 2 260 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wink- wortii on Silk Manu- I'ACTUEES. Parlia- mentary regulations. Progress of the trade under pro- tection. tection of women against the importation of foreign silk articles, such as “ twined ribbons, chains, or girdles/" This Act was from time to time renewed, with additional lists of articles to be prohibited. In 1585, the manufacture received an impulse, by the arrival of a number of merchants and artisans from Antwerp, where the trade had been long carried on. Other foreign manufacturers occasionally settled in England, and in the reign of Elizabeth, the number of persons engaged in the production of silkgoods, was estimated at 40,000. From this time the manufacture appears to have been subjected to a series of parliamentary regulations, generally at the instance of the masters or their workmen, or of both, the most extraordinary and, as we should now deem them, the most vexatious that could well have been devised. At one time all foreign manufactured silks were absolutely pro- hibited ; then allowed to come in free of duty ; and occa- sionally certain descriptions only were prohibited, as in 1692, when the refugees who settled here after the revoca- tion oftheEdict of Nantes in 1685, actualtyobtaind a patent, and ultimately an Act of Parliament, confining the manu- facture of “ lustrings and a la modes,’" to themselves, and prohibiting their importation. These alternations of prohi- bition, partial prohibition, and free importation, of which I have dates and details before me, derived principally from Mr. M‘Culloch"s “ Dictionary of Commerce,"" and from a paper read before the Chamber of Commerce of Manchester, by Mr. John Chadwick, of that city, had that influence on the manufacture which might naturally be expected. Under absolute prohibition or partial restriction it languished ; under free importation, as in or about 1685 to 1692, though the average annual imports amounted to nearly 700,000?., it flourished. In 1697, the advocates of prohibition would appear to have reached their culminating point, for in that year the ports were closed to all foreign manufactured silks, and, except during a sort of lucid interval of temporary re- laxation, remained so until 1826. The quantities of raw and thrown silk taken into con- sumption at certain intervals during this long period of pro- hibition, afford evidence of the slow progress of the trade under protection. The average for the years 1765, 1766, and 1767, was 715,000 lbs; for 1785, 1786, and 1787, was 891,000 lbs. ; for 1801 to 1812, 1,1 10,000 lbs. ; for 1815, 1816, and 1817, 1,388,000 lbs.; and for 1821, 1822, and 1823, 2,325,000 lbs. Mr. Winkworth on Silk Manufactures. 261 Under such influences, the vicissitudes of the trade were, of course, distressing. The king and the legislature were SilkManu- implored to devise, or to adopt at the suggestion of the ‘ — sufferers, measures of relief, and large sums for the benefit of the starving operatives were occasionally subscribed. Balls, attended by the Beyal Family, and at which only new silks of British manufacture were to be worn, were given, and riots in Spitalfields were not of unfrequent occurrence. Smuggling, disputes between masters and men as to wages, parliamentary interferences, destruction of silks in the lo*om, and even in wear, when supposed to be of foreign manufac- ture, were the rule — occasional quiet and profitable employ- ment the exception. At length a brighter star dawned upon the trade, correct A A nis ? ion principles begem to take root m the manufacturing mind, silks, and as if wearied with these fearful consequences of an erroneous and fitful policy, Parliament interfered, and in the memorable year 1826, but not without a long struggle with the majority of the manufacturers, foreign silk goods were permitted to come in at an import duty of 30 per cent, ad valorem. This heavy impost would seem to have been a measure of temporary expediency, for though it was reluct- antly accepted as a kind of compromise, the effect was, as the advocates of free importation prophesied, to some extent more injurious than the state of things which obtained under total prohibition. In the latter condition, foreign silks, from certain peculiarities of length, width, and texture, were im- mediately recognised, and when detected, seized ; while in the former case, being admitted on payment of duty, it was difficult to prove that smuggled goods had not passed through the Custom House in the regular wa y. The estimated result, according to Mr. Macgregor, was, that from 1827 to 1813, out of 6,332,132 lbs. of manufactured silks imported from France, only 3,170,112 lbs., or about one half of the quantity, paid duty. This was a state of things so mischievous, both morally ^hlfdutV and economically, that in the year 1845, the nominal duty of 30 per cent, was reduced one-half, viz., to 15 per cent, ad valorem, or to five shillings per lb., at the option of the Commissioners of Customs. As the charge of the smuggler was from 12 A to 15 per cent., this branch of his illicit trade was nearly annihilated. It is not necessary that I should present a similar history of the raw and thrown, or partially manufactured, silk trade ; it is sufficient for the purposes of this report to observe that, except as to absolute prohibition, the policy pursued was 262 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. worth on* a l mos t equally suicidal with that by which the manufac- S pactureT* ^' ur ^ n o branch was “ protected/" but injured. At one time — heavy, at another lower duties were imposed, especially on the thrown material. Importation of raw and thrown silk. Repeal of the duty on raw and thrown silk Of course, when in 1826, foreign manufactured silks were permitted to be imported at the duty of 30 per cent, ad va- lorem, the impulse given to that interest in England extended itself in corresponding proportions to the raw and thrown article. Accordingly we find, that whereas the largest pre- vious importation was in 1823, when 2,400,000 lbs. were taken into consumption, in 1828, it amounted to nearly 4,300,000, But this prosperity was not of long duration, for while in the five years ending 1823, the average importa- tions were 2,145,425 lbs. ; the average for the five years ending 1828 was only 3,660,083 lbs. ; and in the following five years, only 3,695,918 lbs. When, however, in 1845, the duty on foreign manufac- tured silks was reduced as above, that on raw and thrown silks was totally repealed, and with the most beneficial re- sults, for the throwsters who had hitherto been unable to find foreign markets for their products to any appreciable extent, began then to export in reality. In 1848, they ex- ported 45,693 lbs., and in 1854, no less than 205,186 lbs., thus affording almost irrefragable evidence that a similar policy in manufactured silks would be followed by corre- sponding advantages. It may be inferred from the foregoing hasty review, that oftheduties. the silk manufacture of this country forms no exception to the rule that important advantages may always be expected to result from the removal of prohibitory and protective duties. At the same time, its subsequent prosperity has not been altogether of that marked and progressive character which might have been anticipated. It is difficult to assign with certainty the causes of this, but probably one of them may be, that the acknowledged genius of this country lies in the production of goods suitable in quality and price for the million ; and this presumption on the part of the dealers and consumers much confines the demand for British manu- factures to the lower and cheaper grades. And nearly allied to this is that prevalent commercial spirit which, eager for the speedy acquisition of wealth, undervalues all other ex- cellences but such low prices as lead to easy, extensive, and rapid sale. It is obvious that such influences must be de- pressing and deteriorative to a manufacturer, whose raw material is very costly, and whose ultimate and permanent prosperity must be based on intrinsic excellence. Result of the removal Mr. Winlcworth on Silk Manufactures. 263 Nor ought it to be forgotten that fashion, whose dominion Mr.Wink- is as wide as it is capricious, and for the infraction of whose silk manu- laws no merit can atone, holds her court in a neighbouring country. All, therefore, who are so dependent on her smiles as the dealers in silk goods, must seek the earliest intima- tions of her will, not in London but in Paris. It has, also, often been supposed tha t a higher taste in the British manufacturer, would add to his success. Doubtless, a high and pure taste is of advantage, but if the want of that alone interfered with his prosperity, he would not be slow to purchase the services of those who possessed it, whether natives or foreigners. The existence still of an import duty on foreign rnanu- import factured silks has likewise, in the opinion of some, operated foreign silks, unfavourably to the British manufacturer, especially in foreign markets. The greater portion of the silk manu- facturers of Manchester, acting upon this conviction, signed in 1852 a memorial to the then Chancellor of the Exche- quer, praying for the total repeal of the impost in question. The memorial itself being subjoined to this report renders any further statements on this subject unnecessary. (See Appendix A.) It is, however, after all, consolatory to find that not with- increase m standing any prejudice which may arise from the above or of British any other causes, and also the heavy duties imposed in sllks ’ most foreign countries, not even excepting France, and some of which I shall take occasion presently to specify, the export of British silk manufactures is to some extent increasing. Thus, according to the S{ Annual Statement, of Trade and Navigation, &c. for 1854/' recently issued, it appears that in declared value they amounted — in 1850 to . . £1,202,368, in 1851 to . . 1,268,975, in 1852 to . . 1,357,342, in 1853 to . . 1,805,065, and in 1854 to . . 1,507,160. On the other hand our imports of foreign manufactured silks were, on the same authority, — in 1850 . . . £2,430,369, in 1851 . . . 1,676,384, in 1852 . . . 1,728,695, in 1853 . . . 2,228,083, and in 1854 . . . 2,310,17 1. As far as the returns for 1855 have transpired, they fully confirm this favourable statement of progressive in- 264 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. wink- WORTJf ON Silk Manu- factures. Suggestion with regard to arrange- ment. Silk 'manu- facture of France. crease of external demand, and which I have reason to know is especially the case as regards the United States. This may, I think, be pretty confidently ascribed in part to the opportunity which the recent Paris Exhibition afforded to purchasers from that country of comparing, under all the disadvantages of imperfect classification which has hitherto prevailed at these international collec- tions, the silk goods of England with those of France and other countries. It may be beside the strict province of this report to venture a suggestion for the future arrangement of interna- tional exhibitions, but it would vastly assist jurors, pur- chasers, and visitors generally, and be in harmony with their ostensible object, an arena for free competition, if all articles of a class were exposed in one locality. In the class under review, both in 1851 and in 1855, silks and silk manufac- tures were distributed throughout all parts of the buildings, and no opportunity, therefore, was afforded for comparison of country with country, with the additional risk in ob- scure districts, of no examination at all. I also think, that even as regards the cases or frames in which goods requiring them are exposed, it would still more conduce to conve- nience and certainly to uniformity of artistic effect, if all of a class were made on one model. This, however, I must be content to offer as an additional suggestion, by no means necessary to the adoption of the former. The silk manufacture of Fjiance is that of which the nation is perhaps most proud, and to which it justly attaches great importance. Like that of England, it has been subject to great vicissitudes, the results rather of political convulsions than of governmental interferences. It may in brief be stated with respect to its historical progress, that it owes its introduction from Sicily, Italy generally, and Spain, during the 1 4th and 15th centuries, to the civil and religious wars which then prevailed. The number of workpeople at Lyons engaged in this manu- facture, between 1650 and 1680, or about 200 years after its establishment in France, was estimated at between 9,000 and 12,000. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the numbers fell to about 8,000 to 5,900, and so remained until 1750 or thereabouts, from which date to 1790 they gradually increased to 18,000. From 1792 to 1800, in consequence of the revolutionary period and the wars resulting therefrom, the number of artisans was again reduced to between 8,000 and 4,000. By slow Mr. Winkle orth on Silk Manufactures. 265 degrees and following tlie march of returning order and worth on security, they rose to 12,000, and so remained, with slight FACTURES. fluctuations, until the peace of 1814. In 1816 there were siikmanu- said to be as many as 20.000 ; in 1827, 27,000 ; in 1837, 40,000 ; in 1848, 50,000 ; and at this time there are pro- bably not less than from 60,000 to 80,000. But this state- ment only applies to the progress and present condition of Lyons and its environs. There are other important towns and districts in which the silk manufacture is carried on, the statistics of which, if collected, would no doubt exhibit similar results. The most important of these is St. Etienne, the seat of the ribbon manufacture, and in which at this time, there are from 30,000 to 40,000 persons engaged. Considerable manufactures of silk and silk mixed fabrics are also established at Paris, Nimes, Avignon, St. Chau- mont, and in various parts of Picardy, Normandy, and Alsace. Altogether in the production of silk, and of mixed goods, silk being predominant, the number of artisans can scarcely be taken at less than from 150,000 to 180,000. It must be understood that in this and similar estimates I only include those employed in weaving, as I am not in possession of the requisite information as to the numbers engaged in the preliminary processes of reeling, throwing, dyeing, &c., or the subsequent ones, according to the nature of the article, of dressing, watering, or printing. In estimating the value and importance of the silk manufacture to France, it ought not to be forgotten that a considerable portion of the raw material is advantageously produced in the same, or in districts immediately conti- guous to those in which its conversion into goods is mostly effected. I have no means of ascertaining the quantities of raw material thus produced, nor can I obtain any reliable information as to the quantity imported. I am conse- quently unable to state the total amount of silk consumed in the manufactures of France. If, however, with the foregoing statement of the number of artisans employed be connected the estimated value of the articles produced by them, we may form a tolerably correct idea of the importance of the French silk manu- facture, as compared with that of our own country. This value in each of the years 1851, 1852, and 1853, is said to have amounted to not less than 15,000,000/. The export from France of goods wholly or partly of £ xport from • L o j -L t/ jf ranee. silk, was estimated by M. Arles Dufour, the Secretary of the Imperial Commission of 1855, and President of the class under review, in 1851 at from 7,600,000/. to 266 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wink- worth on Silk Manu- factures. Advantages which would result from the removal of the duties. Silk manu- factures of Austria. 8,800,000?. According to tlie same authority it has since fallen to about 7,500,000?. Whether this retrograde move- ment arises from permanent or temporary causes, is not easily ascertainable, but it is worthy of remark that during the same period, the export of similar manufactures of this country, advanced from 1,268,975?. in 1851, to 1,507,160?. in 1854. Anomalous events must, however, always be expected where manufactures are at all in an exceptional position, and it is scarcely susceptible of a doubt, that if the artificial state occasioned by the duties on the importation of manu- factured silks now imposed in France and other countries were removed, it would prove mutually advantageous. A greater security would thus be given to the manufacturer, and an injurious antagonism be removed. Added to this, the public of each country would be supplied at the lowest cost with what the silk manufacturers of each could easiest and best produce. I have great pleasure in again quoting from M. Arles Dufour on this point, who, while not pre- tending to any knowledge of the precise effects which the abolition in France of the nominal import duty of 10 to 12 per cent, ad valorem, but practically of 33 per cent., aud the introduction of free trade in this manufacture, might eventuate, is of opinion that “ it would be profit- able to both countries. England would cease to copy our rich fancy silks, and would devote its whole energy to the production of the low and middle qualities, while France on the contrary would apply itself with increased attention to the production of the former/' He might have added, that under the united efforts of the manufacturers of both countries in the cultivation of their separate “ specialites,” such an impetus might be given to the silk trade, as no other combination of circumstances could render possible. The manufacture of broad silk and ribbons in Austria is principally confined to the district of Vienna, but the production and cultivation of the raw material, extends over a large portion of its dominions in Italy. “ While prohibition of foreign silks continued," writes a manufacturing correspondent at Vienna, “we were com- pelled to confine the products of our looms to such articles as the caprices of luxury and fashion exacted of us, and having no foreign vent, our strength was dissipated on variety and perfection attained in nothing. During the last two years, however, that our frontiers have been opened, an improved taste has supervened, and manufacturers now Mr. WinJcworth on Silk Manufactures . 267 address themselves to the careful production of such goods o> ; as best suit their abilities and taste, and with the most Silkmanu- gratifying results, as the table I herewith send you, will - — amply prove/' (This table supplied by my co-juror, M. Horn- bostel, and including also raw, thrown, and dyed silks, may be found in Appendix B.) It will there be seen that while under prohibition in 1851, the import of silk and silk mixed goods amounted only to 286 lbs., and the exports to 176,884 lbs., in 1853 the imports had increased to 46,190 lbs., and the exports to 863,000 lbs. ; thus affording evidence still more remarkable than that supplied by any other country, of the beneficial effect of a liberal commer- cial policy. At this moment the import duty is only about os. 3 cl. per lb., or a fraction more than our own. The number of looms generally at work in all branches Number of of the silk manufacture gives employment to not less than looms * 30.000 persons. The exports of silk goods are principally to other parts of Exports. Germany and Italy ; to the east, especially the Danubian Principalities ; and to the United States, via Hamburg. I believe I only echo the opinions of my colleagues when I say that we were all sensible of the advances which the silk manufacturers of Vienna had made since 1851 in taste and execution. There is stilly however, the same disposi- tion to cultivate the production of those more showy and weighty fabrics for furniture of houses and carriages, and for ecclesiastical uses, which give scope for the introduction of inferior materials at the expense of intrinsic value. So far as quantity is concerned, the silk manufacture of Silk manu* Prussia may be considered as occupying a respectable posi- fvuSL° f tion, and even in quality, a large proportion of the goods recently exhibited supply evidence of care in the selection of the raw material and skill in workmanship, especially since 1851. To taste, it makes little or no pretension, and very few fancy silks were to be seen in this department. The Bhenish provinces constitute the principal seat of this branch of industry which gives employment to between 50.000 and 60,000 persons. The quantity of raw, thrown, and dyed silk imported in 1850 was 1,669,736 lbs., and in 1853, 2,181,186 lbs. Ofsilk and silk mixed manufactures in 1850, 573,079 lbs. ; and in 1853, 608,359 lbs. The exports of silk manufactures pure and mixed show an increase of nearly 100 per cent., as in 1850 they only amounted to 1,312,306 lbs., but in 1853 to 2,445,345 lbs. ; and, as far as the returns for 1854 are 268 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wink- wort k ON Silk Mantj FACTURES. Import duty. Silk manu- facture of Switzerland. Number of looms. completed, they afford proof of continued, if not rapid, pro- gress. The principal external markets are France, England, the United States, and other parts of Germany ; but it is pro- bable that as the Prussian silk manufacturers produce large quantities of low-priced and useful articles, many of the extra exports of 1853 may have found their way to Aus- tralia and other gold-producing countries. The import duty on silk and on silk mixed manufactures is rather under 4-s. per lb. on the former, and 2s. per lb. on the latter I am indebted to one of my co-jurors, M. Diergardt, an eminent silk manufacturer of Yiersen, in Rhenish Prussia, and a member of the Chamber of Deputies of that country, for a carefully prepared table of exports and imports for the last four years, from which I have drawn the foregoing statistical details. ( See Appendix C.) The manufacture of silks in Switzerland has arrived at a relative importance altogether remarkable, for though it was introduced into that country so early as the 13th and 14th centuries, it is not until within a comparatively recent period that it has reached its present prosperous position. Zurich is the seat of the broad or garment silk manufacture, and Basle of the narrow or ribbon branch. The number of artisans employed in the two districts together is not less than 40,000, and is more probably 50,000. They have their schools of design, and avail themselves freely of all those other modern appliances, mechanical and artistic, which are so important to the profitable prosecution of this manufac- ture. Hitherto, however, their progress in the higher branches of the trade has not been sensibly developed, but in the lower and middle qualities of goods it has attained a degree of perfection highly creditable to their ingenuity and perseverance and formidable to foreign competitors. This is especially the case as to France, where, notwithstanding the heavy import duty there exacted, the ribbons of Basle rival those of St. Etienne even in the fancy branches, and obtain an extensive sale. There are about 8,000 or 9,000 looms generally at work at Basle producing ribbons of the annual value of 1,500,000?. I am not in possession of thS statistics of Zurich in these particulars ; but though the proportion of workpeople em- ployed may be similar, the results must be different, as many of the weavers in the latter district are partly occu- pied in agriculture, and do not therefore produce the same Mr. Winhworth on Silk Manufactures. 269 quantity of goods in the same space of time. This peculi- o? arity has also the effect of lowering the standard of wages, SilkManu- and thus enables the manufacturer to offer his goods with FAC _RT ES ' more confidence as regards price in competition with those of other countries. The import duty on throvvn silk is about 3s. 6cZ. per lb., import and 1 5 per cent, ad valorem on manufactured silks. duty ' I have reason to know that many of the manufacturers would willingly consent to the abrogation of these dut ies, and that they concur with those of Manchester in opinion that it would be the harbinger of still greater success than that which they even now enjoy. “ If there were no duties,” writes my colleague, M. Battier, from Switzerland, “ if, in short, we had the benefit of free trade, my country would be in the best possible condition of prosperity.” The goods recently exhibited afforded encouraging evi- improve- dence of improvement since 1851, and though the greater ment> part were of a class consuming but a small weight of silk, they were, with few exceptions, extremely well made. One of the manufacturers obtained the gold medal. Of other European countries which exhibited silk manu- other factures little need be said. Whether from political cireum- countries . stances, high tariffs, or total prohibition, the displays of Spain, Portugal, Greece, Tuscany (Florence), Belgium, Bavaria, and Baden were inconsiderable in quantity, and failed to obtain a noticeable position. It must, however, be admitted that both in design and quality there was manifest improvement since 1851. With respect to our only silk-producing colony, the East snk^rom Indies, as I have reason to believe that Dr. Boyle, under indies, whose direction the magnificent oriental collection at Paris was arranged, will specially report on its products, both raw and manufactured, I will only mention that the attention of the jury was attracted to the double weaving from Poonali. some very curious specimens of weaving from Ran- goon, and some brocades from Benares and Ahmedabad. Having thus brought under review the present condition Position oc- of the silk manufactures of Europe and alluded to those of the United Asia, I come now to the question whether, as compared with lungdora ‘ any or all of them, and taking the special circumstances of each country into account, those of the United Kingdom occupy a respectable position and contain evidence of pro- gress since 1851. 270 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Wink- worth on Silk Manu FACTTTRES. No furni- ture silk exhibited. Materials for dress. Before, however, proceeding farther, it seems necessary to 'invite attention to the wide field the silk manufacture covers, entering as it does into the composition of such a vast variety of fabrics, and forming as much the substance of a skein of sewing silk and a penny ribbon, as of the hang- ings of a palace or the richest court dress. It is evident therefore that the total quantities of raw and thrown silk imported and consumed in different countries to which I have so often alluded, is dependent on the silk manufacture considered as a whole. At the same time that branch of the manufactured or matured article, popularly understood as the silk manufacture, comprises more especially articles for furniture and dress, and it is to these that my attention has been more particularly addressed. There was no English silk furniture in the late Exhibition. In that of London in 1851 some specimens were exhibited, made both in London and Manchester, which obtained respectable notice. I have no reason to believe that this branch has at all retrograded, though the Exhibition itself afforded no evidence on the subject. I must therefore restrict my further observations to the manufactured article as supplying the materials of dress, and in which, as through- out this report, I include both ribbons and broad silks. The qualities which constitute its value and the criterion by which it is estimated in this respect, may be stated as fashion, taste, colour, lustre, durability, substance or weight, and cheapness. As France has been from time immemorial the seat and origin of fashion, a desirability and priority is thus given to such of her productions as are affected by it over all other countries ; and though taste and beauty do not in themselves constitute fashion, yet no fashion succeeds well apart from them. France has been fully alive to this ; and to maintain her advanced position, has spared no pains in fostering the art of design, and at the seats of her manufac- ture every appliance and convenience exist in abundance which can facilitate the application of the skill and taste thus acquired and encouraged, to the articles produced. The silks of Lyons and the ribbons of St. Etienne in the late Exhibition bear testimony to the high excellence thus attained. Although the British silk manufacturers may not vie with those of France in the production of the highest class of goods, yet, as respects those other qualities referred to which constitute excellence, they are not inferior ; and, as regards substance, combined with lowness of price, they may justly claim superiority over all other countries. Mr. Winlcivorth on Silk Manufactures. 271 Perhaps the proper position and character of the British me.^Wink- silk manufacture may be described as the production of SilkManu- goods suitable in price and quality to the greater number FAC TL RES - of English consumers, and sufficiently rich, varied, and meSt'Tn" tasteful to form the useful and morning costume # of the lritishsi,ks - higher and wealthy classes of society. I have reason to believe that the International Jury of the Class XXI. of the late Exhibition fully appreciated the merit and value of the British silks exhibited in the above-mentioned respects, and so far from confirming the new theory of British decadence in manufacturing skill, considered them a decided improve- ment on those exhibited in 1851. The medals they awarded attest to the conviction they entertained of their excellence. There were gold medals to, — 1st. Courtauld and Company, of London, 2nd. Winkworth and Procters, of Manchester, 3rd. Kemp, Stone, and Company, of London, 4th. Grout and Company, of London, seven first -class silver medals, seven bronze medals, and " honourable mention” made of four, — making together no less than twenty-two out of about thirty manufacturers of whose specimens, as exhibited, the jury thought thus favour- ably. In the case, however, of the gold medals, a larger number having been awarded in the aggregate of the whole Exhibition than the Imperial Commission finally decided to distribute, only one was assigned by them to the clase under review, which was given to the firm first on ths list. It is to be regretted that the Imperial Commission adopted this alternative, as it led to the entire omission of the second and third of the above firms (whose merit the jury, after examination, considered superior) from the lists of medals awarded, to which publicity was given by the whole periodical press of this country. This circumstance, by no means peculiar to this class, is the more to be re- gretted, as it tends to increase the reluctance which our silk manufacturers already feel to incur the trouble and expense of sending specimens of their productions to international exhibitions, — a reluctance which operated powerfully in the instance of the late Exhibition at Paris, and therefore the limited quantity of silk goods therein displayed could give but a very inadequate and imperfect idea of the value and extent of this important branch of British industry. I have the honour to be, & c. Thomas Winkworth. London, 2 February 1856. 272 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Wink- worth on Silk Manu- factures. Appendix A. Petition for the removal of the pro- tective duty on silk. Appendix B. Austria : Quantity of silk im- ported and exported. Appendix A. Memorial from the Silk Manufacturers of Manchester to the Right Hon Benjamin D’Israeli, M.P., Chancellor of Her Majesty’s Exchequer. This Memorial showeth, That your memorialists are manufacturers of broad silks in Manchester ; that the trade in which they are engaged is in a depressed state ; that their work- people are not fully employed; and that this branch of manufacture has been almost stationary in extent for a period of ten years at least, whilst every other branch of textile manufacture has largely increased ; that they consider the depression and non-extension of their trade to be owing chiejly to the limited nature of the foreign demand for their goods ; and yOur memorialists are of opinion, that this is attributable to the protective duty imposed on foreign silk goods imported into this country, the effect of such protective duty being, to create an impression in the markets of the world, that England is unable to compete with the continental manufacturer in the production of silk goods, and thus to throw the export trade almost entirely in the hands of her French and Swiss competitors ; that in the opinion of your memorialists, however necessary protection may have been at a former period, it is now positively injurious to them, and they feel that they cannot under any Government, or under any circumstances, long be maintained. Your memorialists, therefore, pray, that you will be pleased to relieve them, by repealing the duty on foreign silk goods, not partially and gradually, but totally and immediately, and thus proclaim to the world that the Manchester silk manufacturer denounces (he so-called protection, and every aid a Govern- ment can give ; that he is prepared to depend solely on his own merit, and that he avows himself capable of taking a higher position in the race of com- petition, unfettered by protection, than he has hitherto attained under its fostering care. (Signed) ITarrop, Taylor, and Pearson. Henry Hilton and Castree. Makin and Walker. E. R. Le Mare. Booth, Lee, and Co. Jos. Yates, for Charles Hilton. Thos. Molineux and Co. T. and E. D. Toase. Milsom and Clark. Thos. Lomas. Brotherton and Dobson. Wink worth and Procters. Luke Smith. Geo. Smith and Sons. Nor bury and Bindloss. Thos. Brown and Son. James Bentley. Wm. Summerskill. Thos. Ainsworth. James Garner. Peter Joynson and Co. John Chadwick. Benjamin Lyddall. John Ashworth andCo., per S. Roberts. Clough and Meadows. Hobday and Swanwick. Henry Cook and Son. Manchester, November 10, 1852. Appendix B. 1S51. 1852. Sous le Tarif, nouveau , 1853. Entree. Sortie. Entree. Sortie. Entree. Sortie. Kilogr. Kilogr. Kilogr. Kilogr. 850,150 Kilogr. Kilogr. Soie grege 84,100 189,550 108,650 149,300 185,450 Soie ouvr6e . 2,500 1,294,000 2,600 1,502,900 10,400 1,715,450 Soie teinte GOO 47,750 2,350 52,250 3,150 58,400 Soieries ordinaires 30 28,750 2,300 224,650 2,400 247,800 (mixto) Soieries fines . 100 51,250 9,650 70,350 18,550 143,800 Mr. Wink worth on Silk Manufactures . 273 Appendix C. mk.wimc. WOETH OX L’Exportation de Soieries a en lieu comme suit : — Silk Masto- 1 FACTUBES. 1850 1851 1852 1853 Soie ecrue. Soie teinte. Etoffc toute soie. Appendix C. Etoffe mi-soie. Prussia : Quantity of silk ex- Ouvrtie. Torse. Quintal.* 2,104 735 1,761 1,683 Quintal. 153 33 106 73 Quintal. 232 195 240 196 1 Quintal. 6,823 7,517 8,327 11,752 Quintal. ported * 5,081 7,007 7,389 10,428 L’lm porta tion de Soieries a eu lieu comme suit : — • Soie £crue. Soie teinte. Etoffe toute soie Etoffe mi-soie. Ouvr6e. Torse. Quintal. Quintal. Quintal. Quintal. Quintal. 1850 13,434 309 1,402 3,175 2,023 1851 14,870 316 1,363 3,316 1,944 1852 15,871 338 1,374 3,383 1,981 1853 17,758 403 1,620 3,631 1,857 1854 17,896 ~ 4,002 1,884 Quantity of silk im- ported. Ou 50 kilogrammes. Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 275 On Furniture and. Decoration, as comprised in Class me. Wyatt XXIV. — By M. Digby Wyatt, Juror in that Class. NITURE AND Decoea- TION. My Lord, The objects comprised in the Official Catalogue under defective the head of Class XXI Y., although all avowedly connected tion of the with furniture and decoration, were of so anomalous a cha- S^ue a for ata * racter, that one of the earliest acts of the Jury was to hand purposes; over, to receive the verdict of other classes, many objects with the technical details of which they were not sufficiently acquainted to arrive at just conclusions. Probably the most important among such objects were a variety of woods, marbles, and other materials, which should have more properly fallen under the notice of either the Vegetable Sub- stances', the Mineral Products’, or the Civil Constructions* J uries ; and a quantity of trifles and toys ; which should more correctly have been classified with objects of fancy and small wares. As the Jury of Class XXIV., however, en- tered on its labours, from day to day its members found scattered in every part of the building objects upon which the exhibitors themselves claimed their verdict. Stoves transfer of and grates, for instance, which had been classed variously as from^fury instruments for procuring warmth, light, or ventilation, and sequent 0011 " as specimens of bronze or iron casting, were all ultimately thereon - referred to Class XXIV., to receive a fine art rather than a scientific criticism. In consequence of these and similar interchanges, the number of exhibitors in the class shown by the Official Catalogue must not be assumed as correct ; it may, however, be accepted as indicating approximately the relative position of the industries of furniture and de- coration in the various countries represented at the Exhibi- tion. There were in the departments of — Exhibitors. Number of France .... . 277 Exhibitors Algeria .... . 3 in Class XXIV., as America . 3 given by the Official Duchy of Anhalt Dessau and Coethen 1 Catalogue. Austria . 38 Grand Duchy of Baden . . 4 Bavaria . 8 Carried over . 334 s 2 Me. Wyatt on Ettr- NITURE AND Decora- tion. Additional number brought under the notice of the Jury of the Class. General im- pressions as to the pro- gress mani- fested by the principal competing nations. 276 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Brought forward Exhibitors. . 334 Belgium . 21 Switzerland . 10 Denmark . 8 Spain . 5 England . . 77 Greece . . 1 Hanover 1 Hanse Towns . 8 Grand Duchy of Hesse 1 Principality of Lippe Detmold 1 Mexican Republic 1 Holland . 24 Papal States 5 Prussia . . 33 Sardinia . 19 Tuscany . 26 Wurtemburo- O • • . 8 Total . 583 Tlie minutes of the meetings of the Jury show that they examined and voted on the claims of about 200 exhibitors over and above the total number given in the catalogue ; the principal component parts of the excess being derived from France, England, and India. A superficial glance over the leading objects was, it appeared to me, sufficient to convey the impression to the minds of the Jury, that as compared to their relative posi- tions in 1851, France and England had made most progress, Austria and Tuscany had lost most ground ; the Papal States, Canada, Belgium, and Hamburg amongst the Hanse Towns, had steadily improved, and that the remainder had neither strikingly advanced nor receded. Taking the bulk of the goods exhibited, it was impossible not to be struck by, the fertility of design, generally admirable, but now and then verging on the ridiculous, and the excellent manipulation of the French ; the extreme inequality of the English, who in one set of specimens touched nearly the highest point of refinement both of idea and execution, and in others sank down into clumsy and heavy commonplace, as though art was too exceptional amongst us ; the usual technical per- fection of the German, with a dry hard style in the northern, and a florid but clumsy imitation of old French in the southern ; the novelty and freshness of inspiration which Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 277 were to be derived from the Indian, Chinese, and Oriental ; me. Wyatt and the lingering, flickering light of her ancient traditions nitureTnd of beauty still hovering about the embers of Italy. ^^ora- According to the system of classification adopted by the — 1 ’ Imperial Commission, the objects comprised in Class XXIV. ejassinca- f were grouped in ten sections, under the following heads : — objects com- prised in I. Objects of furniture or decoration having stone or as adopted ' marble as a basis, including carving, mosaic perfafcom- working, artificial stones and pastes, scagliola, &c. misslon; II. Objects of furniture or decoration having metal as a basis, including iron and brass bedsteads and chairs, ornaments for application to furniture, wire work, &c. III. Current furniture having wood as a basis. IV. Furniture having wood as a basis, involving the use of precious materials, and complicated processes such as marquetry, buhl cutting, &c. V. Objects of furniture or decoration in any materials prepared for surface treatment by lac-work, gilding, varnishing, &c., including papier-mache, carton pierre, &c. VI. Objects of and utensils for furniture, having as a basis animal or vegetable substances other than woods, such as matting, cane-work, plaited grasses or straw, horsehair, &c. VII. Upholstery, including all materials for and work- manship in beds and bedding, window blinds, hangings, &c. VIII. Ornamental papers of all kinds for walls, packing binding, and other uses, transparencies, &c., leather work. IX. Decorative painting, including imitation of woods, marbles, &c. X. Furniture and decoration for churches of every kind, and in any material. In reporting on the class, I shall adhere as far as possible andasmodf- to the above classification ; but, feeling that a clearer idea of greater per- the whole subject may be conveyed by taking the sections this report, in the order of their relative importance and obvious connexion with one another, instead of by adhering to the artificial and, perhaps, more scientific grouping of the 278 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wyatt oy Fite- YITtJEE AXD Decoea- TIOY. A. Furni- ture. B. Uphol- stery. C. Decora- tion. Precedence given to France ; in this report. French Fur- niture in woods. The present style ; Imperial Commission, I propose to arrange my remarks in the following order : — A. — Furniture. Sections III. and IV. Current and precious furniture in woods. [Tt is almost impossible to draw a practical line between these two sections, because furniture which is “ current ” in the upper classes, is “ pre- cious ” in the lower, and what would be precious in some countries of Europe would probably be quite “ current ” in France.] Section II. Furniture in metal. Section I. Furniture in stone and marble. Section V. Furniture in lac, &c. Section VI. Furniture in animal or vegetable substances, other than woods, and appurtenances to furniture. B. — TJ PHOLSTERY. Section VII. Upholstery. C. — Decoration. Section VIII. Ornamental papers and leathers. Section IX. Ornamental painting. Section X. Furniture and decoration for churches. The incontestable pre-eminence of France in many sections of Class XXIV., as well as the fact of her having been by far the largest exhibitor, suggests the propriety of giving precedence to an analysis of all that appears most remark- able in her contributions. I shall, therefore, commence my notice of each section by an examination of her industrial position and productss taking England next in order, for the sake of comparison and contrast. Germany and the remaining nations I propose to review in what appears to me their relative order of merit. Entering, therefore, upon the general division of A. Fur- niture, in its special shape of — Sections III. and IV. Current and p>Tecious Furniture in Woods , it is to France that we have first to look. The extreme eclecticism of her style at once strikes the observer; eminently original as the designs of many of her products at first appear, on a careful examination in almost every case, they will resolve themselves into a series of happy Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 279 historical recollections of the curious transitional change, Mkavyatt through which Parisian fashion has passed. In one and NTTURE ANT) the same piece of furniture often may be seen carving a la D ti C o* a ‘ Jean Goujon, marqueterie a la Riesner, beautiful brass foun ^ 0T1 work a la Gouthiere, coupled with a free and tasteful ren- traditions of dering of foliage, wrought in almost direct imitation of excellence; nature. Of late years the Government has done all in its the preser- power to preserve the traditions of technical excellence which hL which have characterized every period of French history, teredby and I firmly believe, from the evidence afforded by the JJ| n ^? vern ' furniture itself of the present day, that there is no one style or process which has ever existed in France, that the leading French artist-workmen do not now practise, with a success almost equal to that attained by the best of their predecessors. It may not be unprofitable to trace the Government influence in the various channels through which it has Louis xiv. ; assisted the development of cabinetmaker’s work in F ranee. It was to no less a Minister than the great Colbert that France was indebted for the first step which laid the foundation of her modern pre-eminence in the manufacture of furniture. He it was who collected from every district of his own, as well as from other countries, the best cabinet- makers and upholsterers that could be met with, and by an edict of the year 1667, established in the Hotel des Gobelins, the “ manufacture royale des meubles de France.” It was of this factory that Boule appears to have been the worthy head, and from it issued those magnificent pieces of furniture which decorated Versailles, St. Germain, Marly, St. Cloud, the Louvre, and the Tuileries ; and of which the few relics that have escaped the fury of revolutions, even in the present day serve as the models upon which much of the taste of the recent cabinetmaker's work of Paris is based. Under Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette the genius of Riesner and Gouthiere was fostered and brought to maturity ; and after the fatal blow was given to advance- ment by the revolution, it was to the enlightened patronage of Napoleon I. and his Ministers Francois de Neufchatel and Chaptal, that the talents of Percier and Fontaine, the architects, were brought to bear upon the design of that furniture, which was so admirably carried out by the cele- brated Jacob. There can be no question that the establish- ment of a ministry of commerce has produced a great influence upon French manufactures, including, of course, that now under consideration. Under the Restoration and. to the pre- Louis Philippe, six excellent systems have been permanently scnt * 280 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr.Wyatt on Fur- niture AND Decora- tion. Government encourage- ment now afforded to Schools of Design ; technical museums ; costly publi- cations ; deserving producers ; competition, as measured by intelli- gent juries ; mid philan- thropic projects for better- ing the condition of the working classes. Irregulari- ties of such encourage- ment in England. adopted, which are thoroughly well sustained under the present Emperor : — 1st. The encouragement of Ecoles de Dessin Lineaire, with proper courses of “ Geometrie appliques aux Arts, fee.” 2nd. The formation and gratuitous opening to the public of technical museums of antiquity, such as por- tions of the Louvre, the Hotel Clugny, the Musde d'Artillerie, the Cabinet des M^dailles, Sevres, and the local collections in the departments, such as at Rouen, Lyons, Nismes, Montpelier, &e. 3rd. The systematic support by subsidies and by purchas- ing numbers of copies for general reference, of the publication of examples of art calculated to fur- nish good models to the manufacturer,— such as WillemiiTs “Monuments Frangais,” Asselineau's “ Armes et Armures Meubles, &c.” Chapuy's “ Le Moyen Age Pittoresque/' Du Sommerard's “ Les Arts au Moyen Age/' Lacroix and Serb’s “ Moyen Age et la Renaissance/' and “ Arts Somptuaires/ > Sjdvestre’s “ Palseographie Universelle," &c. ; — works, which hut for Government patronage would probably never have been undertaken. 4th. By taking care that eveiy purchase, made for the fitting up of any of the Government or municipal establishments, was guided by the best taste, and determined by considerations of excellence rather than economy. The amount of patronage, thus judiciously bestowed, has proved a most salutary encouragement to many an artist, struggling to improve upon the productions of his wealthier fellow producers. 5th. Adhering to the principle of the quinquennial expo- sitions, and taking care, by the operation of intelli- gent juries, to insure an investigation into, and recognition of, every fluctuation in production, and every appearance of legitimate novelty or improvement. 6th. Keeping an anxious watch over the moral and physical condition of the working classes, reward- ing every effort, emanating from themselves, made for their social elevation and well-being, and taking pains to find out and reward merit, in any shape in which it can be met with, among either men or masters. To such system we unfortunately have but little to offer in contrast, excepting accident ; and too often what little Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 281 good is done, is done by stealth, and in fear lest the slightest Me^Wyatt exercise of zeal should bring its exerciser into trouble, NITTTKE AND instead of assuring him sympathy and approbation ; added D Son. A " to this in almost every matter of national expenditure affecting art and industry, we are continually sacrificing ends to means. Fostered as French cabinetmaking has been by the Fine Art governing powers, we can be but little surprised to find it bearupon in the present day allied in a most intimate degree with ^ l g trial what cannot be looked upon as other than fine art. Sculp- France; ture now plays so important a part in the production of Sy scuip- almosfc every piece of furniture of any pretension, that any tur0; notice of the manufacture would be sadly imperfect, if it did not take cognizance of this hereditary connexion, which has now existed almost uninterruptedly in France for many centuries. Previous to the 16 th century, much carving ]lOW con- ap pears to have been applied to the production of the old oak fittings of the churches and chateaux, but principally ^om the in the conventional style common to the works of the later tury; mediaeval ages. Sculpture of a pictorial nature, and con- ducted on the principles of the antique, was scarcely at all made use of until the spirit of the revival had taken firm hold of the national taste. It was during the reigns of Charles VIII., Louis XII., and the first part of that of Francis I., that those delicate arabesque enrichments, those graceful scrolls and vases, and that contrasted high and low relief of tender ornamentation, which characterize the purest age of the French renaissance, through the were principally in vogue. When the influence of the school reSssanoe*- of Michael Angelo introduced a more ambitious style into France, the arabesques disappeared, and scrolls and flowers took their place ; but though the drawing and composition of the figures were improved,, the ornaments gradually became heavier until the end of Henry I I/s reign. Mythology, though often found in ludicrous connexion with sacred subjects, more frequently usurped their place. The art of wood-carving was, however, still exercised by the great Renaissance masters : — thus, the doors of St. Maelou at Rouen were executed by Jean Goujon, as well as many of the decorations at the Chateau d’Ecouen, and the designs for the carved wood ornaments at Fontainebleau were made by Giulio Romano and Primaticcio. The museum of the Hotel Clugny contains an armoire or large cupboard of walnut-wood, ornamented, like most of the armoires of that time, by caryatides ; this piece of furniture was made and presented to the Abbot of Clair vaux by his monks in Henry IPs. reign. 282 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. me. Wyatt Though many of the wood fittings at Versailles and St. nituee and Cloud have much of the splendour which mark the earlier part of Louis XIV/s reign, a mannered and less refined style to thatof P erva ded Europe during the greater part of the 1 7th cen- Louis xiv.; tury. In the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. wood-carving was chiefly applied to furniture, altar decorations, or the execution of large gilt candlesticks ; many, however, of the smaller works of art of this period are really good ; they consisted principally of portraiture in the manner of Bernini, delicate imitations of flowers, groups of figures in le style berger, occasionally from the antique ; little figures of beggars carved half in wood and half in ivory ; and occa- sionally of statuettes in the style of Girardon ; even these ceased at the great Revolution, and wood-carving did not begin to revive till the Restoration. voiution Re " ^ wou ^, however, be scarcely fair to the memory of a great man to overlook the extraordinary talents of Demon- treuil, who was probably one of the best wood-carvers who ever lived. He fell upon evil days, for he had to struggle for his livelihood through the turmoils, miseries, and heart- burnings of the great Revolution. I now proceed to offer a few observations upon the — Statistics of the Recent and Modern Furniture Trade in France. statistics of Furniture joinery is so closely connected with cabinet- France; 6 * 11 making that they are commonly spoken of as the same thing. The more common woods are used in furniture joinery, whilst in cabinetmaking the most valuable woods, either solid or veneered, are employed. The cabinetmaker, in preparing the various portions of his work, employs the several trades of carvers, veneer cutters, turners, inlayers, &c., the fitting together of whose work is done by the cabinetmaker. According to the valuable results of the inquiries made for the Chamber of Commerce of Paris in 1851, it appears that in that city and in that year the Number of number of master cabinetmakers amounted to 1,915, 178 implied °f whom employed more than 10 workmen apiece, 844 1851 5 employed from 2 to 10 workmen, 448 employed 1 only, and 445 worked single-handed. The value of the business in 1847 is said to have amounted to 27,982,950 francs; and the aggregate number of* workmen engaged to about 8,559, 6,386 working by the piece, 2,173 working by the day, 13 and their working in other ways. Their daily wages were received wages. • tlie following division: 162 received above 5 francs, 8,390 received between 3 and 5 francs, 7 received below 2 francs, these last having been men in distress. The Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 283 maximum pay was 10 francs, the minimum 1-25 franc per Me/wyatt day. The larger salaries were received by the superior nitl-ke and trades, such as carvers, decorators, &c. To this list should tion. a " be added 340 boys and 90 women and girls ; of the latter 64 received wages, 36 by the piece, 28 by the day ; their maximum pay was 4 francs, and their minimum 1 * 25, the mean rate being 2 francs. These females were mostly varnishers. The greater number of master cabinetmakers in Paris Number of appeared to belong, as they now do, to the 8th Arrondisse- m ment, where, to the number of 1,093, they manufactured chiefly for the supply of the retail furniture sellers ; the other arrondissements contain the remainder. With these details of the state of the cabinetmaking trade in the capital of the French Empire at the period of the last Universal Exhibition, it is singularly interesting to contrast the latest data I have been able to obtain. M. Wolowski, the well-known Professor at the Conserva- ^above toire Imperiale des Arts et Metiers, and reporter for the detahs with class to the French Government in 1851, has recorded the fact that during this last year (1855) Paris alone has occupied between 25,000 and 30,000 workmen in cabinetmaking and the businesses dependent upon it. He values the work produced in the whole at 81,000,000 francs, or about 3^ millions sterling, thus divided amongst the various trades : — * Furniture joiners and carpenters Chair and sofa makers Marquetry and fret cutters . Wood carvers Furniture carvers (less artistic) Bed makers .... Marble workers for furniture Sawyers and wood merchants Upholsterers Turners for chairs and sofas . Billiard-table makers Frame makers and moulding runners Gilders on wood Cane plaiters Ornamental turners . Francs. 30.000. 000 5.000. 000 + 1 , 200,000 1,200,000 1 . 000 . 000 + 3.500.000 2,000,000 + 2.500.000 21 . 000 . 000 2 , 000,000 1.400.000 4.000. 000 5.000. 000 - 250,000 1 . 000 . 000 - Total . . . 81,050,000 - * The signs + and — set against each set of figures show respectively, -f that the real amount is in excess of that stated, and — that the real amount is slightly less. 284 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . mk.wj.xx In the unfortunate troubles of 1848 this trade suffered niture and more than others. The value of the business fell from D TioNf' 27,982,950 francs to 6.436,067, a reduction of 77 per cent., influence an d ou ^ °f 9,046 workmen previously employed, 7,014, tSe of e t!^ or ^ P er cen t- were discharged in March and the three troubles of following months. The greatest sufferers were those work- ing on their own account ; and the minor masters' prices fell 25 per cent., in consequence not only of the interruption to trade, but also of a glut of the more common articles of furniture, caused by the attempts of those thrown out of employment to produce them at their own risk. the b trad°e There is a peculiar tendency amongst cabinetmakers to become makers on their own account. When they have saved a small sum, or, being out of work, can obtain credit from a wood merchant, they begin manufacturing for their own sale ; but being compelled, from want of sufficient capital, to sell their goods at once, and having no place where they can show them, they are obliged to dispose of their stock by hawking. In the morning the cabinet- makers will make their way towards the Rue de Clery and the Temple, from the Faubourg St. Antoine, laden with the furniture they have been making ; they often wander about all day, offering their goods but selling nothing, and at last, unwilling to return home without the means of paying, for the materials procured on credit, or their own support, they are compelled to dispose of their work at a low price. Often, too, being unwilling to lose time which might be more profitably employed, they have recourse to the commis- sionaires of the Faubourg St. Antoine, who are associated together, and, if the speculation is likely to pay, these men will purchase on their own account ; if not, they hawk it about, and dispose of it on commission to the highest bidder. The manufacturers attribute to this species of trading the great reduction which has taken place in the price of articles of furniture of late years, and many complaints are made of it. It seems to have arisen from the want of capital among the minor masters, and those undertaking the execution of work ; being compelled to seek quick returns, they were obliged to sell at almost any price, and to the competition arising from this the makers must all submit. During the interruption of trade in 1846* this particular cause of lowness of price fell heavily on the cabinetmakers ; the great number of workmen, who had become makers on their own account, losing all their savings by being com- pelled to sell when trade was all but at an end ; their sufferings were very great, and those, the greater number, Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 285 who had wives and children, were only supported by the pJk- tt assistance of the mairie. * n decoka^ D Workmen’s associations have arisen from the great ten- no* . dency amongst them to establish themselves as manufac- Workmen’s turers on their own account, and the difficulty of succeeding associatlons ‘ without sufficient capital. One of these associations, formed October 1st, 1848, obtained from the commission charged with the division of three millions voted by the National Assembly for this kind of help, a credit of 75,000 francs. Other associations have been formed amongst the workmen, with the wood merchants as secure partners, who in that way endeavoured to get rid of their stock. In the present Exhibition two associated bodies of workmen exhibited exceedingly good products, so far as work was concerned, one in general furniture, the other in chairs alone. The aSaMts 0 f greater part of the workmen are responsible and hard work- the work- ox x ITI6T1* ing ; very many, however, are dissipated, though not com- monly drunkards, and many will not work on the Monday. A great number of the workmen may be termed migrating, and these are chiefly Germans, the immigration of whom has been great during the last twenty years, and, as a consi- derable number have not returned to their native country, they now form an important portion of the settled popula- tion of France. The quarrels which, for some years subse- quent to 1830, arose between the French and German cabinetmakers, and which compelled the masters to choose their workmen exclusively from one or the other nation, seem now'to be at an end; and a perused of the list of exhi- bitors shows in how great a degree the industry of Germans, from Messrs. Grohe downwards, tends to sustain the repu- tation for elegant workmanship acquired by the “ Mode Parisienne.” They seem fully to sustain their old reputa- tion for buhl and marquetry work, and to incline by pre- ference to that branch of the trade. I have unfortunately failed in obtaining any official Exports and «/ o */ ini ports statistics as to the recent exports and imports of furniture from and to France. I have, however, been assured by those who should know, that about one third of the total value of the cabinetmaker's work annually produced is got up for exportation; that America, North and South, is by far the largest customer ; that exportation to England has not kept pace with the increase of the trade generally ; and that we do not take from France as much as 40,000£. worth annually. In 1836 we took 10,000£. worth. There is one social peculiarity among the French which Jj? Ration has done much to foster a taste for luxurious furniture, that French to petitesse. 286 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wyatt ON FUR- NITURE AND Decora- tion. French cabinet- makers who obtained great gold medals of of honour ; M. Fourdi- nois ; is, their predilection for small apartments. An exquisite of the present day will he satisfied with a domicile upon the smallest scale, provided he can fit it up with “ recherche and frequently a few rooms of very limited dimension will have as much money spent upon their decoration and furniture, as would suffice to build and furnish, in a simple style, a whole house of three or four times the same amount of accommodation. I proceed to offer a few remarks on those of the French exhibitors of furniture whose productions have either been honoured by gold or silver medals, or have appeared to me to involve principles or processes of importance. First in rank unquestionably, and well deserving of the great medal of honour it received, stood the house of Four- dinois, whose exhibition on the present occasion formed a worthy sequel to, and improvement on, its display in 1851, for which, it will doubtless be remembered, it obtained a Council medal. The largest and most costly specimen exhibited by the firm was a chimney-piece in oak, of a truly monumental character. With the exception of some trifling error of judgment in the placing of the gilt bronzes which decorated its lower frieze, and a slight exaggeration of the style of Donatello in the principal bas-relief, I am not aware that any serious reproach could be made either to the design or execution of this princely piece of furniture. Conceived in the florid style of Italian renaissance, the work was alike free from either poverty or over-elaboration of treatment, and its design, although never transgressing the conditions of the style, was yet in every respect original. The life-size figures which formed the supporters to the central bas-relief, were in my opinion the finest I have ever seen carved in oak, ancient or modern. It is a true pleasure to be able to record the names of the artists who contributed to the perfection of this and of the other specimens of M. Fourdinois' ability. The principal were as follows — M. Parti, sculptor ; M. Yervillier, designer ; M. Megret, senior, who has been in the service of the house upwards of twenty years, principal wood carver ; and MM. Hillier, Dujardin, and Le Parmentier, foremen and chief artist- workmen. While his grand chimney-pieces showed how far M. Fourdinois could carry the application of carving to furniture on a large scale, his exquisite cabinet in the style of Jean Goujon, in oak, and his ebony bookcase inlaid with fine enamels, proved the success with which he could adapt his art to more limited dimensions. The former of these two objects appeared to me, on the whole. Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 287 the most faultless specimen of florid furniture in the entire Mr. Wyatt Exhibition, and I sincerely rejoiced to find that it had been nitureand purchased for the Museum at Marlborough House. An es- D tion. a ' critoire in Thuya and other Algerian woods, purchased by his Grace the Duke of Hamilton, was almost entirely divested of ornament ; the woods were, however, so ad- mirably selected, and adjusted with such perfection in the mouldings and mitres, that, although exhibited for some few days anonymously, its merits had so far attracted the atten- tion of the jury that they had agreed in placing it at the head of all the simple cabinetmaker’s work displayed. The only other exhibitor of furniture rewarded with a m. Barbe- grand medal of honour was the well-known M. Barbedienne, dienne * who reproduced the grand cabinet in imitation of ebony, which had gained him the Council medal at London in 1851, adding to it another cabinet in walnut, of about the same size, and of even more graceful and excellent design. Avoiding rivalry with M. Fourdinois and many other exhibitors in the application of elaborate sculpture in wood, M. Barbedienne allowed enrichment in that material to be in a great measure replaced by those faultless bronzes of which he is the unrivalled manufacturer. The great merit of his work, and one in which no other exhibitor equalled him, consisted in the severe study of the proportions of the different parts, and more especially of the mouldings. In simple harmonious architectonic design, M. Barbedienne ’s cabinets surpassed everything in the building ; and the truth of the work, coupled with the refined subordination which reigned over the several projections of the various con- ventional ornaments and enriched surfaces, rendered them worthy of the English cabinetmaker’s most attentive study. M. Barbedienne’s principal assistants were M. Cl^singer, the celebrated sculptor ; M. Manguin, architect ; and M. Guyon, foreman. In the class of ordinary gold medals France gained two French for cabinetmaking, one of which was carried off by Paris, makers who and the other by Bordeaux. ordinary The Parisian was obtained by the well-known house of gold medals; Groh^ Freres. Veterans of the industrial arenas, these F™' e ^of h6 worthy brothers have already obtained every distinction Paris ; to which upright conduct, good taste, and excellent ma- nufacture should entitle them. In their various produc- tions they showed an accurate knowledge of style without servile imitation, a wise avoidance of ultra-decoration without poverty, and faultless execution without either avoiding the difficulties of their art or going out of their way to create and encounter them. Their ability in 288 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr-Wyatt on Fur- niture and Decora- tion. M. Beaufils of Bordeaux. French cabinet- makers who obtained silver medals ; M. Jean- selme ; sculpture was best shown by a truly remarkable little pendant lamp, carved in walnut wood ; while their capital piece, as a specimen of finish in gilt bronze decoration, was a noble cheffonier, principally in tulip wood. In 1849 they had gained distinction by their perfect treatment of ebony ; and they took care, in the present exhibition, to sustain the reputation so earned, by a bureau of admirable workman- ship in that difficult material. MM. Grohe recommended to the attention of the jury, as their principal assistants, MM. Chabrot, sculptor, and M. Henri Penel, their fore- man during the last twelve years. The Bordeaux gold medal was obtained by M. Beaufils, who has, within the last few years, succeeded in organizing in that city a colossal establishment for the fabrication of furniture for exportation. The foundation of the rapid increase of this establishment may no doubt be referred to the depression of trade, which, in 1848, drove so many first- class workmen away from Paris. M. Beaufils, who was at that time in a large way of business, profited by the oppor- tunity, and greatly extended his trade. When the revival of the trade recalled many of his Parisian workmen to the metropolis, he very wisely visited Italy, and succeeded in inducing a considerable number of the best Milanese and other workmen to join his staff. By their aid, and by his own energy and talent, he has commenced a large shipping trade, in a showy, but at the same time really good style of furniture. Although not finished with the perfect refine- ments of Paris, the large walnut bookcase, the cabinets inlaid with pietra dura (made by Milanese workmen at Bordeaux), and the cheffoniers in tulip wood with gilt mountings, were all of good qualify, and produced at prices which, considering the materials and workmanship, neither of which were in anywise scamped , were truly remarkable. I was assured by a merchant who had sent a considerable quantity of M. Beaufils' goods to South America, that they had stood both the voyage and climate exceedingly well. A consideration of these qualities, coupled with the fact of M. Beaufils having created a considerable export trade from Bordeaux in an article not previously manu- factured to any extent in the town, induced the jury to award him the distinction of the gold medal of honour. Among those who received silver medals are many whose merits may be summed up in a line, others exhibited goods which merited more detailed observation. At the head of the list I should unquestionably place — Jeanselme, for the undeniable excellence of his work in every object exhibited. His capital specimen was a cabinet, Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 289 designed, and partially carved, by Lienard ; it was very good ; but on the whole it was rather for the equal excel- lence of the ensemble of his exhibition, that M. Jeanselme tion. was rewarded, than for especial merit in any one article. M. Jeanselme ’s workshop is a model establishment, and appears to be admirably conducted. The jury visited it, and traced the progress of a piece of furniture from the entry in the order-book to the issue of the “ meuble ” complete from the hands of the French polisher. On that occasion I saw for the first time, in a cabinetmaker’s work- shop, an endless saw, travelling in one direction only, thereby saving the time and force of the back motion of the saw. It was exceedingly simple, consisting only of a thin and very elastic steel band, serrated on the edge, made to take the place of a leather or gutta percha driving band, and consequently travelling over two driving wheels in swift motion. The wood is slipped along a table, the plane of which is at right angles to the vertical line of the saw, against which it is pushed, being thereby cut with extraordinary rapidity. It is superior to the circular saw, as it admits of the wood being cut to a line of much smaller radius, and it makes much less scattering of sawdust in the workshop. Gharmois showed some good furniture, with a tasteful m. char- • o' mois • inlay of bronzes and green marble. Fossey. who was formerly associated with Fourdinois, m. Fossey; and some years ago an assistant with Mr. J. G. Crace in London, is an excellent sculptor, and exhibited a gun stand, admirably made and carved, but somewhat disjointed in its balance of parts. Meynard showed a walnut bookcase with black mould- M.Meynard; ings, of good design, and covered with carving of very tasteful execution. It was one of the best purchases made by the Emperor. Hofer contributed a quantity of furniture, principally m. Hofer; made of Algerian woods, in the treatment of which he showed himself an adept ; his metal inlayings were good, and his prices exceedingly moderate. Bruland exhibited a bookcase in rosewood, also bought M.Bruiand; by the Emperor. A model of quiet elegance without pre- tension. Ribaillier and Mazaroz sent a carved gun stand, de- mm. Ribaii- corated with figures of hunters of admirable sculpture, Mazaroz; second only to the figures ^of Fourdinois. The aspect of the piece of furniture was injured by the introduction of some painted panels, of less merit than the sculptures. T 290 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mk^wyati Crueret Freres exhibited a piece of furniture of very ques- nitureand tionable design, having dogs chained to the lower part, as in the great sideboard of Fourdinois in 1851, but decorated MM^Gueret with wood carvings of dead game, and other subjects de- Ereres ; ma nding the most exquisite finish. A minute comparison was made between the works of M. Gueret and those of Wallis of Louth, and ultimately precedence was given to the former, principally cn account of his greater taste in the execution of the plumage of the birds. m. Rivart; Rivart is tlie originator of the incrustation of porcelain flowers, &c., cut out and painted in imitation of nature in wooden and marble grounds. His productions showed a considerable advance upon what he brought forward in 1851. In a very luxurious private house at Paris I saw some pilasters executed by M. Rivart, in which the arabesques were inlaid in china upon an ebony ground, and the effect was singularly brilliant. m Bainy; Rainy showed a good oak sideboard, well fitted up and carved. M.Roudii- Roudillon I should certainly place in merit next to lon - Jeanselme among the silver medallists. His chimney piece in oak, with panelling forming the complete side of a room, for the design of which he had availed himself of the genius of M. Feuchere, was truly noble in style and execution; somewhat more architectonic in style than our Roger s carving generally is, it was quite worthy of him in its breadth of execution. M. Roudillon is the successor to Ringuet le Prince, who figured so creditably in 1851, ana appears determined to sustain the reputation of the house. Principal French, cabinet- makers who obtained bronze me- dals; M. Jean- selme Jeune; M. Sicard of Lyons ; MM. Rahon and Roll ; Madame Osmont ; M. Ouvrier P6re ; M. Archam* bault ; Among those cabinetmakers who obtained bronze medals, there were not many whose products involved important practical lessons for us, the principal, however, were — Jeanselme Jeune, whose chairs were models of excellence in the application of refined carving. Sicard, of Lyons, who showed what could be done in the second city of France. Rahon&ndRoll,who exhibited excellent beds in black wood. Osmont, who also sent a very handsome carved bed. Ouvrier Pere, who contributed a model counter for a cabaret. Archanibault, whose gadrooned and ornamented mould- ings, wrought after the manner of the celebrated Hans Schwa nhard, who lived early in the 17th century, attracted much observation. Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 291 Madame Brag, whose upholstery was capital, and very Madam, moderate in price.. Her business is probably the most Brag; extensive in Paris in her own line. Beurdelet, whose imitations of Louis XVI. furniture m. Beurdo amount almost to fac-simile reproduction. And, let 5 Eloy^ Dupont, whose specialite is the imitation ofM.Eioy Gouthiere brass fittings. It would be scarcely possible to Dupont; carry refined chasing and parcel burnishing to" greater per- fection. In connection with the preparation of these metal finishings, which form a graceful ornament to furniture, it may be well to notice here the importance of an experiment lately made by the firm of Christofle et C ., the Elking- M m. cim S - tons of Paris, to reproduce the most perfect “ciselure" by tofleet Cie. electro-galvanism. They this year showed a pair of queri- cZwis, decorated “ a la Gouthiere/' so perfectly as to deceive all but the very best connoisseurs, and for sale at the price ot about one sixth of what they would have been/had the ornaments been finished by hand. 1 have purpos.ely excluded from notice hitherto the skil- Marquetry tul practitioners of the arts of marouetry and boule or buhl audbuhL work, because I feel that they are subjects of such im- portance .to our present condition ot cabinetmaking as to deserve a careful separate notice. What enamelling and damascening are to metal work, marquetry and buhl are to wood work— the most graceful means of adding the charms ox colour to those of form ; hence I have not scrupled to a 0 au some length into the details of both processes, whichl earnestly desire to see popularized amono-st ns. >rs of the art as works which have T 2 292 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. MR. Wyatt been ma de in this manner were executed in Florence, in the N ituIe U Sd time of Filippo di ser Brunellesco, and especially by D ?i C oT' Benedetto da Maiano. This artist, like all his predecessors, — had in his works employed dark and light coloured woods only ; it was reserved for Giovanni da Yerona to extend the art, by giving various artificial colours to the materials used, by means of waters, coloured infusions, and penetrating oils. ’ To obtain brilliant high lights, he was accustomed to use delicate slips of willow” Yasari further tells us that some artists deepened their shadows by the application of hot irons ; others obtained the desired tints by the use of oil of sulphur, and compounds of arsenic and corrosive sub- FraDa- limate Fra Damiano adopted the latter process in his Boiogiia? celebrated works in the Church of San Domenico, at Bo- Fra Gio- Probably the purest and most artistic marquetry of the Verona" 15th century, is that executed by Fra Giovanni da Yerona in the stalls of the church of Sta. Maria m Organo, m that Transfer of It was through the great commercial intercourse that facturefr^m took place between Yenice and the leading cities of Northern ftan h tothe Germany, that the art of inlaying cabinet work, which had Free Cities ^ een carried by the above and many other artists to such of Germany, f ec |.- on ^ * n pp e churches and palaces of the north of Italy, was imported into the rest of Europe. Augsburg and Nuremberg imitated the splendid wood-work of Venice, Yerona, and Bologna, as they had already, at the com- mencement of the 16th century, learnt to do the metal work of Milan and Ferrara. Those singular and interesting cabinets, some of which, under the title of Kunst-shranken still form the principal ornaments of the museums of Dresden, Berlin, and Munich, were executed in the free cities of Germany, in imitation of old Italian work ; while in France, the ebony sculptures in low relief, for which Yenice had become celebrated, were more especially sought after and reproduced by the best French wood carvers of the period of the Renaissance. The laborious processes of inlaying in precious metals and other materials, demanding extreme minuteness of treatment and endless patience, proved to be exceedingly congenial to the spirit of the Germans, and the art was carried by them to the greatest perfection, After the decay of the great old cities of the Fuggers, and other merchant princes of the 16th century, the tide of manufacture set in towards the Rhine, and it was at and uiti- Neuw’ied, near Cologne, that the great establishment for SSgJtS marquetry was founded, from which issued probably, trom Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 293 about 1650 to the latter part of the last century, an infinite me. Wyatt variety of specimens of furniture, tastefully enriched by that nituee and process. Such dexterity had been arrived at by the work- men of that factory, that they were enabled to convert the — floor of a large apartment for Prince Charles of Lotliaringia into a lively picture of the Rape of the Sabines. The wars and troubles which have befallen Germany Dutch mar- have done much to obliterate the traces of their great skill quetry ' in marquetry ; and it is principally through the works of their imitators, the Dutch, that we can trace the style of the Neuwied school. By far the greater part of the old inlaid furniture which is now being brought into this country is of Dutch manufacture. Much of it is very coarse, in large scrolls and flower patterns, which are only made presentable by being delicately engraved over with fine lines, into which a stain or mastic is rubbed so as to represent the drawing of the various parts of the flower or ornament represented. It is a great pity that much of the ingenuity and dexterity which are now brought to bear in “ doctoring up” old foreign work, should not be devoted to the improve- ment of our contemporary productions. The names alone of Boule or Buhl and Riesner point sig- French mar- nificantly to the Teutonic nationality of those by whom the pSSi^by furniture of the old court of France was made so renowned. Buhl; The former of these two celebrated cabinetmakers was born in 1642, and died in 1732. So highly were his abilities appreciated, that he was appointed to the office of “ Tapissier en titre du Roi.” He was a man of elegant taste, as the design and carrying out of all his noble pieces of furniture prove, and was much noticed by Bernini on the occasion of his triumphant visit to Paris. It was through Bernini that Boule obtained orders for important works at the Louvre. As a recreation Boule accumulated a very fine collection of drawings and engravings by the old masters : they were unfortunately destroyed by fire in the year 1720, and among them, no doubt, perished many beautiful sketches by Berain, who was the most graceful designer of his time, and furnished Boule with the drawings for much of his magnificent furniture. Riesner occupied a corresponding and Riesner; position in the succeeding generation, having been the “ Ebeniste de Louis XVI.” Buhl was unquestionably a man of great original^, and probably invented the pro- cesses for executing the peculiar work which bears his name, and to which I shall presently allude. Riesner s talent principally consisted in ensuring in all his works the most exquisite technical finish, both of adjustment and surface, Mr. Wyatt ON FUK- NITUB.E AND Decora- tion. as described in the great Encyclo- pedia ; and as now practised in Paris. French exhi- bitors— M. Cremer ; 31. Marcelin. 294 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . and combining that with a very refined and quiet treatment of colour ; his woods it is true are frequently stained, but never to such an extent as to mask the play of light on the fibres. According to the description of the old French practice given by D’Alembert in the great Encyclopaedia published in 1765, the wood forming the base of the marquetry was not cut out for the insertion of the ornament, until after the veneer had been glued down to the surface of the work* This enabled the ornament to be sawn out rather full, and then adjusted to a microscopic joint by filing down the edges. It v/as in this way, no doubt, that those extraordinarily fine lines, too thin for the passage of any saw, were obtained, which seem so astonishing in the joints of Riesners finest work. The practice of marqueterie in Paris is now carried to great perfection, but is also very frequently abused. M. Brandely, a very clever artist, by whom most of the full- size drawings have been made, from which the greater part of the ornamented panels exhibited in the French portion of the Exposition have been carried out, habitually gives, to my taste, too loose a rein to his fancy. Instead of confining himself to forms somewhat conventionalized, and in as nearly as possible the natural tones of the various woods to be employed, he dashes away with a free palette, and aims at the production of pictures, wdiich at best can be but u wooden ” representations of nature in more ways than one. The processes of Dr. Boucherie for the injection of dyes into woods, denounced by M. Blanqui in 1849 as destroying their natural aspect, have presented a dangerous facility to the designer and workman. M. Cremer, who unquestionably, for his excellent work- manship, and the scale upon which he conducts his opera- tions, stands at the head of the “ marqueteurs ” of Paris, has fallen into this too seducing temptation ; and one cannot but regret to see so much talent thrown away, in the production of patterns which rather detract from than enhance the value of the piece of furniture they are sup- posed to decorate. His work, I need scarcely say, is ad- mirable. M. Marcelin distinguished himself so much in 1851, that I need hardly dwell upon the nature of his products. The microscopic exactitude with which his patterns, which are entirely of an elaborate geometrical nature, are set out, cut, and adjusted, is unique. M. Marcelin gave to the jury a most interesting account of the difficulties he had met and Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 295 vanquished, and it was truly delightful to hear the tribute Me. Wyatt of gratitude he offered for the services of his old foreman, nitueeand H enri Scheyten, who had entered into all his struggles, and D xio?. A ' helped him to fight his way through to the perfection he — • has at last obtained. Buhl . — Although both buhl and marquetry consist of Buhl— inlaid veneers, they differ considerably in their methods of execution, which also affect the style of the ornaments thus executed; the former being confined to decorative scroll work, frequently in metal, while the latter is more com- monly used for the representation of flowers and foliage. In buhl work, the patterns generally consist of continuous its design, lines, of which the honeysuckle ornament may be taken as of cutting a familiar example. To make this, two pieces of veneer, 011 ; of equal size, are scraped evenly on both sides with the toothing plane, and glued together with a piece of paper between them, for the convenience of their separation after- wards. Another piece of paper is glued on the outside, and on this the design is sketched ; a minute hole is then made with a sharp pointed awl, for the introduction of the saw, a spot being selected in which the puncture will escape observation. The veneers being fitted in a frame, the saw is then inserted, and the several lines of the work are followed by the blade, which is kept horizontal, but the frame and work are rapidly twisted about at ail angles, to place the saw in the direction of the several lines. Con- siderable art is required in designing and sawing these ornaments, so that the saw may continue to ramble unin- terruptedly through the pattern. When the sawing is completed, the parts are laid fiat on ^king a table, and any removed pieces are replaced, and one of rieties. the veneers is stripped off with a palette-knife, which splits the paper. The pattern is now pushed out of the other veneer, and any minute pieces are picked out, and laid aside. The cavity thus produced is now entirely filled up with the pattern cut out of the other veneer, and the pieces are re- tained in contact with a little thick glue. They are then turned over, and the toothings, or fine dust of the darker wood, are rubbed in to fill up the interstices, after which the work is laid aside to dry. It is then ready to be glued on to the piece of furniture it is intended to decorate, in the manner of an ordinary veneer, and is subsequently scraped and polished. The two veneers which are cut out form the buhl and counter,* the one exhibiting, for instance, a dark * The “ partie ” and “ contrepartie ” of the old French manufacture, of which the former is regarded by cognoscenti as much the most valuable. 296 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Wyatt on Fur- niture AND Decora- tion. Pearl buhl and “ inter- nal cutting.” Revival of buhl work in France ; assisted by Blech- schmidt. ornament on a light ground, and the other having the same pattern with the colours reversed. In the same way three thicknesses of wood may be sawn out together, and these, when cut through, split asunder, and recombined, would produce three veneers of buhl work. Such are tech- nically known as works in three woods, and constitute the general limit of the thicknesses. The designs for such work should be as much as possible arranged to have a nearly equal amount of each colour, in order to make each of the combinations effective. In buhl work no part of the material is wasted, and this .is one of the great differences beWeen it and marquetry. Stamps or punches are some- times used in buhl work of brass and wood, but only to a limited extent. All kinds of woods that are capable of being cut into delicate veneers, may be used in buhl work, ac- cording to the description just given, but the term was originally more particularly applied to a combination of brass with ebony or dark-coloured tortoiseshell. These were the materials which Boule himself almost exclusively employed, and he generally engraved the surface of the brass. Riesner used principally, as the ground, tulip wood (called in France Bois de rose) inlaid with flowers in dark wood, grouped in a less crowded manner than in ordinary marquetry. When the material is in small pieces and costly, as pearl- shell, it becomes necessary to use several pieces, accurately placed edge to edge, to cover the entire surface to be ornamented. Sometimes in this material, in order to give additional elaboration and minuteness, the saw is made to follow all the outline of the counter, and thus leave only a narrow line of pearl ; this is called internal cutting. But the effect of the counter is seldom equal to that of the true buhl, which shows the drawing of the ornament better, and the internal cutting of the pattern presents rather a thready appearance. The stringings, or fine lines of metal, which are introduced with pearl buhl, are generally of a white metal, such as tin or pewter. Such is the Parisian practice of the present day as given in substance by the late Mr. Holtzapfel, and confirmed by the inquiries I took occasion to make ; and it is heartily to be desired that so graceful a process should be naturalized amongst us. For a long while after the death of Boule the art was in almost total abeyance, and it is only within the last thirty years that attempts have been made in Paris to revive it. The man who most contributed to that good end was a German of the name of Blechschmidt, whose pro- 297 Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. ductions formed a leading feature in the cabinetmaking Mr^wtatt department of the Exposition of 1834. Being an exceed- nituee and ingly dexterous artist, he was much employed to make d ?55n. a " inlayings of ebony, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, and different coloured coppers for the trade. Among the principal exhibitors of good buhl work in 1855 were, as far Present as I can venture to class them in order of merit, the follow- KnBei^ ing: — MM. Bellange, Audot Yerveille, Dagrin et Philippe, yervtme,^ Krieger, Dexheimer, and Wassmus. and others; O ' M. Cremer, of whom T have already spoken in connexion and imita- with marquetry, exhibited a very ingenious application of cremer. M * “ galvano-plastique ” to the production of metal “ plaques/' resembling buhl in effect, but produced at one-tenth or one-twentieth of its price. He first causes a copperplate to be engraved with a conventional pattern ; from this he takes a gutta-percha impression, on which he deposits copper, so as to obtain a fac-simile of his original copperplate. He then paints over the whole surface of the fac simile with a strong japan colour, in repeated and very thin washes. The copper is placed in a stove after each operation ; when the colour has set hard, and has formed a thickness, as much beyond the plain surface of the copper as the excised parts are beneath it, the whole is rubbed down, until the plain surface of the copper is reached, and ultimately polished. The japan remains in the sunken parts, and forms a most agreeable contrast with the metallic surface of the copper. It may, of course, be done in any colours, so as to produce a good imitation of enamel instead of buhl, in which case the surface of the copper should be electro-gilt. M. Cremer is not only a man of great ingenuity, but of good taste as well. I now proceed to a consideration of English Furniture. ^^L fur ~ Its prevailing forms in the present day, though less directly based upon historical style than the French, and dependent usually rather upon recent example and fashion, its design in than upon a studious endeavour to emulate and surpass all day based 1 that was good in the days of old, are yet modified to a ?ather a than a considerable extent by such reminiscences ; more especially tradition ; in those exceptional cases which form the hinging points upon which improvement turns. Thus there can be no doubt that this groping after the light of the past revealed to that great man, whose loss the world as well as his friends must deplore, the late A. W. Pugin, those sensible principles of structure and ornament which, as applied to furniture, have given to some of our leading cabinetmakers, 298 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wyatt on Fur- niture AND Decora- tion. importance of a return to the latter; and conse- quent value of technical museums of the past, and antiquarian studies. Influence of the “ Re- naissance ” of Art upon furniture in England ; under Henry Till. ; such us Mr. Grace, the power to revive the best charac- teristics of the middle ages, without demanding any servility in reproduction. Thus the studies of Gothic and Elizabe- than forms made by Mr. I. K. Codings, the artist by whom most of the furniture exhibited by Messrs. Holland and Sons was designed, have led him to a recognition of the system upon which the mediaeval designers gave order and symmetry to their direct imitation of natural foliage, by a due subor- dination to geometrical conditions ; and thus the principal novelties and beauties of Messrs. Jackson and Graham's unique piece of furniture are based on the intimate know- ledge possessed by its designer of the technical excellencies of the age of Louis XYI. Inaccurate study of rhe past leads only to Strawberry Hill Gothic and Ackermann furniture, but profound investigation of the past, coupled with a recognition of true principles, I am convinced, forms, in the present day, the best and only safe basis for ultimate originality. Hence, we should sincerely rejoice at the formation in this country of museums, such as that of Marl- borough House, teaching the manufacturer and the arfcizan, better than a hundred lectures could do, the perfection to which production may be brought in every department of industry. Hence, we may estimate joyfully and thankfully, the high value of the lessons of experience conveyed to the cabinetmaker, by the superb collection of furniture of all ages brought together at Gore House. Before entering upon any consideration of what English furniture now is, we must, as a means of comparison, define briefly what its antecedents have been ; not, indeed, going back to those mediaeval days of which the tradition has died out, and to revive 'which we have now to transfer our sympathies altogether to other states of civilization, but rather commencing with the evidences of that partial revival of the antique which still constitutes the chief ingre- dient in our mental atmosphere. The era of the Reformation, in religion and in letters, was no less to us an era of revo- lution in Art, and it is from that point of change alone that modern fluctuations of taste can be dated. The renaissance of antique fdrm, as understood by the cinque- cento artists of Italy, and as translated to us by those great masters, Hans Holbein and Torrigiano, in the days of Henry VIII., spread rapidly throughout this country, and quickly pervaded every branch of decorative design. The models of h alf-romanized furniture which already abounded in Italy, Spain, France, and Germany, were ardently adopted by our court and aristocracy. The religious per- Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 299 secutions under Queen Mary doubtless dried up the sources Queenkary; from whence any foreign artists could obtain sufficient remuneration to make it worth their while to remain in this country, especially, they being for the most part Catholics, with the prospect of a Protestant succession. Accordingly in the reign of Queen Elizabeth we find ^| enEliza ' abundant evidence, both external and internal, of English designers having to a great extent superseded foreigners. It may be well to convey in some slight detail the leading Characteris- charact eristics of this interesting period, in which classi- during her 6 cality formed the substructure, and many a quaint device mgn ; in cartouche and strap-work, interlacing ribbons, and half Gothic monstrosities, competed for supremacy in the super- structure, with the more graceful impressions of arabesque acquired by occasional intercourse with foreign nations. Many specimens of the elaborately carved benches and in fitting up tables of this period may be seen in some of the old halls ffisand attached to the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, in which i^oonfsT' accommodation had to be provided for a large number of guests. The old arrangement of a lai’ge board and tressels still remained in use, Turkey carpets being employed to cover them, as well as those temporary buffets, then called the “ court cupboards/' The common cupboard or sideboard, which was made of oak, consisted of a large closet, with two smaller ones above it ; an open space in front of these was supported on two or more fancifully ornamented pillars. The service of silver or pewter was displayed on a rich cloth placed on this shelf or space, during the dinner or supper, being at other times kept in the closets. The high-backed chairs of Queen Elizabeth’s reign usually in ordinary had their legs and rails turned, the flat spaces being orna- tables ; an mented with shallow surface carving ; the seat and other parts were often covered with clolh of gold and silver, or rich embroidery. The tables were made and ornamented very much in the same way as the chairs, the legs being turned, in an exaggerated imitation of vases. In bedrooms we often find two beds in the principal in bedrooms, rooms, a standing bed for the master, and a truckle bed for his servant, the truckle bed being in the day time rolled under the larger one. We have a good example of the “ standing” or four-post bed in the celebrated bed of Ware. The state beds from the time of Elizabeth to that of George III. are generally very high, the canopies ornamented with plumes of feathers, and the richness of the curtains and quilt forming their chief decoration. No doubt a good and unbroken series of these beds might be found in the various 300 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wyatt on Fue- NITUKE AND Decoea- TION. Novelties in- troduced in the reigns of Charles II. and James II. Improve- ments in style and work effect- ed through Inigo Jones, Wren, Grin- ling Gib- bons, Selden and Watson. Rococo seats of our nobility. The bedroom of this period contained, besides the bed, chairs, a dressing-table with embroidered covers, benches somewhat resembling our sofas, and a po- lished steel mirror in a black velvet frame, with a curtain to draw over it ; chests were still used for holding clothes, which were also kept in wardrobes ; then high pieces of furniture, tilled with shelves, and often without further protection than a curtain in front. We are told, however, that Anne of Denmark possessed a chest of drawers. Many novelties were introduced, principally from France, in the reigns of Charles II. and James II., in whose time much of the furniture in great houses was gilt. In Granton House in Scotland are still preserved a sofa stool, and other articles of furniture carved and gilt, said to have be- longed to the unfortunate Duke of Monmouth. The prin- cipal feature in the commoner furniture is the twisted legs and rails to the chairs and tables, the chair covers being cut up at their corners, and connected by frogs of gold lace. Cabinets, with glass fronts, for holding choice pieces of china, began to be imported in large numbers, and are still to be met with. The studies by Inigo Jones of good Italian models exer- cised, after a while, a favourable influence over furniture, and paved the way for the genius of Sir Christopher Wren to direct into a wholesome channel the great ability of the celebrated Grinling Gibbons. Evelyn, ever foremost in re- cognizing true merit, introduced Gibbons to Wren, who imme- diately availed himself of the carver's rare talents, placing him at the head of the band of artist- workmen who were for the most part brought from abroad to work upon the decoration in stone 'and wood of St. Paul's and some of the other London churches. In 1714 Gibbons was appointed master carver in wood to George I., at a salary (probably by way of retaining fee) of Is. 6d. per day. He was at the head not only of many Flemings, but of several English scholars, more particularly Selden and Watson, by whom not only many apartments and staircases, but much furniture of a handsome description, were enriched with good carving. The rococo style commenced about the latter end of Louis XIY.'s reign, and was at its height in that of his successor. This style became very prevalent in our furniture in the early part of the 18th century. Its general effect is sometimes agreeable, for, although the scroll-and-shell work is as devoid of meaning as the ornament of Elizabeth's time, it is fre- quently arranged in flowing lines, and is ornamented with buhl and marquetry. The chief novelties in the furniture of Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 301 this period are girandoles of cut glass, fauteuils, and japanned cabinets and screens ; these latter were at first imported, but were very soon successfully imitated by our workmen. The designs in the publications of Gibbs and Kent give a tolerable idea of the ornament of the period as applicable to furniture ; but it is in the works of French Mo watt and Thomas ChippendaJe that we find it best exemplified in practice. Both were men of remarkable executive ability, who fell upon somewhat unlucky days, when simplicity was not appreciated as an element of contrast, and when all, even to the periwigs of the existing mode, required to be twirled and curled into confusion. The best specimens of French Mo watt's work are the pulpit in St. Paul's and some of the chimney pieces at Windsor Castle; while the most favourable and complete illustrations of the powers of Chippendale are to be met with in the furniture of Cumber- land Lodge, one of the minor royal residences near Windsor. He also published a series of designs in a somewhat angular Louis XV. style. Mahogany was introduced by Dr. Gibbons, a physician, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and shortly after most of the best furniture was made of this material. The furniture of the reigns of George II. and George III. claims but little attention as regards art, having become plain and meagre. Both Adelphi Adams and Sir William Chambers caused some little elegant furniture to be made, but the wiry style of the former and the heavy proportions adopted by the latter were not likely to exert any permanent influence on the trade. Unquestionably much excellent work has been got up by some of the older firms, such as Seddons, Morant, Snell, Crace, Dowbiggin, Taprell & Hollands, Gillow, Bailey, and others, whose establishments hav e had the benefit of the artistic talent of men such as MM. Fossey, Beaugard, Depeux, Ash, Turner, Mulholland, Whittaker, Dwyer, Ac. ; but com- binations, and other circumstances to which I shall presently allude, have during the last forty years barred the way to progress, so that neither manufacturers nor artists have been able to introduce any radical changes into the heavy and clumsy forms which have, until very recently, obtained universally. The dearth of energy in design, during the period above referred to, is singularly illustrated by the paucity of publications of tolerable pattern books. All that I have been able to meet with, issued since the year 1807, the date of Mr. Hope's and Moses' works, are beneath Mr. Wyatt on Fur- niture AND Decora- tion. as designed by Gibbs and Kent, and exe- cuted by French Mowatt and Chippen- dale. Introduc- tion of mahogany. Furniture of the reigns of George II. and III. The Adams’s and Sir William Chambers. Work pro- duced by old English firms. Compara- tive stagna- tion since the begin- ning of the present cen- tury. 302 Reports on the Rctris Exhibition. Mr. Wyatt on Fur- niture AND Decora- tion. English fur- niture as represented at Paris. • Manifesta- tions of pro- gress ; and short- comings ; on the part of public, masters, and men. criticism, excepting those of Mr. Bridgens, published in 1838, and those of the late A. W. Pugin published in 1835. Mr. Henry Shaw’s illustrations of old furniture were a valuable contribution to progress, but were somewhat too limited in aim and in art to produce much good fruit. A general survey of the English furniture exhibited at the Paris Exposition supplied materials for both congratu- lation and regret ; congratulation on the progress evidenced by the houses of Jackson & ‘Graham, Trollope, Holland, and Levien, all of whom exhibited a great improvement upon their efforts in 1851 ; and regret for the evidence of a still lingering propensity to the sarcophagus style, in which the quantity of the wood, rather than the quality of its treatment, seems to be regarded as the test of merit. It would be unjust to deny to the English generally credit for the use of excellent materials, and perfect workmanship so far as it goes, but it must be observed at the same time, that it is only in quite exceptional cases that they emerge from a very limited range of woods, neglecting to a great extent variety and contrast of colour and texture in the different parts of a piece of furniture ; almost entirely omitting to make use of ebonjq ivory, tortoiseshell, bronze, brass fittings, mother-of-pearl, Indian, New Zealand, and Canadian woods, &c. ; while their workmanship is for the most part confined to good joinery, gluing up, and mitering, smooth, plain veneering, and clean but not intricate turning. All the more elaborate technical processes of, fine carving, incrusting in mosaic, marquetry, buhl, etched metal, and engraved ivory, uniting work carved in the solid with veneered facias, veneering on swept and circular-circular surfaces, applying chased and gilt brasswork, elaborate fret cutting, engine turning, and gadrooning, hard wood mould- ings, &c. interrupted with plain faces, intersecting or dying on to one another at irregular angles, and many more varieties of cabinetmaker’s work taxing skilled labour to the utmost, seem to be excluded almost in toto from the cata- logue of English capabilities. This state of things points to a limited standard of appreciation of good work on the part of the English public, a set of masters without legitimate pride in the technicalities of their calling, and a body of workmen with their intellectual absorbed by their animal faculties ; and when we consider how sadly unmindful we have been for the last three generations of national educa- tion, industrial and artistic, how can we wonder that such defects should make themselves apparent when we publicly enter the lists with other countries, whose more parental 303 Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. governments liave opened free schools for workmen, free public libraries, free museums, and other institutions open K £™oba ND to artizans on days and at times when their habits and tion. means enable them to avail themselves of the opportunities Necessity offered for self-improvement ? Deprive the Parisian work- mental 6 ” 1 " man of access to the Louvre, the Hotel Clugny, Sevres, adoption of the Gobelins, Versailles, the Luxembourg, the Jardin des Plantes, the Ecoles Communales, &c., on his “ Dimanche,” and to expect him still to be an artist, would be madness. Shut up the Bau-schule, Museums, Industrie Gebaude, and public libraries of the German capitals, and away would go that interest in his craft which every German “ bursch ” now takes. If we would elevate the English workman we remedial must recognize some other stimulant to his energies than measuros * beer ; we must provide museums for him, where, as at Marlborough House, he may see what others have done before him, and better than him in his own trade : we must get some free libraries, where he may be able to go and improve himself ; we must put some better and more ideal monuments than we already have into our public streets, spending more money upon their art, and less upon the quantity of materials of which they are made ; we must, in short, educate his eye, and through his eye his mind, by giving him access to the best models of fine and industrial Art. Providing libraries to which access can be obtained during portions of the day only by payment, or by making previous formal application, and museums and galleries open from ten till four three days in the week, is a complete mockery to the artizan. If such places cannot be opened on a Sunday, either some arrangements must be made for lighting them up in the evenings, and opening them till dank in the summer, or we must be content with the very limited development of his manufacturing capabilities which now falls to the lot of the British workman. It appears to me impossible to over-estimate, in an indus- trial point of view, the importance of the establishment of borough* the Museum at Marlborough House, and it is my belief seumfand’ that much good might be done to the London artizans, at little or no cost to the Government, by opening it in the evening, well lit up, at Id. a head, keeping in some of the rooms intelligent persons capable of occasionally explaining in simple language the principal objects exhibited, and an- swering such questions as to detail that might from time to time be addressed to them. The exhibition of furniture at of such ex- Gore House was of great use, but rather to the masters and that^f fur- the public than the men. Could a similar exhibition be Goreiious^ 304 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Wyatt or Fur- niture and Decora- Impedi- ments to progress erected by the work- men as a body; through their reten- tion of the “ Union Book of Prices.” opened in the evening in a central situation, I believe it would be much frequented, and that we should very soon find, after they had seen what might be done in their own way of business, that there are very few processes of handi- craft in which our working cabinetmakers could not very soon excel. At present they are generally almost entirely ignorant of anything beyond framing, dovetailing, veneering, scroll and claw-cutting, and French polishing. Impossible as it is to exonerate from responsibility those who should have assisted the workman to learn, it is but just to record how much harm their own combinations have done to their trade and themselves. It is not generally known, but I believe it nevertheless to be the fact, that on March 7th in the year 1811, the working cabinetmakers of London obtained by “ force majeure " the consent of the masters to an arrangement which has remained as an absolute bar upon progress to the present time. Persons delegated by the trade met and catalogued every variety of work commonly practised at that time, affixing prices for piecework to every item, which prices have been maintained with no important revision up to the present time, entirely independently of supply or demand, and irrespective of fluc- tuations in the value of provisions, clothing, or rent. The whole system is embodied in a quarto work, called “ The London Cabinetmaker's Union Book of Prices,’' published in 1 824 by Stephen Couchman, of No. 10, Throgmorton Street. It was accompanied by some engravings of exceedingly ugly objects, which objects have of course been multiplied ad nauseam, since the adoption of the printed description, and the general form of the mouldings, &c. engraved, saved masters and men all trouble in drawing or thinking. The substitution of written specifications filled with cant terms for working drawings of course checked all design ; and “ the Book" contemplating only one class of work, the moment the master proposed a better he was at once met by demands on the part of the workmen to which he had no alternative but to submit. For peace and a quiet life he was forced to adopt the limited range of variety offered by “ the Book and hence but for occasional competition with some bold spirits, who put themselves out of the pale of the union, and with importers of foreign goods, together with some little pressure from without, English furniture would have remained for ever in its dark ages. The wages con- templated in the list enable a workman only capable of making common goods to earn by working full time about 30s. a week ; a first-rate plain workman can earn up to 40s. Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 305 a week ; and an artizan verging upon the artist can of Wyatt course earn more, in proportion to liis talent and facility in nitureand modelling or carving. The introduction of expanding tables D tion. a " produced an addendum to the first book in 1825, and in 1835 another supplement appeared, in which the term Buhl appears for the first time ; the context, however, shows it to mean marquetry, in which two woods of different colours form the buhl and counter, instead of the brass and tortoiseshell of the original French work. The substitution of a system of “ Prudhommes,” that is, trustworthy repre- ^system of sentatives of masters and men, forming a tribunal of arbi- hommes” tration between employer and employed, would very quickly ed as a sub- render the book unnecessary. A better division would at once ensue ; the men would be kept each one at the particular process of which he was the most thorough master; many more processes would be introduced ; furniture would be made both better and cheaper, and there is no possible reason why, with improved mechanical appliances, we should not make cabinetwork a very much more important article of commerce than it now is amongst us. The public are beginning to look for better things ; and, unless the men assist the masters in supplying such demands, they must expect to see the trade go from them, and foreign Effortsmade ornamental goods take the place of English. With such to overcome dangers ahead, it is indeed gratifying to see such work pro- tions en- duced as some of the master cabinetmakers showed in 1855 »th H . e. to the genius of Mr. Alfred Stevens, this branch of trade Hoole - has been developed to such an extent as to have obtained the suffrages of all nations, and to have won for the house of Hoole the distinguished reward of a gold medal of honour. o o The leading characteristic of Mr. Hoole’s exhibition was excellence rather than great novelty. What especially gra- tified the French connoisseurs was to observe that good taste presided equally over the designs for the cheapest and for the most expensive goods produced by the house. Messrs. Feetham’s productions were good both in arrange- ment and execution. Mr. Pierce was also commended. Mr. Pierce. In metal bedsteads (especially brass) and chairs it is to be £ds and regretted that England did not compete, since I believe, chairs ; if she had, she would have carried away the best prizes. France alone showed extensively, and, at the same time, creditably. The manufacture is one of no great antiquity, since the first appearance in public in France of iron furni- ^ . ture dates only from the Exposition of 1806, in which ducedin 10 ' a M. Henri exhibited beds, which he described as suitable France ‘ for travellers, and for use on board ship. It was not, however, till about the year 1826 that they were extensively patronized by the French Government, who gave an order to Picliet Freres for 30,000, for the use of the War Depart- ment, in that year. In 1834 the manufacturers supplied 60,000 for the use of the French and Algerian garrisons. The application of the tubular system to iron furniture was first made in the same country by MM. Gandillot Freres and Roy of Paris. The best French exhibitors were Messrs. Leonard, hfbitors ex " Dupont, Brag, and ITuret. There were some novelties in folding spring mattresses, but none of any great importance. 316 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Prussian ornamental zinc work. French wire work. Furniture in stone and marble— French ; English ; Granite, and serpen- tine Among the articles made up in zinc and wirework, the best of the former were the Prussian exhibitor's, Pols, of Elberfeld, whose flower-stands, in a late Moorish style, were both novel and pleasing. The French appeared to be the most tasteful wireworkers, and M. Clairin, Tronchon, and Tessier showed some elegant fancy in their aviaries and garden furniture. Section III . — Furniture in Stone and Marble — W as well represented in every department. It involved four principal considerations, those of the raw materials, the work produced in natural substances, the plastic imitations of them, and the processes of Roman and of Florentine mosaic, the details of which latter, both historically and technically, are so inaccurately known that I have collected all the notices I could concerning them. First in importance of natural marbles and stones came those which France was enabled to bring into the market. Algeria and Corsica, the French Pyrenees, and some other districts offered invaluable materials for decoration ; and on all hands evidence was produced of skilful means and appliances for working the quarries, and sawing, polishing, &c. the slabs and blocks. I have under my hand the trade- list of MM. Dervilld et C ie , one of the principal and most intelligent of the Parisian marble merchants, and from it I find that there are 120 different varieties of marbles constantly in the market, the produce of the quarries of France alone. If to these be added the noble agates, and specimens of rosso and verde antico forwarded from Algiers, and the splendid green marbles of Corsica, which can be obtained in grand dimensions, it must be confessed that the position of France, in relation to this branch of supply, was magnificently vindicated. To contrast with such richness we had no very great variety of natural substances to offer; beyond our well- known granites, the art of working in which was well exemplified by Mr. McDonald, we could produce little excepting our admirable “ serpentine.'' This beautiful stone, which is quarried at the Lizard, near Penzance, Cornwall, is an “ igneous rock, varying greatly in general appearance, texture, and colour, in which latter it is very similar to the blood-stone, but richer." It is hard, capable of high polish, and of being wrought into designs requiring the most minute carving, without diminishing the effect of its tints, and has the advantage over marble in not being susceptible of injury from grease, acids, or atmospheric influences. 317 Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. places, is found to be — The serpentine, as met with at the Lizard and other mr.wyatt • , r _ i , -i ON FlJE- Silica 43-93 28-00 13-26 NITURE AND Decora - TION. Magnesia Iron and chromium Manganese Lime Alumina Water . its analysis as met with at the Li- zard, Corn- wall ; 2-60 1*28 12-42 Serpentine has been in use and exposed for nearly a j.J> u ^ ura ' century and a half, without the least injury to the polish, internally, in the brackets of two monuments in West- minster Abbey, and also in the panel bordering of the monument erected to the memory of the Earl of Halifax, adjacent to one of his friend and protege Addison, in the north aisle of Henry the Seventh’s chapel ; and externally, in the Church of Landewednach, near the Lizard, Cornwall, which is built of granite, with quoins of serpentine, the former being in a very decomposed condition, while the arrises of the latter are quite perfect. The Company by which the material is now brought into its supply ; the market, are prepared to execute works to any extent, and with promptness, by complete and powerful steam machinery ; and also to supply the stone, in all reasonable lengths, in blocks or slabs ; and they have also opened extensive show-rooms in London. Mr. Robert Hunt tells us that the quarries have during the last twelve months been opened by powerful Derrick cranes to a depth of from forty to fifty feet, and the superincum- its attain- bent mass of loose and unsound stone having been thrown Sfera^ men ' over the cliffs, the Company have come upon extensive beds of consolidated rock, which are worked in the same manner as quarries of granite. The size of the blocks raised for- merly varied from two to ten feet ; but the masses have increased to so great an extent with the depth, that it is now frequently found necessary to break the blocks up before they can be removed. In proof of the greater con- solidation of the material, we are assured that this process of division is accomplished by “ splitting and tearing,” in the same manner as in the case of granite ; and there is now no difficulty in obtaining sound blocks of nine, ten, or twelve feet in length. The prevailing shades are red, black, green, white, and its colour, yellow, blended in endless combinations and varieties, and mingled with sparkling crystals of diallage. The red, 318 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. un like any similar shade found in other stone, is bright and njtubuand blood-like, sometimes giving’ the effect of a gem, and in all tion. cases imparting a warmth of tone which cannot be obtained in any species of marble. siate. There is one other substance peculiarly national, which, although sufficiently humble in its usual aspect, has been so skilfully treated by an enterprising individual, that it has been raised by his ingenuity, from the rank of homely substances, into one possessing great claims to general admiration. I allude to slate ; and it is gratifying to think that there was scarcely any other set of objects exhibited in Class XXIV. which obtained more unfeigned admiration from foreigners than did Magnus" preparation of this mate- rial, the dexterous and tasteful application of which to a hundred useful purposes, although shown in 1851, came as a complete novelty to the majority of visitors to the Exposition. I am happy in being able to offer a few interesting particulars concerning the origin of the manu- facture. account of > About the year 1838, having an interest in some slate treatmlntof quarries in Wales, Mr. Magnus’ attention became strongly that mate- attracted to the applicability of slate to a variety of new purposes, its chief uses at that period being limited to the covering of houses, flooring, cisterns, and writing tablets (school slates). Struck with its smooth satin-like surface, its remarkable strength, its non-absorbent texture, the ease with which it could be chiselled, planed, and turned in the lathe, and the large sizes of the slabs, he felt assured that it might be made an object of far greater value if there could be imparted to it a more cheerful aspect. In vain he endeavoured to give it a natural polish, the utmost he could impart was a soft appearance like ebony. Having resided many years in the Staffordshire Potteries, and being familiar with the processes of glazing and enamelling china and earthenware, he next sought to treat slate in a similar manner. After repeated trials, with Wedgwood's pyro- meter, of the various degrees of heat to which slate from different quarries could be coaxed, by very gradual heatings, he succeeded in getting a coating for it that would bear a very considerable heat (500 degrees of Fahrenheit), and a polish superior to that of marble, equally or more durable when exposed to the open air, and permanent probably for a century or more when under cover. This was patented in 1839, but as improvements were daily making in the treat- ment of the material, Mr. Magnus did not deem it advisable to take out a series of patents, and thus his invention of Mr, Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 319 floating mineral colours on prepared water (by which pro- ^^yatt cess a single individual can marble twenty chimney-pieces in one morning, more true to nature than any grainer could tiox. a single slab in the same time) was left open to be copied. As was expected, this process has been not only copied, but badly copied, by some of his discharged workmen, to the detriment of Mr. Magnus’ reputation and pecuniary inte- rests. A notable instance of unsuccessful copying was to be seen in the American department, characterized by a dingy black and dull polish. In some interesting particulars with which he has favoured me, Mr. Magnus says, “ Though not brought up to any business or profession, I had in my youth studied drawing con amore, under Cardelli, fellow- pupil of Canova, a sculptor of great talent and an excellent draughtsman. I was thus competent to direct and form artists, and I believe those in my employ would do credit to any establishment, whether Continental or British, although my principal designer, when I took him into my employ, was a plasterer, my chief grainer a baker, and my best imitator of Florentine mosaics a poor boy, one of four ragged urchins that an old Irishwoman had besought me to put to any kind of work. “ The chief impediments I had to contend with were the as recorded timidity with which architects adopted a new and untried production, and the jealousy of trades. The stonemason lost part of his trade in chimney-pieces ; the marble mason saw with dismay the probability of enamelled slate super- seding foreign marbles ; the plumber found slate cisterns and flats take the place of lead ; the plasterer and scagliola- man saw columns, pilasters, and plinths of slate, and halls and vestibules lined with a more permanent and brilliant material than his own ; the painter saw his best graining outshone ; all were interested in decrying the invention ; architects, builders, and the public generally were assured that enamelled slate would not stand the heat requisite for chimney-pieces, that it would chip, blister, and lose its polish ; whereas, after fifteen years’ trial, it is found that if marble were put into the chambers where the slate is enamelled it would become calcined, that slate does not chip nearly so readily as marble, that it does not blister, and that its polish will remain even when it is placed in damp apartments, where every atom of polish would go from marble. In 1848 I received the medal from the Society of Arts, in 1851 the prize medal of the Great Exhibition, and at the Paris Exhibition of the present year I believe I am the only exhibitor who has been 320 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. honoured with two first-class medals, one under Class XII. for civil architecture, and one under Class XX I Y. for de- tion. corative art. The following are some of the purposes to Purposes to which enamelled slate is now made applicable : — Chimney- meifed slate pieces, plain and of the most elaborate costliness, stove- piXi be ap ' f ron ts, moveable cabinet and pedestal stoves, pilasters, plinths, columns, linings for halls, vestibules, dairies, &c. baths, baptisteries, altar tablets, vases, pedestals and brackets, ornamental slabs for loo tables, consoles, and cheffoniers, wash-stand tops, billiard tables, and a variety of useful and ornamental articles too numerous to be separately specified. It is becoming sought after abroad. Ena- melled slate for the baths and wash-houses at Berlin has just been furnished by me. At the Paris Exhibition Prince Napoleon and Count de Mornay were among the purchasers, besides numerous distinguished personages from various parts of the Continent and from America. Shippers to Australia and other distant parts are beginning to dis- cover that enamelled slate, besides being cheaper than marble, is not liable to lose its polish by a sea voyage ; and that the risk, nay, almost certainty, of breakage that attends the transport of marble, amounts to nothing on slate, it being ten times as strong as marble in general/' MrMalmus When we estimate justly the merit Mr. Magnus deserves “ for taking a rude and imperfectly appreciated material, for giving to it form and ornamentation, for raising a school of artists, and for applying it to hundreds of new purposes for which it could be better and more cheaply adapted than those which it displaces, as is proved by the daily increasing demand for it, we cannot but feel that lie has deserved the highest honours which could be awarded him. The appear- ance of his products in 1851 doubtless alone prevented his receiving that reward which, had they been an entire novelty on their late appearance in Paris, there is very little doubt the International Jury would have awarded for his admirable set of specimens. Northern Both Northern Italy and Belgium contributed well carved Belgium! specimens of marble work, but in no case rising above the ordinary level. It was much to be regretted that the Milanese districts, and those of Carrara, appeared to be altogether losing the traditions of good design. There was indeed a fine specimen of carving in a monster marble four- fronted looking-glass and lavatory, designed by an Italian professor, Signor Isola, of Massa, but so sadly mistaken in treatment as to take it out of the power of the jury to reward the infinite labour it manifested. Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 321 Tuscany forwarded some good pratolino and lumachella Tuscany, well worked, but not in all cases tastefully. Rome sent, through Signor Gallandt, some noble specimens Rome, of very rare marbles, in vases of graceful shapes and perfect execution. The largest was cut out of a magnificent block of giallo antico, and the smaller of a very rare spotted marble, of which some leopards, which are preserved in the Sala degli Animali of the Vatican, are (so far as I know) the only large specimens extant. Turkey forwarded some superb slabs and blocks of Turkey, oriental alabaster, but her other specimens of minerals, as well as those of Spain and Portugal, were rather for the mineralogical cabinet than for an industrial exhibition. Siveden maintained the reputation she acquired in 1851, Sweden, for working the hardest possible materials, jaspers, porphyries, and granites, in high perfection ; and for their rare beauty the jury awarded a silver medal to the Royal Establish- ment. In 1851 the world of artists were led to hope that the Greece, quarries, both of the Isle of Paros, and of Pentelicon, would be reworked upon an extensive scale, and that the cele- brated materials of those districts would again be supplied to sculptors, at rates even below those at which the statuary 'marbles of Carrara and Serravezza can now be obtained. This hope has hitherto been frustrated, and the Exhibition of 1856 gives no sign of life in those quarters. We missed, too, from among the specimens any of the celebrated “ flesh- coloured lychnites ” of the ancients, a material which is of peculiar interest to those sculptors who desire to heighten their treatment of form by the introduction of colour. We met, however, in the Greek department, with many indi- cations that the sources are yet accessible, from whence the classic nations drew many of their most valuable materials for decorative purposes. Damaristica and Cynopolis still furnish “ rosso antico ; ” agate-breccia still comes to us from Xilokeratia, porphyrite from Crocsea, cipollino from Pyrgari in Lageia, breccia from the Taygetus, the amygdaloidal marble of Parori (Sparta), marbles and breccias from Nauplia, the red marbles of Cape Tsenarus, the green marbles of Tsenus, the black marbles of Laconia and Mantineia, and alabastroidal marble (of which antique lachrymatories it is said were made) from the island of Psythalia (Piraeus). Of plastic materials, imitating natural substances, little can be said, since the varieties of scagliolas were but indifferent, Scagiioia. failing both in colour and polish. The best worked were X 322 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wyatt on Fur- niture AND Decora- tion. Roman mo- saic ; revived un- der Clement VIII. ; improved by Callandra ; present pro- cesses for work upon a large scale ; those of Crapoix, of Paris, whose inlaying was much better than his imitation. I proceed, therefore, to the interesting subject of Roman mosaic. The revival of classical study and learning in Italy natu- rally directed attention to ancient art and manufactures ; both Rome and Florence successfully laboured to restore the old processes of mosaic, the former imitating the opus figlinum, now known as modern Roman, and the latter the opus sectile, known at present under the name of modern Florentine mosaic. When Clement VIII. undertook the decoration of the domes of St. Peter’s at the beginning of the 17th century, the demand for workers in mosaic in Rome was very great, and, in consequence, the school and manufactory were established which are now known as the “Fabrica.” When these works were commenced, the artifi- cers received as much as four scudi for forming one square palm of coarse mosaic, but Ciampini tells us, that in con- sequence of the great number of artists who were attracted to Rome from all parts of Itaty, “ fama tarn immodici pretii, et copise musivi operis quod inibi construi coeperat,” the price soon fell to about half a scudo for, a similar quantity of work. The ability and genius of Giovanni Baptista Callandra, and the occasional discoveries of ancient examples, no doubt greatly stimulated the study of the art in the great Papal manufactory at Rome. Callandra, who died in 1644, greatly improved the practice by his invention of a retarding mastic cement for fixing the tesserae. The well- known copy of Guido’s picture of St. Michael the Archangel, which adorns one of the chapels of St. Peter’s, was executed by him. Scarcely any change appears to have been made in the mode of manufacturing mosaic from the time of Callandra to our own. The process now usually adopted at Rome is as follows : — A metal plate of the required size is sur- rounded by a margin of about three quarters of an inch in height ; it is then covered for about a quarter of an inch in thickness with a mastic cement, composed of powdered Travertine stone, lime, and linseed oil : when set, this is covered to the level of the margin with plaster of Paris, on which is carefully traced the outline of the picture intended to be copied ; from time to time portions of the plaster are removed with a fine chisel, to allow the insertion of the small pieces of smalto. The “ smalto ” is composed of glass, and full directions are given in the works of Ciampini and of Neri for making and colouring this substance. It is prepared in circular forms, about half an inch thick, and Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 323 about six or eight inches in diameter. Nearly ten thousand m 0 VfJr- IT varieties of colour are kept in readiness in the stores of the ^eeand P apal “ Fabrica,” and from them the artist selects a piece tios. of the required tint, which he brings into the shape he needs by placing the smalto upon a sharp metal edge and striking it with a hammer of similar form ; the smalto is thus broken as far as possible into the form desired, and it is afterwards ground with emery powder upon a lead wheel, until the precise size and form are obtained. The piece is then bedded in its proper position, having first been moistened with a little cement, and the process is repeated till the whole picture is finished, when it is ground down to an even face, and polished. In this manner have been formed the noble specimens of mosaic which decorate the altars of St. Peter's, such as the Transfiguration of Raphael, Guercino's Sta. Petro- nilla, and Domenichino’s St. Jerome. There are now usually six regularly instructed artists employed at the Vatican in the “ Fabrica.” The manufacture of the minute mosaics, so much employed at the present time in articles of vertu and bijouterie , is carried on in most respects in the same manner and upon a as that of the coarser, mosaics, though obviously upon a very minute scale. The principal difference is the intro- duction of the blow-pipe for reducing the dimensions of the strips of smalto, which are made into little sticks or rods, thereby doing away with the necessity for breaking it into form by the hammer and grinding. The mosaic sent this year from Rome was not so am- Exhibitors : bitious in character as that which was forwarded in 1851, but, on the whole, the specimens were more varied and agreeable. Signor Gallandt was the principal exhibitor ; signor Gal* and while his large and elaborate picture of the Forum landt; testified the ability of the artists he employs, his table tops and smaller objects showed the various and graceful uses to which Roman mosaic may be applied. The Cavaliere Cavaiiere Moglia, who is well known for his dexterity as a practical ° s m ' mosaicist, also contributed some very delicately executed pictures. 'It is singular that this art should not be practised by any Feasibility of the other nations of Europe. It would form an occupation auction in’* peculiarly suitable for females, and in this country or France Ircland * there could exist no possible difficulty in the making of the necessary “ smalti " or enamel sticks of which the work is composed. The Irish, who learn all the elaborate processes of lace-making so rapidly, would, I have little doubt, soon acquire those of mosaic working, if once proper instruction and materials could be provided for them ; indeed, in Anglo- x 2 324 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Saxon times, they were the best mosaic workers in Europe, ™S£™> producing in the “ opus Hibernicum," effects rivalling the now. singular glass plaques of the ancient Egyptians. The efforts It was a favourite idea of Napoleon's, when he was First Napoleon i. Consul, to naturalize the arts of Italy in France, and to establish accordingly an establishment for the manufacture of Roman facturein mosaics was opened at Fans by the Republican authorities, under the charge of Signor Belloni. His pupils occupied the old College of Navarre in the Rue de la Montagne Ste. Genevieve, and some of their productions were exhibited at the third Exposition (in the year X. of the Republic). The experiment does not appear, however, to have succeeded very well, for in the subsequent Exposition of 1806, we find Signor Belloni exhibiting mosaics on his own account, made in the Rue des Cordeliers, at His private establishment. The art never seems to have prospered in France, and I believe that it is now entirely extinct. Florentine Florentine mosaic is a species of marble marquetry or inlaying, generally composed of precious materials in thin veneers or slices, and by taking advantage of the natural shades and tints of the marble, jasper, &c. of which the mosaic is formed, very beautiful effects may be produced, its history; Zobi, who gives us the earliest history of the art of pietra dura, tells us that Jacopo da Turrita, called Fra Mino (said by Lanzi to be a pupil of Guido da Siena), who executed mosaics in the Baptistry of San Giovanni at Florence in 1225, was the first who exercised the art in Tuscany. Sub- sequently Andrea Tafi learnt the Greek method of vitreous mosaic-working from Appolonius, a Greek, whom he brought to Florence from Venice. In speaking of Florentine mosaic, Zobi says, “ I know no existing example in Italy of marble mosaic executed during the first periods of the revival of the arts, excepting the specimen to be seen in the central nave of Siena cathedral, said to be the work of Duccio di Buoninsegna, who lived in the 14th century." The Medici were great patrons of the art, and Ferdinand I. founded the celebrated Fabbrica Ducale of Florence in 1588. Baldi- nueci gives us a tolerably full list of those artists to whom Florence is indebted for the choicest specimens of mosaic which ornament her galleries and palaces, and through whose exertions the celebrity of the Ducal manufactory was character kept U P during the 17th century. The extremely expensive character of this mosaic has always greatly restricted its use ; but when it is considered that the hardest minerals only are used in its formation, that every small piece must be ground exactly to a pattern previously cut, and that each Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 325 piece of veneer, in order to be strengthened, must be backed Mr. Wyatt by thicker slices of slate or some similar material, the N itueeand quantity and character of the works produced by the Grand d ^on. a ' Ducal “ Fabbrica " must be looked upon as astonishing. Parts — of an altar front lately executed, and intended for the Chapel of the Medici at San Lorenzo, are far superior, in beauty and delicacy of workmanship, to any specimens previously executed at Florence, and show that mosaic has escaped the general decline of the fine and industrial arts in Tuscany. The materials employed are jasper of various colours, agates, chalcedony, lapis lazuli, and other stones rendered ployed in suitable by their colours, polish, or hardness: oriental ala- making lt ; baster, giallo antico, &c. are also used, and are valuable from their beautiful colour and polish, though less hard than the above ; ocasionally other substances, such as mother-of-pearl and coral, are introduced. The ground is sometimes made from rosso antico, but more frequently nero antico is used, and occasionally porphyry and other stones of equal hardness. The subjects formerly represented were principally scrolls and conventional ornaments, to which a taste for the execu- tion of landscapes and architectural subjects, such as the Pantheon, the Tomb of Cecilia Metella, &c., succeeded. The result was, however, unsatisfactory, as the inlaid agate work, being entirely dependent, for its colour and gradations of tints, upon the natural colours of the stone itself, is fit only for subjects involving simple forms and but few different tints. Flowers, foliage, shells, and vases are the subjects, now most frequently represented, and these are usually made up on tables, paper-weights, brooches, vases, &c. The agates are cut by means of a bow strung with iron and pro- wire and emery. They are divided into slices about the cutting and eighth of an inch thick, and when polished, are cut by the together! 0 ™ same bow and wire into the forms required. The various pieces composing the subject are put together and cemented upon a slab of sandstone about half an inch thick, which forms a temporary base. The material which is to form the ground colour is cut into slices of the same thickness, and is then placed so as to cover the whole table-top ; pieces of the exact size of the objects are cut out of this ground by means of the bow and wire, and it is cemented on to a base of sandstone. The pieces forming the subjects are then removed from the temporary base, and are cemented into the spaces cut in the ground, at once producing the representation intended. The cement used is made of turpentine, wax, and resin. Such is the present practice of the “ Fabbrica Granducale,” The r a b- which has this year exhibited some of its most elaborate duS<^ ran ' 326 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Wyatt productions, for which the jury have awarded a gold medal NiTtTEE and of honour. This establishment became the private property D Tio5f* °f the Grand Dukes through the act of Leopold I. (a.d. — 1765-1790), and its expenses up to the present time have been solely defrayed out of the privy purse. Thus the its exhibi- Grand Dukes .make a present to Tuscany of a flourishing fluencTon 111 * branch of commerce ; for all the private manufacturers have the trade. fo een educated in the royal establishment, and derive the principal part of their materials from the same. The essen- tial difference between the productions made for sale, and those got up in the “ Fabbrica,” is, that in the composition of the former, soft materials are mixed with hard, and in the latter nothing but “ pietre dure ” are permitted to be used. Thus the grounds of the former are generally of black marble or touchstone, whereas in the latter they are always of either porphyry, Egyptian nephrite, or lapis lazuli. More- over, a close examination shows that the joints of the one are only approximating to fineness, whereas in the other they are merely hair lines, almost invisible. Some little objection was made by the jury to the designs which had been composed by the professors of the establishment, as being unworthy of the infinite labour involved in their exe- cution, considering that so far as a knowledge of the prin- ciples of composition went, the trade were in advance of the “ Fabbrica," but at the same time they recognized the pre-eminent claims of the royal establishment on public gratitude. Bianchini The best among the private exhibitors were Signori and Buonin- Bianchini and Buoninsegni. Marbles and agates have long been worked and used at English^ Matlock in Derbyshire for inlaying, but the most common- hard stones, place subjects only were attempted till about 1833, when butterflies, birds, &c. were tried in an imitation of Floren- Mr. Wood* tine mosaic. In 1840 Mr. Woodruff executed a table top, ruff; introducing groups of flowers, fruit, and birds, which was purchased by the late Duke of Cambridge. Mr. Woodruff has subsequently received the patronage of the late Queen Dowager, Her present Majesty, and many of the nobility, amongst whom the Duke of Devonshire has shown great interest in the manufacture, which he has much advanced, by permitting the free inspection of his beautiful specimens of Florentine mosaic at Chatsworth. It will be remembered that Mr. W oodrufTs productions formed a remarkable feature in the Exhibition of 1851 ; and it is to be regretted that he Mr. Hail, did not appear in 1856. Mr. Hall, of Derby, represented the English “pietra dura” mosaic trade, but did not appear in Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 327 as great force as upon some previous occasions ; not that his mr.wyatt work was ]ess well clone, hut that his specimens were of minor mture and importance, and of less difficulty of execution. D tio *. A " It would be unjust to India to omit reference to her Indi “ exquisite skill in the treatment of pietre dure. A marble mosaic, table -top from Agra formed an admirable specimen of fine inlaying, in which gems of all kinds, cornelians, agates, &c. are made to play a part. It appears that in the year 1 608 Ferdinand I., Grand Duke of Tuscany, demanded a passport from the reigning King of Spain for four most skilful work- men in the art of mosaic working in precious stones, whom he was about sending to the Great Mogul ; hence we may infer that the Mahommedan sovereigns were indebted to Italian assistance for much of that elegant inlaying which decorates the grand tombs at Agra and Delhi. This may very likely have been the case ; but that the Indians were already in possession of all the necessary technical ability, the antiquity of some of their carvings in hard stones, and the universality of the practice of gem cutting, polishing, and inlaying throughout the continent, abundantly prove. Section V. — Furniture in Lac, dec. Furniture The free importation by the vessels of the East India introduced Company, at the time when they were a trading body, of country by Chinese and Indian specimens of lac work, no doubt led indSrf* to the naturalization of the art of japanning in this country. imitatecTby The great father of the manufacture, who fixed its head JohnBasker- quarters at Birmingham, was the celebrated J ohn Baskerville, who, after having acquired a large fortune by lacquer work, rendered himself still more celebrated as a printer. Hutton, the eccentric historian of Birmingham, describes his carriage as entirely japanned, and covered with subjects painted by the best artists of the day upon the panels. To him the late Mr. Clay was apprenticed, and on his improve- ^ establishment in business he gave an extraordinary impulse by the late to the trade by his adoption of an original and admirable Mr ' Clay ; process for making papier mache at once strong and light, by gluing up in a very careful manner successive sheets of unsized paper, and using the material so prepared as the ground on which his japanning was applied. This process is the basis upon which Messrs. J ennens and Bettridge have j^neSi? and reared their present colossal business, and it is but just to Battndge; them to say that up to the present time none of their com- petitors, and they have many, have approached them in excellence. The jury were much inclined to admire the work 328 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wyatt on Fur- niture AND Decora- tion. the superior- ity of their work over the Prus- sian. the Indian Bareilhy work, and the Ja- panese. French exhibitors. French car- ton pierre and paper maeh6. of a Prussian firm not very long established, directed with much taste, and producing goods at a remarkably low price ; when, however, a piece taken at random among Messrs. Jennens and Bettridge’s collection was placed beside the Prussian, the superiority of the former became incontestable. The Birmingham black turned that of Prussia brown ; the Birmingham hand polish was clean and smooth to the touch, the Prussian was greasy-looking with varnish, and undu- lating under the hand ; in fact it appeared quite coarse by contrast with the English, the beautiful Indian Bareilhy or Lahore work, and the Japanese specimens sent by Holland. These latter were of singular beauty, and it may not be labour lost to direct the manufacturer’s attention to the extremely interesting particulars, as to the practice of the Chinese and Japanese in the production of such goods, col- lected by M. Natalis Bondot, who has several times so ably reported on the subject. In relation to France, it is not easy to trace who the Mr. William Smith was, who, in the year, 1819, obtained an honourable mention for having exhibited varnished furniture, imitating Chinese lac work, in Paris, since the French notices of the art give all the credit of its revival to the late M. Osmont, whose widow is now the principal Parisian exhibitor in the section. This lady’s work, as well as that of M. Manfroy, is not equal to the English, and strange to say of an “ Article de Paris,” its most erring side is the generally bad taste of its design. It is rather in the use than in the manufacture of carton pierre and papier mache that the French beat us. They combine it so skilfully with carving in soft woods, using the papier mach^ only for the parts which are often repeated, that it frequently is made to produce most admirable effects. The best of their manufacturers were Messrs. Huber and Cruchet, who left very little to be desired. They were both rewarded with silver medals. The former exhibited a splendid chimney-piece painted in imitation of marble, and parcel gilt, and containing in a circular recess a good bust of the Emperor. M. Huber also exhibited some Louis XYI. furniture, that possessed within a fraction all the sharpness of that always delicately executed style. The latter con- tributed a quantity of paneling, in the gallery adjoining the Empress’s boudoir, of the most elegant description. A visit to the workshop and “ magazin ” of either of these exhibitors will well repay the student, for in them he will be able to trace all the fluctuations in Parisian taste for the last 100 years ; the best classes of old ornament having Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 329 been “ surmoules ” and able artists being employed constantly m^Wyat t in producing new types of form. nature and Messrs. Jackson and Sons, of London, exhibited first-class goods in all respects. Their large decoration for a portion Eng j^ of Mr. Holford's house was well got up, and their candela- ditt o- brum was so like metal as to be really deceptive. They most worthily deserved the silver medal they obtained. In the application of ornaments in paste to frames in Cheap Ger- combination with cheap gilding, several of the German & c ^a?Lp- ng ’ districts showed considerable commercial aptitude. Their [James? specimens could in no case be said to be very pleasing, but their prices undersold every one else. The Prussian and Bavarian were the most remarkable. Section YI. — Furniture in Animal or Vegetable Sub- ? u ™iS or stances other than Woods, and Appurtenances to vegetable ^ x - 1 substances f urniture. other than woods. This section includes mats and matting, horse-hair and its substitutes, straw, and cane work, and coarse brushes and baskets. The most pleasing of all the mats were unquestionably ^ ats ™ ad e -L o # a */ ot rushes. those sent by India ; they were principally worked in black, red, and yellowish coloured rushes, and in exceedingly agreeable patterns. Some of the Oriental nations and Algeria also sent mats in nearly similar materials and style. It would occupy too much space to go into what has Smelted been so admirably done by Dr. Hoyle towards enriching on by Dr. commerce with a knowledge of new fibres, but there is one °^ e * particular substance which has of late years grown into such importance as a material for mats and matting, and which now gives occupation to such numbers of otherwise probabty necessitous persons, that I have felt it right to collect the fullest information concerning it. The manufacture of cocoa-nut fibre in England has been SSiSeof" in operation about twenty-five years. Mr. Horford, a rope- cocoa-nut mat manufacturer, residing at Camberwell, having about England; that time introduced it into the trade, supplying amongst others the houses of Hiley and Lapworth, and Watson and Bell, both of Bond Street. About five years after the above date Captain Wildey (of the firm of Wildey and Co.), a gentleman who had long resided in Ceylon, opened a factory in Holland Street, Blackfriars, for the manufacture of cocoa- nut fibre, which he carried on for some time ; he then let or sold the business to Captain Logan. Many other manu- facturers started, and amongst them Mr. Dagnall, now of the firm of Dagnall and Tilbury. 330 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Wyatt on Fee- NITUBE AND Decoba- TIO>\ how ori- ginally in- troduced ; and to what perfection now earned. convict la- bour, how employed upon it ; Mr. Arm- strong’s ex- perience ; Up to this time the cocoa-nut fibre was obtained by- pulling to pieces new ship-cables manufactured abroad from that material, the rope being sent to the London poor- houses in Gray’s Inn Lane and Islington to be picked into fibre for the trade at 5s. per -cwt. This process being ex- tremely tedious, Captain Logan determined to import the cocoa-nut fibre as it is drawn from the nut, thus saving the expense which picking the ropes into fibre entailed. Having engaged Mr. Treloar as manager of his factory in Holland Street, Captain Logan proceeded to Ceylon and other places, where he purchased the fibre, and sent it to England, Mr. Treloar opening an establishment on Ludgate Hill for the sale of the goods manufactured in Holland Street. Since this time large quantities of cocoa-nut fibre have been im- ported into England ; Messrs. Cleghorn and Dunbar, of Billiter Street, City, and Mr. Atkinson, of Fenchurch Street, being about the first importers. The hearth-rug manufacturers availing themselves of the facility afforded by the impor- tation of cocoa-nut fibre, commenced making mats and matting in the winter months when their own trade was bad, and since that time an active competition has taken place as regards the prices and quality of the articles manufactured. Formerly the rugs, matting, &c. were quite plain, but the specimens shown at Paris prove that it is quite possible to place sufficient pattern upon these articles to render them ornamental as well as useful. The Pompeian door-mats, “ Cave canem ” and Salve,” (exhibited by T. Treloar,) are a good example of what can be done with the seemingly rough and unmanageable fibres of the outer husk of the cocoa-nut, within a few years past thrown away as useless. The prison authorities have become large manufacturers of cocoa-nut mats and matting, and in prisons where pro- fitable labour is a primary consideration this trade has greatly lessened the expenses of the establishments. For instance, in the prison at Wakefield, in Yorkshire, 500 or 600 prisoners are kept employed at this trade, and their weekly earnings average 7s. per week each man. Many other prisons and workhouses also manufacture these goods to great advantage. Two-thirds of the goods manufactured in prisons and workhouses are bought by the agents of Manchester and City houses, and exported to America and the Continent. As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judi- cious teaching and management, Mr. Armstrong’s exhibition of goods manufactured by convicts was peculiarly interesting. K Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 331 I have been favoured by that gentleman with the following Mr. Wyatt particulars of his experience : — nitureand In 1851, being in business on his own account, he was an D tiSJ a * exhibitor at the Great Exhibition. In 1855 he obtained — an appointment as principal trade instructor in the hearth- rug, mat, and matting department of the Pentonville Prison in^h^Pen- (for convicts only) ; this appointment he holds at the present son. l " time. Being anxious to become an exhibitor at the Paris Exhibition, and wishing to show goods superior to any before produced by convict labour, Mr. Armstrong obtained permission from the Visiting Director to manufacture them in the prison at his own expense ; and having at that time 90 prisoners under his superintendence, none of whom had worked at the trade before, he selected the following : — No. 1, registered as a labourer sentenced for life. No. % No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, watchmaker 20 years. 10 years. 4 years. 4 years. The above men were kept strictly separate and on the silent system ; they had not been in prison eight months, when under Mr. Armstrong's tuition they made the whole of the goods exhibited by him at the Paris Exhibition. In the Pentonville prison the convicts are kept in separate confinement for twelve months, and are then employed in public works for the remainder of their sentence. The application of cocoa-nut fibre as a substitute for Cocoa-nut horsehair and bristles is even more important than its use substitute in a woven state, though it met with little encouragement hai^S* as long as the fibre was offered only in its raw state ; but Kristies ; the aid of machinery and improved means of preparation have enabled the manufacturer to obtain the material in a much more serviceable form, and at a reduced price. The fibre is dyed black, and mixed with horsehair, it is then curled and baked in an oven, and afterwards pulled apart by women ; and when properly prepared it resembles horse- hair to such perfection that none but a practised eye can detect the difference. Perhaps there are few commodities which have had to contend against so much opposition as the cocoa-nut fibre. A really good, useful, and cheap ma- terial, it still had for some years to contend against the interested opposition of what is called the “ trade," or middle- men who come between the manufacturer and the public. Even now the cocoa-nut fibre is not so well known to the public as it should be, from its being so extensively used, 332 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Wyatt on FUR- NITURE AND Decora- tion. its advan- tages. English ex- hibitors. Cocoa-nut fibre as ap- plied to brushes ; and fishing- nets ; we must not say for adulteration, as it improves while it cheapens, but for mixing with horsehair. Owing to the recent advance in the price of raw hair, the use of cocoa-nut fibre has increased to such an extent, that scarcely any curled hair of the best quality is brought into the market without having a large proportion of cocoa-nut fibre mixed with it. The cocoa-nut fibre is durable, clean, and cheap. The jurors of the Great Exhibition of 1851 have borne testimony to its merits for bedding in the following terms (see “ Re- port of the Juries,” page 601) : “ The use of cocoa-nut fibre for bedding presents many advantages ; it does not become knotty or hard, it does not harbour vermin, and it is not affected by variation of climate ; it is also recommended by the great cheapness at which it can be produced.” Since the Great Exhibition of 1851, the manufacture of cocoa-nut fibre has been greatly developed. Prize medals were awarded to the two following exhibitors : — Wildey and Co., Holland Street, Blackfriars Road, London, and T. Treloar, 42, Ludgate Hill, London. The strongest of the fibres of the cocoa-nut are now se- lected and extensively used by brush-makers as a substitute for bristles, for which purpose the material is admirably adapted. It is said that for some brushes, as, for instance, scrubbing and stable brushes, the cocoa-nut fibre is preferable to the best bristles, not only on account of its cheapness, but as being in reality better calculated for the uses to which such brushes are applied. One of the principal manufacturers of cocoa-nut fibre is Mr. Barsham, of Kingston- on-Thames, who has lately obtained a patent for making papier mache out of the refuse of the fibre. In London the manufacture of cocoa-nut fibre has in- creased so much that it employs at present 500 workmen. A specimen fish-net of cocoa-nut fibre was exhibited at Paris. This is quite a new application of the material, but one for which it would appear to be well suited, no prepara- tion being required (as with hempen nets) to enable it to withstand the effects of constant immersion in water, a fact incontestably proved by the durability of the cable moorings of cocoa-nut fibre at the Mauritius, which are now in as sound a state as when laid down fifty years ago. The development of the trade in cocoa-nut fibre is of the more importance at the present moment, when the interruption to commerce with Russia cuts us off from the best existing market for horsehair and bristles. Belgium, the Nether- lands, and the Zollverein provinces produce the best articles Mr . Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 333 of this kind next to the Russian, but in such small quan- tities as to keep the material very expensive. N decor1- D The total annual consumption of cocoa-nut fibre in Great tion. Britain, for all purposes, is now about 5,000 tons, the value total annual of which may be fixed at about 100,000/. In France the tiSfSSSeat material is scarcely known, the high rate of duty chargeable Britain ; upon it acting almost as a prohibition. It is, however, eagerly sought after, and the numerous inquiries made for the articles of cocoa-nut fibre in the Paris Exhibition, prove that a modification of the present duty would lead at once to the introduction into that country of this new branch of industry, and to a large consumption of the raw material. The husk of the cocoa-nut is used in India for a variety how em of domestic and other purposes, for which its fibrous nature India, renders it adaptable, but its chief uses are found when it is made into coir, which is accomplished by separating the fibres from the intervening vegetable substance, in the same manner as flax is prepared. Coir ropes have been employed in the East Indies from time immemorial ; from their light- ness and pliability they are preferable to those formed of hemp, particularly for cables, as they combine strength, buoyancy, and elasticity, require no tar in their fabrication, and are much less liable to decay. Coir does not chafe by friction, a circumstance well known to naval men who have used it for cables or cordage, and who, in nautical language, never “ serve ” it, as is invariably done with hempen cable. There were numerous varieties of miscellaneous articles, Horn and such as the horn work of M. Rumpendahl, the “ vannerie ” basketwork - of the town of Yervins (Department of the Aisne), and the excellent and cheap truck basket of Mr. Thomas Smith, of Hailsham, which fell as it were by accident into the pro- vince of this jury, but of which it is probable a better account may be rendered by some other reporter. Class B. — Upholstery. Section YII. upholstery The great competition in this department was between France and Austria, the former having unquestionably the best of the contest. French mattresses are of peculiar ex- French and cellence, and their perfect quality, as exhibited by Desolle Austnan - and Dupasquier, more than counterbalanced the slight pre- ponderance it appeared to me that Austria gained in feather beds and eiderdown coverings. In the preparation of stuffs for hangings France had it all her own way, the ulti- matum of richness being attained in a set of hangings manufactured at Lyons for his Grace the Due de Luynes. The gallery of designs for industrial Art showed how well 334 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. Wyatt ox Fub- XITUBE AXD Decoba- TIOX. Decoration. Ornamental papers and leathers. Introduc- tion of block printing by Francois of Rouen ; and of flock- ing by La- nier. Paper-stain- ing in Eng- land in the 18 th cen- tury ; the French understood the arrangement of draperies in curtains, &c., and the display of several of the principal “ tapissiers,” such as Deville, Mercier, &c., left no doubt as to their facility in carrying out such designs. The English did not exhibit at all in this class. Class C.— Decoration — Was divided into two distinct parts, Section VIII. Orna- mental Papers and Leathers, and Section IX. Ornamental Painting, including Gilding. Of these the former includes one of the most important of the export trades of France of an ornamental nature, and one in which we have in many respects much to learn. I dwell, therefore, upon it in some detail. Section VIII. Ornamental Papers and Leathers. It appears from statutes in France, that paperstaining was recognized as a trade in that country as early as 1586. The earliest blocks for paperstaining were those of Francis, who carried on a manufactory at Rouen in 1 620. Jerome Lanier patented in England, in May 1634, the process of “ flocking but though this has now become so important in the ornamenting of paper, that material is nearly the only one to which “flock" could be applied that is not mentioned in the terms of Lanier's patent. We probably owe the suggestion of paper as a material for wall hangings, to the introduction into England of the beautiful hand-painted papers of China, still occasionally to be met with in old houses ; the taste for rich decorations having been given by the Gobelin and Mortlake tapestries, and the japanned and stamped leather hangings of the re- naissance. We find paperstaining in England recognized as a trade in 1712, by the imposition of a tax of If d. per square yard for printing, in addition to the duty on the paper itself In 1754 a curious advertisement of Mr. Jack- son, of Battersea, informs us that he undertakes the execu- tion of imitations of statues, “ lively portraictures " of gods and goddesses, in chiaro oscuro on paper. We meet rather later with the names of Messrs. Toole and Young, Graves, Boyle, Hall, Pickering, through whose energy their manu- factures acquired much reputation ; they established a con- siderable export trade, not only to several European countries, but also to America. We now import far more than we export. Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 335 The great Chelsea manufactory was established by George the Chelsea and Frederick Echardts in 1786, and their papers are still tory. u ac * well known in the trade. “ Flocking/' though so early known, appears to have been Flocking lost, or at least unused, from about 1780 to 1800, when it was re-introduced. Arabesque papers, as they are usually termed, were first produced in any excellence by Mr. Sher- ringham, of Marlborough Street, who induced two foreigners to work in this country. The Government restrictions h&ve always pressed heavily Government on this trade. The payment of 20 l. for an annual licence, imposed by the 24th Geo. 3. c. 41., the compelling all paper- hangings to be “ executed on first-class paper/' 42 Geo. 3. c. 94., the Excise duty on paper of 3 d. per pound, and the 1 j d. per square yard for printing, combined to keep up the price, and prevent us from competing with the French. Before the inventions of M. Didot, of Paris, the improve- Continuous ments made by Mr. Donkin, and the complete patent con- paper ’ firmed to Messrs. Fourdrinier in 1807, for fifteen years, enabled the manufacturers at last to obtain a machine-made paper of any length and width. It had previously been made only in moulds of certain sizes, and in order to print a piece of paper-hanging twelve yards long, the manufacturer was compelled to stick together sixteen or eighteen sheets, the joinings of which it was impossible to conceal. Cobb's system of thorough-drying has produced an im- modem im- provement tor some colours, and his patent tor embossing has introduced a new character into English paper-hangings. The introduction of satin white grounds (called “ satin facings "), rubbed with French chalk till a polish appears, and of shaded, striped, and softened flowers, have given still more variety to the manufacture. About 1780 the manufacture of paper-hangings passed transfer of i± o o i tliG maim* from England into France. The first manufacturers who facture to* established themselves there were Robert and Arthur. They about 1780 ; were followed by Reveillon, and the Revolution of 1789 commenced by the pillage of the factory of Reveillon, in the Faubourg St. Antoine. Legrandwas the third manufacturer in this trade. All these men opened establishments in Paris. The house of Zuber set up a manufactory at Mul- hausen in 1790, and rather later Joseph began business at Macon, from whence he removed to Paris. Several large factories were opened at Lyons, but the chief part of this important manufacture was soon monopolized by Paris, which still retains a leading position, having in this respect followed the example of London. 336 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Germany commenced the manufacture of paper-hangings — on a limited scale, and later than France; Belgium, Holland, tion. and Switzerland followed, but on a still smaller scale ; to Germany, Vienna, and still later, Warsaw, opened factories for the HoUand,’ same purpose, and Russia wasted millions of francs upon its iustria land ’ I m P er ial factory at Syarko Syelo, without any success. In Russia, and Spain, a Frenchman of the name of Girond de Villette Spam. established a manufactory at Madrid. tionto'paris In 1829 the first machine for producing endless lines, by cai 1T pri ani * tb e use of stencil-plates and a revolving brush, was intro- cesses. duced into Paris by the late Mr. Clarke, of High Holborn, through the house of Hauptain, Fils, et Seur, the practice of hand-printing only being at that time in use ; the intro- duction of the new system enraged the workmen, and pro- duced so serious a strike that the establishment obtained from Government the protection of soldiers, and Dauptain becoming frightened abandoned the plan. The other Parisian manufacturers, being equally alarmed, the important im- provement was given up till 1831. Application The application of the processes of paperstaining to the stammg'to illustration of popular historical subjects, appears to have ticfnofpopu ^ iac ^ 01 %i n i n the representation of the victories of lar histori- Napoleon, in the fourth Exposition (1806). MM. Jourdan cal subjects. an q y ill ar( l exhibited, by way of great novelty, a decoration painted in a single piece of ten square feet with the subject of the battle of Austerlitz. exhibitors of The first notice of paper-hangings we meet with in the paper-hang- catalogues of the objects exhibited at the early expositions, eariy a expo e - occurs in the year X. of the Republic (1802), from which sitious ; we } earn that only one manufacturer, M. Simon, of Paris, represented the power of the country in this branch of industry. In the collection of the year 1806 we find notices of the existence of the trade at Nancy, Strasbourg, Rixheim, Vienne, Besancon, Neustadt, and Frankenthal, in the Depart- ment of Mont-Tonnerre. We find also an interesting record of the improvements effected in the manufacture by M. Prieur, of Paris, an ingenious chemist, who occupied himself in the composition of liquid colours, suitable for printing on paper, and capable of being employed in body colour painting. Among those he produced in the greatest brilliancy were the light and dark greens, mineral yellow, obtained from oxyde of lead, superfine blue, and bright cramoisi, or red lake. Even at this time we find centralization manifesting itself in the preponderance of Paris in the production of papiers peints. One district alonq seemed to enter into Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 337 serious competition with the metropolis, and that one was r?R- Tr the indefatigable Alsace. The name of Zuber, of Rixheim, ^ecoba”* must ever be remembered in connexion with the history of hon. this manufacture. In the year 1819 we find M. Zuber, to influence on whom the jury have now awarded a gold medal, alone com- the housed peting with the Parisian tradesmen. In 1827 he did not ofZuber ‘ exhibit, and in consequence of the diminution of country competition, the products of the Department of the Seine increased to an enormous extent. In that year we find that “in Paris there were 72 large manufactories of paper- hangings/' These vast workshops employed, in preparers, chemists, foremen, engravers, draughtsmen, travellers, work- people, men, women, and children, 4,200 individuals. The value of the white paper employed amounted to 4,840,000£, that of the colours to 2,315,300f., and the exportation from Paris alone to 850,000f. In the design of the papers pro- duced at this time, the talent of M. Mader effected an amazing improvement. In the year 1831 M. Zuber made the most important stride of all in the reduction of the price of such decorations by the introduction of cylinder printing, a process which at once reduced the cost to nearly one half of that previously incurred. His clever mode, too, of blend- ing tints, materially increased the resources of the designer. In the year 1834 M. Zuber appears to have constantly employed 200 workmen, and to have produced 200,000 pieces annually. In this same Exposition, in which the Alsatian house carried off the gold medal, we find M. Cartulat, ofcartuiat; Paris, rewarded with a silver one for a beautiful Pompeian design, the first in this style of which we find any notice. In the year 1835 the establishment of M. Delicourt, who Deiicourt; has obtained a gold medal in the present Exhibition, was started, and it at once assumed the high position it has ever since maintained. In the Exposition of 1839 M. Deli- court's panel papers and his low prices quite took the world by storm ; and in 1844 the enterprising manufacturer obtained the highest reward, the gold medal. It was at this exposition that M. Genoux, who has now gained a silver and Genoux. medal, appeared for the first time, gaining a bronze medal, and he, more than any other at present, appears to me in a good path. His tints, mixed by M. Gerard, his foreman during thirty years, under his designer M. Gruchy, are exquisite. The general aspect of the French papers in the late Exhi- General bition was, to my taste, by no means all that could be wished. Irench° f the Faultless as far as the fitting of the block impressions over the iatJ n one another, as far as the perfect cleanness and precision of Exhibition ; Y 338 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . M onFus TT evei y tone, an( ^ as ^ ar as the apparently unlimited range and nitureand brilliancy of palette were concerned, the most important D £oT* specimens appeared to me to tend rather to the abuse of the exceedingly ar k Altogether unmindful of an appropriate mural treat- neglect of men t, no caprice seemed too wild for adoption in the first princi- showiest papers. Stone balustrades with peacocks upon ples ’ them, grown over with tropical plants of no particular geographical proprieties, mixed up with shells and all kinds of conceits, forming, with curtains at the side, the framework to washy landscapes with exaggerated air tones, appeared to be rather a popular style. Sometimes sides of apartments were represented divided into panels, in the centre of which appeared to hang, not pictures only, but their frames as well, casting shadows upon the wall, and meant to appear actually standing out from it. Sometimes a curtain in lace, or some such material, would be shown drawn back and looped up in regular upholsterer s fashion. Such were among the nume- rous puerilities adopted even by some of the best technical masters of their trade. Really if it had not been for one or two exceptional productions, and for the ordinary trade pattern books, it would not have been possible to reward French paper-hanging in the way that it has always hitherto been treated. Any attentive visitor to the galleries of the Exposition des Beaux Arts, could see for himself how pro- found a study the French architects have made of the appro- priate mural decoration of every style and epoch, and yet among all the paper-hangings exhibited there was not one single trace of the benefit such studies ought to have con- ferred upon the trade. The simple reason why the Parisian paper-hangings were this year so generally outrd and bad in design I believe to have been because they were left to painters to arrange, and not properly subordinated to any architectural system. French exhi- M. Delicourt, who cited as his chief assistant F. D ary, and m! Deli- his d’atelier M. Rubis, exhibited the best imitation of court; a picture I have ever yet seen made in a printed paper. The subject was youth , treated in a pastoral manner, by no less an artist than Muller. It appears impossible to carry the art further, and the conclusion at which one arrives is — that printing on paper has its limits, which should be studied by the designer, and which cannot be successfully transgressed. m. zuber ; The same conclusion applies yet more forcibly to M. Zuber for his landscape, in which the tints are of surprising delicacy ; m. Desfoss6. and tenfold to M. Desfosse, who has had the enterprise to call in one of the first artists in France, Couture, to his assistance. While condemning the taste of these imperfect Mr. Wyatt on Furniture, and Decoration . 339 pictures, for at best they can be no more, it would be unjust not to render homage to the efforts made by the leading manufacturers to ally the highest talents of the day with TI0X - their products. The fault is not wholly to be laid upon the shoulders of the producers if great men fail to make good designs. It is chiefly in her delicate flower papers, diapers, chintz-patterned and silken-surfaced papers in light tints, that France beats us industrially. Her workmen are intelli- Stages of gent, quick-sighted, clean-handed, and for the most part ciean^cheer- they work in light, cheerful ateliers, with flowers, or casts, or workshops, engravings about them. The value of such premises, com- mercially, is not yet half sufficiently appreciated in this country. A valuable report of M. Zuber upon the manufacture of ^^ofthe paper-hangings, read before the Industrial Society of Mul- French and hausen, in 1851, gives the following interesting commercial paper-hang- notice of the recent French and English manufacture : — represented “In England, up to 1825, the manufacture of paper- by M ' Zubel ' hangings was protected by the absolute prohibition of foreign papers, but at the same time it was subjected to a tax so onerously applied, that, before the adoption of continuous papers, each piece composed of twenty-four sheets received on its back twenty-four stamps, with two more to mark the two ends ; this duty amounted to about Is. 4 d. per piece. In 1825 Mr. Huskisson removed the prohibition, and re- placed it by a duty on foreign products of Is. per yard square, which, taking a piece of French measurement, amounted to the enormous sum of about seven francs per piece. My curiosity, nevertheless, led me to make an ex- cursion to England, for the purpose of seeing if it were possible to import at this rate of duty, and, to my astonish- ment, I found I was able to enter into considerable trans- actions. ‘ You beat us completely/ was what I continually heard from the English dealers on showing our products. This state of things continued till 1834. Our importations at last pushed the English manufacturers into the improve- ment of their work, and at this latter date the English Government reduced the customs duty to one half, and took off at the same time the stamp duty on English-made paper-hangings. Our business was not in any way aug- mented, but the English manufacture made such progress that in 1846 Sir Robert Peel made a new reduction of the import duty by two- thirds, that is to say, reduced it to twopence a yard, or about one franc per piece. A violent shock to the English manufacturer followed, but a salutary effect was quickly produced on it. During the first year of T 2 340 Pepoiis on the Paris Exhibition . M offS- n ^ ie new regulations our importations doubled themselves Decora- tion. English exhibitors nit cue and they, however, soon fell off again, but not before this heavy competition had impelled the English manufacturers to such exertions, that now, with a duty one sixth of that of 1825, we find a difficulty in introducing merchandise to the same amount as then/' The English paper-hangings lately exhibited were not as effective as those contributed for 1851. The best were by the two firms of Woollams, and Messrs. Williams and Cooper. They were soundly made and well printed, at moderate prices, but were sadly wanting in that refinement of colour, which I believe to arise in the French papers mainly from the use of better whiting, more colourless size, finer pigments, cleaner vessels, better light, careful over- looking, and, above all, scrupulous delicacy of manipulation, and not struggling to work too fast. Messrs. j°bn Messrs. John Woollams and Co. exhibited in the soutk- Wooliams . . .. and Co.; east pavilion a decoration m white and gold, consisting oi two pilasters, corners and borders, cornice and frieze, designed from casts at Marlborough House in the style of the Italian renaissance, together with some panels of various flock and gold damasks, in the medigeval style, and a cornice and mouldings from the Alhambra, all of which were from drawings made in England. They showed also some papers produced by cylinder machinery, in relation to which they have favoured me with the following interesting particulars : “ These specimens we consider a great improvement on this branch of our trade since 1851. It has always been found difficult, however careful the workman may be, to print small geometrical figures or diapers by the usual method of flat blocks, so as to produce an uniform surface or regularity of work at the repeat, and avoid a shady appearance when hung ; this we have now done by means of feeding rollers, by which the flocking mordant is furnished with perfect regularity to the print, and by means of which, and of continuous paper we produce better work than can be attained by the flat block ; added to which, the work is flocked by machinery, and produced at the rate of two pieces per minute.” Messrs, w. Messrs. W. Woollams and Co. also exhibit paper- and°Co. ms hangings of good average quality, and all that appears to be wanting in their productions is a higher class of design. HamT'anY' 1 The same may be said of Messrs. Williams and Cooper’s. Cooper, A 11 of these houses have acquired reputations for good, cheap machine-made papers, which are very largely used in this country, and which, on account of the extent of their Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration . 341 employment, it is most desirable should be carefully Mr. wyatx designed in the first instance ; for it is a most just remark nitubeand of Mr. Redgrave’s, that “ it is a misfortune, in this age of D T?oJf* machinery, that even the first mould or die, which is to be the matrix of thousands of repetitions, has often far less care bestowed upon it than was formerly bestowed at infinite cost on a single work.” Since these papers are so largely manufactured, I add a few particulars concerning them, which I have been so fortunate as to obtain from Mr. Hubert. Machine paper-hangings, in from one to ten colours, are English printed by means of a succession of rollers arranged round a made paper drum, with a colour-box, sieve, &c. to each roller, similar to hanglng8, the well-known process of calico printing, the difference being that the rollers for paper-hangings produce surface work and with body colours, whereas calico printing is done from engraved rollers. Immediately on leaving the printing machine the paper passes into a chamber heated to about 250 degrees, and is thus dried and finished, being produced at the rate of 42 yards per minute, one machine being capable of turning out 1,500 pieces of 12 yards each in a day. Austria exhibited some ordinary papers through the Austrian house of Spoerlin and Zimmerman, of Vienna, whose trans- esmbltors - actions appear to be carried on upon a large scale. In fancy papers for packing and book -binding purposes, the Eancy English, thanks to the genius, science, and enterprise of the English: house of De la Rue, stood at the head of the list. The name of Owen Jones, under whose artistic direction the majority of the goods have been produced, is a sufficient guarantee for their originality and beauty both of form and colour. The details of their manufacture more properly belong to Class X. or XXVI., and I therefore leave them to the reporters for those subjects. In France the same kind of papers are France, produced with exquisite taste, more particularly in small gold and diaper patterns for wrapping up bonbons, &c., in which speciality it was impossible to excel MM. Augrand and Guesnu. A certain M. Lambertye appears to have been the first to ^^when apply f* anc y papers in France to ornamental packing. His first 5 used establishment was in the Marais, and a considerable quantity mental of glazed, satined, coloured, and plain papers were made packing ‘ from his designs and instructions, at the great establishment of the Montgolfiers at Annonay. The Exhibition of 1806 contained several displays of fancy papers by Messrs. Dodart 342 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Wyatt on Fur- niture and Decora- tion. German gilt and fancy papers. French painted blinds; and Prus- sian. French stamped leather. Ornamental painting — Mr, Moxon ; Mr. Ker- shaw. M. Husse- not’s port- able paint- ing. and MM. Schrant, Susse, and Co. ; but M. Lambertye ap- pears to have been the first to convert them to that use for which they have since his time been supplied in such vast quantities. Before this time the French had imported from Holland the coloured papers in which their cotton stuffs were usually wrapped. The firm of Desetables, of Yaux de Yin (Calvados), was among the earliest to relieve them from the necessity of obtaining such papers from abroad. The Germans showed quantities of gilt and ornamented papers, which, it is averred, they produce at a lower rate than the French and English. In the plainer kinds of gilt paper they probably may do so, but neither in marbling, satining, nor embossing, is their work at all upon an equality as to price, excellence being taken into account. The firm of Knepper, of Yienna, produces in vast quantities, and ob- tained a great medal at the last Munich exhibition. The jury awarded it a silver medal in 1855. Among the exhibitors of transparencies in the shape of painted blinds, the French were by far the best, several exhibiting great ability and real artistic power. The most excellent appeared to me to be Agellant, Morgant, Savary, and Bach Peres. Herr Burchardt, of Berlin, showed some pretty good work at moderate prices. Stamped leather is also an article in which the French greatly excel, and of which they make considerable use. There were only two exhibitors of importance, MM. Dulud and Halbedel, both of whose productions were very good, those of M. Dulud being certainly by far the best of the two. Section IX . — Ornamental Painting. In decorative painting there w^ere only three exhibitors of great interest, namely, two English, Mr. Moxon and Mr. Kershaw, and one French, M. Hussenot. The two former were placed by the jury upon an equality with respect to the excellence of their imitations of woods and marbles. Scarcely any objects exhibited in the English department attracted more earnest attention than they did from the foreign workmen, who would frequently stand “ en queue ’* to get a good look at them. M. Hussenot's invention consists, so far as I can make it out, in applying a series of coats of oil paint, or possibly of a solution of Indian rubber or gutta percha, upon a soluble ground. Decorations are then painted in oil colour upon the priming, and when they are perfectly dry the original ground is dissolved, and the decoration is drawn off in a Mr, Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 843 tough pellicle. When wanted to be fixed up, a coating of m *n i?b- TT white lead, or any other substance of an equally tenacious character, is given to the wall and another to the back of tip* . the decoration, which, being rubbed down on the face, allies itself indissolubly with the wall. Thus any amount of portable decoration may be worked away from the building to be decorated, and its whole aspect changed with a day or two’s labour. The invention is particularly applicable for ornamenting intricate mouldings, which cannot be con- veniently got at with the brush. Section X . — Furniture and Decoration for Churches. The conservative movement in England lias certainly borne better fruit, so far as ecclesiastical art is concerned, (painting perhaps excepted,} than an}^ of the other countries of Europe, mainly inasmuch as our workings in the restora- tion or rather revivification of the salient features of Gothic architecture are less influenced by preconceptions of other styles on the part of the workman. Our masons have almost insensibly crept into carvers, our carvers almost insensibly into sculptors, following out only one series of types. The French carvers generally are wonderfully dex- terous, but not sufficiently imbued with steadiness of aim to adhere with judgment to tradition ; hence their tendency is to exaggeration, and unless a sound school of criticism is promptly brought to bear upon much that is now being done, there is every probability that this tendency will cause a serious degeneration in French art, and that speedily. This section divides itself into three parts — stone, wood, and metal, those three being the principal substances in which furniture and decoration for churches are usually executed. To commence with stone. — There were but three exhi- bitors whose work merited serious notice, the first in importance certainly being the “ Dom-Bau-Verein” of Cologne Cathedral, who have fairly earned a gold medal for their creation of a school of ecclesiastical carvers for the purpose of nobly restoring the greatest monument of the middle ages. In a variety of colossal finials, crockets, canopies, and other details they showed a sound knowledge of masonic art and great assiduity, carried in some of the specimens a little too far. Messrs. Gates and George , of London, contributed a reredos, worked in their well-selected Aubigny stone by William Boulton, assisted by Messrs. Bull and Hammond, and a doorway in excellent Caen stone, executed by the same artists, all of admirable quality, though unfortunately Furniture and decora- tion for churches. Gothicarch- itecture and art better realized in England than in France. Division of the section into three parts — stone, wood, and metal. Stone— The Kol- nische Dom* Bau-Verein : Messrs. Gates and George, of London ; Me. Wyatt ON FuE- NITUKE AND Decoba- TION. the Abbe Choyer, of Angers. Wood— M. Vincent, of Paris ; M. Goyers, of Louvain ; M. Dumon, of Bruges. MM.Cuypers and Holgen- ber, of Hol- land. Metal— M. Ponsiel- gue Rusand, of Paris ; 344 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. so placed as to be scarcely visible in their finest details of treatment. The Abbd Choyer, who is at the head of an establishment at Angers for producing ecclesiastical fittings, forwarded, among other specimens, a marble altar very elaborately carved, but without any satisfactory evidence of knowledge of style, or the principles of original artistic composition. In wood work it is to be regretted that we did not enter the field, as I believe some of the font covers, and other objects which have been recently done in England, would have distanced all competitors. France showed only some cabinet specimens, if we except a monster anomaly by the Abb^ Choyer. M. Vincent, of Paris, exhibited a small chasse, gilt, and closely resembling metal in its treatment. It certainly involved no great difficulties of execution, as it consisted almost entirely of tracery and moulded work ; it is, however, but just to add that all that was attempted was satisfactorily achieved. Belgium contributed some large works ; the art of which, as well as the prices, were moderate. M. Goyers, of Louvain, sent an elaborate pulpit and tabernacle of average quality ; and M. Bunion, of Bruges, a dais of less price and merit. It is a pity that Belgium, which has so recently completed so masterly a work in wood as the stalls of Antwerp Cathedral, should not have been better represented. From Holland, Messrs. Cuypers and Holgenberg forwarded a pulpit of somewhat similar design to the Belgian, but to my taste rather more pleasing. In metal work we had to deplore the absence of Mr. Hardman, whose place in 1851 w x as occupied in 1855 by Messrs. Ponsielgue Busand and M. Bachelet. M. Busand, working from the designs and under the artistic superin- tendence of M. Questel, architect of the new church of St. Paul at Nismes, had produced for that church a magni- ficent altar in latten, entirely wrought in “ repousse,” that is, in work beaten up from the back, and back again from the face. This piece certainly was the finest revival of the processes of goldsmith's work in the 12th century which has yet been executed, and reflects infinite credit both upon its designer and executant. Although the style was admirably preserved in every detail, the whole was so artistically arranged as to present an agreeable aspect in all points of view, and scarcely to remind the spectator of the archaism of the period the style of which had been so well reproduced. The enamels and setting of the gems “ en cabochon * were all that could be desired practically, artistically, and arch geologically. Mr. Wyatt on Furniture and Decoration. 345 I cannot speak with quite the same enthusiasm of M. m ^Wyatt B achelet's production, for which M. Viollet le Due, the nitubeand architect, is responsible. As ambitious as, or perhaps even tion. * more so in character than M. Questels, it sought to repro- M> fi^eiet, duce a “ Maitre Autel” of the 13th centuiy. The drawing of Paris, of every part was good and correct, though falling occa- sionally into “ petitesse but upon the whole the effect tended towards that of “ quincaitlerie >> rather than that of goldsmith’s work. The main reason why this impression was conveyed was, that instead of every cap and every detail being different, many were made to do duty several times over, thereby destroying the impression of the whole having been handwork, and consequently putting out “ the lamp of life/’ There was, however, very much to admire in the grandeur of the effort, and in many of the statuettes, which were of exceeding beauty and dignity. Both M. Questel’s and M. Viollet le Due's contributions were pregnant with interest and importance at the present juncture, when styles are, as it were, fighting among themselves for domi- nion over the present generation. Whatever the upshot of such struggles may be, we cannot but feel that the fiercer the conflict the greater the victory, and the sounder the chances of peace , without which the artist can never work earnestly and hopefully. In concluding this report, it is eminently satisfactory for me to be enabled to record that the above-mentioned blessed element was never absent from the meetings of the jury to which I had the honour to belong ; and to express my con- Unanimity fident belief, that if in any respect a difference of opinion theSdin may be traced in this report from that entertained by the orthis ents majority, it is in a matter of detail solely ; and that, at report, any rate, I carry with me the general concurrence of my British colleague, with whom the opinions now advanced, in the hope that they may do some little good to the public, as well as to the manufacturer, have been earnestly and minutely discussed. I have the honour to be, &c. M. Digby Wyatt, Architect, Late Secretary to the Executive Committee for the Exhibition of Industry of 1851. ; * . . .v , i ' . . ■ : -.b ' , 1 . . ; - : .b‘> : Mr. Knight on Drawing , Printing , See, 347 On Class XXVI, , Drawing and Modelling, Letter-press mr.knight and Copper-plate Printing, and Photography. — By drawing, Charles Knight, Juror for that Class. Printing, &c. To the Right Hon. the President of the Board of Trade. My Lord, I have the honour to address to your Lordship some Extended observations which, in the discharge of my duty of J uror in Spying pro- file Paris Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, have cesses< occurred to me as being of some possible utility, as indica- tions of the progress of the industrial arts. I necessarily confine these observations to the Class to which I was ap- pointed as Juror, viz. Class XXVI. The processes now connected with those branches of indus- try, which are associated under the generic name of Printing, have derived and are deriving such an extension from the application of modern discovery that their variety alone becomes embarrassing. The Imperial Printing Office of Austria exhibits, in a collected form, the efforts that are making to extend the range of copying processes. Some of these novel applications may be considered more curious than useful ; but they show how strongly the direction of scien- tific experiment is towards the diffusion of knowledge and art. In the Austrian Printing Department there was a case labelled “ L" appareil polygraphique,” containing thirty -three divisions, exhibiting that number of various modes of im- pression, either in the instruments of production or the objects produced. Nearly opposite this case was a very beautiful specimen of wood engraving, representing the Emperor Joseph II. in his youth, examining a printing- press with his tutor. Since the death of Joseph II. in 1790, the wooden printing-press, on which the young Prince is gazing, has been superseded in great part by the most elaborate machinery ; and the impressions from moveable types, produced then in Germany, as they were produced 400 years before, have been followed up by the numerous modes of multiplying copies which have become auxiliary to typ°g r aphy and engraving — such as stereotype,, electrotype, chromotypography, lithography, chromolithography, nature- printing, photography, and other processes in which chemis- try especially has found a new field of operation. An exhibition of industry so universal as that of Paris in Printing, 1855, might be supposed to have furnished a fair opportunity Saiei°° k 318 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . 3lR ‘ on IGHT °f comparing the progress of various countries as to the me- peiUting c ^ an i ca l excellence of their manufacture of books, and the &c. ’ general character of the demand for books. It did so, in many respects. In others it offered no satisfactory criterion. The printing of Great Britain, and of the United States, was most imperfectly represented. We may account for this as regards our own country. The printers of books with us are rarely the publishers. The printer, in most cases, is em- ployed by the publisher ; and when his work is delivered he ceases to have an interest in it. Our publishers, with some exceptions, appear to have considered that the knowledge and experience required for the combinations of various branches of separate industry to produce a book, are not such as would establish a claim for distinction in an international exhibition. The book trade of Great Britain, and the print- ing art, were therefore little conspicuous in the Exhibition of 1855, especially by comparison with the French printers and publishers, who, in numerous cases, unite the two cha- racters. It was the same in our Exhibition of 1851 ; and J. S. Yan Doosselaere, a Belgian printer, who reported upon the typographical department, says that the English printers did not exhibit because they were afraid of France. No such fear prevailed then, or in 1855, and yet few English printers exhibited. This is a matter of regret ; for in two important branches, which sufficiently represent the intel- lectual progress of the country, the advance is very remark- able; 1st, in that class of books, in which the best machine printing is used to produce moderate-priced books in as good a style as the highest priced twenty or thirty years ago ; and, 2d, in those periodical publications of enormous sale, of which wood engravings constitute the principal feature. It is most important to know that the art in England has made the most decided advance in its application to the production of cheap works in very large numbers. Nor is it behind in the most expensively printed books. The expense only has regard to the quality of the paper and the press-work ; and the latter expense is of less consequence every day from the great improvements in the ordinary machinery, both in the inking portions, and in a mode of preventing the sheets, as they pass through the cylinders, from being blurred or “ set off,” as it is technically called. Such machines are coming into use in several of the best printing offices of London. These improved machines are chiefly French. (See p. .) Provi ncial . There is a peculiarity in the book trade of France, and Victories in also of Belgium, which is worthy of remark. Paris is not, Belgium, as London is, almost the exclusive seat of the book manu- Mr. Knight on Drawing , Printing , <£c. 349 facture. Witli us Edinburgh is the only other great centre Me -K»ight of literary commerce. In France books are largely pro- duced at Tours, Chatillon, Limoges, Lyons: in Belgium, &c/ at Tournay, Malines, Liege, as well as at Brussels. As a con- sequence, the production of books there resolves itself into a branch of the factory system, where large numbers of work- people are gathered under one roof to perform all the opera tions necessary for the manufacture of a book, with the exception of paper-making. In London, on the contrary, the letter -press printer is very rarely a lithographer or a bookbinder. These combinations belong to our very small provincial establishments. In France they belong to the very largest. The following are instances : — The specimens of Marne and Co., of Tours, and the details of their establishment, which they addressed to the members of the Jury, suggest some important considera- tions with regard to the attainment of an extreme point of cheapness in the manufacture of books. I use the word (C manufacture" advisedly ; for we have no example in Great Britain of a large factory in which, with the excep- tion of the paper, all the processes connected with printing and binding, including the arts of the designer and engraver, are carried through for the production of about eight hundred different volumes, varying from the small prayer book, bound, for 35 centimes, to the folio local history, splendidly illustrated, for 100 francs. In the London Exhibition of 1851, Marne and Co. received a Prize Medal “for the extreme cheapness and great variety of books printed, bound, and published by them." An examination of their catalogue not only shows the “ great variety" of their publications, but points out, in the very nature of their works, that the “ extreme cheapness" is attained by the continued production of large impressions for a constant and universal demand. The nearest parallel case in England is that of the production of Bibles, Testaments, and Prayer Books by the Universities and the Queen's Printer. But cheap as these privileged English books now are, they can scarcely compare with the “ Liturgies" and “ Offices" produced by Messrs, Marne, especially those which are luxuriously bound. The “ Missale Romanurn," in folio, beautifully printed, is sold, unbound, for 1 1 francs ; the most exquisite binding in morocco, fully gilt, adds only 20 francs to the price. The “ Paroissien Romain," 32mo, a very nicely printed volume of 636 pages, solidly bound in black sheep, marbled edges, 350 Reports on the Paris Exhibition • Me,I ox TGHT costs only 80 centimes (8c?.) ; the same in calf, gilt edges, Feinting * ^ ranc 20 cents. (Is.) ; and in morocco, 1 franc 70 cents, &c. (Is. 5d.) The demand for “ Livres d’Offices” and “Livres de Piete” is of course constant and universal ; and of these Messrs. Marne have fifty-one different works and editions. Some are remarkable for the clearness of their type, others for the beauty of their embellishments. The “ Paroissien Romain Illustre ” has coloured borders to every page, with a vignette border to each division of the services. Bound in morocco, with gilt edges, it costs 3 francs 25 cents. (2s. 8Jc?.) In the catalogue of Messrs. Marne there are 720 works, exclusive of their “ Offices.” They consist for the most part of various series devoted to education and primary instruction. Here again is a class of books in universal demand ; we have “ Bibliotheque Illustree des Petits Enfants ;” “ Bibliotheque de la J eunesse Chretienne “ Bibliotheque des Ecoles Chretiennes “ Bibliotheque des Petits Enfants;” and “ Bibliotheque de TEnfance Chretienne.” Each of these Bibliotheques contains several series, at various prices, from 3 francs to 10 centimes the volume ; some neatly bound in paper, some tawdrily. The greater portion of the books belong to history and geography, others are standard works of fiction. In the “ Bibliotheque de la Jeunesse Chretienne” we may take as a specimen a translation of “ Robinson Crusoe/’ in 12 mo, with twenty- four admirable woodcuts, each the size of the page, two volumes, at 75 cents, each. We have nothing so beautifully printed at such a price. We must notice, however, that the figures we have given represent the wholesale cost. Without knowing the rate of wages at Tours, we must be satisfied to conclude that a great deal of this extreme cheapness is produced by the use of the most improved mechanical processes, and by the most perfect division of labour. It appears that twenty cylindrical printing- machines are employed, producing 15,000 volumes a day, of ten sheets, or 150,000 sheets. This is about the English rate of 1,000 an hour. A volume bound in morocco is stated to pass through eighty hands. The number of work-people employed in this factory amounts to twelve hundred ; and we may assume that a large proportion are women and children ; for it is stated that “ the workshops, surrounded with gardens, are kept in winter at an equal temperature, combine all the elements of salubrity, and offer to the numerous children who therein work, without fatigue, a more healthful shelter than the paternal home.” 351 Mr, Knight on Drawing , Printing , (fee. In the establishment of M. Cornillac, at Chatillon, a Me.Knight hundred and forty work-people are employed, chiefly drawing, upon religious works. In the house of Martial-Ardant pEI £™* (Brothers), at Limoges, one hundred printers and one — hundred and fifty bookbinders are employed. In the same town Messrs. Barbou employ eighty printers and one hundred and fifty binders ; and they have a list of three hundred different works which they keep on sale. The house of Castermann, of Tournay, employs a hundred work-people, and that of Dessain, of Malines, a large number. All these establishments, which are upon the principle of combining labour which has no similarity except in its direction to one product, are almost ex- clusively for books in the most extensive use, and of these the Offices of the Church and school books are the chief. I have given examples of cheapness in the books issued p ™gs of by Marne and Co. ; and in other provincial establishments where popular works are produced “pour le bon marche” cheapness is an essential quality. Something of this is to be ascribed to the principle I have pointed out, of the com- bination under one roof of all the various industries required for the production of a book; — those of the type-founder, the letter-press printer, the draughtsman, the engraver, the plate or lithographic printer, the colourer, the binder. The proprietors of these factories are also the wholesale and retail vendors. This is the case in Paris, where many of the most eminent booksellers are their own printers. Some portion of the cheapness may therefore be attributed to the circumstance that the publishers are remunerated by the manufacturers' profit. In the book trade of England, on the contrary, the publisher has a separate profit from that of the manufacturer. But there are other elements in the com- parative cheapness of foreign books. There is the lower price of paper, from the absence of any paper duty. There is also the lower rate of wages, which is considerably less than the rate of England, especially in the compositors’ department of printing. Comparing a French book with an English book, it will be noticed that what is called “ the justification," that is, the evenness of space between one word and another in each line, is much more carefully pre- served in the English book. This is one of the niceties which distinguish a good compositor from a careless one. In France, where the compositor is paid at a lower rate, the nicety is disregarded. Again, taking the average of English works, they are more correctly printed than the French, especially when a quotation is introduced from another 352 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. me.knight l an g Ua ge. It is not that the English compositor is better pSSSg educated than the French, for it is greatly to be regretted ’ that onr race of scholarly compositors is almost extinct ; but it is that in England the reading of “ proofs " is charged in addition to the composition, whilst in a French printing office, speaking generally, no such charge exists. The books of the Belgian press were published at a much lower rate than those of France, under the system of piracy which existed before the law of international copyright was introduced. J. S. Van Doosselaere, in his tract, which I have mentioned, says, that the Belgian publishers ruined them- selves by the competition in non -copyright works (re im- pressions.) A novel issued by one publisher at 2fr. 75 c. was published by another at 75c. We can still see traces of this competition, in which the literary labour having been com- mon to every plunderer, the outward quality of the book — the paper, the printing — was proportionally degraded to the lowest standard of unnatural cheapness. In the French Exhibition, the Belgian books, taken as a whole, are very indifferently printed. The public have been led to consider cheapness the first condition, and now, when that condition cannot be obtained by literary piracy, it is partially obtained by inferior typography. No doubt there are exceptions. The red and black printing of breviaries, and especially of music, is very excellent. smaffesta- The Directors °f the Imperial Printing Office of Austria biishments. have done great service to the various arts connected with printing, by bringing together every attempt at discovery and improvement, and exhibiting their results. The Im- perial Printing Office of France has vied with these efforts, and since 1851 has produced books which are splendid examples of the perfection of typography. We have exhi- bited nothing that can stand by the side of the printing of these great establishments, with their prodigality of illumi- nations in gold and colours, but a few books produced by the ingenious proprietor of a small establishment at Hertford. The success of Mr. Austin shows that the most beautiful books may be produced, as Baskerville produced them, in narrow workshops as well as in splendid factories. The essential condition of such production is, that the head ot the establishment should feel an intelligent pride in his art, rather than regarding it as a mere commercial venture. Comparative excellence may be obtained under the most adverse circumstances, when there is judgment to organize and taste to direct the work of individual artisans. There is a singular evidence of this in a music book exhibited in Mr. Knight on Drawing , Printing , (fee. 353 the Prussian department. It has a title page of an original Mr.Knigh.t design : it is excellently printed from music plates ; it is drawing, very well bound in morocco ; and the leaves and cover are PE1 &c* NG ’ cut in a fanciful shape. This music book was produced in the prison of Moabit, near Berlin, where the prisoners are in separate cells. No one workman had communication with the other ; but their labours were combined under one direction. The designer, the engraver, the printer, the binder, — and there must be several subdivisions of their labour, — were thus put into harmonious operation. This is the course of most of the printing and binding establishments of the provincial towns of France, of Germany, of Italy, of England, of America, and even of Australia, and in many cases the inherent difficulties of small establishments are partially overcome. But to carry out, in their great varieties of combination, the new appliances that have changed the old name of “typography” into “ polygraphy,” requires capital, industry, and intelligence that belong to few. Nor is it necessary that such attempts at discovery and improve- ment as constitute the great merit of the Government printing offices of France and Austria should be imitated by private enterprise, till their commercial value becomes to some extent apparent. But it is the indifference to manifest improvement which is the besetting sin of the mere com- mercial mind, as the aptitude to see a great result in a scientific experiment distinguishes the enlightened manu- facturer from him who pursues his calling without knowledge and without love. I will endeavour to take a rapid view of the new appli- ^®J s pro * ances, as shown in the French Exhibition, which afford the probability of ultimate extension of the copjdng processes, as belonging to books and engravings, as well as those which, originating in imperfect attempts to produce curiosi- ties, have already formed, or are forming, branches of commerce. In type-founding, machinery has been introduced instead of P eiectro° ns of the common mode of casting each letter in a separate typing, matrix. In the great French foundries of Plon and of Laboulaye, as well as in others, many ingenious applications are to be seen. In our own London foundries of Caslon, Figgins, and Besley, as well as in provincial foundries, we have the most beautiful as well as the most useful modern founts. It is in the adaptation to particular classes of printing that we find the practical good sense of our type- founders, as in most other trades. A type of a different character is required for a newspaper than for a book — a 354 Reports on the Paris Exhibition!. mr-Knight type compact, not too fine, very enduring. This quality of db awing, sustaining great and constant wear lias been accomplished, printing, * n ^yp es f ace( j with copper or other metal, by the galvanic ~~~ process. But this beautiful discovery of electrotyping is producing results which stereotyping has never attained. A cast from type metal, from a woodcut especially, cannot have the sharpness of the original ; an electrotype rather adds to the sharpness than diminishes it. The rapidity of the process is also most remarkable in skilful hands. The woodcuts of “ The Illustrated London News/' and of other illustrated papers, are thus duplicated, so as to meet the large demand in a limited time. The large plate of the Austrian types of all languages, thus produced by the galvanic process, was noticed in the Jury Report of the Ex- hibition of 1851. The same description of plate, with the Calmuck characters added, measuring 540 square inches, was exhibited in 1855. But the Austrian printing office shows new activity in connexion with the capabilities of electro- typing. One of these new processes is called “ stilographie.” A plane surface is covered with a preparation somewhat like the waxen tablets upon which the ancients wrote. It is composed of two parts of shell-lac and one part of stearine. On this material the draughtsman makes his design with a style. This forms a matrix, from which an electro-type is taken in relief ; and from this another plate is taken, which answers the purpose of an incised copper, and is worked at the roller-press. It furnishes a readier mode to the artist than the etching process, but it is scarcely so effective, pontine- The art called Nature-printing (in German, “Natureselbst- 11 driick ”) had not made sufficient advances to be exhibited in 1851. The Austrian printing office in 1855 showed to what beautiful and useful purposes it might be applied. The identical reproduction of any natural object, — a plant, a feather, — by taking its impression on a sheet of lead by an application of cylindrical force, and then producing a galvanic plate which will give impressions of the form, and giving also the colours by separate impressions of the similarly coloured parts, is an onward step in printing which has already taken a commercial shape in England. The admirable plates of Ferns, now publishing by Messrs. Bradbury and of U thegai- Evans, are quite equal to the Austrian examples.* ce! icpro ’ There are some applications of the galvanic process ex- hibited in the Austrian department which can scarcely be * The history of the art, and the description of the process, are given in a pamphlet by Mr. Henry Bradbury. Mr. Knight on Drawing , Printing , cfcc. 355 called very useful or suggestive. Such are electrotype Mr.Knight copper casts of animals intended for the instruction of the Drawing, blind in zoology ; such also are electrotypes of a work of PEI *£ IXG > art, such as a large medal, constantly reduced in size through many gradations. This result is produced by taking the successive moulds in gelatine, each mould shrinking con- siderably in comparison with the previous mould. Could the requisite fineness of the mould be equal to its capacity for becoming less, the principle might be applied to the pro- duction of reduced copies of woodcuts. The process of printing in colours from engraved blocks chromo- and metal plates, as well as from lithographic stones, and Sffchromo- the combination of an engraved outline as in Baxter's mode, llthosraphy ' are well known. There is nothing very remarkable to be noted in the extension of the principle ; there is, however, this fact shown in the French Exhibition, that very beauti- ful results may be produced by inexpensive arrangements. Thus, in the Austrian department, by the side of the mag- nificent work in chromolithography on “ Diseases of the Skin," we have a collection of classical figures, the outlines of each being produced from an engraving, and the colours given in a neutral tint by separate plates. The combina- tions of colours are very beautif ul, h ut the result is accom- plished with only four colourifttgaKs, thus : — blue — red. k— ochre. ' r ' — 1 combined : combined : purple. brown. These valuable studies are for schools. In these appli- cations of colour to produce, by mechanism, works of art that have a great deal of what belongs to manual excellence, and oftentimes something beyond, there are two modes of encouragement. The first is large demand. None of the elaborate miniatures and borders of the monastic artists are more beautiful than those in the missals of Messrs. Engel- mann and Graf ; and yet an exquisite work of this nature is sold for 24 francs. On the other hand, the magnificent copies of ancient drawings published by M. Hangard Mauge could not have been produced as a commercial enterprise, but required that liberal encouragement of the Government which he has received. Whilst noticing works of coloured art that are adapted for an extensive demand, I should mention the very beautiful copies of drawings published by M. Renaud. These are produced from three or four plates, but they are quite equal, to the hand-coloured plates in Chamberlayne's “ Heads of Holbein and yet each is sold z 2 356 Reports on the Pans Exhibition . Mr. Knight for 40 centimes. There are from the same publisher coloured Drawing, prints of flowers far exceeding in grace and delicacy any ~ G ’ production of the kind that I have seen, which cost only 1 franc. The application of such coloured engravings to the purposes of schools of design is very obvious. In many of the most valuable elementary engravings our own school has done a great deal. Without going into the expense in- curred by the Prussian Government in the architectural and other works, of which specimens are shown in this Exhibi- tion, we might advantageously find a middle course in the various capabilities of printing in colours to produce some- thing higher than has yet been attempted. Engraving on zinc plates has been used in England for music, and for inferior specimens of art. But zinc engraving has been applied to higher purposes, by a process which is the invention of M. Forster, an eminent Austrian architect. The etching is produced in the ordinary way, with a common biting-ground. But by the application of weak nitric acid to the zinc plate, it is so hardened that it will give 1 0,000 impressions ; and the peculiarity of the material is, that it will allow a much greater rapidity of printing than from a copper-plate. The engravings exhibited show that this process is well adapted for architectural plans and eleva- tions. Zinco- graphy. Imperial Printing- Office of Prance. The national printi for more than two cer m France has been established It concentrates within itself all the printing of the Government departments, and thus adopts all the mechanical means of rapid and cheap printing. But it does what a Government may most properly do without interfering with commercial enterprise. It prints magnificent works in the highest style of art, with a costly luxury that cannot be approached by private means ; and it thus leads the way to excellence in less onerous under- takings. Since 1851 the most strenuous efforts have been made to render the works of the French Imperial Printing- Office equal, if not superior, to its Austrian rival. Its repu- tation for Oriental typography was fully recognized in the Exhibition of London ; but during the last four years it has produced works in other branches, which may be reckoned amongst the first specimens of the typographical art. The folio volume “ De Imitatione Christi " combines all that is most remarkable in the union of the most tasteful embel- lishment with the nicest operations of simple typography. This book is full of coloured engravings; every page has a different coloured border ; the initial letters and titles are radiant with gold. But the brilliancy of the black ink in Mr. Knight on Drawing , Printing , c£c. 357 the common text is as admirable as the harmonious colours me.Knight of the frame which surrounds it. The book is a great work drawing, of art, executed under the direction of first-rate artists.* Pri &c. ii,g ’ The fidelity with which the drawings have been rendered by the printers' skill was shown in one especial instance. One of the jurors of my class expressed a doubt whether the lake colour was as pure as it ought to be. On visiting the printing-office the original drawings and the printed copies were put before us, and the fox-simile was acknowledged to have reached perfection. But the advantages of the French printing-office are not confined to works of such magnificence as the “ De Imitatione Christi.” It produces books of utility, such as individual publishers could not undertake. Such a book is the Siamese dictionary, “ Dictionarium Linguae Thai, sive Siamensis, interpretation e Latina, Gallica, et Anglica illustratum, auctore D. J. B. Pallegoix, Episcopo Millensi, Yicario Apos- tolico Siamensi, 1854." In giving an English, as well as a Latin and French interpretation, the French Government shows that it has not undertaken this work, so valuable to us in our commercial relations, in any spirit of exclusiveness. There are two curious books issued recently from the Imperial Printing-office, which are memorials of the inter- course of France and England early in the sixteenth century. The one is entitled “ L'esclarcissement de la Langue Fran- coyse, compose par Maistre J ohan Palsgrave, Angloyse, natif de Londres, et gradue de Paris, m.d.xxx." The other, which is bound in the same volume, is “ An Introductoire for to lerne to rede, to pronounce, and to speke French trewly : compiled for the Lady Mary of England, daughter of Henry VIII." In the publications of the French Imperial Printing-office, Works of I see no endeavour to produce, at the expense of the State, structionf* those works of popular instruction which may be safely left to individual enterprise. It does not attempt to manufac- ture books for schools, or assume for itself, or concede to others, a monopoly of works of religion. The vast establish- ments which I have noticed, for the production of works in large demand, supply that competition which is sufficient to ensure cheapness and excellence. I observe, in this exhibi- * This book, expressly undertaken for the Exhibition of 1855, was not com- menced till March 1854. Eight hundred and seventy-four original designs of ornament were confided to M. Toudouze. He died at the commencement of the work ; and the undertaking was completed by his widows 358 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Printing, &c. School in- struction in geography. Mr.kright tion, that other governments, instead of printing works of Drawing, elementary instruction themselves, give encouragement to the production of those which are necessary for the humblest schools. Thus in Austria a variety of copybooks for writing classes are printed by Winiker, at Brunn, and are sold at a rate of cheapness which would be impossible except with a very large demand. These copy-books are produced, not from copper-plates, but from letters cut in relief, and are worked at the ordinary printing-machine. Eight leaves thus printed, of good quarto post, are sold for 3f centimes, or less than a halfpenny. In Belgium, Magnee, of Brussels, publishes a number of engraved copybooks, “for the primary communal schools/' which are bought by the Government. The school Atlases issued by the fine establishment of Perthes, of Gotha, where 300 hundred persons are employed in designing, engraving, lithographing, printing, colouring, and binding maps, are largely used in the Government schools of Germany, and also of Prussia. For school instruction in geography, there is an ingenious contrivance, exhibited by Reimer, of Berlin, which might well supersede the ordinary “black-boards." It is a large outline map of Europe, about 2 yards by 1 The countries are printed in black upon a blue ground ; but the lines of the great rivers, the lakes, &c., are cut out of the black. Thus, when the map is hung up, the pupils write the names of countries, districts, towns, upon the black ground ; the rivers and coasts indicating the leading features of physical geography. But the chalk marks upon a “ black- board" can be rubbed out. So with this map; for it is made of water-proof cloth, on which the colours are printed. The price is 15 francs. Wohirabb, of Vienna, exhibits cheap maps on paper, on which the rivers and seas are printed in blue upon a buff ground. The principle of indicating physical features in this manner has long been used with us. In these Austrian maps it is called “ le nouveau procede typographique." The application of colour-printing to scientific purposes is shown in several instances. Zimmermann, an Austrian publisher, exhibits various isometrical projections of ma- chines printed in body colours. tfeticM) 8tft " Engel, of Vienna, has produced, under the direction of curves. y Professor Stummer, a most ingenious and curious mode of exhibiting by curves all the important facts connected with the “Railway of the Emperor Ferdinand" from 1838 to Isometrical projections. 1853. This history, which at once addresses the eye, is Mr. Knight on Drawing , Printing , (fee. 359 printed on nine sheets, on which each year presents eighteen mr.knight points of railway management. These points are : — Monthly gross receipt. passengers’ fares. waggon business Yearly military transports. freights. miscellaneous parcels. Shares and instalments. Yearly capital and stock. management expenditure. Market price of shares. State of railway, yearly. telegraph, yearly. Register of locomotives. waggons. Condition of engines. Historical events. Rising state of enterprise. Depressed state. ON Drawing, Printing, &c. The intricate comparisons of figures, which perplex shareholders, are thus obviated, and results of management, month by month and year by year, are seen at a glance. Amongst the most valuable applications of chemistry to stamps in typography is that of Messrs. De la Rue for printing stamps Ujl lve 111 ' in fugitive ink. The blotch by which an ordinary stamp is defaced may be removed; but there is no acid or other agent which can remove it that will not at the same time obliterate the stamp itself. In mentioning the name of the firm of De la Rue, I may properly notice that in their esta- blishment in Bunhill-row, all the nicest processes of printing are combined to produce their playing-cards, diaries, and ornamental papers, as exhibited in Paris. The practical printer may there learn how the finest work is most effectually obtained by using dry paper instead of wet ; how the surface of the paper is improved, in the highest degree, by passing through the most powerful rollers ; how silk tympans allow an evenness of impression which cannot be obtained by hard and irregular parchment ; and how many other little niceties, the results of long practice based upon scientific investigation, show how the printing art may become a medium for the most unwearied exercise of taste and ingenuity. During the last twenty years there have been various Composing attempts to produce a machine that will, to some extent, tributSg supersede that portion of manual labour in printing which maclune * is called “ composition/' Without attempting to describe the various contrivances by which a more rapid method of arranging moveable types was to be effected than by the ordinary method, it may be sufficient to say that by keys, like those of a pianoforte, some force might be applied to remove a single letter from its proper receptacle, and arrange it in a combination of words and sentences. In the ordinary method, the various types which are necessary for the usual languages lie in separate cells before the compositor, those most in use being nearest his hand. In his left hand he 360 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. holds a little iron frame, in which, picking up letter by drawing, letter, he forms words, putting spaces between each word. PRINTING- J ? ^ # O ^ 1 &c. ’ As he approaches the end of his line, he finds that the next word is too long to come within the line, and he therefore divides it by a hyphen, or carries it over entire to the next line. He then spaces out the words, so as to make the line fit closely, but not tightly. Now it is evident that if the most perfect instrument could be made to pick up the letters and spaces, the intelligence of the workman is absolutely necessary to make this “ justification/’ as it is called, of each line. Hence, every composing machine must be an imperfect instrument. But, nevertheless, it may in some cases be of the utmost importance to have the types picked up, and placed in order more rapidly than by the fingers. In a trial of comparative ex- pedition between the logographic system of Major Beniowski and the common mode, (in which trial Mr. Rennie was referee,) it was found that a compositor at Mr. Clay’s print- ing office picked up and “justified” 6,000 letters in two hours and twenty minutes. He distributed or returned the same when used to the cases in fifty- one minutes. There were several composing and distributing machines in the French Exhibition ; but the most remarkable one, and that which appears to me, as it appeared to M. Didot and other competent judges, to approach nearer than any other invention to the accomplishment of this long sought-for object, is thus entitled : “ Machine a composer et mettre has pour lusage de rimprimerie, composde et executde par Christian So- rensen.” It was stated that a Copenhagen newspaper, of which a copy was shown, has been printed for some time by this method. It would be impossible to convey an adequate notion of the details of this machine without drawings. I will endeavour briefly to state the principle : — The types are of the usual thickness and height. In the centre of each type, in the front, is a deep nick of a dovetail shape, which fits upon a metal edge, so that the type cannot be displaced. But of 1 1 1 letters which are required in the fount, each let- ter has two, three, or four other nicks cut at right angles, the nicks of no one letter being the same as another. A cylinder, which may be described as a large basin, has a number of metal edges placed vertically in its sides, upon which the types, without any regard to order, being the matter for distribution, are rapidly slid by the dovetail nick. When the basin is filled, it is inverted upon a cylinder of corresponding size below. Upon the rim of this cylinder is a separate opening for the reception of each of the 111 let- Mr. Knight on Drawing , Printing , <£c. 361 ters ; but no one opening is like another. The distributing D ^ and the composing go on at the same time. The compositor printing, is seated ; with a treddle he moves the upper cylinder, which, — as it slowly revolves, finds in the lower cylinder, which is stationary, a fit place for every separate letter as it descends by its own gravity to the bottom of each metal edge. The n having two broad nicks, one about J of an inch from its top, the other at the same distance from its bottom, falls into the n opening, which, having points corresponding, alone can admit it from its similarity of form ; while the u having four nicks, two broad and two narrow, passes into its own division, and cannot be confused with the n. But whilst this process of distribution is steadily proceed- ing, without any care but to keep the upper cylinder occa- sionally supplied with new material for its operation, the process of composition is rapidly going on. The compositor sits before a compact little frame of keys, each key having a connecting wire for each division of the lower cylinder. He strikes a key, and the lower letter is instantly detached and falls into a funnel-shaped receptacle below, where, without being inverted in any wa} r , it runs into a grove, and arranges itself, in its proper order, in the line of its fellows. This is a long line of several feet. By an ingenious contrivance, each such line is passed on one side, as it is completed, to another workman, who takes up as many letters as will fill the due width of his page or column, and spaces out the words in the ordinary way. I saw 1 ,000 letters thus placed in line in the short space of four minutes ; and the spelling and punctuation appeared as correct as in most matter of common composition before it is read. When the necessary loss of time in refilling the cylinders, and through other hindrances, is taken into account, it was stated by the exhi- bitor that 50,000 types are set up and distributed each day. This gives a rate of about 6,000 an hour, which is treble that of the ordinary compositor’s rate. The price of the machine is 7,000 francs, with 2001bs. of type with the proper nicks. f have alluded to the printing machines of France, in Printing which several important improvements have been applied machmes ‘ to the principle of the cylindrical machines in common use in England. In the Paris Exhibition several machines, offering the advantages of more perfect inking, and of preventing what is called “setting off/', showed that the attention of the French printers had been more directed, than with us, to the practicability of producing the finest work by the machine instead of by the hand-press. Some of our artists, who have watched the dependence of the Mr.Knighi ok Drawing, Printing, &c. 362 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. wood engraver upon the printer, have long been of opinion that the equal operation of the cylinder is superior to the irregular force of the hand-press. But the heads of our printing establishments have generally considered that the cylindrical machine was only calculated to save labour, and not to produce line work. Our machine-makers have, therefore, made various labour-saving machines upon the principle of flat-pressure ; which, as it is the principle of the hand-press, at which the most expensive work was produced, was thought to be the only principle for a more perfect machine. The French, on the contrary, have turned their attention to the perfection of the cylindrical machine ; knowing that it had natural advantages which could not be obtained by flat-pressure. When a sheet of paper is brought into contact with an inked surface of types, by being laid flat upon that surface, a large volume of air has to be expelled by the heavy platten operating at once upon the whole surface. The cylinder, on the contrary, touches the type, and produces the impression upon the paper, line by line, and there is no atmospheric resistance to be overcome. The French printers have, therefore, sought for the improvement of the cylindrical machine. The single-cylinder machine of M. Dutartre produces work which cannot be excelled by the most careful operations of the press. It prints only on one side ; and the “ form 5 ' passes under a double set of inking-rollers, at each end of the table, before it receives the impression. In the double- cylinder machine of the same inventor, a waste sheet of paper is interposed so as to prevent “ setting-off ” and thus both sides of the paper may be printed at once, without leaving that blurred impression of one side which so commonly disfigures machine-printing. The French printers now do their finest work by the cylindrical machine, and much of their common work by the hand-press. I think, upon a candid examination of the average work of the French printers, that, on the whole, it is superior to that of the English, as regards the evenness and clearness of the impression. The use of improved cylindrical machines has much to do with this. But there is another cause of inferiority not so easily to be overcome. Our paper is inferior, taking the general quality of printing paper. It is not made of so good material as the French ; and although, considering the difficulty of obtaining good material, the manufacture has been greatly improved, j^et an English sheet of paper has not that substance and surface, without which the most careful printing cannot be effective. The paper duty, compelling the use of expedients Mr. Knight on Drawing, Printing , &c. 363 for keeping down price, produces that delusive article of me knight commerce which, bleached, sized, and glazed into a sheet of Drawing, white paper — a product of much rubbish and little rag — is lAI &c. ING ’ rotten or harsh— has one rough side and one smooth— resists ink, unless saturated with water — has to be vamped up again, after printing, with rollers and hydraulic presses ; and, when formed into a book, requires to be handled with a tenderness that presupposes books not made for use. To copy forms by the action of light is one of the greatest discoveries of science working for the extension of art. In multiplying copies of photographic representations, the art enters into the domain of printing. Thus M. Blan- quart Evrard, of Lille, who exhibits seventeen volumes of photographs, entitles them as productions “ de Fim- primerie photographique de Lille/’ This publisher claims some original merit in discovering a more rapid and effectual reproduction of photographs. His works are very good ; but nevertheless they are not products of printing properly so called. In the great photographic workshops of Paris and London, we see how, in the application of this beautiful process to the multiplication of unlimited copies, by light acting upon prepared paper through what is called “ a negative,” the most extended diffusion of any work of art may be obtained. But as the process is slow, demanding constant watchfulness and experienced skill, such copies must be necessarily high-priced. Whatever be their cost, however, they are of great practical utility in the higher branches of industry. It is not my province to notice them as works of art ; but when we view the exquisite copies of ancient drawings made by Mr. Thurston Thompson, and the life-like zoological portraits of another English photographer, Mr. Miers, we cannot but feel how desirable it would be Pll0fc , 0 : that such works should be as widely diffused as a sixpenny graving, engraving. The great merit of photography is its unap- proachable fidelity. It is a truth. The efforts which are making to render photography a real printing process are shown in the Paris Exhibition. The great result to which photography is tending is to make the sun an engraver as well as a painter. In the great lithographic establishment of M. Lemercier photographs are produced upon stone, from which copies can be taken in the usual manner. They show the immaturity of this experimental process, but they hold out a reasonable expectation that the object will be attained eventually with an artist-like perfection. The “ heliograpliie” of M. Niepce de Saint -Victor is attracting to the experimen- tal instructions of this remarkable man (nephew of Daguerre) numerous enthusiastic disciples. Without attempting to Mr.Knight ON Drawing, Printing, &c. 364 Reports on the Pam Exhibition. describe the process technically, I will briefly state what I, in company with some of my fellow-jurors, saw the inventor perform in his official apartments as Governor of the Louvre. He took a highly-polished steel plate, four inches by three, upon which he poured a varnish, which covered it so thinly that it could scarcely be perceived. We then went to the other side of the Louvre for the advantage of the south aspect. The day was somewhat cloudy. Upon the steel plate M. Niepce placed “ the negative ” in the ordinary way. In about ten minutes the transfer was made to the plate. No trace of the sun-engraving could, however, be seen until the plate was acted upon by another fluid. The copy then was perfect. The bituminous varnish had been removed by the sun in all the light parts of the picture. It remained on the dark parts to furnish an etching with a peculiar acid, whose action is resisted by the same varnish that was so quickly decomposed by the light. The same result is produced by placing the varnished steel in the camera. The process of M. Niepce is fully described in his “ Reclierches Photo- graphiques," 1855. That sun-engraving on steel is rapidly passing out of the experimental stage is abundantly shown by specimens of engravings so produced in the Paris Exhi- bition. M. & Madame Riffaut have devoted themselves to this process, and exhibit three engravings, one of which is an admirable portrait of the Emperor. M. Charles Negre is also a heliographic engraver. M. Benj. Delessert has thus produced bold and most useful copies of some of the en- gravings of Marc Antonio. The art has been applied to natural history in the “ Photographie Zoologique ” of M. Louis Rousseau. M. Niepce's “ Recherches ” are accom- panied by an admirable portrait of the author. In the memoir of M. Niepce, prefixed to his work by M. Chevreuil, the writer says— and I believe his prediction is not alto- gether vain — “ a day will come when the historian, the traveller, and the naturalist will entrust the illustration of their books solely to the heliograpliic engravers.’’ In submitting to your Lordship these imperfect remarks upon some of the objects that arrested my attention in the Paris Exhibition, I have confined myself chiefly to those sections of my class which belong to printing, or have a direct association with the same principle of multiplying copies. The art of bookbinding, though essentially connected with the objects upon which I have touched, and as affording also valuable indications of the nature of the demand for books in various countries, does not appear to me to call for any details on my part. 365 Mr. Knight on Drawing, Printing, &c. In conclusion, I would observe that, in all the arts that Mk, ^ igut belong to typography, or are associated with it, the ten- dency of the various discoveries and improvements of modern &c. times has been to attain a higher excellence in combination Tendency of with a lower price. The printing-machine is being per- arts^o the ns fected, so as to produce something better, as well as JSSceami cheaper, than hand labour. The electro processes applied to cheapness, printing have the same tendency. They have extended the range of typography, as in nature-printing, and they have improved its old methods. When we have obtained an electrotype from a woodcut, we have something better than the original. We have a copy which will not wear so quickly, and we can produce other copies from the unprinted block. This multiplication of copies was done by stereotyping ; but the copy in type-metal was necessarily inferior to an elec- trotype. The mechanical applications of colour in printing, whether typography or lithography, have produced incal- culable advantages for art and science, which need no illustration. One fact, however, of the extension of the demand for a publication of the highest importance in scientific inquiry, by the mechanical application of colour, is too remarkable to be passed over. The beautiful geological map of France issued by the Government, — “ Tableau d ’Assemblage de la Carte Gdologique de la France/' — was originally coloured by hand ; it was sold for 21 francs, and the entire sale never reached 250 copies. The Directors of the Government Printing-office determined, large as the map is, to make the bold attempt to colour it by lithography. Twenty-three colouring stones, besides the outline stone, were necessary to effect this. After two years’ experiment, the map thus produced by twenty-four different impressions, was published for 3J francs — one-sixth of the price of the hand-coloured map. In five years 3,000 copies have been sold. It is impossible to over-estimate the benefit to the industrial resources of France by the power thus conferred upon the agriculturist, the miner, and even the humblest excavator, of studying the structure of the earth upon which they labour. I have the honour to be, &c. Charles Knight. London, 14th Feb. 1856. . ■ Gapt. Fowke on Military Art 367 On the XHIth Class, as far as relates to Military Art.— Fo ^ on By Francis Fowke, Captain, Royal Engineers. military To the Right Hon. the Lord Stanley of Alderley, Pre- sident of the Board of Trade, &c., &c. My Lord, Agreeably to your instructions, I have the honour to lay before you the following report on the Military Arts as represented in the Paris Universal Exhibition. The Subdivision of the Xlllth Class, which treats of Military Art and Science, contains five Sections, which are numbered and designated as follows : — Section VI. — Military Engineering. Plans and systems of the attack and defence of fortresses, ciassiflca- Models and drawings of field fortification, and of machines employed in the attack and defence of Works. Models of fortified places and perma fortifi cations. Plans in relief and models relating^) topography, topo- graphic and geographic maps. Section VII. — Military Materiel and Equipment. Articles relating to encampment, tents, canteens, beds, cooking apparatus, ovens, & c. Travelling appliances, military carriages and means of transport, waggons, ambulances, tumbrels, &c. Stores and machines for the extinction of fires, and safety apparatus. Military bridges, pontoons, rafts, bridges of boats, rope bridges, &c. Section VIII. — Equipment of Troops. Clothing and equipment of infantry. Clothing and equipment of cavalry. Clothing and equipment of naval forces. Saddles, harness, and caparisons for animals both for draught and carrying. Section IX. — Arms and Projectiles. Material relating to the manufacture of arms and projec- tiles. Defensive arms, shields, cuirasses, helmets, armour, blunt arms, such as maces. 368 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke ox Military Art. Military art imperfectly represented in 1851. Exhibition of 1851 held in time of peace. Trenchant and steel arms, sabres, swords, lances, bayo- nets, axes, &c. Bows, crossbows, slings, &c. Muskets, carbines, rifles, pistols for armament of troops musket and rifle balls, &c. Sporting arms, tools, and accessories. Cannons, guns, howitzers, mortars, shot, shell, &c. Section X . — Pyrotechny {where it can be exhibited without danger). Workshop materials for pyrotechny. Raw materials prepared for the manufacture of powder. Gunpowder for war, sporting, and mining purposes. Detonating powders and caps. Cartridges and accessories for arms of all calibres. Fireworks for military purposes. Fireworks for occasions of rejoicing. Thus embracing not only such subjects as are purely military, but also many things that are but indirectly connected with the science of war, and even treating of the material and apjlfe^us necessary for their manufacture. It was remarkecP^f the Great Exhibition of 1851, that while all part s of tie world vied' with each other in the beauty and novelty of their productions, and in the in- genuity and talentKdbplayed in the numberless inventions and improvements in almost every branch of manufacture and construction, comparatively few objects were exhibited which belonged, strictly speaking, to the military sciences. The class in which they were included was, it is true, filled up by large contributions of fire-arms and their accessories, but these consisted chiefly of such as are used for sporting purposes, and there wa^ almost a total absence of anything novel or interesting in objects and apparatus connected with the art of war. It was argued that there appeared to have been a feeling that the object of the Great Exhibition “was rather to make known and promote the arts that add to the comforts and enjoyment of life than the destructive engines of war and the deficiency may, perhaps, further be accounted for by the fact of the Exhibition of 1851 having been held in a time of profound peace, with no prospect of war to awaken any consideration of military affairs, and when the public attention was drawn off from all that appertains to warfare by a period of tranquillity marked by commer- cial prosperity and scientific discovery unparalleled in European annals. Capt. Foivke on Military Art. 369 Tranquillity uninterrupted, or at most disturbed only by isolated contests so distant and unimportant to the general interests as to be wholly uninfiuential in European politics ; contests, too, in all cases with savage tribes or semi-bar- barous nations, in which the ordinary arms and appliances of civilized countries, however imperfect they may now be felt to have been, were so immeasurably superior to any- thing that could be brought into the field by their opponents as to call for no exercise of ingenuity in devising improve- ments of existing arms, and in which neither the scale upon which the wars were conducted, nor the duration of the individual campaigns, were of sufficient magnitude to throw any such extra pressure on the home establishments as to demand any extraordinary activity in the transport of men and material, or modification of system of manufacture or supply. The Exhibition of 1855, on the other hand, has taken place the year after the opening of a great war, undertaken by two of the most civilized nations of the world, nations distinguished alike for progress in discovery and fertility of inventive genius, in the application of science to all branches of manufacture, astQnishing the world by the magnitude of their civil constructions, and the extent and excellence of their productions ; — undertaken, too, against a people who, however, behindhand in the more polished arts of peace, have always shown themselves formidable opponents in war, and furthermore, possessed of unbounded energy and ability both in the invention of military appliances, and in the adoption and adaptation of such as have been from time to time introduced into the armies of other powers ; and con- sequently calling forth all the military talent and skill of the day in a contest which, as had always been fore- told of the next great European war that might occur, was to be marked as a struggle of intellect instead of brute force. Under such circumstances as these, it was to be supposed that the Exhibition of 1855 would be distinguished from its predecessor by the variety and completeness of its display of objects relating to the military sciences. The direct contrary has, however, been the case, as will be seen by the catalogue of articles exhibited, where the class of military art will be found even more scantily filled than was the case in the Great Exhibition in London. The reason of this deficiency may perhaps be found in the consideration, that while other branches of industry are carried on by private individuals or commercial associations, it is to the different state govern- A A Ca.pt. Powkb on Military Art. Reasons for expecting a better repre- presentation in 1855. This antici- pation not realized. Probable reasons. 370 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Military Art. ments alone that we must look for an adequate representa- tion of objects in this class ; and that while among those engaged in commerce or manufacture a constant competition one with another is continually creating opportunities for the display of talent, and making apparent the advantages of improvements, the value of most military inventions can, on the other hand, only be properly tested and their ad- vantages felt in time of war ; it is then alone that de- fects in system or material make themselves known, and it is in a state of war consequently that invention is more frequently taxed to remedy such deficiencies in important discoveries thereby suggested. In the case of the former, the spirit of commercial competition or rivalry, self interest or a desire for renown, act as powerful stimulants to induce each one to come forward with novelties and excellencies in his particular branch : but inventions or improvements in military affairs would never be likely to be extensively re- presented at a Universal Exhibition, as the governments of states have not the same interest in competing with one another, or in showing their superiority one over another, as is the case with private individuals. On the contrary, so far from their interests leading them to publish the ad- vantages of their respective systems, they are naturally led to secure by secrecy the possession of any important inven- tion which, in the case of a private individual, could be protected by means of a patent. In the case of military improvements being made by private individuals, they are almost invariably offered to their respective governments, that being the only market in which the inventor can hope to reap any benefit from his discovery, any exhibition of which would naturally lessen its value, and operate to his own disadvantage. There will always be a few exhibitors in the shape of inventors of schemes that may have been rejected by their own governments ; but many of these would probably be deterred from exhibiting by the difficulty of judging of the merits of their inventions without actual trial in the field, and their consequently diminished chances of having their ingenuity appreciated, or of obtaining an award from the juries. To this may be added that (as in other branches of manufacture) the principal individuals who have, by their talents, ingenuity, or energy, contributed to the amelioration and improvement of materials pertaining to war, are those whose immediate profession leads them to the consideration of such matters, and who being, conse- quently, in the service of their respective governments, naturally consider that that government has the exclusive Ccipt . FowJce on Military Art. 371 right to deal with any invention or improvement that they F J5^J* 0S may happen to make. military From the foregoing considerations, then, it would appear — ‘ that in examining the contributions of the various states to the Paris Exhibition, the principal evidence of their pro- gress, so far as regards the military sciences, must be sought for rather in such correlative and external information as can be obtained apart from the mere objects exhibited, than from any indications of advancement in their contributions under this head. The Baron Charles Dupin, to whom I am Military^ indebted for much information concerning the French in first half military service, remarks that in the period immediately century, preceding the Exhibition of 1851, three improvements took place in small arms, viz., the substitution of detonating caps for the flint, the invention of a system of loading at the breach, and, thirdly, an improvement in the form of the projectile. To the same period is to be referred the great change in the system of ordnance which has been wrought by the employment of guns of large calibre throwing hollow shot and shells, more particularly in the armament of vessels of war, and consequently of their antagonists, coast batteries, and the increase generally in the weight and power of heavy artiller}". The years that have elapsed since the London Exhibition have not been marked by any important military inventions ; but some of those formerly introduced have now for the first time been brought into play and rendered of practical use, and principles well known in other branches of science have now for the first time been called upon to give their aid in furtherance of war. Steam has for the first time come into play on a large scale as an adjunct in military transport, and a vast army has been moved by its aid with a rapidity and ease hitherto unknown in military operations ; we have seen the railway and locomotive appear for the first time in the field, and the electric telegraph now takes its place among important military apparatus. Some remarkable changes have, however, taken place, French field among which must be noticed the new system of field artlllery * artillery invented by His Majesty Napoleon III., and introduced by him into the French service; the great principle of which is to have but one calibre for all field guns, and to suit them to the nature and requirements of the various situations in which they are to be employed by a variation of length and weight only ; not the least inge- nious part of the arrangement is the way in which the alteration is effected, without a single gun of the present pattern being lost or rendered obsolete. A A 2 372 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Cart. Fowke on Military Art. Lancaster’s gun. Adoption of an elongated projectile. At the same time a clever attempt has been made in the British service to substitute an elongated ball — similar in form to that found so effective in small arms — for the spherical shot in ordinary use in cannon, by means of a rifled gun, in which the elliptic form of the bore is made to serve the same purpose as the grooves in a common rifle, but its advantages have not been as yet sufficiently de- veloped to cause any change in either the construction or system of artillery. The invention is due to Mr. Lancaster, who has applied the same principle successfully to rifles, both for the armament of troops and for sporting purposes ; and it is much to be regretted that he should have chosen the part of abstaining from entering into this great com- petition of science and manufactures, where the merit of his invention would have been so thoroughly appreciated. The recent improvements in rifled small-arms, which were but beginning to develop themselves at the period of the Exhibition of 1851, which have since caused such altera- tions in modern warfare, both in the field and in the attack and defence of fortresses, and which seem destined to reduce the relative importance even of field artillery, demand that a word should be said here on the history of the projectile which has caused such changes, and also on the description of troops which it has been the means of introducing into the armies of Europe, and more particularly into the French service. The first attempt to change the form of the projectile then in use seems to have been in the year 1841, when, at the suggestion of M. Thierry, a captain in the French army, a ball of a cylindrical form, with a hemispherical termination at one end, was experimented upon, but without any ap- parent success. This was followed in the same year, with no better result, by a ball, the invention of a M. Delvigne, the form of which was that of an elongated ellipsoid, with a short cylinder at its base. The first decided improvement is due to Colonel Thouvenin, also a Frenchman, who turned his attention to the form of the rifle itself, and by his im- provements thereon rendered available the hitherto useless inventions of his predecessors. This improvement consisted in causing the ball to expand and adapt itself to the grooved form of the barrel ; and this he effected by the introduction into the bottom of the bore of a circular steel spike, round which the powder of the charge was deposited ; and the ball being rammed down forcibly, was spread by the top of the spike and made to enter into the grooves of the rifle. This constitutes the principal peculiarity of the carabine « Capt. Fowlce on Military Art. 373 tige , of which a careful series of experiments, made at capt. Vincennes in the years 1840, 1841, and 1842, attested the m°i?itaby undoubted superiority over the ordinary weapon both in accuracy of fire, length of range, and in penetration, and which is now extensively used in the French service. In 1849, Captain Millie, director of the school of instruc- SjSont' 8 tion in small-arm firing, at Vincennes, conceived the idea of making the gunpowder of the charge perform the office of the tige of M. Thouvenin, in spreading the ball into the grooves of the rifle ; and this he proposed to effect by in- troducing into the ball itself a substitute for the tige, in the shape of a small cone of sheet iron fitting into a simi- larly shaped hollow in the base of the ball, the increase of which would then be affected by the cone being wedged into the hollow by the force of the explosion. From experi- ments made at Vincennes, it appeared that the range of this new or minie ball was considerably superior to that of a solid ball of the same external form, but that the latter had the advantage in the accuracy of its fire. In the English service the minid ball lias been adopted, {J® fhe Erfg- with the exception of the iron cone, more recent experience ush. having decided against its employment. In connection with the improvements in the military ^ench tight rifle, and consequent in some measure upon their adoption, z ouave s, may be noticed the introduction into the French army of what may be called a new arm of the service, namely, the chasseurs, or light troops, armed and drilled in a peculiar manner, and first employed in the campaigns in Algeria ; the French light infantry regiments up to that time, as in our service, not having differed in either drill or equipment from the ordinary battalions of the line. The employment of such troops seems first to have been suggested to the French by the desultory and guerilla-like nature of the war which they were then waging against the Arabs of the desert, and commenced with the formation of irregular com- panies of natives with French officers, on a somewhat similar system to that which England had practised with such success on a larger scale in India. These men being found to be hardy, active, quick-sighted, and accustomed to act singly, were manifestly better fitted for light infantry than for the more disciplined services of the line, and being armed with the rifle, formed the original regiments of Zouaves now so well known, and bearing so high a reputa- tion, not only for bravery, but also for endurance and other campaigning qualifications. 374 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Military Art. Chasseurs de Vin- cennes. Maps and charts. Such was the success of the experiment, and so useful were these new troops in the African campaigns, that the idea was conceived and speedily carried out, of forming a similar force of native Frenchmen on the model of the native Zouaves. These new regiments were formed of men selected from all arms, for activity, and quickness of aim and sight, officered by the smartest and most intelligent officers of the French army, and armed with the above- mentioned carabine a tige, the most efficient arm that could be obtained. From the locality where they were first re- cruited they were termed Chasseurs de Yincennes, and so great has been the value attached to them, that they have been increased from time to time till at present, they number 20 battalions of a total strength of 17,000 men. This force is distributed through the French army in the proportion of one battalion of chasseurs to twelve battalions of the line, with which they march as a battery of field artillery, which they are said in many cases to exceed in efficiency. The drill approaches somewhat that of the rifles and light infantry in the English service; the skirmishing and rallying presenting but little difference ; the formation being in two ranks instead of three, as is the French custom, and the command being given by bugle or by the officer’s whistle, as with us. There are four descriptions of pace proper to the drill of the Chasseurs de Yincennes, viz. : — Steps per minute. per hour. Ordinary time 70 2ft. 2 in. long, 1 mile 1,210 yards. Quick „ 110 2ft. 2in. long, 2 „ 1,150 „ Double „ 165 2ft. 9in. long, 5 „ 150 „ Quick double time 180 2ft. 9in. long, 5 „ 970 „ From which table it would appear that the step length of pace, as well as the rate of marching per hour, is somewhat less than in our service. No maps or charts essentially of a military character were exhibited in Paris, and the Government surveys of both France and England (of which some admirable examples were contributed) have been examined by the juries of another class to which they more properly belong, but as the conduct of both is under the control of the War Departments and superintended by military corps, it may not be out of place here to enter in some measure into the system and arrangement of the particular department by which they are conducted and executed, which in the French service is known as the Depot de la Guerre, and in Capt . FowJce on Military Art 375 which is vested all control of military documents, not merely capt. topographic, but also historic, geographic, and statistic. m°iTSst This department is under the direction of the Minister of War, and is presided over by a general officer who is named §2?of the Director, and who corresponds di rectly with the Minister §uerre? e la himself. It is divided into two sections, the first of which corresponds in some measure with our Ordnance Survey Department, and is charged with the execution, drawing, and engraving of the great maps of France and Algeria. The second section is occupied in the collection and keeping of historic records and information on military statistics. The first or survey section consists of a staff of officers, staff * assisted by civil draughtsmen in the following proportion ; viz,, 46 officers, and 56 civilians. Of these there are 16 superior officers, 6 of whom are employed at head-quarters, and 10 superintending the work in the field ; the remaining SO officers who are of the rank of captains and lieutenants, are all employed in the field. The civil branch is divided into 3 clerks, 28 draughtsmen, and 25 engravers. The officers are all selected from the corps d’Etat Major, Military (the principal duties of which are performed in the English service by the corps of Royal Engineers), and those employed in the field receive an extra pay of five francs a day, in con- sideration of the extra expenses to which they are liable in moving frequently from place to place in the exercise of their duties. They are distributed in brigades of from four to eight captains or subalterns, each brigade being commanded by a superior officer ; these brigades are not only employed in the survey of France, but are attached to every army in the field. The civil staff is divided into different classes according to Civilians, their ability and the quality of their work, and are paid from 641. to 144 1. per annum ; in addition to these, there are pupils or apprentices who receive a payment of 24?-. a year, and a number of engravers who are employed in executing the plates of the great map of France by contract, or piece-work, the price of which is fixed separately in each particular instance by a committee of geographic works. In this section a separate office takes charge of the correspond- ence of the direction. The second section comprises a department winch has no parallel in the British service ; it consists as in the former case of a mixed military and civil staff of 11 superior officers; who are always employed at the depot, and 14 civilians ; viz., 2 draughtsmen and painters of battles and 12 clerks. 376 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowee on Military Art. Duties. Its' duties are classed under five heads, or subsections as follows : — 1. Military statistics. 2. Military archives. 3. Historical memoirs. 4. Maps and charts, both engraved and hand- drawn. 5. A library. Military Statistics. Militaryl archives. Historical memoirs. The subsection of military statistics comprises military reconnaissances, giving the description of ground, and infor- mation concerning the strength and military organization of foreign countries, obtained in some cases from published documents, and when these could not be had, by information collected either by officers sent specially for the purpose or through the various consular agents of France, who were charged to make a particular study of the military resources of the localities in which they might happen to be placed. The subsection of military archives has for its object the collection and preservation of all orders emanating from heads of departments, whether from the minister, commander-in-chief, general officers, &c., of all reports or descriptions of military operations, and of all official cor- respondence either in time of war, or concerning warlike affairs. The chief of the staff and his subordinate chiefs in each division of the army, are obliged to keep copies of every letter or order written or received during war, and these being transmitted to the Ddpot de la Guerre, are properly classed and arranged at the cessation of hostilities, and form an interesting and important official history. The collection of such documents is much facilitated by a law which gives the State the right of examining the papers of any employe, civil or military, at his decease, and of selecting and keeping such of them as may appear in any way useful to the public service. The third subsection is that of historical military memoirs. The officers attached to the Depot de la Guerre, having access to all the official documents concerning the different wars in which France has been from time to time engaged, are employed in their historical collection and compilation ; each part when completed being bound up separately under the head of the particular war, and army to which it refers, and the whole forming a grand historical military memoir of the nation. Many generals have themselves undertaken the task of adding to these official documents a general memoir of the campaigns in which they have been engaged ; Capt. Fowke on Military Art 377 and this national work now comprises the complete military history of France from the year 1735 to the present time, and consists of nearly 300 volumes, besides upwards of 100 large portfolios of documents not yet sufficiently complete to be added to the list of those thus bound up. In the fourth subsection, viz., the depot of military maps, are found all the maps, charts, plans of battles, &c., illustra- tive of the above-mentioned archives and memoirs ; as also many others of different countries, containing information purely topographical or geographical. Lastly, we come to the library, which forms the fifth subdivision of this section of the Ddpot de la Guerre, and which contains not only works purely military, but has also a rich collection of all works treating of the general histories of both France and of all the other countries of the world. This, with a separate office for the conduct of its financial affairs and the correspondence, completes the second section of the D^pot de la Guerre. It should be mentioned that an electro typing branch lias within the last three years been added to the survey depart- ment, and that it is at present in contemplation to create also a corps of photographers, for the service of the same work. The annual estimate for the maintenance of this depart- ment of the war- office is as follows : — £ Printing of maps and memoirs . . . 710 Extra work in drawing, purchase of maps, books, instruments, copper, &c. . . 360 Surveying works, cost of signals, stations, &c. . 1,081 Allowance for extra expenses incurred by com- manders of brigades in the field . . 141 Cost of engraving, binding, &c. . . . 3,000 Total .... 5,328 To this must be added the expenses of the central ad- ministration, the salaries — the civil branch from 5,000?. to 6,000?., and the pay of the officers from 6,000?. to 7,000?. — as also the cost of keeping the offices, lighting, warming, servants, &c., which altogether will bring up the expenditure of the D^pot de la Guerre to not less than 20,000?. This department does not include the plans and documents relative to the duties of the Corps du G^nie, which are con- tained in a separate branch called the Depot des Fortifica- tions, also divided into two sections, the first containing all Capt. Fowke ok Military Art. Maps and charts. Library. Electrotyp- ing. Annual ex- penditure. Dep6t des Fortifica- tions ; 378 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Catt. FoWKjE on Military Art. its subdivi- sions. Library. documents written or printed, and the second the plans and maps to which these documents refer. This materiel is classed as follows : — Section 1. — Documents , &c. 1. Fortifications of France, memoirs, projects, letters, &c. 2. Military buildings of all kinds. 3. Inventions and papers concerning the state of repair, &c. 4. Frontiers of France, information, &c. 5. Information concerning foreign fortresses. 6. Objects of art. 7- Journals of sieges and campaigns. 8. Relating to the service and administration of the Corps du Genie. 9. Estimates, specifications, agreements, contracts. 10. Expenditure on fortresses, military buildings, &c. 11. Appropriation of land. 12. Permission to build. IS. Ancient archives relating to fortifications. Section 2. — Portfolios and Charts. 1. Geography, maps. 2. Topograpy, directions, and maps. 3. Topography of frontiers. 4. Plans of sieges, campaigns, seats of war, marches of armies, &c, 5. Drawings and studies of works of art. 6. Plans of fortresses — French. 7. Plans of fortresses — foreign. 8. Atlases, terrestrial and marine. 9. Do. of France and of the military positions. The Depot de Fortifications has also a library of some 20,000 volumes, totally distinct from that before mentioned as belonging to the Depot de la Guerre, and devoted to — 1. Annals and histories pertaining to fortification and military matters generally. 2. Works relating to sciences and arts. 3. History, geography, travels, and voyages. 4. General literature. 5. Periodicals. 6. Bound-up manuscripts on the science of fortification, and on frontiers and fortresses. C apt. Fowke on Military Ark 379 This department is entirely conducted by the officers of ^Capt. ^ the Engineers or Corps du G^nie, and, as mentioned above, mSIS? is totally distinct from the Ddpot de la Guerre. The differences that exist between the military systems of France and England are now so well known, in conse- quence of the intimate relations at present existing between the armies of the two countries in the field, that any re- mark or description 'would be here quite superfluous ; it therefore merely remains to examine in detail the various objects in this class that are actually contained in the Ex- hibition ; and in doing so, it will perhaps be better to notice the subjects in the order of their relative importance and their connection with one another, rather than to follow exactly the order in which they are enumerated in the system of classification adopted by the Imperial Com- mission. Cannon. This most important of all military arms and appliances Cannon, is but indifferently represented in the Paris Exhibition, the French Ministers of War and Marine and the Belgian Government Foundry at Liege being almost the only exhibi- tors. A few other cannon may be found scattered over different parts of the Exhibition, but seem, almost without exception, to be exhibited as specimens of the quality of the metal of which they are composed, or to exemplify some particular excellence in casting or forging, rather than for any novelty either in the form or principle of the guns, or peculiarity in their system of loading or manoeuvring. As exceptions to this rule must be noticed, however, the Field artii- system of field artillery invented by His Majesty the Em- vented by peror Napoleon III., and introduced by him in the French theErnpcror * service, the main feature in which consists in assimilating the calibres of the different guns and howitzers used in the field, which is accomplished in the following manner. The French field artillery consisted of two descriptions of gun, viz., an 8-pounder and a 1 2-pounder ; the 8-pounder is now bored up to a light 12-pounder howitzer, weighing 9 cwt. 3 qrs. 18 lbs., for service with cavalry, with a charge of 2 -2 lbs of powder for shot and shell ; a new 12-pounder is introduced for service with infantry, weighing 1 2 cwt. 0 qrs. 20 lbs., and with a charge of 3 lbs. of powder for shot and 2-2 lbs. for shell; and, finally, the old 12-pounder gun is retained and appropriated to the reserves. 380 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on - Mjlitaby Aet. Swedish breech-load- ing gun. Guns cast in sand. not turned. Belgian guns (iron), not turned. A second exception may be mentioned in the breech- loading gun invented by M. Wahrendorf, and adopted in the Swedish artillery, which, however, does not appear to differ in any particular from that exhibited by him in London in 1851. A model of the same gun is shown mounted on a short traversing platform of peculiar construction, suitable for a casemate or a blinded embrasure. An iron field-piece also forms part of the Swedish con- tribution, which in proportion to its somewhat greater length and calibre, does not appear to exceed in weight the ordinary brass light six-pounder ; the field carriage and limber on which it is mounted appear rather heavier than those of the French artillery, which they much resemble, but do not seem to possess any point worthy of remark. Two brass 12-pounders, exhibited by the French Minister of Marine, have been moulded and cast in sand instead of in clay, the result of a series of experiments which were instituted and continued for some years at the foundry of Ruelle. This method, which has now been definitively adopted by the French marine, is said to possess the merit of considerable economy in the moulding, less chance of failure in casting, and that it is not necessary to leave so great a thickness of metal to be turned off after it has been removed from the mould ; in fact, one of the guns in question is shown with its exterior in the state in which it has left the sand, that is, without having been turned or chased, and with all its rings, fillets, trunnions, ornaments, &c. finished in the casting. The advantages claimed are an economy of more than 81. in a single gun, and, what is of greater consequence, a considerable saving of time where it is required to get ready a large number of guns in a limited time, the only operations necessary after casting being the boring and cutting off the dead head of metal. The remainder of the French guns are merely a collection of those commonly in use in their artillery, and do not differ in any material point from our own. The cannon exhibited by the Belgian foundry at Liege are all iron, and are in most cases not turned on the outside. Some of them seem to depart very much from our ideas of symmetry and proportion, differ from English ordnance in not having the great thickness of metal continued to the trunnions, and being very thin at the second reinforce, that part which we have been taught by experience is the usual point of fracture in cases of guns bursting. Capt FowJce on Military Art. 381 Each gun is accompanied by a statement of the proof to which it has been submitted, and of which the following is a copy. Guns exhibited. No. 1. — 24-pounder iron gun, not turned on the outside, weight 5,451 *6 lbs. Proof: 15 rounds with 13 '2 lbs. powder, 2 round shot, 1 wad. 5 „ 17 '6 „ 2 to 3 round shot, 1 wad. 16 „ 6' 6 „ 2 to 17 round shot, 2 wads. Total, 36 rounds. No. 2. — 8-inch howitzer (iron), weight 5,464 *8 lbs., not turned on the outside. Proof : 15 rounds with 8 *25 lbs. powder, 2 round shot, 2 wads. 5 „ 8-25 „ 1 „ 2 „ 64 „ 8*8 to 19 ’25 lbs. powder, 1 to 8 round shot, 2 wads. Total, 84 rounds. No. 3. — 60-pounder iron howitzer, weight 6,210 '6 lbs., not turned on the outside. Proof : 500 rounds with 7 ' 7 lbs. powder, 1 shell, 0 wad. 135 „ 4 ’4 to 6' 6 lbs. powder, 1 shrapnel shell, 0 wad. 48 „ 6' 6 lbs. powder, 1 case shot, 0 wad. Total, 683 rounds. No. 4. — 24-pounder, short iron gun, weight 1,980 lbs., turned on the outside. Proof : 1,280 rounds with O' 55 to O' 935 lbs. powder, 1 round shot, 0 wad; ricochet practice. 2,070 rounds with 4 ' 4 lbs. powder, 1 shell, 5 ' 89 inch, 0 wad ; dis- mounting practice. 54 rounds with 4 '4 lbs. powder, 1 shrapnel shell, 5' 5 inch, 0 wad; dismounting practice. 245 rounds with 2' 2 to 5' 5 lbs. powder, 1 shot, shell or shrapnel, 0 wad, dismounting practice. Total, 3,649 rounds. No. 5. — Light 6-pounder iron gun, weight 1,221 lbs., not turned on the outside. Proof : 10 rounds with 2'21bs. powder, 1 shot, 2 wads. 10 99 2'2 99 2 „ O ^ 99 10 99 3'3 99 3 „ 2 „ 10 99 3*96 99 4 „ 2 „ 5 99 2'2 99 1 „ 2 „ Total, 45 rounds. No. 6. —Light 24-pounder iron gun, weight 3,841 lbs. not turned on the outside. Proof : 2 rounds with 4*4 lbs. 2,000 „ 6' 6 powder, 1 shot, 2 wads. „ 2 „ 2 „ Total, 2,002 rounds. Capt. Fowke ox Military Art. Proof of Bel- gian guns. 382 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. • Fowke on Military Art. Wrought iron gun. Sardinian moveable vent. No. 7. — Garrison gun, iron 6-pounder, weight 1,949 lbs., not turned on the outside. Proof : 2 rounds with 3*3 lbs. powder, 2 round shot, 2 wads. 6,000 „ 2*2 „ 1 „ 2 „ Total, 6,002 rounds. No. 8. — Garrison 24-pounder iron gun, weight 3,674 lbs., not turned on the outside. Proof : 2 rounds with 6‘6 lbs. powder, 2 round shot, 2 wads. 17 „ 4*4 lbs. to 22 ‘0 lbs. powder, 1 shot, 2 wads. 12 ,, 4'41bs. to 8*8 lbs. powder, 2 to 12 shot, 2 wads. Total, 31 rounds. No. 9. — Iron 6-inch field howitzer, weight 1,144 lbs. turned on the outside. Proof : 2,107 rounds with 2*2 lbs. powder, 1 shell. 3 2*2 „ 1 round shot. 2-2 3-3 Total, 1 shell. 1 round shot. 2,116 rounds. A small wrought iron gun, apparently a light six-pounder, in the collection of specimens of iron exhibited by the iron trade of Great Britain, does not offer any novelty either in form or material (unless wrought iron can be termed novel in its application to the fabrication of ordnance), but appears to be exhibited merely as a specimen of iron forging. The same remark applies to a wrought iron mortar exhibited in she part of the building occupied by French goods of the tame class, and which appears to differ but little, if at all, from the 10-inch land -service mortar at present in use. A wrought and cast iron gun-carriage, in the same department, is of the ordinary French pattern, being also merely shown as a specimen of iron work, and not in reference to its merits in a military point of view. In the same part of the Ex- hibition are shown some cast steel cuirasses, said to be lighter, with the same capability of resistance, than any that have before been manufactured, and which bear the marks of the firing by which they have been tested. A portion of the breech of a brass gun in the Sardinian department is exhibited for the purpose of showing an in- vention which, if capable of being applied in practice, appears deserving of interest. It consists of a moveable vent, capable of being replaced in the field. The moveable vent, or rather moveable bouching, consists of a copper bolt about an inch in diameter, which is intro- duced into a hole of the same size from the interior of the gun, the head of the bolt fitting into a hollow in the bore. Ca/pt. Fowlce on Military Art. 383 which is countersunk to receive it. The head being held in its place by an iron tool, the end of the bolt is riveted on the outside, so that to reboucli the gun nothing more is necessary than to knock up the rivet, drive the bolt or bouch- ing into the gun, when it can be taken out by the muzzle, and a new one introduced in a similar manner. One or two small models of breech -loading cannon are exhibited in the French department, which, however, do not go beyond the usual combinations of screws, levers, and wedges which have been so often tried, and as often laid aside. In one small model the trunnion, instead of being secured in a round hole, is allowed to recoil in a longitudinal slot in the upper part of the cheek of the carriage, and a kind of bent rammer is used, having a rod parallel to the rammer and attached to it outside the gun, so that a man standing in rear of the gun can ram home ; but there does not appear to be a single cannon exhibited either possessing any practical novelty, or affording anything suggestive of improvement. The same remark may be made with respect to gun- carriages, only two of which appear to differ from those in our own service. One is a French coast -battery carriage and traversing platform for an 8-inch howitzer. It is of cast-iron, extremely heavy and clumsy in appearance. Its peculiarity consists in the gun-carriage being supported on the traversing platform at three points instead of four ; the front of the carriage is supported on two small trucks or wheels, having flanges outside of sufficient width to admit of holes being cast in their circumference for the insertion of a handspike ; the cheeks of the traversing platform are merely of sufficient length to allow for the recoil of these wheels ; the trail of the gun-carriage is on a slide, notched or dovetailed on to a centre bar of the traversing platform, which projects five feet beyond the cheeks to provide for the recoil of the slide. The length of the platform is ten feet by three feet six inches in width ; the pivot is in a solid, breast transom immediately under the position which trun- nions occupy when the gun is run up. This pivot bears the entire weight of the front of the platform and carriage, as there are no front trucks to the former, it lias two behind of about sixteen inches in diameter. A Swedish cast-iron traversing platform seems, on the contrary, to fall into the extreme of too great lightness, and the trucks seem inconveniently large, those in rear being- two feet in diameter ; a short handspike is attached to each of them, by which they can be moved in traversing. The Capt. Fowke on Military Art. Brecch-load- ing guns. French coast- battery car- riage. Swedish traversing platform. 384 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke ok Military Art. Small arms, principally Belgian. French arm distin- guished for ornament. Ingenious mechanism. inclination or gradient of the traversing platform is ex- tremely steep, and would seem liable to offer so much resist- ance to the recoil of the gun as to be injurious to the pivot, which latter is in front, and is attached to the traversing plat - form by a wrought iron bridle. There is a small truck attached to the rear of the gun-carriage by an iron strap working on a horizontal pivot. A small horn projects from the gun-carriage over this strap, and in running the gun up an ordinary handspike inserted under the horn, and above the strap of the truck, and pressed down, throws at once the weight of the carriage on the truck, and serves the same end as the roller handspike and its subsequent modifications in use in the English service. Small Arms. Among the varieties of small arms displayed in the Exhibition, by far the greater number are exhibited by Belgium. France also sends a large quantity. The English show of arms falls far short of representing the value or importance of this branch of her manufacture ; and the re- maining nations cannot be said to have sent any collection of the produce of this trade, but are merely represented by a very few and in most cases unimportant exhibitors. France is distinguished for the beauty of art-work in her well-named “ arms of luxury," which, as she says, “ defy all competition for the exquisite arrangement of their orna- mentation, the grace of their forms, and the ability of the designers, engravers, carvers, sculptors, &c. who have been employed in their execution." In fact, so great importance is put upon this qualification (by us considered wholly secondary and non-essential), that in awarding the grande medaille d’honneur to the gunmaking trade of Paris, the J ury on Arms particularly remark that the award is, first, for their artistic taste, and, secondly, for the quality of their arms ; and of the twelve first-class medals awarded to French workmen in this class, ten are given to sculptors, designers, carvers, and decorators, while only two are reserved for actual gunmakers. Another striking point in connexion with the French show of small-arms is the extraordinary amount of mecha- nical ingenuity displayed in the numberless contrivances for facilitating the use or avoiding the danger of fire-arms, whether displayed in the breech-loading, self-priming, or no-priming guns, ingenious systems of cartridges, or safety catches and triggers, and to so great an extent does this appear that there are but few gunmakers who seem content Capt. Fowke on Military Art\ 385 to stand simply as the maker of a perfect gun of the pattern p 0 ^J* in ordinary use, by far the greater number exhibiting more Military as the inventors of novelties or improvements than as mere manufacturers. In Belgium, on the contrary, we find with few exceptions Belgian an adherence to existing patterns, the principal houses markable for pinning their reputation more on the extent and importance cheapness * of their fabrication, the greatness of their resources by which they are enabled to furnish warlike arms in large quantities, and at reduced prices, throwing “ armes de luxe/' into the second place, and almost entirely discarding any attempt either at novelty of construction or superfluity of decoration. Thus we find the gunmaking industry of Liege receiving the grande mddaille d’honneur not for the decoration of “ armes de luxe/’ but for the importance and quality of the produce of its manufacture of arms of all kinds, accompanied by a remark on its ability to supply other states with arms of war, and on the advantageous position it occupies in foreign markets as maker of arms of all kinds for exporta- tion. In fact, from the great quantity of small- arms exhibited, the collections of the patterns in use in the armies of all the principal European States, with the prices at which they can be supplied attached, and the numbers of samples of all sorts of rifles, muskets, fowling-pieces, revolvers, &c. exhibited as made for exportation, Belgium would appear to claim the important position of being the great fire-arm mart for the rest of Europe. In the few arms exhibited by English gunmakers we find a England re- rigid adherence to the principles of utility, an absence of all simplicity 01 superfluous ornamentation in sporting arms, more marked ofornamcnt even than in those of Belgium ; no introduction of new system, but a tendency to simplify existing patterns and a desire to perfect and render practicable some of the novelties which have from time to time been introduced into the construction of fire-arms. The only other exhibition of small arms that seems deserv- American ing of any particular notice is that from the United States, arms ’ which is devoted entirely to rifles and pistols on the revolv- ing principle. Considering the question of ornamentation of arms ab- stractedly as art work, there is perhaps nothing of the kind l ° a ° aulls ’ in the Exhibition that is superior to some of the curiously shaped but richly decorated matchlocks and muskets in the contributions of the East India Company and several of the native princes of India ; they are remarkable for beauty 386 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke on Military Aet. Indian arms. Algerian and Turkish. Spanish. French arms. French breech-load- ing fowling- pieces. Systeme Lefaucheux. of their inlay and the colour and brilliancy of the enamel with which they are decorated, but can hardly be said to enter into competition, as arms, with the more severe but less gorgeous European models. Among them may be mentioned more especially two long muskets or firelocks, the stocks of which are richly covered with beautiful rose enamel, and the barrels inlaid with gold, exhibited by the Maharajah of Jyepore ; also some match- locks from Lahore and from other native princes of India, all vieing with each other in richness of ornamentation, but hardly coming within the province of a jury on fire-arms. Almost in the same category may be classed the Algerian and Turkish collections of arms, which latter contains some good examples of Damascus work and gold incrustation. Some guns exhibited by M. Zuloaga, of Madrid, enter more strictly into the class of ornamental European gun- smith’s work ; of their merits as arms there is no oppor- tunity of judging, but for the excellence of their designs and the execution of the gold incrustation and chiselling in metal, with which they are profusely decorated, they are most remarkable. Among the French ornamental arms there are a rifle and pair of pistols made for the Viceroy of Egypt by Gastine Renette, brilliant with gold and jewels ; also a fowling-piece ordered by the Emperor, the stock of which has some well- chased arabesques in gold. Gauvin, Caron, Flobert, Lepage, and many other Paris gunmakers, also show guns covered with chiselling, wood- carving, inlaying, and damascene work. Raick and Son, of Liege, are almost the only Belgian makers who exhibit ornamental arms ; they show two fowling-pieces with inlay and carved stocks. The French have made a very remarkable advance in sporting arms, in almost entirely abandoning the old system of loading at the muzzle, and adopting in its place what is commonly known on the Continent as the system Le- faucheux. This simple and efficacious method has been employed by all sportsmen in France and Belgium for some years, but is almost unknown in England. Mr. Lang, of Cockspur Street, however, exhibited a gun on this principle at Paris, which, in the simplicity of its mechanism and the less liability to get out of order, is a decided improvement on the original invention, and seems likely to come into use in this country. The system Lefaucheux has the barrel (or barrels, as the guns are generally made double-barrelled) attached to the Capt. Fowhe on Military Art 387 stock by a transverse horizontal pivot, at about eight inches ^ow^on from the breech end of the barrel. The barrel is open from end to end, and the breech, instead of being on the barrel, is — attached to the stock ; an iron loop projects downwards from the breech end of the barrel, and is secured in its place by a bolt in the stock being pressed into this loop on turning a lever under the fore-hand of the gun. To load the gun (which is done at the military position of “ ready ") the lever is turned on one side, which allows the point of the barrel to fall, and consequently raises the other end clear of the breech ; a cartridge of a peculiar form is then introduced by the hand into each barrel ; the point of the barrel is then raised to its proper position, and the lever being brought back to its place, the gun is ready to fire, no capping or priming of any kind being necessary. The pecu- liar cartridge mentioned above as necessary for this arm, has a metal cap or breech at the end for th$ purpose of prevent- ing any escape of gas by the breech of the gun, and is ignited by a spike or needle acting on fulminating powder in its interior ; this spike projects in a transverse direction from the breech-end of the cartridge, and when in the gun protrudes through a small aperture left for this purpose between the barrel and breech. This gun has been in use some years, and seems to succeed perfectly as a fowling- piece, and I cannot hear of any instance in which a person who has used it has returned to the old system. Such is the system Lefaucheux, and the greater number Forget’s of the arms exhibited by the French gunmakers are either f?un * wholly on this system or present but trifling modifications of the same. One gunmaker, for instance, Forget, has a gun which is so constructed as to be loaded either on this plan or in the ordinary way ; the advantage claimed being that, in case of not being able to obtain cartridges, powder and shot can be used. In one of the guns exhibited by this maker a rifle barrel of small bore is capable of being intro- duced into the interior of the smooth bore, so as to make the gun serve either purpose ; the idea is ingenious, but of doubtful practicability. The same exhibitor shows two percussion shells, of which the short description given is not sufficiently clear to admit of an opinion being formed ; it is not stated, moreover, that they have been submitted to any actual trial. A system of self-priming, invented by a M. Bessieres, of ®tf-priming Paris, possesses the advantage of being simple, and capable of s uns * being applied to an ordinary fire-arm, without any alteration of lock or nipple, and that in case of its getting out of order B B 2 388 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke o?t Military Abt. Pidault’s self-adjust- ing rifle sight. Flobert’s System. the gun may be capped in the ordinary manner. It consists of a small tube, capable of containing fifty ordinary caps, which are forced onwards by a small spring behind, and by a very simple piece of mechanism the foremost cap is removed from the tube to the nipple by the mere action of cocking the piece ; a small metal partition is at the same time introduced between this and the remaining caps, so as to preclude all danger of ignition or damp to the latter. This invention is shown attached to a fowling-piece and also to an ordinary French pattern musket, the only differ- ence being that in the one case the cap tube is beneath, and in the other at the side of the barrel. The principle by which the soldier is now taught to form an approximate estimate of his distance in rifle firing, viz., by the comparison of the size of an object close at hand, such as the end of his barrel or ramrod, with the average height of a man at a distance, is prettily carried out in a self-adjusting rifle-sight invented by a M. Pidault. The sight employed is of the common shape, capable of being raised or lowered in the ordinary way, on a pivot at its base, at which point it is connected with a small limb, nearly at right angles to the sight, and lying along the right side of the barrel ; above this limb, and projecting from the barrel, is a small knob of metal, and an aperture is left between this projection and the limb, which aperture is increased or diminished as the sight is lowered or raised. The method of using it is as follows : the soldier, putting his piece to his shoulder, has merely to look through the aper- ture above mentioned at a man of average height, to open or shut it till it is exactly of the size to admit the entire figure from head to foot, and the mere action of doing so lowers or raises the sight to the proper elevation ; the distance can likewise be read off’, if desired, on a small scale affixed to the sight. This form of sight is extremely simple in construction, and does not seem at all more likely to get out of order than that now in use. It is exhibited attached to a rifle loading at the breech and self-priming, on something of the needle principle. M. Flobert, 3, Rue Racin, Paris, is the inventor and exhibitor of another system of breech-loading arms, which bears his name, and is well known in France, though never, I think, introduced into England ; its peculiarity consists in that, instead of having a breech attached to the stock, as in Lefauclieux method, the barrel is perfectly open, and the cock itself forms the breech, only closing the end of the barrel at the moment of its being fired ; the cartridge used Capt. Fowke on Military Art. 389 is a large copper cap of the same size as the bore of the piece, and having its open end filled by the ball, which is thus propelled by the action of the fulminating powder only ; a certain space is left vacant between the powder and ball to permit the gas to develope itself and to prevent the copper cap from bursting ; the butt-end of the cap has a small enlargement, to hold it firmly up to the breech-end of the barrel ; a small projecting piece across the face of the hammer fitting into two notches on either side of the end of the barrel insures a more certain ignition, and these notches facilitate the removal of the cartridge after discharge ; in loading it is only necessary to cock the piece and intro- duce the cartridge. Rifles, pistols, and a revolver are shown on this system, for which the inventor claims simplicity, economy in the number of parts, the employment of cart- ridges which cannot injure by wet, quickness in loading, and that the force of the blow of the hammer itself con- tributes to the length of range ; it does not appear, however, to be applicable to any arms but those of small bore and short range, viz., from 80 to 100 yards, although the inventor suggests the possibility of augmenting the force of the charge by the introduction of a small charge of ordinary gun- powder into the empty part of the cartridge. This arm has the serious disadvantage that it cannot be fired but with its peculiar and expensive cartridge, without which it is abso- lutely useless. In a gun exhibited by a M. Guerin, a small safety pin or catch is introduced into the lock, which prevents the hammer from falling, and the piece consequently from going off. This catch is withdrawn by the natural pressure of the hand on the loop of the trigger-guard in the act of firing ; two conditions have thus to be fulfilled before the ptiii can go off, and the chances of accident are of course diminished. Another exhibitor has an application of the same principle, in which the pressure is exercised by the thumb on top of the stock. An ingenious but complicated safety arm is also exhibited by a g unmaker named Briand, in which the pressure of the shoulder on the heel of the butt is necessary for the release of the catch ; and to prevent any accident from pressure on the foot or on a stone in loading, a small pendulum or plummet in the interior of the stock is so arranged that the gun cannot go off when in a perpendicular position. M. Idovillard-Blancliard exposes fowling-pieces in which the barrels are lined with platinum, so as to render them inoxydisable, also a safety hammer which cannot be cocked Capt. Powke ON Military Art. Guerin’s ancl Briand’s safety locks. 390 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . CAPT. Towke on Military Art. Gastine- Benette’s carabine pistolet. Lenoir’s system of breach- loading. without pressing the trigger, which appears the most prac- tical of any of the safety apparatus exhibited. A breech- loading rifle, invented by a M. Perrin is somewhat similar to that of Lefaucheux, but presents the additional advantage of not requiring a special cartridge. The operation of throw- ing the barrel in and out of its place for the purpose of loading is also simple. The barrel is thrown up or made “ basculer ” by the movement of a sort of trigger in front of the guard, and returns to its place by a simple pressure of the hand. He also shows a duck-gun with three barrels, all of which are ignited simultaneously. M. Claudin exhibits a modification of the system Lefau- cheux, affording facilities for dismounting the barrels. He is likewise the inventor of a method of loading this gun at the muzzle, in case of the supply of cartridges failing, by the introduction at the breech of a small tube with a nipple attached. A cartridge with the detonating powder inside, on the needle-gun principle, is shown by Berger, of St. Etienne, who also exhibits a hollow metal gunstock, which, however, does not appear to offer any advantages. M. Prelat exhibits a revolver which loads at the rear end of the revolving breech, on the Lefaucheux system, the ad- vantage of which is, however, not evident, as it does not appear that it can be loaded more rapidly than the ordinary revolver, and it necessitates having two joints or breaks in the barrel instead of one. A very light-looking and pretty arm, which is called carabine-pistolet by the exhibitor, M. Gastine-Renette, con- sists of a long horse-pistol with, in addition, a very light steel skeleton stock attached, which enables it to be used either at arm's length as a pistol, or fired from the shoulder as an ordinary carabine. It would seem to be, with perhaps some slight modifications, peculiarly adapted for a light cavalry arm. In a breech-loading rifle by Lenoir, a cartridge is made use of which has the detonating powder enclosed, as in the needle-gun, but instead of being pierced by a point being protruded into the chamber, the needle is in the cartridge itself, and projects from it behind. In firing it is simply struck by a hammer in the direction of the axis of the barrel. One of the great merits seems to consist in the remarkable simplicity of the lock, which is nothing more than a single exposed steel spring in the shape of a fork, set perpendicularly in the stock ; the front leg of the fork forms the hammer, and the action of cocking merely presses 391 Capt, Fowke on Military Art. the two legs together, in which position they are held by a Fowke on catch till released on pulling the trigger. The disadvantages seem to be that as the cartridge is exploded by striking the — projecting needle, an accidental fall or pressure seems likely to ignite it ; also the grave disadvantage of a peculiar cart- ridge being necessary, and that the whole cartridge is lost in case of the cap missing fire : there would further appear to be a difficulty in withdrawing the cartridge under these circumstances. M. Devisme has applied the principle of the carabine a tige to revolvers, and exhibits a pistol on this principle ; and M. Chaudun shows a variety of different forms of cartridge, and also of metal bottoms for cartridges. He is the in- ventor of the cartridge at present in general use in almost all breech-loading guns, and exhibits a method by which persons using the Lefaucheux gun may easily make their own cartridges. A breech-tube for this description of arm has also been invented by M. Rubd, of Montdddier, in which the small projecting spike, which serves the purpose of nipple and cap, is screwed into the cartridge, and can be changed in case of its being injured without replacing the whole cartridge. This breech tube is tapped in the inside with a screw, into which can be screwed a pasteboard cart- ridge, so that the necessity is avoided of carrying the weight of a brass tube or bottom to each cartridge, as these tubes are capable of standing from fifty to sixty shots. Some very beautiful work is shown in twisted and Ha- Gun-barrels, mascus twist barrels, perhaps the best for work being those of M. Leopold ; and in one case a remarkably good pair of barrels for a double-barrelled gun forged out of one piece. There is also a pair of barrels exposed by Rouchard Siauve, of St. Etienne, in which twelve different kinds of Damascus twist are introduced, all of which correspond perfectly from one barrel to the other ; another pair by Merley-Thamet, of the same place, which are stated to have been submitted to double the ordinary proof without having undergone the slightest injury. M. Ldroux is the inventor of a breech-loading 1 rifle with proux’s a magazine attached capable ot containing tlnrty-five o± ins rifle. Flob eft’s small cartridges, an ingenious piece of mechanism clears the barrel of the cartridge that has been fired and replaces it by another ; he also shows a curious little instru- ment in the shape of a funnel, which fits on to the top of a hollow ramrod to conduct the powder in loading to the bottom of the barrel, and avoid the chance of any sticking to the sides in case of the barrel being damp or dirty by leading, &c. 392 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. P OWKE ON Military Art. English arms. Deane and Adams’s revolvers. Cheap Bel- gian arms. Collette’s system. There are but few among the fire-arms exhibited by English makers that display any novelty in principle or construction, neither do any of them lay claim to be recom- mended either for richness of decoration on the one hand, or lowness of price on the other, and are principally exhibited as possessing good qualities, which are not easily judged of without actual trial. The principal exceptions to this rule are Messrs. Deane, Adams, and Deane's patent revolving pistol, in which the arm is cocked by the action of the trigger, so as to enable its entire number of shots to be fired without any movement of the 1 and ; another revolver by Harvey, of Exeter, claiming strength and simplicity in its construction. Needham has a breech-loading arm, and Schlessinger another of great simplicity, also on the same principle. Greener, of Birmingham, exhibits his harpoon-gun for the whale fishery, a Mr. Hodges shows a harpoon-gun in which an ingenious application of india-rubber is made the propelling power, and Rigby, of Dublin, some Damascus twist barrels ; but, as I mentioned before, the gunmaking trade of England can hardly be said to be represented. Among the Belgian arms the most remarkable point is their extreme lowness of price. Thus we find MM. Falisse and Trapmann exhibiting a double twist barrel fowling- piece for 11. 12s. ; M. Lemille the same for 11. 10s. 6d., also a double gun, with Damascus twist barrels, for 21. 13s. ; and he will supply for 4?. a similar gun with a higher finish in all its parts. M. Malherbe, the inventor also of a breech- loading rifle, goes still further in this direction, and exhibits double guns with twist barrels for 11. 4s. ; others for 21. 15s., and with Damascus twist for Si. Guns on the Lefaucheux system are sent by Jansen, of Brussels, for from 14 1. to 18£. The same exhibitor has a double rifle, of which the barrels are of cast steel, and forged in a single piece. A curious four-barrelled gun is exhibited by Lepage, in which one pair of barrels is under the other, and having but two hammers for the four barrels ; each hammer is articulated, so as to strike two nipples. Also, by the same house, a double gun with twist barrels for 18s. 6d., and others at 21. 15s., SI., and 51. Another exhibitor of the same name sells single-barrel guns from 4s. 6d. upwards, and double-barrelled for 12s. 10 d. ; and a M. Raik double guns at 21. 8s., SI. 16s., and 51. All these arms at such extremely low prices look very well out- side, but their qualities as guns could only be tested by trial, and they would of course be always looked upon with extreme suspicion. Almost the only novelty sent from Belgium is a collection Capt. Fowke on Military A rt. 303 of arms by M. Collette, all capable of being discharged a Capt. great number of times without being loaded. They are on mSttar? a breech-loading principle, called a glissiere, and have a A * T - second or magazine barrel under the main barrel, capable of containing thirty to forty cartridges, something like those of Flobert. These two barrels have but one sliding breech, which, on being slid down, receives the cartridge from the magazine barrel, and is then slid up to the level of the real barrel to fire. Austria sends arms by several exhibitors, some highly Austrian ornamented, but none presenting anything of interest, either in invention or improvement. Some copper caps by M. Sellier, of Prague, have the detonating powder secured by gutta percha instead of the ordinary varnish, but it does not appear that they possess any increased resistance to moisture. Colonel Colt exhibits his well-known revolving rifles Colt’s and pistols, but without any alteration in either form or revo veli5 ‘ principle from those first introduced by him into this country, his entire collection being merely repetitions one of another, and only differing in size and the material in which they are mounted. Swords. There are several good collections, of swords and steel Swords, arms, offensive and defensive, exhibited by different coun- tries, and which must be subdivided, as in the case of small arms, into those which are exhibited for beauty of decoration, and those which pretend to improvement in form, or peculiar excellency in metal or manufacture ; of the merits of the latter class it is of course difficult to judge from a mere inspection in an exhibition, and considerable stress must naturally be laid on the known respectability and reputation of the houses or localities where they are manufactured, and the nature of the proof to which they are said to have been submitted. On the other hand, many of the swords exhibited being mere works of art, and scarcely, if at all, coming into the category of weapons, can only be correctly judged of and properly appreciated by the jury of another class. None of the makers of swords enter into the fourth class enumerated in speaking of the small arms, that is, as claiming notice either for lowness of price, or for the importance of their manufacture as to magnitude of resource and capability for the supply of larger quantities. Among the “ armes de luxe" may be mentioned, perhaps, in the first rank, for beauty of inlaid work and pureness of °™^ ental 394 Reports on the Paris Exhibition, Caft. Fowke on Military Art. Prussian blades. design, those exhibited by several of the native princes of India. A sabre executed and exhibited by Hadj-Braham- Ben-Salen, in the Algerian collection, is also remarkable for the fineness of its blade and the richness of its mounting, which is in silver repousse with inlay of gold. Turkey also sends some of the far-famed damask blades, with rich mounting of oriental pattern. The daggers and swords exhibited by M. Zuloaga, son of the celebrated gunmaker of Madrid, certainly bear the palm among European orna- mental arms for purity and taste in the design, and excel- lence and precision in the execution of the arabesques with which they are. almost covered ; the style of ornamentation is the same as that adopted by his father, and already mentioned in speaking of the fire-arms, viz., gold inlay on iron, the gold forming in some cases the ground, and in others the object of the pattern, and also chiselled work in iron of remarkable execution. Many of the French manu- facturers also exhibit ornamental arms of great richness and taste, such as the swords of state by M. Delacour, who is said to have rediscovered a lost process for the manufacture of a kind of shagreen, which he uses successfully in the fabrication of scabbards ; he is also in possession of a means of giving a clear white colour to shark’s skin, which he has turned to a good account. M. Lepage-Moutier exhibits a sword and dagger, with damask blades, said to be made by a peculiar process rendered public by the Due de Luynes, to whom they belong, a sabre, with a hilt of lapislazuli, and a shield in repousse work, by V/echt^, representing the Massacre of the Innocents. M. Duchesne shows a number of swords mounted in brass and iron by the aid of self-acting filing machinery, by which the pieces are made precisely similar, for facility of removal or exchange of parts, — the hilts are made rough by being covered with a kind of engine-turning like filigree work ; a scabbard for an infantry officer, with moveable mountings, and one for cavalry, in which the mouth opens with a spring to facilitate the sheathing of the sword when on horseback, appear to be extremely ingenious, but have not as yet been tested by actual use. Some handsome blades, exhibited by M. Duval, are said to be made of a compound metal, composed of cast- steel, platinum, and nickel. The sword-making trade of the town of Solingen, in Prussia, to which the grande medaille d’honneur has been awarded, exhibits the finest collection of sword-cutlery in the Exposition, which is re- markable for the variety of their forms, the beauty of their polish, the richness of the gilding on the blades, and the Capt. Fowhe on Military Art 395 moderate price at which they are offered ; a ciinetar with i?ov, ke o:> t damask blade, and a guard in cast- steel, by M. Lttmschloss, Ml S AKY and some rich damask blades by M. Holler, deserve especial — notice. England was wholly unrepresented in this branch of manufacture, with the exception of two exhibitions of swords and bayonets from Birmingham and of those already mentioned from her Indian possessions ; and in the collections of goods and manufactures from other countries there was a total absence of anything that could be said to form a representation of the national manufacture of trenchant arms. Military Engineering, Equipment, &c. Having thus passed in review the objects exhibited con- ^nSing, nected with Glass XIII. as far as actual weapons are con- &c. cerned, we have next to do with all that very varied and numerous class of articles which are included in such vague and comprehensive terms as military engineering and equip- ment, under which latter head may be comprised not merely the actual objects in use in warfare, but also the application of machinery to their manufacture, and all the ingenious contrivances directly or indirectly connected with the mili- tary profession, to which the present fact of an important war happening in an age marked for intelligence and me- chanical genius and invention have given birth, and which show themselves in so many different schemes for the com- fort or annoyance of our own armies or those of the enemy, and their respective preservation or destruction. In military engineering, a drawing containing a plan and Tortifica- section of a system of fortification proposed by Col. Brock, of the Swedish service, is the only example of this science in the Exhibition, and appears a good application of that known as the Prussian system ; it is extensively casemated, and is apparently an extremely expensive construction. Some specimens of walls of wood faced with iron, proposed by a French civil engineer, M. Aubert, said to be shot-proof, and so constructed that they cannot be struck without the shot being met by one of numerous small ridges with which the surface is covered, and a drawbridge in the English department, are the only things that can be said to come under the head of the art of defence. A M. Lorentz ex- hibits a scaling ladder, in which the rungs (of wood and ladder, iron) can be removed from the poles for facility of packing, and so contrived that a length of the ladder can be set up in the form of a capital A, with one pole for each leg, and 396 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Military Art. White's portable barrack. Aubert’s portable Barrack. Tents and beds. one rung for a cross piece ; and the inventor proposes to form, tents with two of these ladders, by setting up one of these A's at each end, connecting their vertices with a ridge rope, which should be carried to some little distance and well picketed into the ground, and throwing a tentcloth over the frame so formed ; a small tent exhibited by him on this principle seems to give much greater steadiness than those in which single poles are made the supporters. The same person is the inventor and exhibitor of a camp bed of wood, which packs into a bag 18 inches long by 6 inches diameter, and weighs 14 pounds. In the English part of the Exhibition is a portable barrack or hut, invented by Mr. Timothy White of Portsmouth, which seems to offer some advantages. The hut exhibited is calculated for 50 men, its dimensions are 62 feet long, by 16 feet wide, 6 feet high to the eaves, and 9 feet high to the ridge ; it is formed of light wooden framework, covered with sheet zinc or galvanized iron, and the necessity of diagonal bracing is obviated by a slope or lean inwards being given to the walls. For convenience of packing, and to facilitate its erection, the hut is formed of a number of sections, of 2 feet 3 inches each, set side by side in the direction of its length, and each section consists of four pieces of equal size, viz — 9 feet by 2 feet 3 inches, two of which form the walls, and the remaining two the slopes of the roof, each section being the width allowed for a man, the hut can be increased at pleasure for any number. The inventor proposes slinging hammocks for the men in these barracks, for which he claims that they are wind and water proof, and so simple as to be easily erected or stowed away by the soldiers themselves, fifty men being able to erect a barrack large enough for themselves in an hour, and to pack it in the same time. The weight of the hut in question is stated to be under two tons, and, if this is the case, it is lighter than those sent to the Crimea in the proportion of 2 to 54, or little more than one-tliird of their weight. A model of a portable barrack is also exhibited, by M. Aubert, the inventor of the shot -proof walls before mentioned, which is composed of a framework of tube and angle iron, but so heavy and clumsy as to create great doubts of its being of any practical use. English tents are represented by Edgington, who has a three -pole tent similar to that which gained a prize in 1851, and Esnouf and Manger, who exhibit an ingeniously constructed bell tent with perpendicular walls, strengthened with wooden framework which also forms a box into which the tent can be packed ; the pole Capt. Fowhe on Military Art. 397 also shuts up like a telescope to save room in packing, but from its size and weight when packed, being much greater than Military those of ordinary tents, without affording any great counter- — balancing advantages, it seems much better adapted for an emigrant’s or sportsman’s tent than for military purposes. There is also among the English tents a small wooden camp bed, which has a ridge cord attached to light poles at either end of it, over which a waterproof cloth can be thrown to form a kind of small shelter in an emergency ; and a camp mattress is exhibited by Mr. Medwin, made of ground cork, and lined on one side with oiled calico, so that it can be used on the ground without a bedstead, the non-conducting nature of the cork preventing the cold being felt through it ; it is not more than an inch and a half in thickness, and is of trifling weight and bulk. An improved knapsack is exhibited by a Mr. Campion, Kna P*ack. late of the 5 2d Foot, in which steel hooks over the shoulder are substituted for straps as the support, and which he states to be less distressing to the soldier than the one at present in use, and more easily pub on and taken off. A M. Sellier, master shoemaker of the “ Chasseurs a pied,” Soldiers’ exhibits a number of improvements in the equipment of a shoemakmg - French soldier, viz — a knapsack, with a waterproof store for cartridges at the back ; a cartouch box, in which there is a small groove capable of containing forty -two copper caps so as to be easily taken out by the soldier ; a laced boot, to combine the shoe and gaiter in use in the French service ; and, lastly, a system of screwing the uppers and soles of soldiers’ boots together instead of sewing them, for which he claims that it is much more durable than the method commonly used, and makes at the same time a more water- proof joint. He has invented a very neat little machine, which taps a screw on a bit of brass wire, screws it into the boot, and cuts it off, at the same time pressing the two pieces of leather very forcibly together ; he states that six regimental shoemakers can, in this way, make from twelve to fifteen pair of shoes in a day, whereas it takes at present double the number for the same quantity of work. Among the French collection of military equipments is found a most complete coffee apparatus for an officer in the field ; it is the invention of a French officer, and is very simple and compact. It consists of the following articles : — I. A small Portrbie boiler, in which is made the coffee, which is poured out C ° eepot ’ ready filtered by the pressure of steam. 2. A small tin chimney or screen to afford shelter to the flame of the lamp. 3. A spirit lamp. 4. A double filter for the coffee. 5. Sugar 398 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Cart. Fowke ok Military Art. Loysel’s coffee ap- paratus. Macliine for producing heat by friction. basin. 6. A metal cap, with a moveable handle. 7. Its handle. 8. A spoon. 9. A bottle of brandy. 10. A flask of spirits of wine for lamp. 11. Box for coffee. 12. Box for tea. 13. Box for lucifers. 14. A portable filter, for drinking from pools of water. 15. A sort of frame for holding the coffee-pot, and, 16. A cylindrical case to contain the above- named articles. All the pieces are so disposed as to shut into each other, and the whole when packed together forms a cylinder of 9 inches in height, and 3J inches in diameter, which, as the inventor justly observes, is but a small volume for an article so complete. An apparatus for making coffee for troops on a large scale is exhibited in the English section by Mr. Loysel, which has been used at two of the refreshment stalls during the whole exhibition with great success. His principle is to force the water through the coffee by the hydrostatic pressure of a column of water, varying in height with the size of the apparatus ; and one of those exhibited, standing in a space of about four feet by two feet, and with a height of perhaps ten feet, has several times made between 2,000 and 3,000 cups of very strong coffee in the day of seven hours, and I have no doubt a much greater quantity could have been supplied had the demand been greater. An apparatus which has attracted considerable attention is that exhibited by M M. Beaumont and Meyer, for the produc- tion of heat by friction, and performing the office of cooking entirely without fuel. In this machine, in which, of course, the sole novelty is in the application, a wooden truncated cone covered with plaited hemp is made to revolve quickly in the interior of a similarly shaped cone of polished brass, the two being kept in close contact by a slight pressure on the larger end of the wooden cone, and the hemp being kept profusely lubricated with oil. The brass cone forms, as it were, a flue or tube inside a cylindrical boiler filled with water, and it has been found by actual experiment that with ten square feet of rubbing surface, and with a speed of 600 revolutions a minute, 66 lbs. of water can be evaporated in an hour, and that the water and steam when confined can be raised to such a temperature as not merely to boil and stew, but to roast meat and perform every operation of cooking. The inventors exhibited a smaller machine of this kind before H.M. the Emperor, in which four soldiers cooked the rations of between twenty and thirty in less than an hour ; and they are now constructing a still smaller machine, by which one man will be able to cook the rations of five or six without any kind of fuel, the whole apparatus weighing Capt, Fowke on Military Art 399 only 1 cwt., and packing into a few cubic feet. The advan- tages of this apparatus can be understood in cases such as Military at the camp before Sebastopol in the winter of 1854-5, — when fuel was impossible to be obtained except in small quantities and at great expense of labour both of men and horses ; and the inventors contend that if the same horse- power that was expended in bringing up fuel to the front had been employed in working their apparatus, many valuable animals might have been saved, and much misery avoided for all ranks of the army. Proper drawings of this machine were procured by me in Paris, and are now in the possession of the W ar Department, London. While on the subject of cookery, it may be as well to Army mention an army bakery exhibited by a M. Delille, in ‘ ' ei} ‘ which the entire apparatus, kneading-troughs, ovens, &c. &c. are contained in a four-wheeled military covered cart ; it appeared compact, light, and well calculated for its purpose ; but as no account was given of the quantity of bread that it was capable of turning out per diem, its efficiency could not be properly judged of. A material termed by the exhibitor “ toile caoutclioutd,” seems well adapted for the construction of huts and other buildings of a temporary nature ; it is made of canvas, payed over with a kind of varnish, and with the addition, ^toiiecaout- in some cases, of being sanded, this latter operation being chout6 ” said to render it incombustible ; some of if is also prepared white and semi-transparent, to serve for windows. Several small houses made with wooden frames filled in with this material were exhibited, and one was used by one of the inspectors employed by the Imperial Commission as an office, and with a very small stove was always perfectly warm and dry during the Exposition and till a late period of the year, when the weather was often trying both with wet and cold, and wind. A hut of this kind, 13 feet in length by 1 0 feet in width, and about 8 feet to the eaves, weighs about 800 lbs., and can be supplied by M. Gagin for 1QI . ; another, 26 feet by 20, for 24£. ; and another, 30 feet by 20 feet, 10 feet high to the eaves, with four rooms, doors, casement windows in semi-transparent material, lined throughout, with boarded floor, canvas ceiling, and orna- mentally treated outside, is offered for 100 1. The only pontoon in the Exhibition is one by a M. Pontoons. Radowicz, and is made of a framework of wood covered with waterproof canvas, the sides and ends falling down on the’ bottom when packed for travelling, but offering no advantages or improvement worthy of imitation. Among 400 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke oh Military Art. Military carriages. Fire engine. the various articles of equipment may he mentioned a “hache echelle,” as it is termed, exhibited in the French collection of swords, &c. ; it consists of a boarding-axe or pike, with a long handle, probably eight feet long, from which a number of little steps can be made to project ; a hook is provided at the end, by which it can be hooked on to any chance projection, and then made use of as a ladder ; it does not seem to offer any practical advantage, as to a seaman the steps would be rather in the way than otherwise ; and no one who has ever been long at sea would require such assistance, but would easily climb by the aid of the handle alone. A series of military carriages in use in the French service is exhibited by the carriage department of Y ernon, their principal arsenal for this kind of work ; these are an ambu- lance, differing but little from that now in use in the English service, except that it appears somewhat heavier ; nearly the same remark may be made respecting the waggon for forage, that for carrying rations, and the park or tool waggon, none of them presenting much difference from our own, with the exception of the draught by pole instead of by shafts, as with us. A forge waggon differs from the English one in having the forge turned the other way on the waggon, or facing inwards towards the limber, so that to get at it properly for work the waggon must be unlim- bered, whereas with the forge turned to the rear it can be used on the line of march. A good drag-chain is attached to these waggons, which offers a suggestion for improvement ; instead of its being necessary to stop the waggon to take off the skid, a loop or bight in the chain is let go by striking a slip shackle, and the chain is thus lengthened sufficiently to allow the skid to drop behind clear of the wheel, from whence it can be restored at leisure to its original position. The same department exhibits two mules, with litters attached to the pack-saddles for the conveyance of wounded ; one mule with boxes of instruments and medicines for field hospital ; and also two cases of surgeons' instruments, that seem to be admirably packed and contrived ; one of them is fitted in a knapsack for infantry service, and the other in a cavalry valise. In the section of military apparatus for the extinction of fires, a fire-engine constructed at Montreal, by Messrs. Perry, Brothers, and exhibited by the Colonial Government of Canada, must not be omitted, as it seems peculiarly adapted for military purposes. It is so constructed as to be drawn by men, is remarkably simple in all its parts, little liable to Gapt, FowJce on Military Art. 401 get out of order, easily cleaned and repaired should such be the case ; and with extreme lightness and greatly diminished bulk is capable of equalling, if not surpassing, in power most of the larger and heavier engines now in use. At a fire that occurred in Paris during the time of the Exhibition, in. which the military bakery and government flour stores were unfortunately destroyed, such good service was rendered by this engine as to have attracted the attention and drawn forth the commendation of the General commanding ; and such was the quantity of water thrown by its hose, that the labour of 200 men was at once dispensed with, and with 20 men at its pump, two of the French military fire- engines were kept at full work by the water supplied by it alone. Among the objects to be enumerated under the head of equipment may be mentioned a machine exhibited by an American for cutting out army clothing, and by which he states one man can cut out 1,200 pairs of trowsers in a single day ; the machine consists of a single straight knife- blade set perpendicularly or on its point, and being moved in that direction by steam-power ; by a simple contrivance its direction can be changed, so as to avoid turning about the cloth on the board, and the clothes are cut out in thicknesses of from thirty to forty at a time, and with great rapidity. This completes the section of military equipment, and the only other remaining is that of pyrotechnics, which, on account of the prohibition contained in the Regulations of the Imperial Commission, is but thinly represented. Some gunpowder, saltpetre, and some charcoal obtained by steam process are sent from Belgium ; from Sardinia comes a cele- brated powder called “grain Mathias/ I) ore, of Paris, exhibits a percussion fuze for miners. A code of military signals by rockets of a complicated nature appears in the French exhibition ; and Sweden sends refined nitre in a large mass by Rouquint ; and these, with some collections of copper caps from Birmingham and Paris, complete almost the entire list of pyrotechnics in the Exhibition. CAPT. Fowke ox Military Art. Machine for cutting out army cloth- ing. Pyro- technics. 402 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Results of a series of Experiments on the Strength and resistance of various Woods. Introduc- tory report. Reasons for introducing woods into Class XIII. Countries exhibiting woods of construc- tion. The various collections of specimens of their woods, con- tributed by different countries to the Paris Exhibition, naturally come under the general head of Forestry, and, as such, belong to the Second Class of the system of classi- fication adopted by the Imperial Commission, and have doubtless, been dealt with generally by the jury of that class ; but when considered in reference to their particular qualification for special purposes, some of these descriptions of timber also enter into the classes which treat of those branches of Art or manufacture, and it is in this way, that in their character of woods of construction, they are found enumerated in the first section of Classes XIII. and XI Y., in which classes they are not, however, considered in re- ference either to their culture, botany, or general proper- ties, but particularly as regards those qualities by which they are rendered suitable for the purposes of the arts treated of in those classes, viz., naval and military art and civil construction ; and their value in this respect being mainly affected by such material qualities as their strength, tough- ness, weight, and elasticity, the present seems not an improper place for introducing the results of a series of experiments on these points made during the Exhibition upon some of the specimens of woods then for the first time brought in competition with each other, and with the ordinaiy woods already employed by the shipbuilder and carpenter. Of woods adapted for shipbuilding and construction generally, the principal collections in the Exhibition were contributed by India, Canada, Australia, British Guiana, Jamaica, Yan Diemen's Land, &c. Specimens of woods for various purposes were exhibited by many foreign states ; viz., France, Algeria, Austria, the Dutch Colonies, &c., but those from the British Colonies above mentioned come more directly under the head of Classes XIII. and XI Y. as woods of construction, and in the contributions sent to the Exhibition by these countries, the prominent place is given in each case to their valuable collection of specimens of native woods. Of these, many, as in the case of the Canadian and some of the Indian timbers, are well known and commonly used in this country, but on examining the Colonial cata- Gapt. Fowled s Experiments on Woods. 403 logues long lists are found filled with the names and 1 ,J APT % descriptions of various kinds ot woods used and valued m Expeei- the colonies to which they belong, but in most cases woods.' unknown in England, and of the merits of which, as com- pared with the known timbers of commerce, the colonists themselves are totally ignorant. The present appearing a favourable opportunity for insti- tuting a comparison between some of those woods and those better known in Europe, it was resolved to submit such of the specimens as could be obtained to a series of experiments, with a view to testing as fully, as possible, their qualities of strength, weight, toughness, elasticity, &c. Unfortunately, the specimens sent were generally of such small dimensions as to be totally useless for any practical test of strength, and many of them were exhibited as specimens of some indi- vidual peculiarity of growth or accident, rather than as average representations of the class of timber to which they belong. In the case of three colonies; viz., Australia, British Guiana, and Jamaica, there seem however, to be sufficient data for obtaining some knowledge as to the comparative value, Szc. of a number of different descriptions of timber, some being largely used in the localities in which they are produced, and considered by the colonists to be superior, in many cases, to the woods commonly employed for similar purposes in England. A very accurate and delicate hydraulic machine for test- Te ting ing the strength of materials having been placed at my rnac,ime - disposal by Mr. Dunn, of Manchester, I commenced a series of experiments on such specimens as could be obtained from the Colonial Commissioners, which were carried on in the part of the Exhibition building devoted to machinery, during the months of July, August, and September, and of which the history and results are here given. The testing machine consisted of a hydraulic press with the piston-rod furnished with a cross-head, working horizontally in cast iron guides, and having a connecting rod attached to it reaching to the end of the guides ; a small valve in the cylinder, furnished with a steelyard and moveable weight gave the means of ascertaining to a great nicety the exact amount of pressure applied. As it was desirable, for obtaining the best comparative Description results, that the woods should all be tested as nearly as pos- merits? 11 ’ sible, under similar circumstances a standard dimension was sought which should be the greatest common to all the spe- lesions of" cirnens, and it was found that a scantling of two inches specimens, square with a length of from 14 to 1 G inches was the c c 2 Cadt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Specific gravity. Experiment for trans- verse break- ing weight. Deflection. 404 Reports on the Paris Exhibition, greatest that could be obtained to fulfil this condition ; a O 7 few examples would not quite come up to this scantling, and one or two would not quite give the required length, but on the whole it was thought better to reduce the results obtained from these by calculation, than to cut down the size of all the pieces operated on for the sake of the few. The Australian specimens were generally from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet in length and about 2 inches square, and these were first experimented on at these dimensions, and afterwards reduced to the fixed standard. The mode of proceeding was as follows — the specimens were first reduced to the standard dimension, squared and planed perfectly true, labelled with a number, and entered in a catalogue. Each piecQ was then carefully weighed and its specific gravity calculated. The first experiment made was to ascertain the breaking weight, the specimen being supported at the ends and the strain being applied at right angles to its length, midway between the points of support. The bearing chosen as the standard was 1 foot, that being the greatest that was common to all the specimens, and two flat iron bars were accordingly fixed to the ex- tremities of the guides of the machine at that distance apart, to serve as the points of support, a piece of iron, having an opening in it of 3 inches square, was shackled on to the end of the connecting rod of the machine through which the piece of wood was passed ; the two ends were then brought to bear equally on the points of support, and the square ring above mentioned adjusted to the centre ; a piece of strong leather was interposed between the ring and the wood to prevent any abrasion of the fibre which was likely otherwise to take place under heavy strains ; the weight of the connecting rod and ring was then carefully counter- poised so as to avoid any disturbance of the strain from its true horizontal direction, and a slip of paper, was fastened by beeswax to the upper part of the specimen at its centre, on which to note the deflection. The weight on the steelyard having been placed at zero, the pump was slowly worked until the steelyard showed the first symptoms of motion ; a straight edge was then applied to the two fulcra or points of support, and a line ruled across a slip of paper attached to the specimen and marked 0 Experience showed that in general no very perceptible deflection took place until the strain had reached 500 kilo- grammes (1,102 lbs. English) and to follow out the principle Capt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. 405 of treating all the woods alike, the plan adopted therefore ^capt. was to mark the deflection at each successive 500 kilo- Experi- grammes of strain until it reached 3,000 (6,612 lbs.). As m \voods. n it was found that the increase of deflection became more rapid as the point of fracture was approached, the deflection was noted at intervals of 250 kilogrammes (551 lbs.) instead of 500 kilogrammes, when the strain exceeded 3,000 kilogrammes. Tim exact point of fracture was easily discernable, as the steelyard of the machine, which had been gradually rising under the pressure instantly fell, and could not be raised by anj’ subsequent action of the pumps. This experiment v 7 as repeated with as many examples of each kind of wood as could be obtained and the mean noted, throwing out such experiments as were evidently unsatisfactory from being performed on a faulty specimen, or from any other cause. In order to ascertain the power of the woods to bear a Experimen i 4 n • i • tor crushing crushing strain, a number oi small pieces, each measuring strain, exactly an inch cube, were cut from the specimens and squared and planed true, a square bar of steel was intro- duced into the ring of the machine, having its ends bearing on the supports above mentioned, and the cubic inch specimens were each submitted to a crushing strain between the ring and the steel bar ; this strain was applied both in the direction of the grain and also in a transverse direction, forming two distinct series of experiments. In applying the strain in a longitudinal direction, the specimen having been placed in position, a slip of paper was fastened to the top of the ring, and the steelyard having been brought to zero, and noted as before, the amount which each specimen yielded to the crushing strain was marked on the paper at each 500 kilogrammes (1102 lbs.) in the same manner as has been already explained in the case of the deflection, until it finally gave way, the point of failure being well marked, as in the former experiment. When the specimens were submitted to a tran verse Transverse crushing strain, the failure, instead of being marked and strain, sudden, as in the former cases, took place by degrees, the fibre gradually yielding from the first moment of the strain being applied, but no actual fracture taking place, the method of proceeding was therefore changed, and all the specimens having been submitted to the same strain, the amount of compression which each experienced was carefully marked and measured as before. 406 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Eowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Description of tables. Tables of final results. As before-mentioned, the specimens of wood from Aus- tralia were experimented upon separately, as in the first experiment, but with a bearing of four feet instead of one. In recording the results of these experiments a separate table is first devoted to each description of wood, in which is given a detailed account of the various tests to which it has been submitted, remarking on any peculiarity either in the specimen or in its mode of fracture or conduct under pressure, and adding such particulars as could be had concerning each. The order followed is the same throughout, viz., first, the name of the colony in which the wood is produced, then the various denominations under which it is known, whe- ther botanical, aboriginal, or colonial ; a short description follows, containing such information as could be obtained concerning the description of tree producing the timber, its abundance or scarcity in the colony, its proximity to the coast or to navigable rivers, the purposes to which the timber is applied in the colony, and the estimation in which it is held there for strength, durability under various cir- cumstances, or any other valuable quality that it may possess ; where its cost in the colony, per foot cube, could be ascertained, it is given, and the diameter and height of the tree is added, as affording an index of the size of timber possible to be obtained. Then follows the history of the experiments in the order described above. At the end, a resume of the whole is given in a series of four tables, in which the woods are placed in the order of their value in that particular experiment to which the table refers. Table ISTo. 1. Specific gravity. „ No. 2. Transverse breaking weight. „ No. 3. Crushing strain in the direction of the fibre. „ No. 4. Transverse crushing strain. In Table No. 2, the value of s is also given for each wood. As for most purposes a timber acquires additional value from combining the properties of strength and lightness, a fifth table is added in which the woods experimented upon are arranged in the order in which they stand as to the ratio of their strength to their specific gravity. The steelyard of the testing machine having been graduated for French weights, the results of the experiments were noted in kilogrammes, and afterwards reduced into English pounds avoirdupois and decimal parts, and the Capt, FowJce's Experiments on Woods. 407 deflections were marked in inches and decimals of an inch. This will account for the apparently irregular intervals at which the amounts of deflection and yielding were noticed. Note . — In conducting and registering these experiments, I was assisted by Corporal James Mack of the Royal Sappers and Miners, who displayed the greatest zeal, intelligence, and ability throughout. In the catalogue of Australian products contributed to the A! -rx . t-. , ° 1 . , tlmr snotc rans Exhibition, the following appears as an introduction on Austra- to the list of woods indigenous to New South Wales. It is lum W00(ls - from the pen of W. McArthur, Esq., Chief Commissioner from that colony to the Exhibition, and the collector and exhibitor of the specimens of wood from which those experimented upon were taken ; and as the information which it affords gives additional value to any experiments on the woods of that colony, it is here given intact. Catalogue (see No. 77 ) of Specimens of Woods indigenous to the Southern Districts, collected by Mr. W. McArthur, and exhibited by the Commissioners ; with remarks descriptive of the nature of the Trees, and the qualities of their Wood, so far as these could be ascertained. A short description of the general features of the kinds of woodland Description, from which have been collected the majority of the specimens of woods hereinafter described in detail, with a few observations upon the general character of the latter, would seem to be a desirable introduction to the catalogue. They will be useful in rendering the subject more intelligible to all who have not had the opportunity of informing themselves by personal observation. For greater convenience, the different descriptions of natural woodlands will be included under three classes ; and the letter denoting its class will be inserted opposite to each specimen of wood. Class A . — Forest more or less open; generally composed of trees with Class A. little or no underwood ; their trunks more or less naked and lofty, height being a more conspicuous feature than diameter; their heads small in pro- portion to the trunks, divided into few secondary or tertiary ramifications, and thinly clothed with persistent, dry, dull-coloured, thick, leathery leaves, abounding in essential oils, and in their decomposition adding little to the vegetable matter in the soil. The different species of Eucalyptus and Angophora, with Melaleuca, Cailistemon, Syncarpia, and Lophostemcn, compose the larger trees which furnish all the common durable hard wood timber used in Sydney and the adjoining districts. Occasionally these dry forests pass into tracts crowded with trees, gene- rally of a single species (still with little or no underwood), their trunks being drawn up to a great height, and of small diameter. The trees of this class are usually produced to a greater size, and with better quality of timber, on lands rather poor than good ; the more fertile lands com- monly producing trees of comparatively small dimensions, thinly scattered over their surface. The rich alluvial lands on the margins of rivers are exceptions to this rule. They are almost always heavily timbered, and towards the coast their character passes from A. to C. There are some characteristics applicable to the whole of the large trees Character- of this class. When at full maturity they are rarely sound at heart, and sties. CArx. Fq^ke’s EXPERI- MENTS 0.\ Woods. 408 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. (.'APT. Fowke’s Experi- ments ox Woods. Character- istics. Class B. Class C. even when they are so, the immediate heart-wood is of no value on account of its extreme brittleness. In sawing up logs into scantlings or boards, the heart is always rejected. The direction in which the larger species split most freely is never from the bark to the heart (technically speaking, the “ bursting way ”), but in eccentric circles round the latter. Some few of the smaller species of forest trees are exceptions to this rule ; such as the different species of Casuarina, Banksia, and other species belonging to the natural order Proteaceae. The latter, however, with little excep- tion belonging to Class B. They split most freely the “ bursting way,”' as do the Oaks, &c., of Europe and America. A very serious defect pre- vails amongst a portion of the trees* of this class, to such extent, as to demand especial notice here. It is termed “Gum vein,” and consists simply in the extravasation, in greater or less quantity, of the gum resin of the tree in particular spots, amongst the fibres of woody tissue, and probably where some injury has been sustained; or, which is a much greater evil, in concentric circles between successive layers of the wood. The former is often merely a blemish, affecting the appearance rather than the utility of the timber ; but the latter, when occurring frequently in the same section of the trunk, renders it comparatively worthless, excepting for fuel. In the latter case, as the wood dries, the layers with gum veins interposing separate from each other ; and it is consequently impracti- cable to take from trees so affected a sound piece of timber, excepting of very small dimensions. The whole of the species of Angophora, or apple-tree, and many of the Eucalypti, or Gums, are subject to be thus affected ; and it is the more to be regretted, because it appears to be the only reason why many of the trees so blemished should not be classed amongst the most useful of the hard woods of the colony. Another characteristic among these hard woods is deserving of notice. Although the majority of them make excellent fuel, and are valuable on account of the comparative quantity of steam they are capable of generating, the greater part are slow to kindle, and a few of them will hardly burn at all. To this circumstance, probably, is to be attributed the small number of houses burnt in a climate and amongst a population likely to afford an unusual proportion of such accidents. Few of the species of Eucalypti are rich in potash, but several of the genus Angophora contain it abundantty. It would be difficult to form even an approximate estimate of the number of species of Class A. producing good timber, throughout the settled districts of New South Wales. It is believed that very few of them have a wide range ; the same local names being applied many times over to different species in different districts. Class B . — Barren scrub, covered either wholly with low shrubby vege- tation without trees, or with short-stemmed stunted trees, rarely or never producing serviceable timber. . The same dry character of vegetation prevails over this description of country as over the last. The * f bush- fires ” which sweep over these barren scrubs once, at least, in every four or five years, effectually prevent the species which do not grow with naked trunks from obtaining the dimensions they might otherwise be suscep- tible of acquiring. At each burning the majority are killed to the ground to be re-produced from the collar. Good specimens of their wood for illustration are, therefore, scarcely attainable. It may be observed, that the majority of the beautiful flowering shrubs of the colony have their habitats in this sort of country, which is always more or less rocky, stony, or sandy. Class C . — Rich Brush or “ Cedar Brush.” Tracts of country rarely of great continuous breadth, but often alternating at short intervals with Class A , and prevalent only at moderate distances from the sea, or at, all events, to the eastward of the great dividing range. Capt, Fowke’s Experiments on I Voods. 409 This description of woodland often occupies country covered with rocks and stones, hut of such geological character that a rich soil results expeki- from their decomposition. It usually follows the course of streams; meets on and, in country favourable, geologically speaking, to the formation of Wooi>s - good land, the cedar brushes fill up the vallies and the gorges of ravines Description with their dense vegetation. They are to be found in the greatest per- the wood- fection at Illawarra, a few miles from the open seacoast, upon natural laiK ' terraces skirting the mountain side at various elevations, up to 1,500 feet, and upon rich alluvial plains, particularly in the districts to the north- ward of Sydney, where they are described to be of great continuous extent. They produce few shrubs, but a variety of trees of considerable altitude, frequently of comparatively slender growth, almost universally clothed with beautiful, dense, bright green foliage, their umbrageous character being much increased by the numerous lofty ligneous climbers (“ bush ropes”) which attain their topmost branches, and frequently throw them- selves from tree to tree. At Illawarra and in some other districts four species of arborescent ferns and two noble species of palms add materially to the tropical aspect of this description of country. A few of the trees of Class A. are to be observed thinly scattered through the cedar brushes. In such case they often attain the most magnificent dimensions, but their general character remains unaltered. During the heats of summer, the atmosphere of the cedar brushes is always much less dry, and the temperature more equable than it is upon adjoining lands not clothed with rich vegetation. Bush fires rarely or never extend into their recesses, which are difficult to penetrate, even on foot, owing to the numerous irregularities of surface which prevail, and to the tangled nature of the vegetation. These difficulties apart, nothing can be imagined more charming to the beholder ; especially where glades or natural openings occur, to enable him to comprehend the full grandeur of the still life around him. The extreme loftiness of the noble trees, which are thrown together in surprising variety, with stems, rarely cylin- drical, but of the most picturesquely irregular forms, covered with mosses and orchids, and loaded aloft with huge masses of epiphytical ferns of exquisite beauty ; all these vegetable wonders, viewed in the transparent, green, and almost sunless light, which even on the brightest days pervade their recesses, combined with the delicious fragrance and the agreeable temperature, which in fine weather invariably characterises the ceder brushes, astonish and gratify the lovers of sylvan scenery. But although the senses are charmed, the difficulties in exploring them, to ascertain of what species of trees they consist, are very great ; and still more serious are the obstacles to be surmounted in getting out new trees when found. The common use of the wood of the cedar (Cedrela Australis) in joiners’ and cabinet work, and its extensive importation to the neighbouring colonies and to Europe, have induced the sawyers to penetrate into every nook from whence sawn timber could be dragged out. But in seeking out this particular tree, they would appear to have neglected all the rest. The most experienced amongst them have no names for a great number, and can give little information to be relied upon with regard to the qualities of their timber. They have been in the habit of confounding together numerous species under the general head of “ brush trees..” It requires careful and laborious investigation on the part of a stranger in these brushes, to distinguish trees of even very different families; their foliage is often so far overhead, and so intermingled with that of the neighbouring trees and climbers, their trunks are so covered with epiphytes, and the light is so imperfect, that the tree often requires to be cut down to determine its identity ; even then it frequently becomes further requisite to cut down several of the neighbouring trees, which have their branches attached to it by the “bush-ropes,” before the tree will fall. 410 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowkk’s Expeei- HENTS OX Woods. Description of the wood land. Mr. Holmes on the Woods of British Guiana. and bring the foliage within the explorer’s reach. The uncertainty of their periods of flowering and fruiting gives rise to further difficulty. On the present occasion, although they have been repeatedly examined at short intervals over a period of six months, comprising the seasons at which they might be expected to show flowers or fruit, it is remarkable ■ how few have been detected in a fertile state. These few forming the exception rather than the rule with the particular species to which they belong, it would appear to be certain that the great majority of the trees of this class do not flower every year, and many of them only at long intervals. In proof of the intimate intermixture of many kinds of trees, it may be stated that, skirting a narrow track through a cedar brush for about half a mile, more than sixty species were observed, all growing within twenty or twenty -five yards of the track ; of these, above three- fourths were of the stature of trees. It may be remarked, also, that no two brushes resemble each other precisely ; fresh species of trees make their appearance in each succeeding brush, whilst others disappear. This characteristic seems to prevail wherever an opportunity of examining them closely has been afforded. The timber of the trees of this class differs remarkably from Class A. The grain is much finer ; it is also, for the most part, sound at heart; and the heart-wood, if not shaken in the fall of the tree, may be used, as is the case, with the timber trees of Europe ; even when a very large size, and not sound at the butt, they are usually perfectly so a little higher up ; they differ generally, also from the trees of Class A., in splitting most freely the ; 5511*5 0*13 - 6613*8 0*16 7164*9 0*19 — Capt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. 435 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 9920 -7 lbs. ... - 0-10 inch. Crushing Weight - 9920 • 7 lbs. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 - 0*07 3306*9 - 0*10 Crushing 4409*2 - 0*19 weight( trans- verse). 5511*5 - 0*33 6613*8 - - - 0*38 8818*4 - 0*50 No 19. — Botanical name, Piratinera Guianensis, Aubl. Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Bourra CouRRA British Paira. Local name, Letter Wood, or Snake Wood. Guiana. N~9. “From Berbice River ; this tree is scarce within several hundred Letter wood. miles of the sea coast, is often from 60 to 70 feet high, and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. The outer part of the wood is white and very hard; the heart is of great weight, hardness, and solidity; variegates with black spots of different size and figure, which gives rise to its name, “ Letter Wood,” and “ Snake Wood.” It is suceptible of a brilliant polish, but the small size of the mottled part, and its great value even in the colony, limits its use almost entirely to veneering, to picture frames, and to small pieces of furniture. Cost, 8 d. per lb. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*999. EE 2 436 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ^capt. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. experi- First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when woods. submitted to a lransverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Breaking weight. Ft. In. In. square. In. 1 1 0 2 94 14215*8 Deflection. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Specimen 2. 2204-6 0-02 Nil. 3306-9 0-03 4409-2 0-05 5511*5 0-07 6613-8 0-08 7164-9 009 7716-1 o-io Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 1 3227 ' 6 lbs. - - - - -O’ 03 inch, crushing Crushing Weight - - 14105 ’6 lbs. weight (lon- gitudinal). . Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Di)tiensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 3306-9 4409-2 5511 -5 6613-8 7716-1 8818-4 0-05 0-08 0-10 0-14 0-17 0-22 0-27 Crushing weight( trans- verse). 437 Capt. Foivkes Experiments on Woods. No. 20. — Botanical name, . Natural order, Aboriginal name, Houbaballi. Local name, Houbaballi. “ A light brownish wood, beautifully variegated with black and brown streaks ; easily worked, and makes beautiful furniture and cabinetwork. It may be had from 15 to 20 inches square, and from 40 to 70 feet long. The tree is by no means scarce, but is frequently found hollow in the centre, which often renders it useless.” Price in Guiana, at a wood-cutting establishment, Is. 6d. to 2s. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, 0'810. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearings j between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 4518*2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0*08 3306*9 0*13 4409*2 0*26 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. - - - - 0-02 4409-2 „ - - - - 0*04 5511*5 „ - - - - 0*13 Crushing Weight 5511 *5 lbs. Capt. FoWKE’s Experi- ments on Woods. British Guiana. No. 20. Houbaballi. Specific gravity. Breaking ■weight. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). 438 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ICapt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Crushing weiglit(trans- verse). British Guiana. No. 21. ‘ Monkey Pot. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 4409*2 6613*8 8818*4 0*45 0*51 0*55 0*60 No. 21. — Botanical name, Lecythis grandiflora, Aubl. Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Wadaduri. Local name, Monkey Pot. “ This tree is plentiful throughout the colony. It grows tall, straight, and to a large size. The wood is to be had from 15 to 20 feet in length, and from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. It is very close, tough, and elastic, and is in great repute for gig- shafts. The Indians make their arrow -points of this wood. The speci- men sent has been injured by water.” Price in Guiana, at a wood-cutting establishment, Is. 6d. to 2s. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, O’ 941. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 10689*4 Capt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. 439 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204 • 6 0*03 3306-9 0-04 4409-2 0-07 5511-5 0-09 6613*8 o-ii 7164-9 0-13 7716-1 0-14 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 12125-3 lbs. - 0-04 inch. Crushing Weight - 12125-3 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 0-08 0-59 0-60 0-62 No. 22. — Botanical name, Lucuma Bomplandii, H. B. Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Bartaballi. Local name, Bartaballi. ie Is a tree of large size, and plentiful. This wood is white, ather light, splits freely, and is good for staves, chairs, and the inside work of houses. It bears an agreeable fruit.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*640. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight( trans- verse). British . Guiana. no7£?. Bartaballi. Specific gravity. 440 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight in lbs. Length. Section. Breaking . weight. 1 Ft. In. 0 14 In. square. Foot. 1 5289*6 Deflection. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*0o 2204*6 0*10 3306*9 0*15 4409*2 0*20 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. . - 0*04 inch . 4409*2 „ - - 0*06 „ 6613*8 „ - - 0*08 „ 7716*1 „ - - 1*00 „ 8818*4 „ - - 1*04 „ Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing Weight Tt< 00 00 00 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Crushing •weight (trans* verse). Strain applied, in lbs. 2204~* 6 3306*9 4409*2 6613*8 8818*4 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. - 0*35 - 0*42 - 0*47 - 0*51 - 0*55 Copt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods . 441 No. 23. — Botanical name, . Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Cowassa. Local name, Wild Mammee. “ A hard, close-grained wood, of a rich brown colour, prettily waved, and fitted for furniture and cabinetwork.” Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. British Guiana. No. 23. Wild Mam- mee. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. ii 1 a Foot. 1 Breaking 4363*9 weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Deflection, Transverse Strain, in decimals of an inch. in lbs. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0'07 3306*9 0'19 Deflection. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 11023*0 lbs. - 13227*6 „ Crushing Weight 0*04 inch. 0*05 „ 13227*6 lbs. Crushing •weight (lon- gitudinal). 442 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on . Woods. Crushing weight (trans- verse). British Guiana. No. 24. Purple Heart, Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining tlie Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 3306*9 4409*2 6511*5 5613*8 7716*1 8818*4 0*10 0*18 0*45 0*48 0*51 0*53 0*55 No. 24. — Botanical name, Copaifera Pubiflora and Bracteata Benth. Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Mariwayana. Local name, Purple Heart. “ Katlier a scarce tree in the coast regions, being found chiefly in the mountainous tracts above the cataracts. There are several varieties or species, but all much alike, possessing great strength and durability. Used for mortar beds, being adapted for sustain- ing the shocks produced by the discharge of artillery.” Price in colony, Is. 6d. to 2s. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*679. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6391 * 6 Capt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. 443 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*02 2204*6 0*06 3306*9 0*09 4409*2 0*12 5511*5 0*16 Capt. Fowke's Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection. Third Experiment, for asertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. - - . - 0*05 inch. 4409*2 „ - - 0 06 „ 6613*8 „ - - - 0*08 „ 8818*4 „ - - - 0*11 „ Crushing Weight - - ” 9920 * 7 lbs. Crushing weight (lon- - ^ — gitudinal). Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , ] inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 .. 0*05 Crushing 4409*2 - m 0*10 weight (trans. verse). 6613*8 - 0*18 8818*4 - 0*56 J?No. 25. — Botanical name, . Natural order, . British Aboriginal name, Wamara. Local name, Brown Ebony. Qpiana * “A hard, cross-grained wood, not apt to split, and therefore Brown 25 ' well adapted for ship-building. Sir R. Scliomburgh describes it Ebony * as a scarce tree, attaining a great height ; but the only part used is the heart, which is dark brown, and often streaked. Its hard- ness and weight cause it to be preferred by the Indians for their 444 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Fo wee’s w ar-clubs. It may be had from 6 to 12 inches square, and from experi- 20 to 40 feet long.” MENTS ON # woods. Specific gravity of specimen, 1*034. Specific gravity. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Breaking weight. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 12122*0 Deflection.; Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*01 2204*6 0*06 4409*2 0*08 5511*5 0*09 6613*8 0*10 7164*9 0*13 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 11023*0 lbs. . 0 * 07 inch. 12125*3 „ - 0*09 „ Crushing] Crushing Weight . 12566*2 lbs. weight (Lon* gitudinal), Capt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods, 445 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. EXPERI- MENTS ON Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Woods. Strain applied, in lbs. 2204*6 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 0-06 Crushing weight (tr 3306-9 - o-io verse). 4409*2 - 0-11 6613-8 - 0-37 7716-1 - 0-45 8818-4 - 0-55 No. 26. — Botanical name, Erythrina corallodendron guiInJ. (Lin.) Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Baracara. Local name, BARACARA. Baracara. “ From Berbice River. A hard, close, and even-grained wood. The tree produces the red seeds of which necklaces, bracelets, &c. are made.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*809. Specific gravity., Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Ft. In. In. square. Feet. 1 1 2 2 1 8954-9 2 1 5 2 1 8044-6 Breaking weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Tarns verse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Specimen 2. ll 0 2-3 0-03 0*15 2204-6 0*09 0*19 3306.9 0-12 0*22 4409-2 0-16 0*27 5511 *5 0-24 0-34 6613*8 0-30 0-45 7164*9 0-33 7716*1 0-36 0-68 Deflection. 446 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. capt. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the experu Direction of the Fibre. MENTS ON Woops - Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204 *6 lbs. _ - 0 * 02 inch. 4409*2 „ - - 0*03 „ 6613*8 „ - - 0*07 „ 8818*4 „ - - 0*10 „ Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing Weight - - 8818 -4 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Crushing] weight (trans- 2204 * 6 verse) ' 3306-9 4409*2 5511*5 6613*8 7716*1 8818-4 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 0*24 0*34 0*42 0*51 0*52 0*55 0*56 ouiana* No. 27. — Botanical name, Nectandra Rodlei (Schomb.) n ~27 * Natural order, . Aboriginal name, SlPlRi, Bibiru, Greenheart. : Local name, Greenheart (yellow variety). “ From Masaruni River. This tree is very abundant within 100 miles of the coast region, and its timber, squaring from 18 to 24 inches, may be had without a knot from 60 to 70 feet long. It is a fine, even-grained, hard wood, well adapted for planking- vessels, house-frames, wharves, bridges, and other purposes where great strength and durability are required. As it is unsurpassed in resistance to tensile and compressive strains*, it is admirable for kelsons and for ship timbers. It ranks as one of the eight first- class woods at Lloyd’s for ship-building.” gravfty 0 Specific gravity of specimen, 1 * 052. Cctpt. Fovjkes Experiments on Woods. 44*7 Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length Section. 1 Ft. In. 0 11* In. square. 2 1 P 15428*0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. I 1 Specimen 1. | 2204-6 0-02 3306*9 0*03 4409*2 0*05 5511*5 0*07 6613*8 0*08 7716*1 0*09 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied. 4409-2 - 6613-8 - 8818-4 - 11023*0 - 12125-3 - Crushing Weight, Amount yielded. 0*03 inch. - 0-05 „ - 0-07 „ - 0-09 „ 0-20 „ 12125-3 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 3306-9 4409*2 5511*5 6613-8 0-04 0-06 0*08 0-10 0*11 Capt. Fowke's Experi- MENTS ON Woods. Breaking weight. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal.) Crushing weight( trans- verse ). 448 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. British Guiana. No. 28. Greenhc-art. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). No, 28. — Botanical name, Nectandra Rod,ei (Schomb.) Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Sipiri Bibiru. Local name, Greenheart (black variety). “ From Masaruni River. This wood is used for the same pur- poses as the yellow Greenheart, but it is considered even more durable. It is a handsome wood, and takes a high polish. It is distinguished from the common Greenheart only by the colour of the wood, but it is so scarce in proportion to the brown or yellow, that not more than 1 in 20 of trees cut down are found to belong to this variety. This wood is in great request, on account of its well-known durability, being preferred to all others for windmill shafts, spindles, and mill works in general.” Specific gravity of specimen, 1 * 089. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. — Ft. In. 0 Hi In. square. 2 In. 9 ^ 13224 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen I. 2204*6 0*01 4409*2 0*03 5511*5 0*05 1 6613*8 0*06 7716*1 0*08 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 15432*2 lbs. - - - 0*11 inch. Crushing Weight - - 15432*2 lbs. Gapt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. 449 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . a Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments O.V .Woods. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204’6 4409*2 6613*8 8818*4 0*05 0*38 0*43 0*51 Crushing weight (trans vei se). No. 29. — Botanical name, Dipteryx ODORATA, (Wills.) British Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Cuamara, or Tonka. Local name, Tonka. -rSa. 29, “ This tree is not very plentiful in the colony. The timber may be had from 40 to 50 feet long, and 18 to 20 inches square. It is hard, tough, and durable in an eminent degree, and it is said that a piece one inch square, and of a given length, will bear 100 lbs. more weight than any other timber in Guiana of the same dimensions. It is therefore peculiarly adapted for any purpose where resistance to great pressure is desired. It is used for shafts, mill-wheels, and cogs. This tree yields the well-known i Tonka Bean.’ ” Price in colony, Is. 6d. to 2s. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen 0*987. specific Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 F t. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 10469*0 Breaking weight. F F 450 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight (trans v.ersed), $ British Gciana. No. 30. Ducaliballi. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. [ Deflection, Transverse Strain, in decimals of an inch. in lbs. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*03 2204*6 0*04 3306*9 0*06 4409*2 0-09 5-511*5 0-10 6613*8 0*12 7164*9 0*13 7716*1 0*16 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 11023 lbs. - - - 0-11 inch. Crushing Weight ... 11463*9 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 - 0.05 4409*2 - 0*06 5511*5 - 0*08 6613*8 - 0*10 7716*1 - 0*29 8818*4 - 0*34 No. 30. — Botanical name, . Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Ducaliballi. Local name, Ducaliballi. “ This tree is of large size, but not plentiful. The timber may be had 40 feet long, but seldom more than 20 inches in diameter. It is a deep red close-grained wood, more even and compact than Ccvpt. Fowled s Experiments on Woods . 451 mahogany, and takes a high polish. It is in great repute for Capt. turning and cabinetwork. It resembles, or is perhaps identical experi- with, the Brazilian beef-wood.” Woods’ % Price in colony 2s. 6d. to 3s. per cubic foot. — * Specific gravity of specimen, 0*910. spedfie Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. squire. 2 Foot. 1 9367 * 0 Breaking weight.) Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 002 3306*9 0 04 4409*2 0 06 5511*5 0-09 6613*8 o-io 7164*9 0-12 7716*1 0-13 Deflection. Tiiird Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yelded. 13227-6 lbs. - 0*C6 inch Crushing weight - 13227*6 lbs. crushing ° ° weight (.lon- gitudinal). F F 2 452 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’8 Experi- ments on Woods. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. Crushing 2204*6 0-07 weight ( trail s- versed). 4409-2 - - 0-09 5511 • 5 - - 0-15 6613*8 - - 0-23 7716-1 - . 0-35 8818-4 - - 0-57 British Guiana. No. 31. Car tan. Specific gravity. No. 31. — Botanical name, Centrolobium robustum (Mart.) Natural order, . Aboriginal name Car tan. Local name, Cartan. “ From Demerary River. A very rare wood, of a rich orange colour, like deal in its grain, but much harder and heavier. It reaches a height of 80 to 100 feet, and being easily worked, and of a handsome colour, promises to become of great interest to cabinetmakers.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*703. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 In. 121 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 4959*0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 0-04 2204-6 006 3306 9 0-11 4409-2 0-17 5511-5 0-29 Capt. Fowled s Experiments on Woods. 453 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 9920-7 lbs. - 0-05 inch. Crushing Weight - - 9920*7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 _ _ - 0*08 3306*9 - - 0*26 4409*2 - - - 0*35 5511*5 - - - 0*40 6613*8 - 0*43 7716*1 - - - 0*46 8818*4 - - - 0*50 No. 32. — Botanical name, . Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Kaieeri-balli. Local name, Kaieeri- BALLI. “ FromBerbice River. An excellent wood for beams, rafters, and plates of houses.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*870. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 5 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6391*6 Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight(trans- verse). British Guiana. No. 32. Kaieeri-balli. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. 454 Reports on the Paris Exhibition Caft. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Deflection. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 o-oi 2204 • 6 0-05 3306-9 0-09 4409-2 0-13 5511-5 0-22 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Crushing ' weight (lon- gitudinal). Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 8818*4 lbs. - .. - 0-05 inch. Crushing Weight - - 8818*4 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. Crushing weight (trans- verse). 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 0-14 0-28 0-38 0-50 British No. 33. — Botanical name, . Natural order, . ^ A ‘ Aboriginal name, Buhuradda. Local name, Buhuradda. No. 33. ° ... Buhuradda. “Is very plentiful, and used for similar purposes as the pre- ceding. This specimen is damaged by water.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0'814. Specific gravity. 455 Gapt. FowJce’s Experiments on Woods, Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking- Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 7 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 9477*2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 005 3306*9 0*07 4409-2 0*10 6511-5 0*13 6613-8 0*17 7164*9 0*22 7716*1 0*24 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. 2204-6 lbs. - 4409*2 ., - ; 6613*8 „ 8818-4 „ 11023*0 „ 12125*3 „ Crushing Weight - Amount yielded. 0*03 inch. 0*05 „ 0*08 „ 0-09 „ 0*10 „ 0*11 „ 12125*3 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimension of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 6613-8 8818*4 0-12 0*58 0*60 Caft. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Breaking weight. Deflection. Crushing : weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing ' weight (trans- verse). 456 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. British Guiana. No. 34. Wallaba. Specific gravity. No. 34. — Botanical name, Eperua falcata Aubl. Na- tural j order, . Aboriginal name, Wallaba. Local name, Wallaba. “ From Berbice Fiver. This wood is of a deep red colour, and is hard and heavy, but splits freely and smoothly, and is much used for shingles, staves, palings, posts, house frames, &c. It is impregnated with a resinous oil, which makes it very durable both in and out of water. A roof well shingled with this wood will last more than 40 years. The tree is very abundant through- out the colony, growing generally on the banks of rivers. It may be cut 30 or 40 feet long and 15 to 20 inches square.” Cost in colony, 10c?. to If. 6d. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, 1 •035. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Breaking weight. 1 Ft. In. 1 5 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 5510*0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Deflection, Transverse Strain, in decimals of an inch. in lbs. Specimen 1. Deflection. 2204-6 0*04 3306*9 0*06 4409*2 0*09 5511 *5 0*11 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimension of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 6613*8 lbs. - Crushing Weight Crushing weight (lor* gitudinal). — • 0 - 06 inch. - 6613-8 lbs. Capt. Fowled s Experiments on Woods. 457 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen i 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 - - - 0-16 3306-9 - - - 0-49 No. 35. — Botanical name, Lecythis ollaria (Lin.) Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Kakaralli. Local name, Kakaralli. “ This wood is very abundant, grows tall and straight, and may be had from 6 to 14 inches square, and 30 to 40 feet long. It is heavy, hard, and close-grained, and more durable than Greenheart in salt water, from its property of resisting the depredations of the sea-worm and barnacle. On this account it is much employed in the construction of wharfs, sluices, &c. It is also used for house frames. The bark is easily stripped off, and consists of numerous layers, which the Indians separate by beating with a stick ; when separated they have the appearance of thin satin paper. They are dried in the sun, and used as wrappers for cigars.” Price in colony, Is. to Is. 6d. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, 1 • 103. Note. — The folloiuing Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Et. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. I 9587-4 Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Crushing weight (trans- verse). British .Guiana. No. 35. Kakaralli. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. 458 Reports on the Paris Exhibition Capt. " Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Erperiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204-6 0-04 3306*9 0-07 4409*2 o-io 5511-5 0-14 6613-8 0-17 7164-9 0-20 7716-1 0-25 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. - . - 0*06 inch. 4409-2 „ - - - 0-08 „ 6613-8 „ - . “ 010 „ 8818-4 „ - - * 0-12 „ 11023-0 „ - _ - 0-15 „ 13227-6 „ - - - 0-18 „ Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing Weight - - 13227-6 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Strain applied Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. Crushing 2204*6 _ 0*08 weight (trans- verse). 4409-2 - . 0-20 6613*8 - - 0-34 Capt, Fowled s Experiments on Woods. 459 No. 36. — Botanical name, . Natural order, . F ( 0 ^. g Aboriginal name, SiRUABALLL Local name, Silverballi £*™ Kl 0 \ (yellow variety). W LL DS - “ This tree grows to a great size, but is then often hollow. It Guiana. will, however, square sound from 10 to 14 inches, and from 40 to N ~^ 6 50 feet long. The wood is lighter than water, and contains a siiverbain. bitter principle which resists the attack of worms, hence it is much used in the colony for the outside planking of vessels and boats. It is also used for masts and booms. There are four varieties or species of this tree, distinguished as Black, Brown, Yellow, and White Silverballi; of these the latter is least esteemed.” Price in colony, from Is. 6d. to 2 s. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*546. gravity. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking W eight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 5 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 4297*8 Breaking weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment . Deflection, Transverse Strain, in decimals of an inch. in lbs. Specimen 1. 2204*6 00*5 3306*9 0*14 Deflection,' Third Experiment for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 7716*1 lbs. - - - 0*08 inch. Crushing Weight - - 7716*1 lbs. wdgtuL gitudinal). 460 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. fowke’s Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain experi- in a Transverse Direction. MENTS ON Woods.; — Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Crushing weight (trans- Strain applied, in lbs. 2204*6 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 0*44 verse). 4409-2 - - 0*56 6613*8 - - 0*59 8818*4 - - 0*62 British Guiana. No. 37. Crabwood. No. 37. — Botanical name, Xylocarpus carapa (Sp.) Natural order, . Aboriginal name, . Local name, Crabwood. “ This tree is plentiful, grows tall and straight, and may be cut from 40 to 60 feet in length, with a square of 14 or 16 inches. The wood is light, and as it takes a high polish, makes excellent furniture. It is also much used for floors, partitions, and doors in the houses of the wealthy. Masts and spars are formed of it, and it is sometimes employed for sugar hogsheads, and even for shin- gles, as it splits freely and smoothly. There are two varieties. Red and White. The seeds yield ‘ Crab Oil,’ and the bark is useful for tanning, so that this tree ranks among the most useful in the colony.” specific Price in colony, Is. to Is. 6d. per cubic foot, gravity. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*603. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Breaking I weight. 1 Ft. In. 1 5 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 5510*0 Capt. Foivke’s Experiments on Woods . 461 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 004 2204-6 0-08 3306-9 0- 12 4409-2 0-18 5511-5 0*30 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 8818*4 lbs. - - - - -0-05 Crushing Weight - 8818*4 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 0-35 0-46 0-50 0-54 No. 38. — Botanical name, Icica altissima, (AubL) Natural order, -. Aboriginal name, Warracoori. Local name, White Cedar. 4 - From Berbice River. Crows abundantly in the low grounds. It is a light, aromatic wood, easily worked ; it splits freely, and is therefore well fitted for staves. During the American War it was used for sugar hogsheads. It is frequently employed for the frames and inside of work of houses. Oars and paddles are also made of it, and even canoes. The bark in decoction is used for the Indian malady called the “ Caribisi sick.” This specimen is from a young tree.” Price in colony, Is. to Is. 6d. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, O ' 771. Capt* Fowke's Experi- MENTS ON Wood. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight (trans verse).; British Guiana. No. 38. White Cedar. Specific gravity. 462 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Ca pi. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Freaking weight. Deflection. Crushing weight (Ion gitudinal). Crushing weight(trans. verse). Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports . Breaking Weight in lbs. Length. Section. > Ft. In. 1 2 In Square. 2 Foot. 1 7163-0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0*06 3306*9 0*10 4409*2 0*14 5511*5 0*21 6613*8 0*29 7164*9 0*37 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 8818 *4 lbs. - 0*04 inch. 9920-7 „ ... 0-07 „ Crushing Weight - 9920 '7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dime7isions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 _ _ - 0*10 4409*2 - - - 0*50 6613*8 - - - 0*54 8818*4 - - - 0*57 Capt Fowled s Experiments on Woods. 463 No. 39. — Botanical name, Hymens A Courbaril (Lin.) Natural order, „ Aboriginal name, Simeri. Local name, Locust Tree. “ This tree is abundant in the colony, and often attains the height of 60 or 80 feet before it throws out a branch, and has- a diameter of 8 to 9 feet. The wood is close-grained, hard, and compact, of a fine brown, streaked with veins, and takes a beau- tiful polish. As it does not split or warp, it is well adapted for mill timbers and engine beds. A considerable quantity is ex- ported to England to be used as trenails in planking vessels and in beams and planks for fitting up steam engines. The tree yields the gum animi of commerce.” Price in colony, from Is. to Is. Get. per cubic foot. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*707. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. > Ft. In. 1 If In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6171*2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*03 2204*6 0*10 3306*9 0*17 4409*2 0*24 5511*5 0*34 Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ox Woods. British Guiana. No739. Locust Tree. Spei ific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection.; 464 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight( trans- verse). British Guiana. No 40. Buckati. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the , Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. 4409*2 „ 6613-8 „ 8818-4,, Crushing Weight 0*02 inch. 0-04 „ 0-06 „ 0-10 „ - 8818-4 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 0-33 0-37 0-44 0-60 No. 40. — Botanical name, . Natural order, — Aboriginal name, Buckati. Local name, Buckati. “ A hard, compact wood, of a rich brownish yellow colour.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*812. Note. — The folloiving Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing Breaking Length. Section. between Sup- ports. Weight, in lbs. * Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 7714-0 Gapt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 465 Second Experiment, for noting tlic Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimlas of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204-6 0-03 3306-9 006 4409-2 o-io 5511-5 0-14 6613-8 0-20 7164-9 0-26 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 9920-7 lbs. - 0-07 inch. Crushing Weight - - - 9920*7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 4409*2 6613-8 8818*4 0*09 0-33 0-45 0-50 No. 41. — Botanical name, . Natural order, . Ab- original name, Sirabuliballi. Local name, Sirabuliballi. « A wood of small size, but very hard and compact, well adapted for framing.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0 * 838. Capt. Fowke's Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection- Crushing weight (Lon- gitudinal). Crushing weightf trans verse). British Guiana. No. 41. Sirabuliballi. Specific gravity. G G 466 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. fowke’s Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. ExPEftT- m wo T od? n First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when — submitted to a Transverse Strain, No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Breaking i weight. Ft. In. 1 5 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 9920-7 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Deflection, Transverse Strain, ip lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1 . 2204*6 0-03 3306-9 0-08 4409-2 0-11 5511-5 0-16 6613-8 0-18 7164-9 0-23 7716-1 0-29 8818-4 0-32 9920-7 0-40 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen 9 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. Crushing weight (Ion- gitudinal). 2204-6 lbs. - 4409-2 „ 6613-8 „ 8818*4 „ 9920-7 „ Crushing Weight - 0-01 inch - 0 03 04 0-06 19 „ 9920 lbs. 467 Capt. Foiokes Experiments on Woods. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen 1 inch cube. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 4409*2 5511-5 6613-8 77161 8818-4 0-04 0-40 0-46 0-49 0-50 0-52 Crushing ' weight(trans' verse). JAMAICA, No. 42. — Botanical name, . Natural order, , Jamaica. Aboriginal name, . Local name, Boxwood. n^ 42 . ,, tt t o c „ Boxwood, “ used tor framing. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*690. Specific gravity. Note. — The folloiving Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen, j Dimensions. i Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking W eight, in lbs. | Length. Section. 1 i Ft. In. 1 If In. square. 2 Foot. 1 5511*5 Breaking weight. ( Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Nil. Nil. Deflection, 468 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke's Experi- ments on Woods. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. Crushing weight (long- gitudinai). 4409*2 lbs. - 5511*5 „ 8818*4 „ Crushing Weight 0*01 inch. 0*05 0*08 8818*4 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Tt ‘ansverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. Crushing weight( trans- verse). 2204*6 3306*9 4409-2 5511*5 6613*8 7716*1 8818*4 0*05 0*16 0*28 0*40 0-49 0*51 0*54 Jamaica. No. 43. Iron Wood. Specific gravity. No. 43. — Botanical name, Erythroxylon areolatum. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Iron Wood, or Red Wood. “ A small tree, 16 or 18 feet high, and 5 or 6 inches in dia- meter.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*98 7. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Breaking weight. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 1 3 *4 Foot. 1 9369-5 Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 469 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 0-02 2204-6 0-07 3306-9 0-09 4409-2 0-13 5511-5 I 016 6613-8 0-21 7164-9 0-34 7716*1 0*38 8818-4 0-44 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 17636*8 lbs. - 0*13 inch. Crushing Weight - I7636’8 1bs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. Capt. Fowke's Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection. Crashing weight (Ion. gitudinal). 4409*2 11023-0 0-02 0-08 Crushing weight(trans- verse). Capt. Fowee’s Experi- ments on Woods. Jamaica. NoTXl. Satin Candle- wood. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon - gitudinal.) 470 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . No. 44. — Botanical name, Amyris. Natural order, — — . Aboriginal and Local name, Satin Candlewood. Specific gravity of specimen, 0-9 56. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. - - - - - Section. between Sup- ports. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 12232-2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. ] Transeverse Strain, in lbs. ! 1 . ' Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0-02 2204*6 0-06 3306*9 0-08 4409*2 0*11 5511*5 0*13 ■ 6613*8 0-16 7164*9 0-17 7716*1 0-18 8818*4 0-21 9920-7 0-24 11023*0 0.31 12125-3 0-42 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied Amount yielded 2204*6 lbs. - 4409*2 „ 6613-8 „ 8818*4 „ 11023*0 „ Crushing Weight 0*03 inch. 0-04 „ 0*05 „ 0*06 „ 0*07 12562*8 lbs. Gctpt. Foivkes Experiments on Woods. 471 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. 44-09*2 - 5511*5 - 6613*8 - 8818*4 - Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. - 0*11 - 0*30 - 0*55 - 0-58 No. 45.— Botanical name, Guatteria virgata. Natural order, — — Aboriginal and Local name, Lance Wood. “ Excellent timber, where strength and elasticity are required ; tough.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*675. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining" the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Ft. In. In. square. Feet. 1 1 2 1 8 1 6612*0 2 1 2 O 1 2 1 7714*0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment . Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Specimen 2. 1102-3 003 f 1 2204-6 009 0-06 3306*9 0-13 0-10 4409-2 0-19 015 5511-5 0-34 0-22 6613-8 » * * 0-30 7164-9 - 0-39 Capt.* ■ Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Crushing weight(trans-» verse.) * Jamaica. No. 45. Lance wood." Specific gravity. Bieaking weight. Deflection. Reports on the Paris Exhibition. 472 Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204-6 lbs. 4409-2 „ 6613-8 „ weigh t^fon- Crushing Weight gitudinal). ° ° 0 • 04 inch. 0-05 „ 0-07 „ 6613*8 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Crushing weight(trans- verse). Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 - _ . - 0-19 3306-9 _ _ . - 0-30 4409-2 - _ . - 0-37 5511-5 - _ - 0-40 6613-8 - _ . - 0-43 8818*4 - _ - - 0-46 Jamaica. No. 46. — Botanical name, Brya ebenus. Natural order, no 746. . Aboriginal and Local name, Bl^ck Heart Ebony, B EbJny!o a r rt Or WEST INDIAN EBONY. West Indian “ Very hard and ponderous, and susceptible of a very high polish ; very common in the savannahs and dry hills.” Specific gravity of specimen, 1*193. Specific gravity. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Breaking 1 weight. Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 1* Foot. I 8485-4 473 Gaft. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Fearing as in First Experiment.. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204-6 0-03 3306-9 0-05 4409-2 0-09 5511-5 0-12 6613-8 017 7716-1 0-22 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 18739 -libs.- - - 0-13 inch. Crushing weight, 18959 • 5 lbs. (broke violently). Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain, in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 6613-8 - - - 0-04 77161 - - - 005 8818-4 - - - 0-30 No. 47.— Botanical name, Laurus Chloroxylon. Na- tural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Cog- wood. “The best for mill-framing, cog-wheels; enduring in water.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0-961. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon - gitudinal). Crushing weight( trans- verse). Jamaica. No. 47. Cog wood. Specific gravity. 474 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Fowke’s Note — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . Expeui- m \voods. n First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. I Section. Breaking j weight. Ft. In. 1 2 ! y In. square. u ! Foot. I 6942*6 Deflection. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions und Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1.; 1102*3 0*03 2204*6 0*09 3306*9 0*10 4409*2 0*13 5511*5 0*21 6613*8 0*26 Third Experiment for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. Crushing 6613*8 lbs. - _ - 0*01 inch. weight Ion- gitudinal). 8818*4 ,. - * * 0*03 „ 11023*0 „ - . - - 0*05 „ Crushing Weight - 12122*0 lb; 475 Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 - 002 3306-9 - 0-0,5 4409*2 - 0'09 5511-5 - 0-15 6613-8 - 0-19 7716*1 - 0-24 8818-4 - 0-33 No. 48.— -Botanical name, . Natural order, Aboriginal and Local name, Small Leaf. Specific gravity of specimen, 1*169. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. i n In. square. Foot. 1 7934*4 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. : Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*10 2204*6 0*13 3306*9 0*17 4409-2 0*23 551 1 * 5 0*28 I Capt. F owke's Experi- ments on Woods. Crushing weight (trans- verse). Jamaica. No. 48. ' Small Leaf. Specific gravity. Breaking ; weight. 5 Deflection. 476 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Kxperi- MENXS ON Woods. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal.) Crushing weight (trans- verse.) Jamaica. No. 49. Wild Orange. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 15432*2 lbs. - - - 0*18 inch. Crushing Weight - - 15432*2 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 - 0*04 4409*2 - - - 0*07 6613*8 - 0*46 No. 49. — Botanical name, ClTRlTS AURANTIUM. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Wild Orange. “ Used for framing, &c.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0 * 908. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. In. square. Foot. 2 1 H 2 1 10141*1 Capt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. 477 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Specimen 2. 3306*9 _ _ _ 0-03 4409*2 - - -■ 0-05 5511*5 - - - 0*07 6613-8 - - - 0*11 7164-9 - - - 0-14 8818*4 - - » 0-21 9220-7 - - - 0*29 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 4409*2 lbs. - _ 0 * 02 inch. 6613-8 „ - - 0-03 „ 8818-4 „ - 0-05 „ 11023-0 „ - - 0 06 „ 13227-6 „ - 0-08 „ Crushing Weight - 13237-6 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen > 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 3306-9 4409-2 0-09 0-14 0-19 Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight (trans- verse). 478 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt . 1 Fowre's Experi- ments on Woods. Jamaica. No. 50. Gynip. . Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection, Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). No. 50. — Botanical name, Melicocca bijuga. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Gynip. “ Originally imported from Surinam ; grows commonly in tlie lowlands to a very large size.” Specific gravity of specimen, O’ 934. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain, No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 1| In. square. 2 i Foot. 1 ; 6612 ’0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*01 2204*6 0*07 3306*9 0*10 4409*2 0*15 5511*5 0*20 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. 4409*2 lbs. 6613*8 „ 7716*1 „ 8818*4 „ Crushing Weight Amount yielded. 0*01 inch. 0*03 „ 0*04 „ <>•07 „ 8818-4 lb?. Gapt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 479 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining tlie Crushing Strain in ICait. rr\ -p.. W loWKE'S a lransverse Direction. Experi- ments ON Dimensions, of Specimen, 1 inch cube, • Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. 2204 *6 - in decimals of an inch. * 0-06 Crushing “ weight (trans. 3306*9 - - - 010 verse). 4409-2 - - - 0-15 5511*5 - * - 0-19 6613-8 - - - 0-21 7716-1 - . - 0-22 8818-4 •• - - 0-49 No. 51, — Botanical name, Cedrela odorata. order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Cedar. Natural jA ^I CA - No. 51. Cedar. \ “ Rises with a straight stem 70 or 80 feet, and often from 3 to 5 feet diameter ; much esteemed for cabinet-ware and wainscoting, it affords most durable planks and shingles, yields a clear and abundant gum, which is said to be fit for shoemaker’s use. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*576. specific Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing, between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 3 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 j 3195*8 Breaking weight. 480 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Caft. Fovvke’s Experi- ments on Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection, Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment . Deflection, Transverse Strain, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Deflection. 1102-3 o-io 2204-6 0-26 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Strain applied. 2204-6 lbs. 3306*9 „ 4409-2 „ 5511-5 „ Crushing Weight Amount yielded. - 0-02 - 0*04 - 0-08 - 013 - 6613-8 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Crushing weight (trans- verse). Strain applied, in lbs. 2204 3306 4409 5511 6613-8 77161 8818-4 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 0*45 0-48 0-50 0-51 0-53 0-55 0-57 Jamaica. No. 52.— Botanical name, Morus tinctoria. Natural, n^ 752 . order, . Aboriginal name, Fustic. Local name, Fustic. -r-, 3 Fustic. “ A well-known yellow dyewood ; but the use of it as a dye- wood is, we believe, much discontinued by the more splendid quercitron bark of America. The wood is admirably adapted for the felloes of carriage and cart wheels. Grown in Kingston.” specific Specific gravity of specimen, 0*966. Capt. Fowled s Experiments on Woods. 481 Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 i Section. 2 Foot. 1 8595*6 Breaking weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0*05 3306*9 0*08 4409*2 0*10 5511*5 0*13 6613*8 0*17 7164*9 0*21 7716*1 0*23 Deflection. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 12125 *3 lbs. - Crushing Weight, - 0*06 inch. 12125*3 lbs. Crushing* weight (lon- gitudinal). Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 . - 0*03 Crushing 4409*2 - - 0*09 weight(trans« verse). 6613*8 - - 0*28 8818*4 - - - 0*39 H H 482 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Jamaica. No. 53. Prickle Yellow. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). No. 53. — Botanical name, Xanthoxylon clava Her- culis. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name. Prickle Yellow. “ For furniture, flooring, inlaying, &c., very common. Said to afford a dye, and to possess medicinal properties.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*691. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogramme?. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of- Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 3 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 5730*4 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 0-02 2204-6 0*05 3306-9 0-08 4409-2 0-14 5511-5 0-24 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre.' Dime?isions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. 4409*2 lbs. - 5511-5 „ 6613-8 „ - 7716-1 „ - 8818-4 „ - Crushing Weight Amount yielded. 0*03 inch. 0-04 „ 0-06 „ 0-07 „ 0-09 „ 8818*4 lbs. Capt. Fowlce’s Experiments on Woods. 483 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a capt. r n -rv* x* FOWKE’S lransverse Direction. Expert - Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. 2204*6 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 0-28 Crushing 3306*9 . 0-52 weight(tranf- verse)# 4409*2 - 0-59 6613*8 . 0-65 8818-4 - 0-66 No. 54. — Botanical name, Guiacum officinale Natural order, . Aboriginal or Local name, Lignum Vital “A well-known hard wood, adapted for rulers, pestles, and mortars, the rollers or wheels of blocks and pullies, yielding the medicinal gum resin, Guiacum. A decoction of the bark is in common use among the natives as a cure for rheumatism. The tree is very common on the south side of the island.” Specific gravity of specimen, 1 ■ 170. Ditto, No. 2, ditto 0*651. Jamaica. No. 54. Lignum Vita?. Specific giavity. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight, when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Ft. In. In. square. Foot. 1 1 2$ 2 1 5511*5 2 i H 2 1 5069-2 Breaking weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Dearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Specimen 2. 2204-6 o-oi 0*07 3306-9 O'Oo 0*12 4409*2 0-08 0-21 Deflection H H 2 484 Reports on the Paris Exhibition, Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). 4409*2 lbs. 6613-8 „ 8818-4 „ 9920-7 „ Crushing Weight - 0-01 0-02 0-04 005 9920-7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. Crushing 4409-2 m 001 weight arans • verse) . 6613-8 _ . 0-02 7716-1 - . 0-05 8818-4 . - 006 9920-7 - - 0-26 Jamaica. No. 55. — Botanical name, Acacia arborea. Natural No._5r>. order, . Aboriginal or Local name, Wild Tamarind. Tamarind. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*750. Specific gravity. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Ft. In. In. square. Foot. Breaking 1 weight. 1 2 1| 1 3526*4 Breaking weight. Capt. Fowhes Experiments on Woods. 485 Second Experiment, for noting tlie Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Deflection, Transverse Strain, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0*12 3306*9 0-14 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. 4409 ' 2 6613*8 7716-1 Crushing Weight Amount yielded. 0*07 0*09 0*11 8705-8 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of 2204-6 _ 0-48 4409-2 - - 0-64 6613-8 - . 0-66 8818-4 - - 0-70 No. 56. — Botanical name, Quassia excelsa. Natural order, . Aboriginal or Local name, Bitteiiwood. Used for “ lumber generally ; never infested with insects.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*555. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on ; W ooDS. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weighty trans ver^.e). Jamaica. No. 56. Bittsrwooi. { pecific gravity. 486 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Ci\pt . Note, — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. Fowke’s experi- First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when woods. submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing ! between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Breaking weight. 1 Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 3746-8 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Deflection, Transverse Strain, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Deflection. 2204-6 0-17 3306-9 0-44 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204-6 lbs. - 4409-2 „ 5511-5 „ Crush in Crushing Weight weight (lon- gitudinal). 0 * 09 inch. 0-13 „ 0-19 „ 5511-5 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 0-51 0-57 0-60 0-63 Crushing weight (trans- verse). Strain applied, in lbs. 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 Gapt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 487 No. 57. — Botanical name, Bignonia longissima, or Tecoma longissima. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, French Oak. “ Grows large.” Specific gravity of specimen, O’ 774. Note. — Tlie following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. * Ft. In. 1 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 4408*0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment . Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*02 2204*6 0*14 3306-9 0*26 4409*2 0-44 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 4409-2 lbs. - 5511-5 „ 6613*8 „ Crushing Weight - 0*01 inch. 0-04 „ 0-14 „ 6613*8 lbs. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Jamaica. No. 57. French Oak. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection. Crushing weighty lon- gitudinal). 488 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Foivke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an in Crushing weight(trans- 2204*6 - - 0*33 verse). 3306-9 - - 0-41 4409*2 - - 0*46 5511*5 - . 0*50 6613*8 . - 0*54 7716-1 - - 0*58 8818'4 - - 0*61 Jamaica. No. 58. — Botanical name, ClTHAREXYLUM MALANO- _. no- 58. cardium. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local riddlewood. „ 7 ° name, Fiddlewood. “ Durable. Used for mill framing, carriage wheels, &c. A most useful timber. Said to yield a beautiful yellow or orange for white washer s’ work.” gravity! Specific gravity of specimen, 0*707. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing > between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Breaking 1 weight. Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 5510*0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2102-3 0-03 2204-6 0*10 3306 9 0-18 4409*2 0-27 Deflection. Cajpt. Fowhes Experiments on Woods. 489 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. 4409*2 „ DO 115 ,, 6613*8 „ 0*02 inch. 0*04 „ 0*07 „ Crushing Weight 6613 ‘8 lbs. Crushing weight (Ion. gitudinal). Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 _ 0*36 Crushing 4409*2 - 0*61 weightf trans- verse). 6613*8 - 0*67 8818*4 - 0*69 No. 59. — Terminalia latifolia. Natural order, — — . Jamaica. Aboriginal or Local name, Broadleaf. no. 59 . - ° > # Broad Leaf “ Used for boards, scantling, shingles, and staves. This tree is often called the ‘ Almond Tree,’ from the almond-shaped nut it bears. The outer coat of this nut (about J inch thick) is a soft, acrid, insipid fruit, of which bats, &c. are very fond, as they constantly carry them about from place to place. The shell is very thick, and the nut very small, possessing a pleasant nutty flavour ; grows 60 feet before reaching main branches, and 12 or 16 feet in circumference.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*771. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. Specific gravity. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. • Ft. In. 1 2 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6061*0 Breaking weight. 490 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on ‘ Wood. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight(tranS' verse).) Jamaica. No. 60. Cashaw. Specific gravity. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 0-03 2204-6 0-09 3306-9 0-14 4409-2 0-22 5511*5 0-35 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 4409-2 lbs. 6613*8 „ 7716-1 „ 0*03 inch. 0*06 „ 0-09 „ Crushing Weight - 7716-1 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 - 0-16 3306*9 - 0-45 4409-2 - 0-51 6613-8 - 0*55 8818*4 - 0-60 No. 60. — Botanical name, Prosopis juliflora. Natural order, . Aboriginal name, Cashaw. Local name, Cashaw. “ Adapted for knees of boats and ship-building generally, but it does not stand the iron nails well. Yields an abundant gum, differing little, if at all, from gum arabic ; also a useful fibre ; a common tree ; attains 30 or 40 feet in height, Avitli 3 feet diameter ; very hard, much twisted and crooked ; sometimes split for shingles, but nail holes must be bored.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0-916. Gapt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. ■191 Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. — Ft. In. 1 2* In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6391*6 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*01 2204*6 0*06 3306*9 0*09 4409*2 0*15 5511*5 0*20 Third Experiment for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Strain appplied. Amount yielded. 9920*7 lbs. - 0-14 Crushing Weight - 9920*7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 ----- o*07 4409*2 ----- 0*25 6613*8 ----- 0*35 8818*4 ----- 0*44 Caft. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Breaking weight. Deflection., Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weigh t(trans- verse) 492 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Jamaica. No. 61. Bullet Tree. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection. Crushing weight (Ion- gitudinal. No. 61. — Botanical name, Achras sideroxylon. Na- tural order, . Aboriginal name, Neesberry. Local name, Bullet Tree. “ A very lofty tree. Said to be called “ Bully” from its towering above other trees ; esteemed as one of the best timber trees.” Specific gravity of specimen, 1*046. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 H In. square. 2 Foot. I 9920*7 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0*04 3306*9 0*07 4409*2 0*09 5511*5 0*11 6613*8 0*13 7164*9 0*14 7716*1 0*16 8818*4 0*22 9920*7 0*30 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 14329 *9 lbs. - 0*08 inch. Crushing Weight - 143-29 *9 lbs. Capt Foivkes Experiments on Woods. 493 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 - 0-04 - 0-09 - 0-13 No. 62. — Botanical name, Podocarpus yacca. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Yacca. “ Grows freely in this island, at a moderate elevation from the sea level, and is used for ornamental cabinet purposes.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*626. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 2204*6 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*05 Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Crushing weighty trans- verse). Jamaica. No762. Yacca. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Deflection. 494 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal) Strain applied. 2204*6 lbs. 4409-2 „ 5511*5 „ 6613-8 ,, Amount yielded. 0-03 0-04 0-05 0-10 Crushing Weight - - 6613-8 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. Crushing weight(trans- verse). 2204-6 3306-9 4409-2 5511*5 6613*8 8818*4 0*39 0-45 0-50 0-52 0*53 0-58 Jamaica. No. — Botanical name, Hibiscus tiliaceus. Natural Blue Mahoe or der, * • Aboriginal and Local name, Blue Mahoe. “ Used for cart, carriage, and waggon bodies, inlaying, &c. ; much used for furniture ; yields strong fibre for cordage.” specific Specific gravity of specimen, 0*536. gravity. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. Ft. In. In. square. Foot. Breaking 1 weight. 1 H 2 1 4297*0 Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 495 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Deflection in decimals Transverse Strain, of an inch. in lbs. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*09 2204*6 0*23 3306*9 0*40 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 8818*4 lbs. - 0*11 inch. Crushing Weight - - 8818*4 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 4409*2 6613*8 8818*4 0*60 0*65 0*68 0*70 No. 64. — Botanical name, Prunus Occidentalis. Natural order, * . Aboriginal and Local name, Prune. “ The bark yields an excellent liquor.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0 * 864. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 3 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6613*8 C\PT. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight (trans- verse). Jamaica. No. 64. Prune. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. 496 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight(trans- verse). Jamaica. No. 65. Wild Mahogany. Specific gravity. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204-6 0-05 3306*9 0-09 4409-2 0-14 5511 *5 0-20 6613*8 0-34 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , ] inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. 4409-2 „ 6613-8 „ 8818-4 „ 9920-7 „ Crushing weight 0*02 inch. 0*03 „ 0-04 „ 0*05 „ 0-10 „ 9920 -7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaing the Crusliining Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 3306-9 4409-2 5511-5 6613-8 7716-1 8818-4 006 0-18 0-28 0*38 0-41 0-42 0-45 No. 65. — Botanical name, Var Swietania Mahogani. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Wild Mahogany. “ Used for furniture, water wheels, planking of vessels, &c. Its growth dependent on localities.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*921. 497 Capt FowJce’s Experiments on Woods. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 3 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 7383*4 Breaking weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 004 3306-9 009 4409-2 0*12 5511-5 018 6613-8 0-23 7164-9 0-28 Deflection. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 4409*2 lbs. _ 0*03 inch. 6613*8 „ - - 0*05 „ 8818*4 „ - - 0-07 „ Crushing Weight - - 8818-4 lbs. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal.) 498 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Crushing weightftrans- versed.j Jamaica. ' No~66. Willow- leaved Bas- tard Bullet .Tree. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204’6 4409*2 6613*8 8818-4 0*10 0-52 0-56 0-58 No. 66. — Botanical name, Bumelia salicifolia. Natu- ral order, . Aboriginal name, Sapota, and Galimeta Wood. Local name, Willow-leaved Bastard Bullet Tree. “ From Fort George pen ; extracted from the forest at six miles from the sea coast, and grew in a soil of mould, the sub- stratum rock being porphyritic conglomerate, and sandstone. Said to be good timber wood when not exposed to the weather,” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*902. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 5 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6722*2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment , Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 0-03 2204*6 0*06 3306-9 0*09 4409-2 0-11 5511*5 0-14 6613*8 0-18 Deflection. Gapt. Fowke's Experiments on Woods . 499 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. 4409-2 lbs. Amount yielded. - 0*02 inch. 6613-8 „ - - 0-03 „ 8818-4 „ - - 0-05 „ 11023-0 „ - - o-ii „ Crushing Weight - - 11023-0 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain . in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 0-11 0-30 0-37 0*42 No. 67. — Botanical name, Hym.ena:a Courbaril, Natu- ral order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Locust. 44 Boards ; house framing ; hard and tough ; supposed to have been imported. From the roots exude that valuable substance called 4 gum animi,’ which is said to form an excellent varnish, superior tp Chinese lacca. Grows on the plains pud mountains round St. Catharine’s.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*675, Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight in lbs. Specimen. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 5| In. square. 2 Foot. 1 G061 *0 I I 2 Cabt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight(trans- verse) . Jamaica.’ No.' 67. Locust. Specific gravity. Breaking weight. 500 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke's experi- Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. MENTS ON ° Woods. — Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. Deflection, Transverse Strain, in decimals of an inch. in lbs. Specimen 1. Deflection. 2204*6 0*08 3306*9 0*14 4409*2 0*23 5511*5 0*40 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). 4409*2 lbs. 6613*8 „ 7716-1 „ Crushing Weight 0*03 inch. 0-05 „ 0-26 „ 7716*1 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inc 2204*6 0-38 Crushing weight (tran 3306*9 - 0-41 verse). 4409*2 - 0*45 5511 *5 - 0*51 6613*8 - 0*54 Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 501 No. 68. — Botanical name, -. Natural order, Aboriginal name, Beech. Local name, Beech. Used for “house framing, of large growth.” Specific gravity of specimen 0 * 843. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Jamaica. No. 68. Beech. Specific gravity. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 13f In. square. 2 Feet. 1 9038*8 Breaking weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0*02 3306.9 0 ! 05 4409*2 0*09 5511*5 0*11 6613*8 0*17 7164*9 0*21 7716*1 0*27 8818*4 0*45 Deflection, Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 88 18 '4 lbs - O’ 08 inch. Crushing Weight - - 8818*4 lbs. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal).. Reports oil the Paris Exhibition. 502 -Ca.pt. Fo wee’s Experi- Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. MENTS ON Woods. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. Crushing weight (tram- 2204*6 0*13 verse). 4409-2 0-31 5511*5 0-37 6613-8 0-41 Ja maica. No. 69.— Botanical name, Andira inermis. Natural cabbage 9 ' order, . Aboriginal name, . Local name, Cabbage Bark Tree. BARK TREE. “ Grows to a moderate height ; hark used as a vermifuge ; its effects are emetic, drastic, purgative, and narcotic ; yields a Very tough and useful wood.” gravity! Specific gravity of specimen, 0-945. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Breaking 1 weight. ! Ft. In. ; 1 L In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6722*2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. l | Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. "Specimen 1. 1 2204-6 0*05 3306-9 0-08 4409-2 o-io 5511-5 0-15 6613-8 0-23 Deflection. Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 503 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing- Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 9920*7 lbs. - » - - 0*05 inch. Crushing Weight - 9920’ 7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 0-08 0-34 0-47 0-52 No. 70. — Botanical name, % Natural order, Aboriginal and Local name, Red Bully or Bullet Tree. Specific gravity of specimen, 0*999. Note.— The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 4 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 5510-0 Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight( trans- verse).' , Jamaica. NoTTo- Red Bully, or Bullet Tree. Specific gravity. ; Breaking weight. 504 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. caft. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Fowke’s ments o n Dimensions and Bearinq as in First Experiment. Woods. . 9 1 Deflection, Transverse Strain, in decimals of an inch. in lbs. Specimen 1. Deflection. 2204-6 0-06 3306*9 0-09 4409*2 o-io 5511-5 0-18 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. Crushing weight (Ion gitudinal). 2204*6 lbs. 4409-2 „ - - - 0*01 inch. - 0-02 „ 6613-8 „ - - - 0-05 „ 8818-4 „ - - - 0-06 „ 9920-7 „ - - - 0-16 „ Crushing Weight - - 9920-7 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. Crushing weight (trans verse). 2204-6 4409*2 6613-8 8818-4 0-08 0-19 0-34 0-43 Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 505 No. 71. — Botanical name, Tamarind us occidentalism Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Tamarind. “Large growth : thrives in lowland savannahs, but best in brick mould districts.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*870. Capt. Foyvke’s Experi- ments ON Woods. Jamaica. No. 71. Tamarind. Specific gravity. Note The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. — Ft. In. 1 41 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 6722*2 Breaking weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204*6 0*05 3306*9 0*09 4409*2 015 5511*5 0-20 6613*8 028 Deflection. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube . Strain applied. Amount yieled. 4409*2 lbs. _ - 0*05 inch. 6613*8 „ - - - 0*06 „ 8818*4 „ - - - 0*09 „ Crushing Weight - - - 9256*8 lbs. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). 506 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Fourth Fxperiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an in Crushing 2204*6 - 0*11 weight( trans- verse). 4409*2 - 0*35 6613*8 - 0-41 8818*4 - 0*47 Jamaica. No. 72. — Botanical name, Crescentia Cujete. Natu- no. 72 . ral order, . Aboriginal name, . Local name, alabash. 0 7 1 Calabash. “ Grows common throughout the island, 20 feet and less high, wood light, tough, and pliant, fit for carriage building, &c. The fruit well adapted for many domestic and ornamental purposes.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*557. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Breaking ^ weight. Ft. In. 1 In. square. 2 Foot. 1 4518*2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment . Deflection. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*03 2204*6 0*08 3306-9 0*11 4409*2 0*23 Capt. Foiukes Experiments on W oods. 507 Third Experiment, for ascertaining ilie Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Capt. Fowke's Experi- ments on Woods. Strain applied, Amount yielded. 2204*6 lbs. - 4409*2 „ - 5511*5 „ - Crushing Weight, 0*01 inch. 0*03 „ - 55il*5 1bs. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). FOurtII Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a' Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. in applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. Crushing '■ 1102*3 * 0*31 weight( trans- 2204*6 - 0*33 verse). 3306*9 - 0*43 4409*2 n 0*50 5511*5 - 0*54 6613*8 - 0*57 7716-1 - 0*59 8818-4 - 0*61 No. 73.— Lignum Yule. See No. 54, Specimen 2. Jamaica. No. 73. LignumVit*. No. 74. — Botanical name, — — . Natural order, Aboriginal and Local name, Yellow Sanders. Specific gravity of specimen, 0 • 859. Jamaica. No. 74. Yellow San- ders. Specific gravity. Note.* — The following Weights Ore reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain*. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. l Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 4f In. square. 2 Foot. 1 9590-0 508 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments ON fWoODS. Deflection. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Crushing weight(trans verse). Jamaica. No. 75. ' (Jreen Mahogany. Specific gravity. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102*3 0*03 2204*6 0*07 3306*9 0*12 4409*2 0*21 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. 2204*6 lbs. - 4409*2 „ 6613*8 „ - Crushing Weight Amount yielded. - 0*03 inch. - 0*05 „ - 0*10 „ - 6613*8 lbs. Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 4409*2 6613*8 8818*4 0*26 0*43 0*49 0*52 No. 75. — Botanical name, Sweitenia mahogant. Natu- ral order, . Aboriginal and Local name, GrEen Mahogany. “ For furniture, water wheels, planking of vessels, &c.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*664. Capt. Fowke's Experiments on Woods. 509 Note. — The folloivinq Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. Capt. ^ 17 ‘ Fowke’s First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when | M ent?ox submitted to a Transverse Strain. SWoods. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearing between Sup- ports. Breaking W eight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 0 16£ In. square. 2 # Foot. 1 6061*0 “Jg* Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204-6 0-07 3306-9 0*16 4409-2 0*23 5511-5 0-45 Deflection. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen, 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 2204-6 lbs. - 4409*2 „ - 6613-8 „ - 0-04 inch. 0-07 „ 0-10 „ Crushing Weight, 7716- 1 lbs. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal.) Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, Amount yielded, in lbs. in decimals of an inch. 2204*6 _ _ 030 4409*2 - - 0-43 Crushing weight(trans- 6613-8 - - 0-49 verse) . 8818*4 - - 0-52 510 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke's Experi- ments on Woods. Jamaica. No. 76. Black Dog- wood or Bitchwood. Specific gravity. No. 76. — Botanical Name, Piscidia Qarthageniensis. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name. Black Dogwood, or Bitchwood. “ A mid-sized tree, grows mostly in the low lands on dry calcereous hills. The bark, especially of the root, intoxicates fish. A tincture has been used as a hynoptic, and has been highly recommended in cases of maniacal excitement. A most useful tree, lasts well in or out of water, and said to make ex- cellent piles for wharves, &c.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0 • 930, water being 1 * 000, Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes . First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen, Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. Breaking j weight. Ft. In. 16 1 In squares. 2 Feet. 1 6061*0 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment Deflection. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 Q03 2204-6 0-08 3306’ 9 0*11 4409-2 0*23 Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube . ' A Strain applied. Amount yielded. 11023*0 lbs. . - Q * 13 inch. Crushing * weight (lon- Crushing Weight - - 11023-0 lbs. gitudinal , Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. 511 Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Capt. Fowke’s Experi- ments on Woods. Strain applied, in lbs. 2204-6 4409-2 6613-8 8818-4 Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch, - 007 - 0-17 - 0-33 - 0-70 Crushing weight(tran8* verse). No. 77. — Botanical name, Citrus Aurantium. Natural jA ^i CA< order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Sweet Orange. ^weet* “ Used for inlaying, &c. walking sticks. Very common ; but thrives best in brick mould districts.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*785. gravity 0 . Note. — The following weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 1 5 % In. square. 2 Foot. 1 4628*4 Breaking weight. »/ Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearing as in First Experiment . Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 1102-3 0*04 2204*6 o-io 3306*9 0-20 4409*2 0*38 Deflection. 512 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fo wee's Experi- ments on Woods. No. 78. — Botanical name, Piscidia Erythrina. Natural order, . Aboriginal and Local name, White Dog- wood. Jamaica. No. 78. White Dogwood. Specific gravity. “A mid-sized tree, growing mostly in the lowlands on dry calcarous hills. The bark, especially of the root, intoxicates fish.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0*943. Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. Bearings between Sup- ports. Breaking W eight in lbs. Length. Section. Breaking 1 weight.’ Et. In. 0 17| In. Square. 2 Foot. 1 9477*2 Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Rearing as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. Deflection. 1102*3 0*02 2204*6 0*06 4409 2 0*12 5511*5 0*16 / 6613*8 0*23 7164*9 0*26 7716*1 0*30 8818*4 0*39 Jamaica. No. 79 — Botanical name, Laurtjs Borbonia. Natural no. 79 . order, . Aboriginal and Local name, Timber Sweet- Timber 7 0 Sweetwood. WOOD. Specific gravity. “ For boards, staves, and scantlings — large and abundant on the lower hills.” Specific gravity of specimen, 0 * 97 3. Capt. Fowke's Experiments on Woods. 513 Note. — The following Weights are reduced from Kilogrammes. f Capt. First Experiment, for ascertaining the Breaking Weight when submitted to a Transverse Strain. Woods. No. of Specimen. Dimensions. | Bearings between Sup- ports. | Breaking Weight, in lbs. Length. Section. 1 Ft. In. 17 f In. Square. 2 Foot. 1 q 140-1 Breaking yi ^ y 1 weight. Second Experiment, for noting the Deflection. Dimensions and Bearings as in First Experiment. Transverse Strain, in lbs. Deflection, in decimals of an inch. Specimen 1. 2204-6 0-04 3306-9 0-09 4409-2 0-13 5511 *5 0-21 6613*8 0-26 7164-9 0-30 7716-1 0-33 8818-4 0-48 Deflection. Third Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in the Direction of the Fibre. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied. Amount yielded. 8818-4 lbs. - - 0-11 inch. 9920-7 „ - - 0-14 „ Crushing Weight 9920-7 lbs. Crushing weight (lon- gitudinal). Fourth Experiment, for ascertaining the Crushing Strain in a Transverse Direction. Dimensions of Specimen , 1 inch cube. Strain applied, in lbs. Amount yielded, in decimals of an inch. 2204-6 4409-2 8818-4 0-05 0-20 0-62 Crushing weighty trans- verse). K K In fS OJ a O) a, m O j§ 46 7 54 48 11 2 35 28 27 61 34 25 5 13 4 1 19 70 29 43 79 8 52 47 44 15 69 78 21 50 76 16 18 65 60 30 49 « 66 17 3 32 71 9 12 04 74 49 6 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . TABLE I. following Table the Woods are arranged in the Order of their Specific Gravity. Name of Wood. Slack Heart Ebony- Sox of Illawarra lignum Yitse Small Leaf. Sastard Box fountain Ash iakaralli . Sipiri or Greenkeart Sipiri or Greenheart Sieesberry Bullet Tre Yallaba Brown Ebony iron Bark . 3road leaved Iron Bar Yoolly Butt N ater Gum letter Wood Bed Bully Tree . Buamara or Tonka [ron Wood Sweet Wood rrue Box of Camden Fustic oOg Wood Satin Candlewood Mahogany Bastard Cabbage Bar White Dogwood Monkey Pot Gynip Black Dogwood Grey Gum Mora Wild Mahogany Cashaw Ducaballi Wild Orange Bullet Tree (Bastard) Cabacalli . Black Butt Kaieeri-balli Tamarind . Stringy Bark Swamp Mahogany Prune Yellow Sanders Wild Orange Blue Gum Colony. Specific Gravity. Distilled Water being 1 *000. Jamaica 1*193 New South Wales . 1-170 Jamaica 1-170 Ditto 1-169 New South Wales . 1-115 Ditto 1-110 Ditto 1*103 British Guiana 1 -089 Ditto 1-052 J amaica 1-046 British Guiana 1-035 Ditto 1*034 j New South Wales . 1-032 Ditto . . i 1-016 Ditto 1-005 Ditto 1-001 British Guiana 0-999 Jamaica 0-999 British Guiana 0-987 Jamaica 0-987 Ditto 0-973 New South Wales 0-970 Jamaica 0*966 New South Wales . 0*961 J amaica 0-956 New South Wales . 0-952 Jamaica 0*945 Ditto 0-943 British Guiana 0-941 Jamaica 0-934 Ditto 0-930 New South Wales . 0-927 British Guiana 0-922 Jamaica 0-921 Ditto 0-916 British Guiana 0-910 Jamaica 0-908 Ditto 0*902 British Guiana 0-893 New South Wales . 0-891 British Guiana . 0*870 Jamaica 0-870 New South Wales . 0-864 Ditto ' 0-864 Jamaica 0-864 Ditto 0*859 Ditto 0-S5u New South Wales . 0*843 Remarks. 515 Capt. Fowkes Experiments on Woods. Table I. — continued. No. of Specimen. Name of Wood. Colony. Specific Gravity, Distilled Water | being 1*000. Remarks. G8 Beech Jamaica 0*843 41 Sirabuliballi British Guiana 0*838 33 Buhuradda Ditto 0*814 40 Buckati Ditto 0.812 20 Iloubaballi Ditto 0*810 26 Baracara . Ditto 0*807 77 Sweet Orange Jamaica 0*785 57 French Oak Ditto 0*774 38 White Cedar British Guiana 0*771 59 Broad Leaf Jamaica 0*771 55 | Wild Tamarind . Ditto 0*750 14 | Hickory . . New South Wales 0*748 39 | Locust Tree British Guiana 0*707 | 58 Fiddle Wood Jamaica 0*707 31 Cartan British Guiana 0*703 ! 1 53 Prickle Yellow . Jamaica 0*691 42 Box-wood . Ditto . 0*690 24 Purple Heart . British Guiana 0*679 67 Locust Tree Jamaica 0*675 45 Lancewood Ditto 0*675 ' 75 1 Green Mahogany Ditto 0*664 10 Forest Swamp Oak New South Wales 0*661 74 Lignum Vitae Jamaica 0*651 22 Bartaballi . British Guiana 0*640 62 Yacca Jamaica • 0*626 37 Crabwood . • i British Guiana ’ 0*603 51 Cedar 1 Jamaica 0*576 72 Calabash . Ditto 0*557 56 Bitterwood Ditto * 0*555 36 Silverballi . British Guiana 0*546 63 Blue Mahoe ’ 1 Jamaica • j 0*536 | K K 2 In ' m o o 525 43 7 46 48 44 27 25 23 11 19 5 21 28 29 49 13 41 Cl o 18 35 74 78 33 30 79 68 15 3 52 47 26 22 12 16 14 1 40 45 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . TABLE II. — Breaking Weights. this Table the Woods are arranged according to their Value in the First Series of Experiments. Name of Wood. Colony. Breaking Weight reduced to 12 in. by 2 in. sq. 1 .5 0 1 > Remarks. Iron Wood Jamaica lbs. 14991 ’ 2 5624*0 Box of Illawarra New South Wales 13831*6 5186*6 Black Heart Ebony . Jamaica 13580*3 5094*4 Small Leaf Ditto 12698*6 4761*9 Satin Candlewood . Ditto 12235*5 4587*7 Sipiri or Greenheart British Guiana 12215*6 4580*0 Yellow variety. Wamara or Brown Ditto 12125*3 4546*0 Ebony. Wild Mammee Ditto 11640-2 4365*1 Bastard Box . . 1 New South Wales 11450*6 4294*5 Letter Wood . . J British Guiana 11256*6 4221*8 Iron Bark New South Wales 10870*8 4068*0 Monkey Pot . British Guiana 10692*3 4009*0 Sipiri or Gi'eenkeart Ditto 10471*8 3926-3 Black variety. Cuamara or Tonka . Ditto 10471*8 3926*3 Wild Orange . Jamaica 10141*1 3802*9 From Metcalf Broad-leaf Iron Bark New South Wales 10004*4 3752*2 Parish. Sirabuliballi British Guiana 9920*7 3719* 1 Neesberry Bullet Tree 1 Jamaica 9920*7 3719*1 Mountain Ash New South Wales 9863*3 3699*3 Mora j Bx’itisli Guiana 9700*2 3637*5 Kakaralli New South Wales 9590*0 3596*0 Yellow Sanders ! Jamaica 9590*0 3596*0 White Dogwood Ditto 9479*7 3553*8 Buhuradda . British Guiana 9479*7 3553*8 Ducaballi Ditto 9369*5 3511*9 Sweet Wood . Jamaica 9149*1 3430*3 Beech . Ditto 903S*8 3389*0 Mahogany New South Wales 8994*7 3373*0 Black Butt Ditto 8741*2 3278*2 Fustic . Jamaica 8597*9 3223* 1 Cog Wood Ditto 8542*8 3205*4 Baracara British Guiana 8499*7 3189-2 Bartaballi . Ditto 8465*6 3174*6 Swamp Mahogany . New South Wales 8281*6 3101*8 Grey Gum Ditto 7828*5 2936*5 Hickory Ditto 7795*4 2923*3 Water Gum . Ditto 7760* 1 2910*0 Buckati . British Guiana 7716*1 2892*4 Lance Yfocd . Jamaica • 7716*1 2892*4 pi Q< m o 6 £ 65 17 38 6 69 71 66 64 50 24 60 32 4 10 39 59 76 67 75 9 53 55 58 42 34 37 54 70 8 31 20 77 72 49 57 36 63 56 51 62 Cajjt. Fowke’s Experiments on Woods. 517 Table II. — continued. Name of Wood. Colony. Breaking Weight reduced to 12 in. by 2 in. sq. Value of S. in lbs. Remarks. Wild Mahogany Jamaica lbs. 7385*4 2768*9 Cabacalii British Guiana 7167’1 2687-4 White Cedar . Ditto 7167 ‘ 1 2687*4 Blue Gum New South Wales . 7167-1 2687*4 Bastard Cabbage Bark J amaica 6724*0 2519*8 Tamarind Ditto 6724-0 2519*8 Bastard Bullet Tree . Ditto 6724*0 2519*8 Prune Ditto 6613-8 2480*1 Gynip . Ditto 6613'8 2480*1 Purple Heart . British Guiana 6393-3 2403*0 Cashaw . Jamaica 6393*3 2403-0 Kaieeri-balli . British Guiana 6393*3 2403*0 Woolly Butt . New South Wales . 6272*0 2352*3 Forest Swamp Oak . Ditto 6214*6 2330*2 Locust Tree . British Guiana 6172*9 2314*8 Broad Leaf Jamaica 6062-7 2272*9 Black Dogwood Ditto 6062*7 2272*9 Locust Tree . Ditto 6062*7 2272*9 Green Mahogany Ditto 6062*7 2272*9 Stringy Bark . New South Wales . 5795-9 2173*7 Prickle Yellow Jamaica 5731*9 2149-4 Wild Tamarind Ditto 5643*7 2116*4 Fiddle Wood . Ditto 5511-5 2065*7 Box Wood Ditto 5511*5 2065*7 Wall aba British Guiana 5511*5 2065*7 Crabwood Ditto 5511*5 2065*7 Lignum Vitae . Jamaica 551 1 ’ 5 2065*7 Red Bully Tree Ditto 5511*5 2065*7 True Box of Camden New South Wales . 5443*1 2041*4 Cardan . British Guiana 4960-3 1858*4 Houbaballi Ditto 4737*7 1776*9 Sweet Orange . Jamaica 4629*7 1735*0 Calabash Ditto 4518*2 1694*0 Wild Orange . Ditto 4409-2 1653*4 From St. Cathe- French Oak . Ditto 4409*2 1653*4 rine’s Parish. Siruaballi British Guiana 4299-0 1611*5 Blue Mahoe . Jamaica 4299-0 1611*5 Bitter Wood Ditto 3747*8 1404*3 Cedar . Ditto 3196*7 1199*3 Yacca . , Ditto 2204*6 826*7 18 In d a> J “o a> & m © o’ £ 46 43 28 48 61 19 23 30 13 35 49 25 44 33 21 47 27 52 29 76 66 1 3 2 38 40 41 79 54 5 60 64 69 70 7 16 Reports on the Paris Exhibition • TABLE III. — Crushing Strains. this Table the Woods are arranged according to their Va\ie in the Third Series of Experiments . Name of Wood. Colony. Crushing Weight, applied in Direction of Fibre. Dimensions, one inch cube. Remarks. Black Heart Ebony . Iron Wood or Red Wood. Sipiri Bibiru, or Greenheart. Small Leaf Neesberry Bullet Tree Letter Word or Snake Wood. Wild Mammee Ducaballi Rough-leaved, Rough- barked Iron Bark. Kakaralli Wild Orange. Wamara or Brown Ebony. Satin Candlewood Buhuradda Monkey Pot . Cog Wood Sipiri or Greenheart Fustic . Cuamara or Tonka . Black Dogwood Willow-leaved Bas- tard Bullet Tree. Water Gum . Black Butt Mountain Ash White Cedar . Buckati . Sirabuliballi . Sweet Wood . Lignum Vitae . Iron Bark Cashaw . Prune . Bastard Cabbage Bark Tree. Red Bully Tree Box of Illawarra Grey Gum Jamaica Ditto British Guiana Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto New South Wales British Guiana Jamaica British Guiana Jamaica British Guiana Ditto Jamaica British Guiana Jamaica British Guiana Jamaica Jamaica * fj New South Wales Ditto Ditto British Guiana Ditto Ditto Jamaica Ditto New South Wales Jamaica Ditto Ditto Ditto New South Wales Ditto lbs. 18959-5 17636’8 I 15432-2 | Black variety. i 15432-2 14329-9 14105-6 13227-6 13227 ' 6 13227-6 13227-6 13227-6 12566-2 From Metcalf Parish. 12562-8 12125-3 12125-3 12122-0 12125-3 12125-3 11463-9 11023-0 11023-0 Yellow vearity. 11020-0 11020-0 11020-0 9920-7 9920-7 9920-7 9920-7 .*920-7 9920-7 9920-7 9920-7 9920-7 9920-7 9920-7 9920-7 fl s I o Ph • ‘ ! REPORTS ON TIIE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION; PART II. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty. LONDON : PRINTED BY GEORGE E. EYRE AND WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, PRINTERS TO TITE QUEEN’S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY. FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE. 1856. J CONTENTS of PART II. PAGE On Mining ancl Metallurgical Products, by Warington Smyth, M.A., F.G.S. 1 On Machinery in general, by William Fairhairn, C.E., F.E.S. - - 63 Appendix 1 to the same report - - - 136 Appendix 2 „ „ - - - - 147 Appendix 3 „ „ - - - - 152 On Machinery for Woven Fabrics, by Rev. E. Willis, M.A., F.E.S. - 155 On General Metal Work, by A. Tylor, F.G.S. - •• - -177 On certain Optical and other Instruments, by Sir David Brewster, Iv.H., F.E.S. - 277 On Warming and Ventilating, by Dr. Arnott - 305 On Naval Constructions, by Francis Fowke, Captain R.E. - - 317 On Ceramic Manufactures, by INI. Leon Arnoux - - - 351 On Glass, by M. Bontemps ------ 373 2 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smyth ok Miking and Metallur- gical PRODUCTS. General character of objects in Class I. ; not easily appreciated by the public. Comparison of British exhibits with those of 1861 o With few exceptions, the products of human industry belonging to the First Class are not of a character to attract the attention of a casual observer. Even the appre- ciation of the native substances here exhibited requires an amount of previous study which cannot be looked for except in a very small per-centage of the more educated visitors. And if this is the case as regards their natural properties, still more is it observable with reference to the modes of extracting them from their parent sites, and preparing them for application in the arts. The spectator who rapidly brushes past a row of tawny, lustre-lacking ironstones, or throws a momentary glance over a series of glistening ores of copper, obtains from these specimens no idea of the prac- tical sciences which hunted up the dwelling-places of such minerals, of the skilful, perilous handicraft which attacked them underground, or of the divers engines and apparatus which were needful for the operation of working them. An occasional model or plan, illustrating some special process in a particular place is all that can be expected ; and the main interest of objects the most important to civilized man remains a sealed book to all but those who have devoted some attention to the structure of our earth, and to the methods which are employed for adapting its constituents to the useful purposes of life. The finished products of the labour of the miner and metallurgist may be expected to command more general attention. The cake of silver, the railway bar, or the bril- liant tin-plate are presented in the character under which they are known to a large portion of the public ; and yet the chief interest, nay, the sole importance of these sub- stances, depends on a variety of particulars which a mere collection cannot illustrate. Of their comparative excellence some judgment may be formed from their external appear- ance, but as regards the merit of their production, as well as their value to the country which produced them, a great amount of collateral information is again needed. It is in- dispensable for a just appreciation, that we should be ac- quainted with the nature and abundance of the raw material employed, with the processes used, and, lastly, with the price at which they can be introduced into the com- merce of the world. A single glance at the First Class of the British part of the Exposition sufficed to show a marked difference from that of 1851. The gigantic masses of fossil fuel, the spring of our commercial greatness, were absent ; those huge blocks of coal, in some cases illustrating only the peculiar cleavage and character of certain seams, in others re-con- Mr . Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 3 structing at the surface the pile of successive layers worked in the depths of the earth, were so costly to the exhibitors in Hyde Park, as to preclude, unless some special reason existed, their being thus extracted for a second occasion. Still more was it observable that there was scarcely a trace of the bold rocks of metallic ore which in 1851 represented with a sort of rude grandeur, although not always, with scientific meaning, the varied and abundant mineral treasures which enrich our islands. Nothing like the monster crystals of Galena from Snailbeach and Laxey, nothing equal to the section of the Duke of Devonshire's * lode at Grassington,* nothing recalling the fine blocks of Cornish tin-ore, caught the eye on first entrance ; and closer examination made it evident that, as regarded our raw materials, Britain was most inadequately represented. It can scarcely be expected that I should here discuss the reasons for this deficiency, nor whether so important a purpose be answered by their exhibition as to counterbalance the objections of inconvenience and cost in the extraction and carriage of such specimens. But assuming, in the general spirit of a Universal Exposition, that a fair repre- sentation of the natural products of each country is desirable, and instituting a comparison with other nations, it was matter for regret, that Great Britain, so far as she was here represented , played a part subordinate to several of the European countries. In 1851 the appeal to the country roused a certain amount of enthusiasm among the owners or workers of mines, but in 1855 a general lukewarmness must have pre- vailed, based partly on a want of organization, and partly on the improbability of the trouble and expense being rewarded by any remuneration. What our neighbours will do for glory, we hesitate to commence unless assured that it will “ pay." The great majority of the objects belonging to Class I. were arranged at the eastern extremity of the “ Annexe,” where amid abundant light and space, the well grouped castings of Coalbrookdale led, worthily, to the excellent collection of British irons arranged by Mr. Bird, and the useful though less attractive one of the coals of Britain, sent by the Board of Trade. Some few things belonging to the same class were placed in the gallery of the Great Palais, whilst certain others were with difficulty to be sought out among the machinery at the other end of the Annexe. * This fine illustrative specimen, judiciously selected and prepared by Capt. Eddy, was presented to the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, in the hall of which institution it now stands. B 2 Me. Smyth on Mining and Metallur- gical Peoducts. Mr. Smyth ox Mining and Metallur- gical Prqducts. Subjects of inquiry. Geological maps : Britain, 4 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. The examination of these objects for their own intrinsic interest would subserve a certain use in giving information and suggesting inquiry to all visitors of intelligence ; but the higher purposes of such an exhibition can only be attained by conducting the examination in such a manner that, — 1st. We may compare the degree of art and science em- ployed with that of the last Universal Exhibition. 2ndly. We may form conclusions by comparison with the productions of other countries as to our own relative present position, and as to the respective rates of pro- gress during the last few years. I propose, therefore, to take seriatim the articles exhibited in the British Section, to compare them when needful with the analogous objects of the Exhibition of 1851, but more especially with the Foreign Collections of that of 1855. First Section. Maps , Models , Tables , and Collections of a general Character. In the department of maps our country occupied a most honourable position. A gold medal was awarded to the Geological Survey of Great Britain, the great work commenced by the late Sir Henry De la Beche, and now placed under the direc- tion of Sir Roderick Murchison. The gigantic map, formed by placing together all the sheets that have yet been pub- lished, has for its groundwork the Ordnance map of one inch to the mile, and was illustrated by sheets of sections on a scale of six inches to the mile. The execution of this work was admired by all, and its accuracy was so self-evident to those versed in the subject, that most flattering opinions have been passed upon it by men of all nations. There is now not a civilized country in the world which has not organized, at the State expense, some such inquiry into its mineral structure. Some were commenced earlier, some more recently, than our own, but I have no hesitation in affirming, what is borne out by the testimony of many Continental authorities, that the Geolo- gical Survey of Great Britain excels, in regard to practically useful detail, all the others which have been produced.* * Herr Tunner, the Austrian Juror, states, “ a very successful portrait pro- duces on the connoisseur such an impression that he can hardly doubt the close resemblance. In this respect the English map far exceeds all others. Especially are the important mining districts in the south and west of England worked out with a detail and accuracy which are not found in any other geological map of an entire country .” — lieport on the Paris Exhibition , p. 13. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 5 Since 1851 considerable progress lias been made in the Me^smttii additional sheets which have been published. Much light x a>-d is thrown on the constitution of our central coal areas, and ME gi A cal R " the rocks by which they are surrounded ; and these obser- ri?01,UCTS ‘ vations will be most important on the engrossing question which must ere long arise, under what circumstances may we expect to meet with coal in localities where it is con- cealed by a cover of other formations ? Amateurs have, in England, worked wonders in this direction, but when we consider the necessity for co-ordi- nating their varying views, and the magnitude of certain questions to be resolved by such a survey, it is evident that it could be conducted only as a national undertaking. Private enterprize has been mainly instrumental, dealing with a more limited area, in producing a very remarkable Belgium, map of Belgium (Belgian Cat. No. 1). M. Dumont has devoted his life, with unwearied assiduity, to the unravelling of the complicated geological structure of his country ; and, although his work is on so much smaller a scale as not to be comparable for practical utility with the English map, a high sense of the merits of the individual was marked by the award of the great gold medal. , The Geological Survey of France, in which Elie de France, Beaumont and Dufrenoy have been aided by several able collaborateurs, has been well known for many years. An admirable map of Rhine Prussia and' Westphalia, prepared Westphalia, under the superintendence of Von Dechen, was a new addi- tion to geological science, and one of a high order. To both of these the same honour of a gold medal was awarded. From Austria were sent detailed maps of great merit, Austria, exhibiting the geological structure of particular districts of that extensive empire, and an excellent general sketch map of the entire monarchy has been published under the super- intendance of the Hofrath Haidinger. Though last, not least, the geological map of Canada Canada, attracted much attention. Prepared under unusual cir- cumstances of difficulty by Mr. Logan, it was illustrated, by an unequalled series of the rocks, the building and ornamental stones, and the various ores produced in that colony ; and so complete and scientific was the display, so meritorious the perseverance and skill which had directed the examination of those vast regions, that Mr. Logan was rewarded with the gold medal and the Cross of the Legion of Honour, and subsequently with a knighthood in our own country. Among the other works exhibiting the geological fea- Myinc’s hires of ixirticular districts, none was so remarkable as the 6 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. o 3 ?*miking a d ra * r able ma P °f London and its environs, by Mr. Mylne and * (No. 10). Marking by contour lines the elevations above a given datum, and showing every variation of subsoil upon products, which Our metropolis and its suburbs are situated, this beautiful work, founded upon very extensive observation, is so suggestive, in a sanitary point of view, that a, copy of it ought to be in the hands of every engineer, architect, and amateur engaged in building or in modifying the surface and under-ground arrangements of this great centre of population. Mineral As regarded general collections, which formed a part of collections. ^ jv rs {. s ec ti on? nothing was exhibited by Great Britain, with the exception of — 1st, a small series collected by myself for the Council of the Duchy of Cornwall, in order to illus- trate the occurrence of metallic minerals in lodes, especially the variation of character, according to the depth and con- taining rock ; and, 2dly, of a series contributed by the Museum of Irish Industry. The most remarkable efforts from foreign countries in this direction were, — 1st. A very complete collection illustrative of the useful mineral substances of Bohemia, sent by a private association, the Society for the Encouragement of Industry in Bohemia. 2d. A series of similar character contributed by the Technical Institute of Tuscany at Florence. 3d. A collection of 1,221 examples of building materials, ores, &c., illustrative of the resources of Piedmont, prepared by the Technical Institute of Turin. These afforded in each case a valuable epitome of the country, excellently adapted for study or reference, and were treated in a thoroughly practical manner. As a fourth, may be added the illustration of the minerals of New South Wales, to which, consisting chiefly of very numerous and valuable specimens of gold, both from the stream-works and from the rock, an extensive series of geological specimens, capable of throwing much light on the structure of a new country, had been appended by the Rev. Mr. Clarke, for many years a zealous explorer of that extensive and valuable series of products of Hin- dostan, contributed by the East India Company, Avere in- cluded many specimens of marbles, coals, and irons, but not in sufficient number, or arranged in such order, as to afford the opportunity of studying special districts. They served, however, the purpose of an additional proof that the mate- rial elements for many an improvement are to be found in that great peninsula, and it is satisfactory to know that the Company is now keeping on foot, under Professor Oldham colony Int Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 7 and an able staff, a close examination of some of the loca- lities which promise to become of the highest importance. It is only needful here to add that very useful and care- fully ordered collections of minerals, rocks, and fossils, in- tended for educational purposes, were exhibited by M. Sae- mann, f and by M. Eloffe of Paris, and by Mr. Krantz of Bonn. Second, Thikd, and Foubth Sections. The articles exhibited under the Second Section had reference chiefly to coal mining, whilst those of the Third Section were little else than examples of fireclays and bricks, of the quality of which little could be determined from mere inspection ; it will, therefore, be more conve- nient to class together all that relates to the subject of collieries and their working. Goals and Goal-mining. — Among the coal-producing countries of the world Britain takes the undoubted lead, and to the abundance of her fossil fuel, aided by the wide- spread system of internal communication which distributes it over the land, she owes her high commercial position. No other country as yet unites these advantages in so remarkable a degree ; but several of the European nations have made, during the last few years, such exertions to develope their own resources as to produce an effect of great importance, not only in regard to the supply of combustible for general purposes, but more especially of moment to the manufacture of iron. The coals of Great Britain were represented, in 1855, not by the isolated huge blocks which were regarded with amazement in 1851, but mainly by a systematic collection (No. 21 of the British Catalogue) of nearly 800 specimens, obtained by the Board of Trade from all the principal districts. The printed labels supplied much information, although the name of the seam was, in many instances, unfortunately omitted. The local committee of Sunderland contributed a series of small specimens which admirably illustrated the various qualities of coals raised from the districts of the Tyne and Wear. Mr. William Murray, of Glasgow, similarly illustrated the productions of the coalfield of Lanarkshire by specimens of * One of the standard collections of Mr. Saemann, as approved by the French Government, has been purchased as an example, and is deposited in the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street. Me. Smyth on Mining and Metallur- gical Products. Coals of Great Britain. Me. Smyth ox Mixing AND Metaxlur- GICAL Products. Coke. Statistics of British coal. 8 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. tlie coal, ironstone, and limestone, of sucli value to the Scotch iron-producing region; but their being unhappily chiselled into cubes destroyed the appearances from which their character could be determined by inspection. Examples of patent fuel were supplied by the Anthracite Steam Fuel Company of Llanelly, .No. 18, and by Myers and Co., of Saundersfoot, near Tenby, but they were unac- companied by the statistics which would have added value to this method of preparing a convenient form of fuel for sea-going steamers. The coke of Northumberland took the highest place in the Exposition, and it w~as difficult to adjudicate between the rival merits of the fine specimens from Garesfield, and from Marleyhill, both made in ovens, from the low lying seam known as the Busty Bank , and now manufactured on an enormous scale in the district situate to the west of Gateshead. As far as the actual production of an excellent coke is concerned, in ranges of large circular ovens, com- municating many together, with a single flue, the object is well attained, the more so as the coal from which it is made was almost worthless before the present enormous demand for a good coke for railway purposes arose. Yet it can- not but be matter of regret, looking at the subject in a broad point of view, that so vast a quantity of heat, of ammonia, and other useful products should be uselessly dissipated. It is not often, perhaps, that such works are placed under circumstances allowing of economy in this respect, but it may be noted as worthy of attention in certain cases, that some of the Belgian works, as near Charleroi, have successfully applied the otherwise waste heat of the coking ovens to generating all the steam re- quired to work the blowing engines of their iron furnaces. The extraction of coal in Britain has, from various causes, been greatly stimulated within the last few years, and it may be useful to compare the quantity annually raised here with that of some few European nations, not forgetting, however, that the continental countries still in a very great degree depend on wood as their ordinary fuel. From the absence of organization and official statistics very little reliance can be placed on early estimates ; from 1845 to 1852 the total amount of coal raised in Great Britain used to be quoted at about 34,000,000 of tons. In 1853 Mr. T. Y. Hall, after much investigation, stated that the production had reached 56,550,000 tons. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 9 Coal Pkoduce of the United Kingdom, 1854. (From Mr. Hunt's Mineral Statistics, in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey.) England. Northumberland and Durham Cumberland - Yorkshire - Derbyshire - Nottinghamshire Warwickshire - , Leicestershire - Staffordshire and Worcestershire Lancashire - Cheshire - Shropshire Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and De- vonshire - Tons. - 15,420,615 887,000 - 7,260,500 - 2,406,696 813,474 255.000 439.000 - 7,500,000 - 9,080,500 786,500 - 1,080,000 - 1,492,366 Total - 47,421,651 Wales. Anglesea, Flintshire, and Denbighshire - 1,143,000 Monmouthshire, Glamorganshire, Pem- brokeshire - 8,500,000 Scotland. Total of all the Scotch districts 7,448,000 Ireland. Total of all the Irish districts Grand Total 148,750 - 64,661,401 This represents, at the average price on the spot, a value of 14,975,000^. and involves the direct employment of about 220,000 persons, in no fewer than 2,397 collieries. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallur- gical Products. 10 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallur- gical Products. Coals of Prance. Progress of French production. FftANCE. The area of the 62 coal-fields is given by French authors at about 1,100 English square miles. Descriptions may be found in the “ Annales des Mines/' the works of Burat, &c. Year. Coal raised in France. Metric quintals. No. of Mines. People employed. Quantity consumed in France. Metric quintals. 1847 51,532,046 258 26,723 78,488,700 1848* 40,004,330 256 24,632 60,952,100 1849 40,492,183 270 25,942 64,054,800 1850 44,335,670 273 32,923 72, 252,700 1851 44,850,339 270 33,634 73,76 8,300 1852 49,039,259 286 35,381 79,585,200 Ten metric quintals are so nearly a ton of 20 cwts. that the amount extracted in 1852 may be taken in round num- «/ bers as 4,900,000 tons, and at present would probably amount to between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000 tons. To make up the great deficiency in the quantity of coals consumed in France, she is obliged at present to purchase largely from her neighbours, and there were imported in 1852,— Metric quintals. From Belgium Great Britain - Prussia Various - 21,191,800 - 6,523,900 - 3,242,600 1,300 Total ~ 30,959,600 Added to the above, France produces annually about one and a half millions of metric quintals of lignite, and four and a half millions of peat. The progress made in the French production of coal within the last half century has been very considerable ; viz., from less than 1,000,000 to 6,000,000 of tons; and * The sudden check given to the production of coals in France was conse- quent on the Revolution, and the statistics in the above table, as well as those for iron and other metals, show how long a period is required to make up for the steps lost during a time of political disturbance. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 11 great attention has been bestowed on the close investigation of all localities where coal was either known or suspected to Met a a ^ ur . exist. The fields of central and southern France differ gical materially from that of the northern district which borders PR0 Th_ CTS ' on Belgium ; and as regards many of the former, where the seams are of great but varying, thickness, and steeply in- clined, it is difficult to propose an estimate as to their total value. Some of the best examples were sent to the Exposition st. Etienne, from St. Etienne. Nos. 26 and 27 were large blocks (one of them 7 ft. long by 4 broad and 4 high), from the collieries called La Chazotte, Roche la Molierc and Pirminey, and were accompanied by coke and bricks of agglomerated fuel, some of cylindrical form, others polygonal prisms, and employed in the French navy. This coalfield, the centre of a most flourishing and varied industry, contains a number of seams which attain severally in places the great thickness of from 10 to 40 feet, whilst the total thickness of the measures amounts, in the centre of the basin, to nearly 5,000 feet. The establishment of a mining school, now under the able Results of direction of M. Griiner, has tended much to improve the Sd? capabilities of the district, by supplying the works with a class of cultivated managers, who are rapidly modifying the old and rude arrangements. The best proof of the value of the school consists in the fact, that although 30 or 40 young men are engaged in their two years' course at the same time, they no sooner pass their examination than they are absorbed into the works of companies or private persons, at first as assistants, and only after some years' practice, as responsible managers. The end and aim of this school is thus distinct from that of Paris, where chiefly Government officers are educated. At St. Etienne the school fulfils the office of preparing, by a special course of instruction, suited to their after duties, the agents who are to take charge of the mining and metallurgical operations which form the root of manufacturing prosperity. The pits of St. Etienne and Hive de Gier produce from 15,000,000 to 18,000,000 metric quintals per annum. The price of coals was, in August 1855 : — s. d. For ordinary small coal For best quality do., smith’s coals - For large coal, common Do. do; best - Coke sold for the iron furnaces 10 12 16 17 20 5 per ton. 6 8 6 0 )9 99 99 At this time, however, the price was higher than usual, as in almost all the coalfields of Europe, 1 2 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . o?'miS™ Among the more suggestive specimens of coal were those Me All uit Escarpelle, in the Pas de Calais, to the company of which > gical a gold meclal was awarded. The researches for coal in the — crs * northern district are made under great difficulties. The Northern productive measures are commonly overlaid by horizontal covAT of dis " beds °f newer rock, terrains morts, some of them saturated their exten- with water, which must be penetrated before the coal can be arrived at. The discovery of coal at Anzin in 1734, was the reward of eighteen years of expensive search, and the prolongation of the coalbeds thus proved towards the west, has for nearly a century been no farther determined. Enormous sums have been expended in boring and sinking, but in vain, till M. Dusouich, agent for the company of Escarpelle, taking a more scientific geological reasoning as his basis, pointed out a direction farther north than where others had been trying, and was rewarded in 1847, by the discovery which has greatly advanced the material interests of France. As an example of the successful working of a Colliery Company on the largest scale, should be mentioned that of Anzin, near Valenciennes, which received a silver medal for the gigantic model representing their method of working, accompanied as it was by specimens of their coals, descrip- tions, and apparatus of every kind applied in their mines. This company employs 6,000 people at the pits, besides 1.000 in the workshops, &c., at the surface, and no less than 50 steam engines. The annual quantity raised by them, is 860.000 tons, the average price at the pits in 1854 was from 8s. to 12 s. per ton, according to quality. The rapid increase in the production of this part of France may be seen at a glance in the following table : — Coals raised in the Department du Nord.* In 1 800, 240,000 tons. „ 1810, 231,800 „ „ 1820, 238,700 „ „ 1830, 323,800 „ ,,1840,836,000 „ In 1847, 1,245,600 tons. „ 1848, 927,300 ., „ 1850, 1,001,700 „ „ 1854, 1,432,000 „ Another recent coal discovery made in France was illus- trated by No. 33, the section of borings made at Landroff in the Moselle, which have proved the continuation of the valuable coalfield of Saarbriick, at a distance of above nine miles from the nearest pits. * From an excellent report on the Arrondissement of Valenciennes, prepared for the Exposition, and edited by M. Edmond rosier. As an approximation to English weights, I have supposed 10 met. quintals = to 1 ton, the exact value being 10 met. quintals = 2,204 lbs. Mr. Sriiyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 13 Belgium. The annual production of the narrow, but deep and vigorously worked coalfield of Belgium, now amounts to and 8,000,000 tons, of which Hainault alone furnishes 6,800,000 Sl 1 e PRODUCTS. tons. — Situate, as many of the pits are, close to the frontier, a ® e ^ iau great export trade is carried on, and nearly two and a half millions of tons are sent annually to supply the rapidly in- creasing requirements of France. Specimens of coal of various qualities were sent to Paris, some suitable to gas making, others for iron smelting. It is % well known, that the seams suffer under the disadvantages of being thin, much disturbed, and often fiery, and the industrial spirit of the coal region deserves great credit for the good working condition and large produce of its mines. The price of coals at Charleroi, in November 1855, was, — For best large coals - - - - 1 9s. to 20s. per ton. Intermediate ( i gailleteries ) - - - 14s. 6c/. per ton. Small (minu) ----- 11s. per ton. Prussia. In Upper Silesia, Prussia possesses a coalfield which has Coals of long been extensively wrought. That of Westphalia has Prussia ' within the last few years been attaining a much higher im- portance than of yore, and appears destined, from its great richness and the presence of iron ores which are now largely raised, to play a considerable part in the supply of central Europe. In both of these, private enterprise is allowed a much freer scope than formerly, the Government only keep- ing up a system of inspection, whicli has reference chiefly to the safety of the men. The coalfield of Saarbriick, on the other hand, is worked by the State, and although capable of great develop- ment, being very regular, and one of the richest known for thickness and number of seams, it produces only a limited quantity of about 1,200,000 tons per annum, a great part of which is exported into France. The two latter districts, only, contributed an excellent series of specimens, mostly of large size, and exhibiting various qualities. Reports on the Paris Exhibition , 14 ^ 'mining The °® c ^ a ^ returns of coals raised in Prussia in 1853 and and T 1854 are • Metalluk- GICAL PltODUCTS. 1853. 1854, Mining Division, Tonnen. Tonnen, Value at Pit. Price per Tonne. No. of Work- men, 1. Tarnowitz 7,850,164 8,650,273 Thalers. 2,004,607 s. g.* 7 9,873 2, Waldenburg - 2,243,757 2,484,842 921,774 11 3,417 3. Eisleben 182,036 196,919 155,315 23^ 556 4. Ibbenbiiren - 291,767 242,876 133,215 16i 650 5. Bochum 5,329,462 6,312,592 2,889,559 13$ 10,302 6. Essen - 5,402,012 7,037,904 3,130,985 134 9,025 7. Diiren - 2,314,786 2,767,405 1,604,658 171 4,963 8. Saarbriick 5,164,181 6,363,463 3,069,800 HI 9,787 28,688,165 34,056,274 13,909,913 12i 48,573 The Tonne is 7-g- Rhineland cubic feet, or 4 cwts. In 1852 the quantity raised was 25,788,268 tonnen. In 1854 there was also raised of lignite 12,566,852 tonnen, making a total of 46,623,126 tonnen of mineral fuel, or 9,324,623 English tons of 20 cwts. Austria. Coals of Austria. An admirable report was prepared under the superintend- ence of the Hofrath William Hai dinger, for the Exposition of 1855, to afford a general view of the conditions of occur- rence of all the minerals of the Austrian empire. The statistics of the subject were, however, not given. The amount of mineral fuel raised in Austria has increased in a very rapid rate ; it is probably much understated in the following official returns : — In 1823 1830 1840 1848 120,884 tons. 188,062 „ 422,696 „ 850,000 „ And has now advanced to about 1,500,000 tons. A small portion of this only is extracted from the true coal measures, which make their appearance at Pilsen, Radnitz, and Schlan in Bohemia, Rossitz in Moravia, and Reschitza in the Bannat, Hungary. A large quantity of excellent coal is raised from the Lias formation, at Fiinfkirchen and Steierdorf in Hungary ; and still more fossil fuel in the 30 Silver groschen=l thaler =3 shillings. Mr. Smytli on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 15 shape of lignite or brown coal is obtained from the tertiary Mr. Smyth deposits scattered over many parts of the Austrian dominions. 0N and ING This is a kind of combustible in the successful application of Me ^ f™” which to manufacturing purposes the Austrians have led Pll0PTTCT3 - the way. A spirited manufacturer of Vienna, M. Miesbach, con- tributed a goodly show of his productions in Hyde Park in 1851, when the annual quantity of coal raised at his various works was 137,500 tons. In 1855, when he exhibited again largely, his annual amount of coal extracted from localities in Austria Proper, Styria, and Hungary, amounted to 200,000 tons. In Austria wood is still of such primary importance that little attention, comparatively speaking, has been bestowed on her coalfields. Some of them, however, which are most advantageously situated, as those of Fiinfkirchen and the Bannat, with reference to the navigation of the Danube, deserve to be worked with a system and appliances more in consonance with those of the larger metallic mining dis- tricts of the country. Spain. Although Spain is a country producing a very small coals of amount of coal in proportion to her capabilities, an excellent Spain * collection was forwarded to Paris, consisting of no less than 114 specimens, mostly from the Asturias, and many of them of excellent quality. According to the Revista Miner a, published at Madrid, the quantity produced in 1854 was, Coal and lignite - - 2,425,500 quintals. Coke - 488,500 A much larger amount than this is required in the country, and though the coal deposits are numerous and rich, such is the want of industrial energy and of good internal com munication, that the deficit is made up by importations from distant countries, mainly from England ; and it would appear that the quantity imported has increased from less than 2,000,000 quintals in 1849, to nearly 5,000,000 quintals in 1853. Several of the other European countries exhibited isolated Lignite, specimens of mineral fuel, most of them of the class of lignite or brown coal ; and it is interesting to observe the occurrence of this substance, which is slowly growing into economic importance, at so many points in the tertiaries around the Mediterranean basin. Southern France, Italy, Me. Smyth ox Mixixg AXD Metallur- gical Products. Model of a French coal mine. Excellence ofanEnglish model, show- ing- various modes of working. 16 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Styria, and Greece sent examples. It has been discovered by the French in the province of Oran, Algeria ; and frag- ments of the same mineral found their way from Turkey, where its occurrence, especially in the Lebanon range, and between Constantinople and Varna, ought ere this, for special purposes and when wood is deficient, to have become an object of value. Goal Mining . — Among the objects which attracted the attention of visitors to the Annexe, none seemed to excite greater interest than the section of the workings of a coal mine as conducted at Anzin, represented on the grand scale of one-fifth of the true size. The special difficulties of the locality were admirably shown, the steep inclination of the seam, the contortion of the measures, and the necessity for timbering every part of the workings. The machinery for lowering the coal in the inclined planes, and for winding it up the shaft, were also well planned and executed. Still the mode of working was a simple one, well known to miners, and the very expensive model was rather adapted to captivate the public, than to present any improvement or subject for study in the processes. There was but little to compete with it from other coun- tries. Our English division was very inferior in this respect to its prototype of 1851. But there was one model (No. 15) by Mr. Wales, of Hetton, very little appreciated, although plain as it appeared, it exhibited a series of the most im- portant modern improvements in the art of arranging and ventilating subterranean works, and taken in connexion with the giant character of the collieries to which they are applied, was far more usefully suggestive than its popular rival. This model was divided into ten compartments, which represented, — 1st. The system of working coal in panels or districts. 2nd and 3rd. New panels in progress. 4th. A panel fully opened, and the ventilation so arranged that the pillars can gradually be removed. 5th and Gtli. Improvements in the panel system, by which the pillars are extracted as early as possible after first opening ; the ventilation being so arranged that a portion of the men may safely use candles whilst the others are obliged to employ Davy lamps. 7th and 8tli. Modifications of the method of working by long wall. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products . 17 9 th. The Leicestershire mode of working by long wall, and 10th. The Derbyshire method, in which the coal is attacked in a long line of 300 or 400 yards. An epitome was thus given of the result of long experi- ence and study on the part of our most able colliery managers, by means of which two great national objects are sought to be attained ; viz., increased security to the men, and diminished proportion of waste of that valuable store, which we are so rapidly exhausting. Mr. Reid, of the Pelton colliery, exhibited (No. 14) a model of the arrangements employed for underground traction by means of stationary engines. Here again was a proof of the activity and scientific progress of our practical coal-viewers. In no part of an extensive colliery was improvement more needed, than in the transport along the subterranean roads, where the cost of carrying a given weight for a given distance was incomparably higher than at the surface. Within a very few years a method has been perfected by which the horses of a colliery, sometimes 60 or 80 in num- ber, are replaced by a few small underground steam engines, which, giving rapid motion tQ an endless rope, bring to the shaft trains of from 20 to 30 waggons from distances of some hundreds of yards or even a mile. From Belgium were exhibited drawings of the engine and apparatus used for raising coal at the well managed colliery of the Grand Hornu, near Mons. The engine has two cylinders of 75 centimetres diameter with a stroke of 2*13 metres : it acts directly on the drum, and a small auxiliary cylinder enables the engine-man instantaneously to turn on the power of steam to the brake in case of any accident. The waggons or tubs are carried, eight at a time, up and down the shaft in cages of wrought iron, and a very simple arrangement is adapted both underground and at the surface by which they are simultaneously run in and out of the cage from stages at four different levels. The machine is thus enabled, with two ropes, to wind as much as 1,000 tons per diem, from a shaft of 468 metres in depth. The ventilation of the workings of this mine is very good, and the safety of the workmen otherwise well provided for. It is, however, somewhat repulsive to English feelings to find that females are still employed here underground. With this exception, perhaps, the conduct of the coal owners to their work people is deserving of study and imitation on the part of our countrymen. Instead of being regarded an unaccountable, pariah caste, as our colliers are too often 0 Me. Smyth: on Mining AND Metali/pe- GICAL Peoducts. Improve- ments in carriage under- ground. Good ex- ample of a Belgian col- liery. Condition of the colliers. 18 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smyth on Mining AND Metallur- gical Products. Mechanical ventilators. Modified forms of safety- lamps. considered, they are well cared for at the surface, lodged for the most part in excellent houses built by the company, have good schools placed within their reach, and are so encouraged by careful supervision, that, although they receive, like our own men, a very high rate of wages, they are raised above those habits of intemperance which are the bane of most of our coal districts. Ventilation of Goal Mines . — From various causes, which I need not here particularize, much attention has been bestowed in France and Belgium on mechanical methods of producing a ventilating current, in contra-distinction to the method by furnaces, commonly employed in England. Several machines were exhibited intended for this purpose. M. Fabry’s ventilator (Belgium, No. 3) consists of two broad wheels of three teeth each, which work closely into one another, within side pieces, in such a manner that, when revolving in one direction, they force the air downwards into the shaft above which they are placed, and when revolv- ing in the opposite direction, they exhaust the air. It is a machine of the greatest simplicity, there being no joints to get out of order, and no high velocity requisite to produce the desired effect. I visited the first which had been esta- blished, at the Grand Buisson near Mons, and learned that during six years scarcely any repair had been needed. The machine is capable of passing a current of from 24,000 to 30,000 cubic feet of air per minute, and although so recently invented, no less than eighty of them are now in action at various coal mines in Belgium and Northern France. M. Lemielle exhibited a ventilating machine of ^ great ingenuity, in which a drum rotating excentrically within another, drives, by means of feathering vanes, a current of air admitted on one side of the external drum through an orifice in the other. It is evidently capable of forcing a large volume of air, but from the great velocity it imparts to the air on one hand, and from the number of joints upon which its action depends, on the other, it appears — although erected at several collieries — to be scarcely well suited to an application, where an occasional stoppage or fracture may produce such serious consequences in a fiery mine. The useful ventilating machine of Mr. Struv^, of Swansea, was represented by a model, unfortunately classified under the head of “ Pharmacy and Medicine.” It has been worked with great success at several coal mines in Wales, and where a mechanical agent is desirable, it appears to be one of the machines for this purpose most deserving of consideration. Safety Lamps .- — Numerous modifications of the Davy lamp were exhibited, especially by the Sunderland com- Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products . 19 mittee, including some of those lamps where reliance is placed on a glass cylinder. . # ? metallue- It is well known that two objections to Davyds safety gical v # # , _ 47 PpnT)TTrT c i lamp are its insufficient light and its insecurity when — exposed to a rapid current. These have been obviated in many of the newer lamps by the substitution of a glass cylinder for a part of the wire gauze ; but a fear of the breaking of the glass, either by an accidental blow, or by the fall of water on its heated surface, has hitherto militated against their adoption in England. The Belgian Government, on the report of a Commission Belgian of Mining Engineers, sanctioned the use of four lamps only, lamps, viz., those of Davy, Mueseler, Boty, and Eloin.* Mueseler s lamp is well known to miners, and may be styled par excellence , the Belgian lamp, since most of the Belgian coal miners are of opinion that in this the ques- tion of a good and safe lamp is solved ; and as respects the apprehended danger from trusting to the glass, they have but one practical answer — there are nearly 18,000 of these lamps daily used in Belgium, yet no case of accident has been traced to the fracture of a glass ! ElonTs is another glass lamp, which from the arrange- ment of the wick gives a better light than any other, though from its facility of extinction, it requires to b£ carried with special care. M. Arnould, of Mons, exhibited a simple method of ful- filling another requisite, viz., the locking of the lamp, to prevent the top from being removed by an inconsiderate collier. A thin pin of lead is passed through a hole in a screw which connects the two portions, and before being given to the collier, receives a stamp, which any attempt to remove the top must disfigure or destroy. Mr. Mackworth, Government inspector of coal mines, contributed (No. 257) several modifications, partaking more or less of the principles involved in the above lamps. Parachutes and Safety Apparatus.— To obviate the o f r ®ccidenta frightful consequences of the breaking of the rope by which from break- the men are raised and lowered in the shaft of a colliery, age ° ropes ' various apparatus has been devised which was exhibited in 1851 by Fourdrinier, by White and Grant, of Glasgow, and two or three others. Continental mining engineers were, some of them at the same time, and others since, engaged on similar inventions, and in 1855 no less than nine such parachutes were deposited by France, Belgium, and Austria. * These safety lamps, as well as those of several other English inventors, may be seen in the Museum of Practical Geology, Model Koom, west wall. c 2 20 Reports on the Paris Exhibition oSfitonro a PP aratus of M. Fontaine (France, 1158,) consists of Met all ^ W0 s ^ ron S i ron arms with teeth at their extremities, which gical ’ in the normal state pass up and down freely between the Products. w00 den guide rods ; but by the breakage of the rope a spring is released, and they fly outwards, abutting against the sides and supporting the cage, to the upper part of which they are attached. It may be argued against it, as against most of the similar inventions, that reliance has to be placed on a spring which is apt to deteriorate, and that its action tending to displace or break the guide rods is not of a secure order. But it demands respect from the fact of its having been worked successfully for several years in some of the pits of the Anzin collieries, and of its having saved, since 1851, no fewer than 33 men from certain death. It pos- sesses also, as do the English inventions, a means of detaching the cage from the rope in case of overwinding against the pulleys at the top of the shaft, a fertile source of accident in England as well as abroad. On a somewhat similar principle is the parachute of M. Machecourt, of the Deeize collieries, Nikvre, in which the play of the crossed levers is assisted by counterpoise weights. This with its wrought iron cage, and two large coal waggons was exhibited in full size. * Apparatus intended to fulfil the same purpose by springs being brought into action to clamp the cage on the sides of the guide rods were exhibited by several parties, the most remarkable being, — 1st. M. Jacquet, of Arras, in the Pas de Calais, in full size. 2nd. The Coal Company of Douchy, Lourches-les-Valen- ciennes, a small model of simple construction. 3rd. The collieries of Blanzy (Saone et Loire), (France,! 5) ; apparatus full size, closely resembling that of White and Grant. 4tli. That of Boisseau, or Biittgenbacli, (Belgium, 154,) for which a kind of ladder with strong iron staves, 40 centimetres apart, is placed on opposite sides of the shaft. On these staves the bars, released by a spring on the breaking of the rope, find a resting place. The inventor has since modified this apparatus by releasing two pair of bars, one at some distance below the other, in order to lesson the shock which would be caused by the possible fall of so great a distance as 40 centimetres. Although no safety apparatus was exhibited by England, the adoption of a means to prevent accident has not been neglected by British coal miners. Within the last five years Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 21 several lives have been saved by the application of White Mr. smytbt and Grant’s invention at certain Scotch, and by Fourdrinier S * AND at some English collieries. But the opinions of practical ME gi A C al UE ’ men are much divided on the subject. The obvious ten- products. dency of such machines is to induce parsimonious owners to work their ropes for too long a time, and careless work- men to neglect their due overhauling. None of those hitherto introduced appear to be simple enough, and great risk and expense have been incurred in consequence of their acting when not required, and stopping the cage in its descent. Some of them at certain of our midland collieries, have after trial of some months been again abandoned, and it is still a question whether constant and careful examina- tion of the rope, and frequent replacement is not the best preventive against accidents. It would be unjust towards an active and liberal coal Machines proprietor, M. Abel Warocque, of Mariemont near Mons, men froirf and to a very important principle, were we not to devote the mines * some attention to the beautiful model (Belgium, 155,) of an apparatus recently erected by him for raising and lowering the men. The miners in metalliferous districts have been always accustomed to pass up and down the shafts by means of ladders, those of the collieries are raised and lowered by the rope employed at other times for winding coals. On tho score of humanity and economy both these methods are highly objectionable, especially when the depth of the mine becomes considerable. Under the first head it is sufficient to remind the reader ^ffeusuai that metallic miners suffer so severely from the toil of methods climbing the ladders, that a premature death awaits the great majority. It has been ascertained that in Cornwall 61 per cent, of the miners die from pulmonary complaints, of which, as well as disorders of the heart, the climbing is the main source. In coal mines, the total number of fatal accidents in shafts is very great, a portion only being due to the breakage of the rope or chain, whilst others are caused by collision and other mischances, which often occur in those pits where the system of cages and guides has not been adopted. The loss, under the economical view of the subject, is extremely heavy, even considered apart from that entailed on the community by the destruction of so many workmen, on whom numerous families depend for subsistence. Many of our metallic mines are between 1,000 and 1,800 feet in depth, and so great is the exhaustion conse- quent on ascending by ladders, after working in a high 22 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallur- gical Products. temperature, that it very soon tells upon even the youngest and strongest men. In a mine of 1,200 feet deep we may estimate the time of descent at half an hour, of ascent at one hour.* A great loss of time is occasioned with a large body of men, beyond that actually employed in climbing, by the waiting for the descent or ascent of those who first start, although this may be modified by suitable arrangement for the com- mencement and ending of their work. But the hour and a half of fatiguing exercise must necessarily be subtracted from the available day's labour of the men, and this amount of dead loss to the mine owner is variously given at from -gtli to fths of the working force. Taking it at 4-th, and the average value of the daily labour of 400 men at 2s. 6d. } we have 6d. x 400 = 101. as the daily, and 3,000£. as the annual loss in a single mine. It must be observed that in copper, tin, and lead mines the miners are distributed at various depths, so that the above result would have to be modified according to the proportion of men who, in any given case, were employed at the shallower levels. The wasteful expenditure of labour upon the ladders has not escaped observation in Cornwall, but the expense of lowering and raising men by the rope appears to have been insufficiently looked to in the colliery and ironstone dis- tricts. Here again the loss of time in actual waiting at bank or at the pit bottom is a serious item ; but if we limit our- selves only to the consideration of the length of time occu- pied by the winding engine in dealing with its human freight, we find that a very large sum is expended in con- veying the men to and from their work. A shaft of the above depth, 1,200 feet, may be traversed by aid of the excellent winding gear applied at many of our pits in one minute ; but a smaller rate of speed is desirable when men are upon the rope, and double that time will not be too much, even when the best apparatus is in use. We shall have then, in a mine, as before, with 400 men, the Time of journey - 2 minutes. Time for getting in and out 2 minutes. or four minutes for every load, and . supposing that eight, men may ride at once, 4 x = 200 minutes are required for the descent, and as much for the ascent, or upwards of * The time, as well as the degree of physical suffering to the men, will depend partly on the ventilation of the mine and partly on the judicious con- struction and placmg of the ladders. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products . 23 six hours, during which the winding engine and its attend- Me. Smyth ant are rendered unavailable lor raising mineral. and In 1833 the Fahrkunst, an apparatus for raising the men Me Ji^ ue ‘ by the reciprocating action of two rods, like pump rods, Fropucts - was devised by M. Dorell, a mining officer of the Hartz, J p ^ tion and it was soon afterwards applied to several of the very Fahrkunst. deep shafts of that district. The rods were in some cases of wood, in others of wire rope, and some have recently been constructed of rolled angle iron. Shortly afterwards, the exertions of the Polytechnic So- itajntr°.^ ciety in Cornwall gave birth to a very similar “ man- England. 11 engine/' the first of which was erected at the Tresavean mine in 1842, whilst others have been placed at United Mines, Dolcoath, and Fowey Consols, enabling certain localities to be worked which must have been abandoned but for its introduction. The success of these machines has been so pronounced, i^great both as regards economy to the masters and the preserva- tion of the men, that they have within the last twelve years been erected in several other of the ore-bearing regions of the Continent, and also in some of the coal districts, more especially at the Centrum mine, in Westphalia ; Gewalt, on the Upper Ruhr; Anzin, in France: Seraing, in Bel- gium ; and Mariemont, the latter being represented in the model before us * In the fahrkunst of Mariemont there is nothing new as regards its principle. The rods make a stroke of three at Marie- metres, at the rate of eight strokes per minute each ; a man mon * is consequently raised six metres at each double stroke, or 48 metres per minute = 157 feet. On each of the platforms fixed to the rods is room for two men, who will thus be conveyed up or down 1,200 feet in less than eight minutes, and each platform being successively occupied by two men, the whole of the 400 may be lowered to, or raised from tbeir work in 32 minutes. Doubling this amount for the passage both ways, the engine would thus be occupied only one hour and four minutes in the day. M. Warocqu^'s fahrkunst is erected in the midst of the mines called La Biunion, Ste. Melanie, L'Etoile, and Ste. Henriette, and by one shaft of 540 metres = 1,771 feet, no less than 700 men and boys pass daily to and from their work in the four collieries. The steam engine has a double acting cylinder of 90 cents, diameter, and is estimated at * Very careful calculations on the efficiency and cost of these machines, as compared with one another and with the ordinary methods of travelling in shafts, are given in a paper by Mr. Dieck, in “ Karsten’s Archives,” vol. 124. 24 Reports on the Paris Exhibition, Mr. Smyth ox Mixixg AND Metallus- GICAX Products. Washing of small coal. 120 horse power, although it generally works at about 40. The rods weigh 18 tons each, and are counterpoised against one another by a hydraulic apparatus. The cost of the fahrhnnst , with its engine, boiler, and boiler-house is given at 1,650Z. for 150 fathoms, and it has been calculated that the comparative expense of conveying 250 men for this depth is by this machine 483Z. per annum against 3,02 1Z. by the ordinary method of the rope. The proved safe working and the economy of this appa- ratus are facts which speak for themselves. One objection made to these machines is that they occupy either the whole or part of a shaft, which might be devoted to the purpose of drawing coals or other mineral to the surface. An apparatus was exhibited in Hyde Park, in 1851, by M. Melm, of the Anzin collieries, in which the same rods were made available for raising coal as well as the men. It has been at work for several years in the Davy shaft at Anzin, a pit of only 70 metres in depth, so that its apparent complexity has not prevented its application in practice. M. Warocqud had a similar apparatus attached to the model of his falirkunst, which, as far as a model could do, executed its office admirably, lodging the ascend- ing and descending waggons at the end of every stroke on little tappets ingeniously fitted to do their work. But the system has not been carried out on the large scale ; the very numerous joints exposed to wear and tear, and to clog- ging with rust and small coal, render the real working amid all the roughness of a mine so dubious that we cannot as yet hail this addition as a practical improvement. Before quitting the subject of fossil fuel it may be noted that there are coals in certain districts which, by the presence of iron pyrites or of shale, &c., are unfitted for many purposes, and particularly for smelting. At the works of Baron de Burgk, in the Tharand Valley near Dresden, a process of washing the small coal was established before 1826, which, on the principal of floating off the specifically lighter coal from the heavier impurities, ren- dered available an otherwise waste product. M. Bdrard, a former student of the School of Mines at St. Etienne, received the Council medal in 1851 for a large machine, recently invented by him, to effect the same object. In Bdrard's apparatus, which is worked by a steam engine, an elevator, or endless chain with buckets attached, raises the coal to a classifier or set of griddles, where it is sorted into sizes. The different classes are then passed by the machine on to jigging sieves placed over chests of water, Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 25 to which a rapid up and down motion is given by a piston. Mr. Smyth The coal floats up and away over a ledge in the front of the ON an™ g tray or sieve, into the waggon placed to receive it, whilst Me J I cal UE " the layer of heavy impurity, which is allowed to accumulate PEODUCTS - to a certain height as a bed on the sieve, keeps shifting by a slight inclination of the frame towards a slit or valve, whence it is continually discharged. There is here, then, an important principle introduced, ^^ i t “ uous that of the continuous action of the jigging sieve, an appa- machine^ ratus hitherto so expensive from the amount of manual dressing- of labour that it requires. As the machine was not new ores * since 1851, I should not have occupied space with its description, but that the latter part of the arrangement is one deserving of much attention from our miners, very few of whom are aware of the numerous applications which have been made of the same principle to the dressing of metalliferous ores by Mr. Rittinger, of Austria, and others. M. Rudolph Yogi, of Joachimsthal, (Austria, No. 8) exhi- bited a constant-action jigging machine of this kind ; and a model was also sent by the Hartz. Board's coal- washing machine is in operation at nume- rous mines in France and Belgium ; also at Fence Houses, at pits near Whitehaven, and some other places in the north of England. It may with a moderate power be made to wash 100 tons of small coal a-day ; and its effect could not be better seen than in the well-arranged exhibition of rough and washed samples from the French coal mine of Decize ; nor its value better illustrated than by the fact that some coals, too rank with pyrites to be used for anything, may be crushed and washed, and ultimately produce a fair coke for smelting or locomotive purposes. Fifth Section. Pig and Wrought Iron. Among the most remarkable phenomena of the present Smelting day is the gigantic development of the iron trade. Within factureof" a very few years, the daily extension of the use of this iron * prince of metals to the varied requirements of civilized life, and especially its enormous distribution in the network of railways, which now embraces so many and such distant lands, has given an impetus to the production of iron, which has been responded to more or less by all European countries. At the Exhibition in 1851, the pre-eminence of Great Britain in this branch of art was placed in the strongest 26 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smyth on Mining AND Metallur- gical Products. Importance of not limit- ing judg- ment by objects in the Exhibi- tion. light, many of the continental nations having been there but imperfectly represented. At Paris, in 1855, the example of what had been done at the former gathering, and the propinquity of many of the continental works, led to the far more complete illustration of the manufacture by foreign nations, whilst our own productions naturally occupied a less prominent position in comparison. In this, one of the most important elements of national prosperity, a march of rivalry and competition among several of the greatest of the European nations has arisen, the actual progress of which it is in every point of view desirable to note and to measure. It would be utterly unworthy the nature of the subject, as well as futile as regards the aim of such an examination, to rest contented with a mere comparison of the objects presented at an exposition, even when accompanied by statements of price, the criterion of buyers and sellers at a given moment. Considering the extraordinary history of the manufacture of iron within the last century, its present progressive condition, and the variety of sources upon which its economy depends, we must, like the poet — “with forward and reverted eye ,” — not omit to observe the past, if we would gain some clue to the probable future. The difference as regards most of the manufactures, between a Universal Exposition and a shop should be, that whilst the latter supplies us only with the elements upon which we may found a present commercial transaction, the former presents us with suites of the raw materials, with documents relating to their abundance and mode of working, with samples from the different processes of manufacture, and statistics illustrating its history. When these data are wholly or in part added to the important item of price, we have the foundation for that philosophical view of the subject, which connects it on the one hand with the pheno- mena of nature, and on the other with the varying phases of human society. From the difficulty, however, of fulfilling all the conditions of a complete exhibition, any attempt at a general review must be aided by other means than those obtainable within its walls, and must necessarily remain imperfect. Great Britain. England, Scotland and Wales produce together about half the total quantity of iron yielded by all the nations of the earth. Such high pre-eminence, however, is but of recent date, and not a hundred years have elapsed since we were Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 27 dependent on Russia for a great portion of the iron required me. Smyth P 1 . ox ± on Mining tor home consumption. and For centuries Great Britain produced important quantities MF gical UE " of iron smelted with charcoal, but as increasing population Prq]DUCTS - spread over the land, and wood became dearer, the produc- gstory^of^ tion began to decline. The first propounders of the method manufac- of smelting by coal, met with such opposition at the hands ture ' of the masters, and riots on the part of the workmen, that it occupied about a century to make the first step of the great stride which has now reached to the farthest corner of Europe ; and it was only in 1740, when the production of British iron had sunk to 17*350 tons, made in 59 furnaces, that the use of fossil fuel began to be largely applied. Three great improvements have since that time originated in this country, and enabled us rapidly to take the lead of other nations : — 1st. The improvement of the steam-engine by Watt, as adapted to the working of mines, and the blowing of the furnaces. 2nd. The invention by Mr. Cort of the cheap process of manufacturing wrought iron by puddling and subsequent rolling. 3rd. The application of the hot blast, first introduced by Mr. Neilson at furnaces in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. The two former of these most valuable innovations were perfected during the war, and gave to Britain, fortunate in her isolated position, the opportunity of firmly establishing a manufacture which could with difficulty be attempted by any of the nations of the continent, whose territories and commercial relations were subject to frequent disturbance. Britain possesses in a greater degree than any other British ores country, that first essential to the cheap production of iron, abundant stores of coal and ore situate in close proximity to one another. Scarcely any of her extensive coal-fields are destitute of a remunerative quantity of the interstratified ores, termed clay ironstone and blackband ; whilst in most of the foreign iron-producing countries these are either very poor, or as in some cases, have been much neglected. The United States, which alone exceed, and that in a great degree, the coal area of Britain, possess these convenient ores in very limited quantity, and draw the chief supply for their smelting furnaces from a distance. This source of the superiority of our country was most imperfectly represented in 1855, but the very full and well- described collection of Mr. Blackwell, in the Exhibition of 1851, supplied us then for the first time with a conspectus 28 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ox'mS ^ ie raw material of all our different districts, and a and means of comparing it with that which was assembled from ME gical JR " other lands at Paris. products. The ra pj(j progress of the manufacture in Great Britain will be apparent at a glance, from the production of pig iron in the following years In 1740 1788 1800 1825 1830 1839 1851 1854 17,350 tons of iron. 70,000 pig iron. 180,000 600,000 678,000 1,248,781 2,500,000 3,069,838 The enormous make of 1854 was the produce of about 555 furnaces, only two of which still work with charcoal, the remainder all employing coke or raw coal. Mbitfox/of The iron-works of Great Britain were represented by iron. No. 30, a collection from Bowling , near Bradford, in York- shire, celebrated for the excellent quality of its iron ; by No. 31, a series from Farnley , a work lately established in the same district ; and by No. 8 A, the contributions of 53 different exhibitors arranged upon one stand, under the superintendence of Mr. Bird, himself a juror in another class. This excellent collection was very limited in extent as compared with the French, Belgian, Prussian, and Austrian, and contained but few ■ large objects. Nevertheless, the principal varieties of pig and wrought iron were well repre- sented, a judicious selection having been made in each of our iron producing districts. The specimens were in most instances fair samples of the goods as manufactured for the trade. Some few of those tours de force , which we were inclined to expect only from our foreign rivals, attested the ambition or the spirit of the producers ; among these were railway bars rolled to the respective lengths of 75 and 80 feet, and weighing nearly a ton each, the manufacture of one of which involved the knocking away of the side wall of the mill in which it was rolled. Among the more complete or suggestive collections may be mentioned those of — Dowlais, South Wales. — A good series of the ores employed, with pigs, bars, and portions of ordinary and of Barlow rail. This work, possessing 18 blast furnaces, is remarkable for its arrangements and for the numerous experiments which have been made for the improvement of the processes. The largest furnace, probably, in the world was not long since erected here, measuring 50| feet in height. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products . 29 19 ft. 10 inches as the greatest diameter at the boshes, 12 feet diameter at the Me. Smyth tunnel-head, and with a round hearth of five feet diameter. As yet, however, its 0N performance has not answered expectation. Metalltte- Shelton, North Staffordshire. — A section of the new pits was exhibited illus- p E o^ucTS. trated by a series of specimens, and by photographic views of the machinery and apparatus. Pigs and bars were shown, and a fine plate for ship building, of 17ft. 3 inches long, 4ft. wide, -fths thick, and 14 cwt. 2 qrs. 14lbs in weight. These were the only specimens from a district remarkable for producing, in the very uppermost part of its coal measures, several regularly stratified beds of ironstone similar to the blackband, though locally termed red mine, red shag, and Bassymine, each bed being in different places from 2 ft. to 6 ft. in thickness. The coals most suitable for smelting purposes occur only in the deeper part of the coal measures. Nine blast furnaces and a well-arranged new mill and forge attest the magnitude of the establishment. Derwent Company, Consett and Bradley , near Gateshead. — This large group of works, numbering no less than 18 blast furnaces, is established on the outcrop edge of the Northumbrian coal-field, where it would probably have been starved for want of ore, but for the opportune discovery of the ironstone of Cleveland in Yorkshire, which is carried this long distance by railway to meet the excel- lent and cheap coke produced by the lower seam of coal. Among its principal objects were a rail of 75 feet in length, and a ship plate rivalling the above men- tioned, being 22ft. 3 inches long, 54 inches wide, ^ths thick, and weighing 1,544 lbs. Weardale Company, Tow Law . — An instructive series of the coals and iron ores used, among the latter the sparry iron (carbonate of iron), Spatheisentein, which occurs in the neighbouring lead mines as a rider or associated mineral with the lead ores. A very good quality of iron is occasionally here produced, and Mr. C. Attwood,the manager, regrets that the comparative scarcity of the sparry ore allows him to employ it only for the higher-priced irons. The mills and forges of the company are at Tudhoe, not far from Durham, at some miles distance from, though connected by rail with, the smelting works. They may be cited as some of the most powerful and best arranged in the country, and a great variety of bars, some of them bent double without a flaw’, spoke for the supe- riority of the produce. The Butterley Company, Derbyshire, possessing at Butterley and Codnor Park seven blast furnaces, exhibited an excellent series of pigs, bars, boiler plates, patent railway spoke iron, and some large tires bent both hot and cold. Tredegar, by a rail of 80 feet in length, and Rhymney by a Barlow rail above 52 feet long, contributed proofs of the powerful machinery w hich is employed in some of our larger rolling mills. Colebrookdale, in Shropshire, sent a fine scries of its well-known castings in iron, which, however, being the result of second fusion, passed to the adjudi- cation of another Jury. The Mersey Ironworks, at Liverpool, exhibited specimens of taper iron bars, prepared by them for ships’ knees, for railway points, Sec., and manufactured by an ingenious process of rolling, which has reduced by nearly one half the price of articles so rapidly acquiring greater importance. Ebbw Vale contributed a series of its productions, among which the more remarkable were the rails fitted to one another with several kinds of fish joints, already widely recognized as introducing increased steadiness of motion, and safety in railway travelling. The Gospel Oak Works, Blaenuvon, Millington and Co., of Tipton, Ystalyfera, Bagnall and Sons, of West Bromwich, and Mr. Whitehouse , of West Hallam, were all characterised by particular excellencies of their products. Among the Scotch works, Monkland was particularly distinguished for the Scotch iron variety of its forms of wrought iron, including various patterns of rail and angle works, iron. Dundyvan, Mvirlcirk, and Kinneil were represented by a very good collec- tion of pigs, rails, and bars. The chief aim of many of the smelting establish- ments of Scotland is the production of foundry pig, which, as is well known, is there produced at a less cost than in any other district in the world. Several so Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smyth of these works were represented each by a set of pigs of the various qualities on Mining produced ; and, in order to do them justice, it was needful to associate with the Metallue- specimens their vast commercial importance, and the grand scale upon which gical the operations are conducted. Among them, Gartsherrie, the property of the .Products. Messrs. Baird, is one of the most remarkable objects in the world. On either hand a row of eight great blast furnaces, of 48 feet in height, and 17 feet diameter at the boshes, a canal down the centre, coal-pits and railways at the back, evince not only the amazing power of production, but the attention which has been bestowed on the most economical method of arranging the details of this huge establishment. Quantity exported to United States. France. The make of Scotland was, in 1 830, „ „ 1840, „ „ 1850, „ „ 1851, „ ,, 1852, » „ 1853 , „ „ 1854, 37,500 tons. 24 1 ,000 99 — — 630,000 99 57,500 tons 10,500 tons 775,000 99 80.000 „ 10,600 „ 770,000 99 100,070 „ 18,000 „ 700,000 151,300 „ 20,000 „ 796,600 99 115,300 „ 31,200 „ The further reduction of the French duty in January 1855 would greatly facilitate the introduction of Scotch pig iron into France. The discovery of the blackband ironstone by Mr. Mushet, in 1801, was the first step to Scotland’s greatness in the iron trade. But, as usual, so great was the prejudice to be overcome, that in 1825 Monkland alone was employing that ore. The introduction of Neilson’s hot blast in 1829 accomplished a saving of 2-^ tons of coal for each ton of pigiron produced ; but when its temperature was increased from 300° F. to 600° F. in 1 833, and raw coal came to be used as fuel, as much as four tons of coal were saved in the smelting of a ton of pig iron from the ordinary ores. With the blackband the quantity of fuel is even farther reduced, only 35 cwts. of coal being needed to make 1 ton of grey pig. The economical process of calcining this stone without additional fuel, and thus producing an ore containing 60 or 70 per cent., coupled with its ready fusibility, have rendered the application of this substance one of the most valuable ever made. The chief bed, the Airdrie, or Mushet’s blackband, is situate in the upper part of the coal measures, about 120 feet below the main, or 8 feet coal, and is only from 14 to 18 inches in thickness, resting, over very large areas, on a bed of coal about 5 inches thick. Its consequent rapid exhaustion gave rise, a few years ago, to well-grounded uneasiness respecting the future of the Scotch ironworks. But a second bed, the Slatey Blackband from 1 to 3 or 4 feet thick, has been discovered about 100 fathoms deeper in the measures, and is now worked at Shotts, Summerlee , and Coltness. Besides these, some bands of inferior thickness are found, associated with coal seams in the still lower measures, corresponding to the carboniferous limestone of our southern regions, and with some beds of nodules, which also occur in that low position, are capable of furnishing large supplies for many years to come. The thin sheet iron and tin plate of Britain, which have obtained a just cele- brity in commerce, were exhibited by Knight and Co ., of the Cookley Works, by Abercarne, the Osier-bed Works , Cwm Avon Company , and Pontypool. Yorkshire One of the most startling features of the development of our iron manufacture has been the discovery and the appli- cation, within half a dozen years, of the stratified ironstone which occurs in the central part of the Lias formation in the Cleveland district in Yorkshire. This extraordinary seam, which averages over a large tract no less than 15 feet in thickness, is most admirably placed for working, cropping out along the hill sides above Middlesbro', and in the valleys between that place and Whitby, and inclined at a very low Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products . 31 angle, so that it may be extracted at an almost nominal cost. Where not oxydised it presents a peculiar greenish and hue, and frequently an oolitic structure, which distinguish Me J!cad UE ’ it from any ore of iron which had before been worked in Fr oi)UC TS - Britain. It appears to contain, on the average, about 30 per cent, of metallic iron, and the value of the discovery may be inferred from the fact that already above sixty blast furnaces are fed from this prolific source. Of these many have been erected in close proximity to the mines or quar- ries, from which the ore is lowered by railway inclines, and receive their fuel from the coking coal districts of Western Durham ; whilst others, which had been intended for the smelting of the sparse coal-measure ores of Northumberland and Durham must, but for this happy event, have been in- volved in gigantic ruin. It would be premature to pass an opinion on the character of the iron obtained from this new source. In some cases, where a fair admixture of the rich hoematite of Whitehaven is employed, very good results have been obtained, but in other instances report hints that the quality hitherto pro- duced is not likely to advance the fame of British iron. The only representative of this great new branch of the iron trade was a group of specimens sent by Mr. Samuelson, of the South Bank Works , Middlesbro 5 , among which the portions of ore were so minute as to escape general attention. France. On the continent of Europe France occupies the first Production place as an iron producing country. Deriving her supplies France.” 1 of iron ore in great part from superficial deposits spread over a vast tract of country, she had, till within a few years ago, almost confined the manufacture to the localities in which wood was available as fuel ; and it is only within about thirty years that the employment of coal has com- menced, after the English example, to stimulate the smelting of iron by the great extension consequent on the reduction of expense. Dufr^noy gives, in the following table, a view of the General advance in the production of pig iron from 1819 to 1847. P r °s ression * Coke Iron. Tons. Charcoal Iron. Tons. Total Tons. 1819 - 2,000 - - 110,500 - - 112,500 1830 - 27,103 - - 239,258 - - 266,361 1840 - 77,063 - - 270,710 - - 347,773 1847 - 239,702 - - 282,683 - - 522,385 32 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Smyth on Mining and Metallur- gical Products. From the Journal des Mines for 1855, we have the pro- duction of the succeeding years given in metrical quintals of 1,000 kilos. Coke Iron. Charcoal Iron. Total. 1818 - 1,901,109 1819 - 1,628,661 1850 - 1,761,335 1851 - 1,986,998 1852 - 2,593,031 2,823,320 2,513,219 2,295,196 2,171,083 2,633,100 4,721,902 4,111,958 4,056,531 4,158,081 5,226,131 The second table shows that a period of five years was required to make up for the blow inflicted on commerce by the revolution of 1818, and that it was not till 1852 that the production of iron again equalled what it had been in 1847. During the last three years, a period of great pros- perity, the ironworks of France have been so extended that the total annual production will probably amount to 700,000 tons. It will be seen from the first of the above tables that the total quantity of iron made in France has been quintupled in about thirty years, the rate of increase being nearly the same as in Britain from 1825 to 1854. But it is not thus that the development of the French iron trade is to be Special in- judged. In France, as in England, the main dependence of coke-made the country for ordinary iron must be on that produced by. mm ’ coke and coal, and in this department the rate of progression has been far more rapid. In the same thirty years, during which the production of charcoal iron has been little more than doubled, the amount of coke-made iron is now 100 times what it was thirty years ago ! Even thus the requirements of the country are far from being satisfied, and large amounts of pig as well as manu- factured iron are imported from France and Belgium. Whether the French iron masters will be capable of still farther advance must depend on the price of ore and fuel, the scale and arrangement of the works, and the skill and economy which they can bring to bear on the processes. Ktiffered has ^ is well known that France is not so fortunately cir- ^omdefec- cumstanced, generally, as England in the collocation of her of transit! repositories of coal and iron ore ; the latter, indeed, is in some districts obtained at quite as cheap a rate as with us, but the means of communication have, till lately, been very defective, and the physical constitution of most of the coal- fields operates against any great reduction in price of the fuel. Yet even under these heads great advances have been made ; railways and improved methods of working the coal are introducing a great source of economy. As to the Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 33 magnitude of the establishments, and the skill which con- ducts them, some idea may be formed by a glance at their M£t a ^ ur productions in the Exposition. ' gical PRODUCTS. The works of Decazevitle ( Comp, des Houilleres et Fonderies de l’Aveyron, French exhi- France, No. 57,) has been established with its ten blastfurnaces, and proper- bitors of tionate mills and forges, by the energy of its director, M. Cabrol, in a district iron - where all was new. Clay ironstones, very similar to the English, occurring Iroih in nodules and beds, are among the ores used. The productions of the work, in pigs, bars, ordinary rails, Brunei and Barlow rail, were all of excellent quality and finish ; for the rolling of the latter, two steam-engines of 140 horse-power each are employed, and in a diagram were shown the “ train special ” or carriage, and the gearing by which these heavy rails are rolled alternately in opposite direc- tions. * No. 77. Jackson et Comp., of Rive de Gier and Vierzon, are greatly developing the value of the minerals of the coal-field of St. Etienne. It contains, however, but little clay ironstone, and a great part of the ore is brought from La Voulte in the Ardeche, near the banks of the Rhone, where there are three l»eds of red iron orc,each from 1 to5 metres thick, and containing fossils of the loweroolife. This house employs about 2,860 work-people, and their productions are distinguished by superior quality ; among them might be observed some of the hammered iron plates made for the floating batteries, and weighing 2^ tons each; tires for driving-wheels for locomotives, up to 4 metres in diameter, made without weld- ing, and with the bearing portion of steel ; some very fine rolled iron bars, weighing up to 1,272 kilo.; hammered iron cranks and axle for the “ Eylau ” man-of-war, of 1,000 horse-power, the one piece of forging weighing 2,570 kilo. ; and a piston rod of cast steel of four metres length, and 1,040 kilo, weight. The abundant use of steel was remarkable in the productions of this company, most of which therefore fell under the observation of Class XV. 45. Boigues et Co., Fourchamhaxdt (Nievre), exhibited excellent cast water- pipes of three feet in diameter, which have successfully competed with the English at Madrid. A good specimen of the fineness of their castings was a very large sheet of only three millimetres thick, stated to be cast direct from the blast furnace. A garrison gun-carriage of cast iron was well executed, but appears, although to some extent warranted by use, to be in principle a wrong adaptation of material to its end. Surely a substance so brittle cannot practically be consi- dered suitable where real service is contemplated. 46. Bougueret, Martenot, et Co., Chatillon-sur - Seine ( Cote d’Gr), a work numbering no less than 36 blast furnaces, and selling annually about 66,000 tons of cast and wrought iron. The ordinary rails, rolled iron girders, and other bars are all of very good quality. 79. Lallemand, frere et sceur, Uzemain (Vosges), although not a large work, is notable as producing the best iron in France. 101. Montataire (Oise), contributed a fine series of rolled girders up to 19 metres'in length, and plates of which one was 8”50m. long, 1 *50m. wide, 15i milli- metres thick, and 1,550 kilos, in weight ; another 14'80 m. long, 7 mm. thick,” and 509 kilo, in weight. 10 ?. The iron company of Denain and Anzin. These works, erected in the coal-field before alluded to, form one of the best examples of the rapid strides made in introducing the English methods of smelting with coke, and of puddling and rolling. They contain five blast furnaces, and 15 puddling furnaces, employing 1,800 men. In 1804 only one furnace was at work, employing charcoal. In the years 1846-7, 9,938 tons of pig-iron were produced with 2 furnaces. 1850-1,4,998 „ „ i „ 1854-5, 28,482 ,, „ 5 „ * I am informed by Mr. C. May, C.E., that in 1853 be sold the patent right for employing these two methods to the Compagnie du Chemin de Fer du Midi, to be worked at Decazeville and Commentry. D 34 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Mr. Smyth 103. Comp, of La Providence, at Hautmont (Nord). The rolled girders for ON Mining employment in buildings were specially observable among the products of several Metallur- l ^ e French works. In the collection from Hautmont, many different patterns gical of T and double-headed girders were shown, the larger being nearly one foot Products, high, by 4-i inches broad in the head, and 25 feet in length. Some exhibitors, as j Dupont et Dreyfuss , had rolled them to as much as 50 feet in length. One of the most complete and instructive collections in the Exhibition was that of Creuzot, a very large work situated advantageously in the coal-field of that name, and deriving its ores by an inexpensive water-carriage from the jurassic and the tertiary deposits of the Berry. Wrought iron of every variety was furnished in the series, including among the heavier work some of the thick plates for floating batteries. 107. Madame de Wendel, Hayange (Moselle), contributed samples of various goods produced from the iron of her 16 blast furnaces. An important feature of this work is the late discovery, by boring, of the prolongation of the coal-field of Saarbruck towards the west, a result highly satisfactory to France, not only from the numerous and excellent seams of coal which characterize this basin, where it has been worked in Prussia, but from the fact of its being conveniently situated for the import of the abundant iron ores of the neighbouring depart- ments. It is interesting to observe among the sources of mineral wealth recently opened up in Algeria, that No. 442, the contribution of the mining and smelting company of Alelick, near Bona, contained pigs of African construction, of an excellent steely iron, from which samples of very good-looking steel had been manufactured in France. New prc- 4486. A gold medal was awarded to M. Adrien Ghenot , chenotfor’ of Clichy, “ for liis remarkable collection of new and impor- Sid k steei. r ° n tant facts, in an industrial point of view, particularly the rational and economical processes applied to the reduction of iron from its ores, and especially for the direct manufac- ture of various descriptions of steel/" This reward was voted after the Prussian and Austrian jurors and myself had left Paris, the remainder of the jury being persuaded, that M. Chenot had now brought his process to the point of being commercially valuable. The late M. Chenot, whose untimely death was the result of an accident after the closing of the Exposition, had for many years devoted himself to this particular branch of metallurgy, and had just arrived at the maturing of his plans on a large scale. His furnace is twelve metres high, and is charged with alternate layers of iron ore and small charcoal. The fire plays through a chamber outside the body of the furnace, the grate (which is bo formed as rather to distil than to burn the coal), being placed rather below the middle of its height. The charge in passing down the furnace is first warmed, then calcined, and lastly, under the action of the carbonic oxide is reduced to a spongy state, the eponge metallique. In this state it would take fire and burn, if oxygen were admitted, so that great difficulty has been experienced in removing the sponge after reduction. On descending past the fire-grate, it gradually cools, and on reaching the bottom is extracted by an ingeniously contrived trap. After this Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 35 preparation, the two processes of compression and fusion Me^smyth are required, and it is only by these that the gangue, which A and in the ordinary process passes off in the slag, is eliminated. ME gi15l UE ' M. Chenot calculated that the production of a good quality Propucis - of steel, including an ample margin for profits, would cost but 40Z. per ton. M. Le Play, the Commissaire-G^neral of the Exposition, whose metallurgical acumen is known throughout Europe, did not hesitate to pronounce M. Chenot’s process the greatest metallurgical discovery of the age. Arrangements for working it on a large scale were about to be made both in France and England towards the end of 1855, but till the statistics of some such application are obtainable, we are justified in entertaining doubts of its commercial im- portance. Prussia. The principal centres of production of coal and iron in Prussia are three in number ; viz., Silesia, Westphalia, and Saarbriick. In the former, the introduction of iron smelting with coke took place sixty years ago ; but in consequence of the bad material of the common roads, and want of other means of communicating with more populous districts, the progress of the manufacture was less rapid than might have been expected. The clay ironstones of the Silesian coal i^onmanu- fields are good, and the secondary formations of the neigh- Silesia, bourhood afford large quantities of a poor brown peroxide ore. The furnaces are built on a large scale, and well arranged, but their make is only from 60 to 70 tons per week each. Silesia, however, is now able, from the impetus given during the last ten years by the introduction of railroads to make sufficient bar and rail iron for inland consumption, of a quality superior to the ordinary English and Belgian bars, which used to be imported. The plates for boilers, &c. are said to be still deficient in quantity and quality. This distant province was but feebly represented in the Exposi- tion, although the collections (63) of Count von Hohenloh- Oehringen from Slawentzitz, and (85) Count Penard, of Gross-Strehlitz , exhibited a variety of irons of excellent quality. Rhine Prussia and Westphalia, which during the last few of West, years have made a gigantic advance, contributed a far more complete series of their productions. In 1853, the total quantity of iron produced in Prussia had increased 172 per cent, over that of 1834, the date of the foundation of the Zollverein. D 2 36 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Smyth ox Miking and Metallur- gical Products. Smelting of blackband ironstone. Prussian exhibitors of iron. The same increase of the quantity of coke-made iron over that smelted with charcoal, may be observed in Prussia as in France ; in 1854, the proportion of coke pig was 52, and of charcoal pig 48 per cent. With the extended application of mineral fuel have sprung up several large works, founded on the English model, which are doing much to alter the character of the Prussian iron trade ; and a glance at the particulars of some of these will throw a light on the importance of the step which has thus been made. A gold medal was awarded to the company of Hoerde in Westphalia, No. 108, as being the first work in the country which has utilised the blackband ironstone. This valuable mineral has been discovered in the coal-field of the Ruhr since the Exhibition of 1851, occurring in several seams of from two to three feet in thickness. For above two years difficulty was experienced in the treatment of this new sub- stance; but it has been fully vanquished, and Hoerde is now producing an excellent iron from blackband alone. Only three years ago, the produce of about 40 blast furnaces was annually imported from Belgium and Britain for conversion into bar and sheet iron, but since this great discovery no less than 45 blast furnaces of the modern large dimensions have been commenced or completed. At Hoerde four blast furnaces are at work, making 1.57 tons (at 20 cwts.) each per week ; two more are proposed to be erected. Each pair of furnaces have a blast engine of 140 horse-power, with 6 boilers of 57 feet long and 5-A feet diameter, heated each by the waste heat of six coking ovens. At the mills and forge called Hermannshiitte are fifty puddling and thirty- eight reheating furnaces; and the rail-rolls are worked by a horizontal engine of 120 horse-power. Fourteen steam engines are here employed, having thirty- three boilers all worked by the waste heat of the puddling furnaces; and, including the blast engines, an aggregate of 1,048 horse-power is thus obtained by the most economical means. Six puddling furnaces are devoted to the manufacture of puddled steel , which has been largely employed for railway purposes, especially for the bearing surface of the rails. Experiments have been made in the Cologne and Minden railway on tyres of iron, puddled steel, and cast steel, from which it resulted that the latter were the most economical as well as the safest. The total quantity of puddled steel produced in Prussia in 1853 was 57,055 cwts., at a cost of 1 4s. 3 d. per cwt. In the construction of the Hoerde furnaces, trial was made of the refractory materials of Belgium, Westphalia, and Scotland; and the Scotch fire bricks from Garnkirk which cost in loco 105s. per 1,000, appear to have been much approved of. In September 1855, the price of coal at the pits was five silver groschen per scheffel, (about 10s. per ton), coke pig-iron 36 to 38 thalers (51. 11s.) per ton. It is satisfactory to be able to add that, the total value of the products for the last year amounting to above 2,000,000 thalers, a dividend was declared at the rate of 10§ per cent. 96. The Phoenix Company, Eschweiler Aue, is one of those large associations ■which the rising spirit of enterprise has called into successful existence. They work twelve blast furnaces placed as follows : — Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 37 At Ruhrort, 4 coke furnaces, yielding each 6,500 tons of pig per annum. Me. Smyth B orbeck, 4 „ „ „ Kupferdreh, 3 „ „ ,, Metallue- „ Langheck, 1 wood furnace, for puddled steel, 1,200 „ gical . . . , i , Peoducis. Ihey employ about 2,000 men as ore miners and waggoners, iind work the following ores: — 98.000 tons red oxide of iron, from Nassau ; irregular beds in the calcareous slates, between Wetzlar and Limburg. 36.000 „ brown oxide of iron of the lthine and Ruhr ; masses in the ancient limestones. 16.000 „ magnetic oxide, Nassau, irregular deposits in calcareous schists. 8.000 „ sparry-iron of the Rhine and Moselle ; the rider of the veins of lead and zinc ore. 6.000 ,, earthy iron of Siegburg, occurring with alum slates. 4.000 ,, do. of the Ruhr collieries, blackball'd, 2.000 ,, meadow ore of the Rhine, “phosphoric hydrate” of Duisburg, 170,000 „ with an average yield of 40 per cent. The total horse-power at the furnaces and forges is - 2,517 horses. Number of workpeople employed at do. - - 6,380 Produce of the company’s coal mines - - 215,000 tons. ,, of blast furnaces - 71,200 ,, ,, of manufactured iron - - - 32,000 „ A great variety of the products was exhibited ; among others a rolled round bar for shafting, of 7 '015 metres long, and the extraordinary weight of 3 tons 5§ cwts. The work of Messrs. Jacobi, Daniel, and Huyssen, at Sterkrade and Oler- hausen, is also an important establishment, especially for the construction of machinery. It exhibited, among other objects, a plate of 2,510 lbs. weight, measuring 25 feet 2|- inches in length, 5 feet 1 inch in breadth, and half-an-inch bare in thickness, very clean rolled. The fine castings in iron, for which Prussia has long been celebrated, were placed in the 16th Class; among them none more beautiful than those of Count Stolberg- Wernigerode, from his picturesquely-situated work at Ilsenburg, at the north foot of the Hartz mountains.* The total production of pig iron in the Zollverein is thus given by Oechel- Production hauser:— ofironinthe Zollverein. — Prussian Cen 1850. tner or Cwts. 1853. 1. Prussia r _ _ 2,623,883 4,099,932 2. Bavaria - - . 328,846 485,978 S. Saxony - - - 197,789 175,637 4. Wurtemberg - - 153,484 124,465 5. Baden - - 106,107 102,351 6. Kurhessen - . 67,745 87,923 7. Hesse Darmstadt - - 104,532 144,770 8. Brunswick - - 67,460 79,890 9. Nassau - - - 293,112 398,276 10. Luxemburg - - 131,920 280,000 11. Thuringia - - 70,001 75,000 12. Small States - - 78,900 72,235 Total - - 4,232,778 6,126,457 In 1854 there were imported into the Zollverein of pig and scrap iron, payin' one sh. per ton duty, 2,376,747 cts. * Examples of these unrivalled castings, seen in the Museum of Practical Geology. taken from the mould, may be 38 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Smyth on Mining and Metallur- gical Products. Production of iron in Belgium. Belgian exhibitors of iron. Newly em- ployed red ore. Belgium. The effects of the revolution of 1848 were in no country more marked than in Belgium, as a check to the progress of the iron trade. In the two years during which the political horizon was more or less disturbed by the events taking place in France, the value of the annual production of iron was reduced nearly one half. The following table is derived from the official report of M. Devaux, Inspector-General of Mines : — Value of smelted Value of iron minerals. produced. 1845 - 51,061,188 francs - 35,868,669 1846 - 71,280,129 „ - 52,633,623 1 847 - 76,541,297 „ - 58,003,137 1848 - 46,083,219 „ - 32,341,304 1849 - 46,947,187 „ - 30,459,681 1850 - 49,784,457 — The return to prosperity in 1850, when the quantity of pig iron produced in Belgium amounted to about 144,450 tons, has been followed up by several years of such enlarged operations that the present annual amount may fairly be estimated at 200,000 tons. The great work of Seraing, near Liege, (No. 28a.) occupies the first rank, and has been remarkable for the successful introduction within the last five years of the method of producing steel in the puddling furnace. This description of steel, manufactured at a low price, has been largely applied to railway aud machine purposes, and has the merit of being produced from mineral fuel, and the common ores of the county, instead of the expensive Swedish and Russsan iron which were formerly employed. It has not yet, however, been found suitable for the manufacture of files and finer implements. Chatelineaux ( 22 ), Marcinelle and Couillet (26), Sclessin (27), and Grivegnee (27a') were some of the large works of the Belgian coal-fields of Charleroi and Liege, which contributed very complete collections of their productions. The blast furnaces have not at these works been fitted with the means of utilising the waste gases, as in France ; but it is very generally the case, that the waste heat of the coking ovens is economized for the boilers of the blast engines. At the extensive and well-arranged establishment of Conillet, for example, near Charleroi, four furnaces are blown with no other fuel used for power than the waste heat from a range of coke ovens, connected by a great tube or main. (20.) Ougree. —This establishment exhibited particularly the products of a new and very important ore, the mine rouge , which till lately was considered unworkable, chiefly from the large amount of phosphoric acid which it contains. It is a bed of pisolitic red peroxide, regularly interstratified with the mountain limestone in the district of Huy and Namur, as accurately represented in the map of M. Dumont, belonging to his Systeme Condrusien , and from its great extent it bids fair to play a chief part in the production of this district of Belgium. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 39 Among the more remarkable productions of the Belgian Mr. Smyth ironmasters were the sheets, totes de fer lamine exhibited 0N and ING by the Messrs. Delloye of Huy, and Kemacle of Lffige. ME ^£j E ‘ These sheets were some of them produced with coke, others products. with charcoal ; some simply rolled, others subsequently Belgian polished ; but their admirable uniformity of thickness and s lee lron * smoothness of surface placed them at the head of all similar objects in the Exhibition ; and it says not a little for the manufacture, that these sheets are even exported to England, The price given, for June 1855, was 35 francs per 100 kilogrammes (or 200 lbs.) for unpolished, and 45 francs for polished sheets. Austria. In consequence of the peculiar structure of many parts of Austrian this empire, the iron works are generally small, and thSrpecu- situated in spots more or less difficult of access among the J™ r ; charac * mountains, most of them dependent on the wood which clothes the slopes in their vicinity, or which may be floated to them down the rivers. In Bohemia and Moravia the English method of treating the ores with mineral fuel has been adopted ; whilst in Styria and Carinthia the chief attention of the ironmasters has been directed to econo- mising the processes by which iron of high quality is ob- tained by charcoal from the sparry and hoematite ores with which those provinces abound. During the last few years a process has been perfected by employment which wood, peat, and lignite are distilled, and their gases naces. fur " employed in the puddling and reheating furnaces with great advantage. In a preparatory chamber the wood is completely dried, and converted by slow heating into a fuel which possesses such special metallurgical properties, that Le Play, in his detailed description of the process, has termed it ligneux. When worked for the puddling furnace, the gases of this fuel are projected over the bridge upon the sole of the furnace, where they are met by a rapid current of heated air driven through a tuyere ; and thus a material which in its raw state could only be used for the old pro- cess of treating small quantities at a time, is employed for puddling on the large modern scale. The gas furnace ( Gasofen ) is stated to occasion an economy in fuel of 50 per cent., and has been copied from the Austrian model in various other states. Citing the “Noricas enses” of Horace as a proof of its ^o^quaiity celebrity in early times, we may note that the iron of iron, the Austrian Alps bears a high reputation, and that for 40 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. oi R kiNiN(? cer ^ n purposes, as particularly for scythes and sickles, it Met vxi.ua c ^ a * ms a superiority over all others. The limited quantity, gical however, in which it is produced, and its comparatively iiiomjGis. pjgi n p r ] ce> Pave enabled English iron to be largely intro- dued, when, as for the railways, a great amount has been required within a short time. The total quantity of pig iron made in Austria in 1854 may be estimated at 225,000 tons, and that of bar iron at 150,000 tons. The Austrians exhibited no specimens remarkable for size or weight, but an extensive series of the bar irons made for actual trading purposes, and among them many which were interesting from the peculiar methods by which they were produced. The following were some of the more notable : — edimm 39* A gold medal was awarded to Count Ferdinand Egger, Lippilzbach, and oi OiS. Feistritz , Carimhia, for the .first adaptation, after expensive trials, of the gas process to puddling. At these works 3dL. cubic feet of wood suffice when thus employed, for 1 cwt of puddled iron. 10. Baron Rothschild, Ifitlkowilz , Moravia, examples from a large work established in 1828, which, with its mines, employs 4,400 men, and turns out 3,000 tons of machinery per annum. 26. The company of the Iladmeister, Vordernberg, 10 blast furnaces, smelting the sparry ores, and yielding pig of high quality. 28. Innerberg , near Eisenerz, Imperial Works ; 7 blast furnaces ; great variety of products comprised in the Exhibition. 30. Mayr, of Leoben , produces the best puddled bar in Austria; also puddled steel, cement steel, &c. Total annual value of products, £ 150,000. 38. Baron von Dickmann, at Lolling, Carinthia ; the ores at this work are sparry iron, containing 48 to 50 per cent. Each furnace makes 105 tons of pig per week. The charcoal is of the spruce fir ( Fichte ), and 70 lbs. of char- coal make 100 lbs. of iron. The blast is heated to 200° R. The produce was, in 1854, 13,000 tons. 47. The widow of Baron Zois, at Jauerbui'g, Carniola, exhibited specimens of the productions of her work, which contains two blast furnaces and eight reheating fires. As at several of the works above-mentioned, steel is also made, and at this place in particular, the use of peat or turf has been advantageously introduced into the iron manufacture. 70. Badoni, of Lecco , near Milan, also employs peat in gas furnaces at his w ell-arranged rolling mills. Sweden. Swedish It is almost superfluous to remind the reader that Sweden I.., ion exCe | g am0T1 g the iron-producing countries less for the quan- tity than for the admirable quality of the irons which she produces. Especially for the purposes of steel-making are large amounts annually imported from the Baltic into England and France. It appears that in 1850 the total amount produced was 4,011,304 cwts. of pig, from 220 furnaces. The ores chiefly employed in Sweden are the magnetic oxide, and oligist ore or crystalline peroxide, to some pecu- of iron. Swedish ores. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 41 liarity in which (whether chemical or physical it is at presen t difficult to decide) the value of her steel irons is and mainly due. The remarkable irregular repositories from gical which they are obtained* appear to be worked with such Pbopitct8> activity as to leave no room for a great extension of opera- tions, exept in the case of some of them, as Gellivara, which lie remote from the sea or convenient channels of com- munication. One cause of the excellence of the Swedish bars, and of the confidence which can be reposed on the quality indicated by their brands, is no doubt the extreme care bestowed, 1st, on the selection of the ores, some of which only in each locality are proved to be suitable for particular purposes ; 2nd, on the elimination of all impurities, both from the ore and charcoal. The furnaces are of small dimensions, blown in general through one tuyere only, with air either cold or moderately heated ; and the process throughout is not characterised by that economy in fuel which distinguishes the modern charcoal furnaces of France and Austria. At the Exposition might be seen a good series of their fine crystalline ores, the peculiar pale green blast-furnace slugs, and of hammered and rolled bars, mostly with bright granular fracture, many of them twisted and tied up into knots, with sharp edges perfectly unbroken. Among the principal exhibitors were the works of — Eckman, of Losjefors ; Baron Tam, of Osterby (Danne- mora iron) ; Motala ; Finspong , where they cast iron guns direct from the blast-furnace ; Clason, of Furudahl ; Gar - penberg , near Fahlun; and Zethelius, of Surahammer. Spain. This country, so rich in ores, and so long the producer of Spanish small quantities of excellent iron, smelted by the old methods direct from the ores, still yields but a very small produce. In 1828 blast-furnaces, on the modern system, were first erected, at Bioverde, near Marbella, and several works are now employing mineral fuel. According to the Revista Minera, 1855, the annual amount produced in Spain is — Bar iron - 575,400 cwt. Cast iron - 161,200 „ The corps of artillery have established at Truvia a par- ticularly well-arranged work, with two coke blast-furnaces, whence a series of good products was exhibited. See a recent description by Durocher, Aun. dcs Mines, 4th ser. tom. 15. 42 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. owMiSSo Excellent bars and some tools were also contributed by and the Compania Minera Lenense Asturiana ; and specimens ME gioal UE ' °f castings, and of iron obtained by direct conversion, were products. se nt by several other companies. Italy. iron of Italy. From the valley of Aosta, and other localities in Pied- mont and Savoy, examples of pig, wrought iron, and steel were contributed. Tuscany exhibited fine specimens of the classical ore of Elba, and it is a curious fact that this — “ insula inexhaustis Chalybum generosa metallis ” has recently begun to export its rich ore to our distant coal- fields. The quantity raised in 1854 at Rio, in Elba, was - 60,000 tons. Of which were smelted in Tuscany - 25,000 „ And exported to Naples, Genoa, France, and England - 35,000 „ In 1855 the amount sent to England had greatly increased. Summary on the Iron Trade. General de- ductions on the iron trade. United States not represented. Great Bri- tain’s pre- eminence. A careful review of the coal and iron produce of different states, as illustrated in the Exposition of 1855, impresses upon us certain facts relating to the chief nations of Europe which require a few concluding remarks. The iron trade of America was not represented in Paris, and most of its chief points of interest and importance have recently been described by Mr. J. Wilson, in his Report on the Exhibition at New York. Extensive as is the manufacture of the United States, it yet appears that, from the high standard of wages, and the remote position of most of the United States coalfields from the cities of the Atlantic sea-board, it will be long ere a material check will be given by internal production to the import of iron from Europe. Enriched in a wonderful degree by nature, and favoured by the energy of her people, Great Britain maintains, as she has done since the end of the last century, a surpassing pre-eminence in the production of the ordinary classes of iron, which, after all, form the great bulk of what is demanded by commerce. The applications of pit coal, and of the puddling furnace and rolling mills, were matured during a period when our internal quiet contrasted favour- ably with the oft-repeated convulsions of continental coun- Mr. Smytli on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 43 tries ; and thus at once all our competitors were distanced in the race. The later introduction of the hot-blast has so added to the economy of the first processes, that within gical sixty years the average weekly production of a single Pll< ^_ CTS - furnace has, owing to the combined improvements, advanced ^astof from 30 to more than 100 tons. Many of the larger fur- make, naces of South Wales, Scotland, and Staffordshire yield even as much as 200 tons per week continuously. But, in the meanwhile, the demand for cheap iron, no geteriora^ less for internal consumption than for exportation, has had nty. a deteriorating effect on quality. In cast as well as in wrought iron is this change observable. The sea-service mortars employed in the late bombardment of Sweaborg tested severely the strength of the most careful castings of the best firms, and a superiority is stated by some officers to have been shown by the mortars cast in 1815 over those of 1850-5. Our iron ordnance, generally, is proved to possess less power of resistance than that of most of the other iron producing countries ;* and it is almost needless to speculate upon the decisive results which might have been sooner obtained, and of the great national saving which must always ensue, if we could ensure a material capable of better resisting the strain of heavy charges and rapid firing. One great cause of the difficulty in obtaining a quality suited to these special purposes is doubtless to be found in the scarcity of wood fuel in Britain. But with the certainty of works being established in some of our colonies, as in India and Nova Scotia, it will be important to observe, that the old methods of charcoal smelting on the Continent have been very greatly improved ; and that, in place of the minute quantities of pig which used to be yielded upon this system, a make amounting to from 70 to 100 tons per week is now obtained from some of the furnaces above-mentioned in France, Styria, and Carinthia. As regards wrought iron, it is notorious that if bars or sheets of really good quality are required, there are only a few works in the kingdom to which we can apply ; and which compensate by the higher price of their goods for the smaller quantity produced. Again, since the general extension of the railway system, comparative experiments have been made in foreign countries on the strength and * The tables compiled by the engineers at Woolwich on the results of action, and of their ordinary process of proof, establish a secure foundation for com- parison with the proving establishments of other countries, and point to the necessity of endeavouring to improve the quality of those castings which are to be employed for special purposes. Reports on the Paris Exhibition. 44 Me - smtth wear of their own and of British irons, which have been °n ^ n t * 1N( * un f a vourable- to the latter. ME ™* To all such instances it will be retorted by a large class, Products, that cheapness is the great element of commercial success ; SotaFoiSto anc ^ u P on our l° w prices and enormously increased bo regarded, production we may safely take our stand. It would, I am aware, render a report far more popular with the majority, if it were to insist mainly upon the great pre eminence of Great Britain in the iron manufacture, and the success with which she is enabled to undersell every other country ; but such an Exhibition as that of Paris is not to be regarded as a mere warehouse and list of prices current ; and a few observations on the progress made by foreign nations will be regarded with interest by our ironmasters, as the parties chiefly concerned. Moreover, the public at large is seriously interested in the question, not merely because inattention to quality may by degrees check our trade, but because every day increases our dependence on this most valuable of metals. There are few individuals, in this locomotive age, who will not feel that their safety may be compromised by the breakage of an axle, the failure of a plate in a steam ship, or the yielding of a girder bridge, — to say nothing of the risk occasioned to certain classes by want of strength in chain cables, wire ropes, boiler-plates, cast pillars, and machinery. Progress of France and Prussia are our chief rivals in the production loreisrn • • x countries ; of iron for ordinary purposes. Their annual amounts are immeasurably behind our own ; but the mere numbers of tons would lead us to false conclusions. The great fact is, that these countries (and we might add Belgium and parts of Austria) have within the last few years firmly established the English methods, which we, under great advantages, introduced during the late war. The result therefore in advance, as compared with our own, must be judged according to the quantity produced by similar processes, and this will be found to have increased in a very rapid ratio. of France. France, in despite of the higher cost of fuel, has so far lessened the expense of iron making that it has been feasible by degrees to diminish the import duties without injuring the ironmasters. Already, within twenty-five years, pig iron has been reduced to less than one third of its former price. The ores of iron are generally obtainable at a suf- ficiently low rate, and the means of intercommunication, which were long very deficient, are now so fast improving that it appears not improbable that in some districts of France the cost of making iron will ere long be reduced to- Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 45 something much nearer the English standard ; and many Mr.^Smyth of the ironmasters expect to be placed in a few years in so and * firm a position as not to fear the concurrence which would Me Ji A ca L l US " be caused by free trade. products. It is not surprising that with their wits sharpened by the Employ- high price of coal, the French have exceeded us in some waste gases, branches of economy. Amongst others, the successful em- ployment of the waste gases which stream from the top of the blast furnace merits attention. Messrs. Laurens and Thomas, established in 1835, at the works of Echalonges, the first steam boiler which was heated by the waste gases of the blast furnace ; and what with their method, and that patented by M. Robin, the application of these gases is now almost universal in France. These engineers exhibited a model, in one-twentieth scale, of a coke furnace with their hydraulic method of closing the chimney, the only mode they have found successful in col- lecting the gas.* By these means, at most works, sufficient heat has been obtained to work the blast-engine, as well as to heat the air, and a good deal over, which has been applied to the reheating furnaces, to lime burning, and the desicca- tion of wood. Contrary to the opinion of most furnace men, they hold that it is not good to allow the gases to stream too freely to the chimney, and that they should only escape under a certain pressure. By the hydraulic method of closing, having a manometer, and using a valve opening to a high chimney, they have come to the conclusions, that, 1st, any amount of draught ( aspiration ) injures the working of the furnace ; 2nd, a pressure of some centimetres of water is good for its action ; 3rd, generally, pressure above tends to retain heat in the lower part of the furnace. They assert also that by the employment of this apparatus the make of the furnace is rather improved than deteriorated, a result entirely different from what has been obtained in parts of Germany and England, where other methods have been attempted. The economisation of the waste gases has been successfully applied at Ystalyfera, at Ebbw Yale, and other neighbouring works in South Wales, but in central England, as in Belgium, the experiments hitherto made have proved unsuccessful, probably from the difference of the materials emploj^ed. Another source of economy is the utilisation of the waste heat from coking ovens and puddling furnaces. This, as above indicated, is widely in vogue on the continent, but * This model is now deposited in the Museum of Practical Geology, Jcrmyn Street. 46 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smtth on Mining AND Metallur- gical Products. Importance of pure fuel. English pro- cesses esta- blished on the Conti- nent. among onr abundant stores of coals has been mncli neglected, although in some few cases, as at the fine rolling mills of the Weardale Company, at Tudhoe, it is in successful operation. The economical application of the gases, whether of the blast-furnace, or of fuel especially employed, has been already alluded to as being practised in Austria, Northern Germany, &c., and may be found available in a variety of cases. The impurity of much of our mineral fuel has long been recognised as a source of mischief. Lowmoor and Bowling ascribe chiefly to the unusually clean character of their coal the superiority of their iron. There have not been wanting attempts to remedy the evil by chemical treatment of the coal during the operation of coking ; and Mr. Calvert's case of specimens, backed up especially by the excellent iron shown in the machinery of the Messrs. Platt, of Oldham, said much for his application of common salt in the production of a purer coke. The due arrangement of the different parts of an ex- tensive work, so as to obviate unnecessary carriage, has in most works not received the attention which is due to it ; and the introduction of mechanical aids in heavy rolling, as by the methods of Charles May and M. Cabrol, ought greatly to diminish the amount of manual labour. It has been presumed by many persons in this country, that the physical strength required for puddling would operate against competition, as regards that operation, on the part of the workmen of France and Germany. But besides pointing to the amazing progress actually made in those countries, as already indicated in figures, it may be added that I have been assured by professional Englishmen who have had opportunities of testing, that the French puddlers not only perform their task with the requisite strength and skill, but will often, in consequence of their regular and temperate habits, turn out a greater quantity of work per week than the majority of our own country- men. What then are the final conclusions ? The methods of manufacturing cheap cast and wrought iron have been transplanted to the continent. France has, since 1819, in- creased one hundred and fifty fold her production of coal- made iron ; Prussia has, by her new Westphalian works, during the last five years been enabled to dispense with the importation of the produce of some forty blast-furnaces. We have no special appliances, no peculiar systems to keep us in the van, and our future pre-eminence in the iron trade must depend more than of yore on the skill and economy with which we employ the stores of material so bountifully Mr. Smylli on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 47 distributed through Britain. The spirit of association me. smyth- has been aroused in those countries, and has led to the 01 AND formation of establishments on a scale unknown but a few Me g t I cal UK * years ago. Their workmen have had to learn their business, products. but are docile. Their agents and directors are, as a class, so much better informed than our own, that but for the practical energy of our own countrymen, we should on this head suffer severely in competition. Among the articles exhibited at Paris were many which Goodquaiity might invite attention to improvement in our metallurgical castings; works.* Of the value of the cast-iron for strength, it is impossible to speak without a series of experiments more general than those by which ordnance has been tested ; but for sharpness and beauty may be instanced some of the German castings, especially those of Count Wernigerode Stolberg ; for surface and even for elasticity, those of Messrs. Boigues and Co., Fourchambault, who exhibited a large plate, described above, of little more than one eighth of an inch thick, cast direct from the blast furnace, yet having almost the appearance of a rolled sheet. The due choice of materials and regulation of the smelting process require, undoubtedly, more study than they have hitherto received in this country. In rolled iron, one of the most remarkable productions of andofgir- France, was the girder of T or double T section. These are building, manufactured by several of the French ironworks, as above enumerated, and, being produced at a low cost, about 16/. per ton, are very largely employed in modern architecture. It is, perhaps, rather the fault of our builders than of our ironmasters, that these simple and efficient beams should be so little known among us, for an analogous article has been prepared for iron ships in certain British rolling mills, as for example, at the Monkland /works, where such beams, weighing from 11 to 18 lbs. per foot, are rolled to 40 feet in length. In the department of sheet iron, nothing approached the perfection of the Belgian examples, especially those of the Messrs. Remade and Delloye, whether we refer to those made from charcoal, or coke-iron, or those simply passed through the rolls, or subsequently polished. The continental rail-makers place great stress on the Rails, introduction of a harder quality of iron for the upper surface of the rails. Our own engineers appear to be some- * I abstain from enlarging on the remarkable production of steel by Jackson and Co. of St. Etienne, Krupp, and others, since this manufacture was referred to another Jury. 48 Reports on the Paris Exhibition, Me. Smyth oh Mining and Metallur- gical Phoducts. Conclusions. British pro- duction of copper. what divided in opinion on this head, a difficulty being experienced in so incorporating the different qualities as to prevent lamination and unequal wear. Many of the speci- mens, both German and French, offered however a very satisfactory appearance, and the farther extension of this principle by forming the upper surface of puddled steel, appears to be gaining ground. In magnitude of production and lowness of price we are at present unrivalled, and the task for the ironmaster in future will be to endeavour, by scientific treatment of his subject, to produce a superior article at the same or at a less expense. Our materials, practically inexhaustible, require, many of them, more skilful handling ; our workmen need to be guarded against strikes and improvidence ; and the greater part of our managers, energetic though they be, would be none the worse men for a better training in the principles of the operations which they conduct. Sections Six, Seven, and Eight. Metals other than Iron . Copper . — The production of copper in Britain, which was inconsiderable 100 years ago, rose rapidly from the beginning of this century to the year 1830, and has since that time fluctuated without attaining a much higher point. The production of ore has nevertheless increased, from the average diminution of the per centage in the ores. The total produce of copper for 1854 is given as follows : — — Tons. Value. Cornwall and Devon, chiefly from 1 1 1 mines Wales, 8 mines - Ireland, 13 mines - Mines included in private contract sales Foreign copper sold at ticketings 13,042 25 1,124 5,426 3,456 £ 1,229,803 2,011 128,053 593,434 378,498 Total of copper produced in Britain 23,073 2,331,804 This vast field of enterprise and manufacture was only represented by three exhibitors in the Exposition of 1855. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 49 35. The Great Devon Consols Mining Company sent some large masses of copper pyrites, of which all that can be said Met a a ™ ue is that, without them, British copper mines would have gical been entirely unrepresented. products. 34. Messrs. Bankart and Sons contributed a series of small specimens, illustrating the processes of copper smelt- ing, that great industry which enables Swansea to regulate the entire copper trade of the world. 36. The English Copper Company , of Taibach, sent various samples of manufactured copper. Copper mining, always hazardous, is in other countries as well as our own fostered by wise immunities, but the com- petition of foreign rivals has hitherto been inconsiderable. France is endeavouring, in despite of her deficiency of French cop copper mines, to render available her stores of coal in per works * the coal-field of Alais, and of the north, to the manufac- ture of this important metal, and even to smelting it from its ores. The house of Figueroa , at Marseilles (116), and OEschger and Co., at Blache St. Vaast, in the Pas de Calais (124), exhibited most remarkable specimens of copper sheets, bars, &c., and farther success is anticipated in consequence of the discoveries of copper ore which have been successfully fol- lowed up in Algeria. Among the latter were more espe- cially notable the rich copper pyrites from Tenes, and from Milianah, and the gray copper glance or vitreous sulphide from Mouzaia. The opening of the railway connecting Marseilles with the coal-fields may also bring to the French works the ores of Tuscany and of other Mediterranean localities. France is, next to England, the greatest consumer of this metal, as appears from the amount imported in the year 1853 : — From Great Britain - Tons. - 3,581 Russia - - 1,095 >> Sweden, Norway, and Germany 121 )) Mediterranean States - 274 » Turkey - 135 Total - - 5,206 Austria exhibited the productions of most of her mining Austrian districts. Among the collections of most interest were those copper * from No. 87, Agordo, in the Tyrol, where the system of concentration by roasting in large piles renders it feasible 50 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Metallur- gical Products. Copper of Sweden ; Mr. Smyth to treat successfully ores which only contain two per cent. and 11 ™ of copper. These works produce 200 tons of copper an- nually, besides 250 tons of sulphur, and 500 tons of vitriol. 117. The company called the Waldburgerschaft , in Upper Hungary, is developing with great spirit the re- sources of that district. There are employed in this disriet, around Iglo, 6,940 workpeople, producing annually, besides iron, 600 tons of copper, 50 tons of quicksilver, and 10,000 to 12,000 marks (at half a pound) of silver. Of the other countries which exhibited copper ores may be mentioned : — Sweden, the producer of about 2,000 tons of copper per annum ; good examples of ores and manufactured copper from Faldun and Widaberg, the latter stated to be re- markable for its smelting processes, whereby only two parts of copper are left in 10,000 parts of slag. Tuscany : rich ores from the very successful mine of Monte Catini, worked by Messrs. Hall, Sloane, and Co. The United States : a few specimens of the extraordinary deposits of native copper from the Lake Superior district. These mines, which occur in two groups at Keeweenaw Point and Ontonagon , were commenced in 1842, and for some years contended unsuccessfully against the unusual difficulty of having an ore too rich for economical ex- traction, the native metal being so tough as to render it necessary to cut it out with chisels. During the last few years the produce has been steadily increasing. of Lake Superior. Year. Tons of Copper. 1845 - 12 1846 - 26 1847 - 214 1848 - 461 1849 - 674 1850 - 574 1851 - 781 1852 - 795 1853 - 1,299 The amount for 1854 was estimated at 2,350 i i and for 1855 at 3,200 tons. As usual, however, in copper mining, so also in this district, many of the mines have been eminently unsuccess- ful, and in some of them a very large capital has been expended without producing any return. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 51 Tin, the oldest mineral product of England, was un- Tin ^pro- represented at the Exposition, although the annual quan- of Britain ; tity produced in Devon and Cornwall, chiefly from 85 mines, of which the returns are given, now amounts to 8,747 tons of “ black tin/' or prepared ore, yielding about 5,947 tons of metallic tin, of the value of 690,000^ It should not be omitted, that among the foreign posses- gfBntish. sions of Britain, two are likely to distinguish themselves among the comparatively few tin-producing countries of the world. The search for gold in Australia has led to the discovery of deposits of rich “stream tin," from which metallic tin has been produced in the colony. The Indian collection also contained ingots of tin from Moulmein, Malacca , and Pahang. Stream-tin stone was also exhibited from Tacopah , one of the south-western provinces of Siam, which is said to produce annually 22,000 picals , at 133 pounds, or 1,306 tons. It was interesting to observe the close analogy of the tin- of France; bearing rocks of other countries with our own. From the granites of Morbihan, France exhibited some fine speci- mens, magnificently crystallized. The veins of Villedor, Pourmabon , Villaulan, and Ledo appear to be the most notable. Spain exhibited ores and ingots of metallic tin from the of Spain? mines “ Numantina” and u Clotilde” in the province of Zamora. The district of the Douro , in Portugal, yields tin ore, of Portugal; hitherto but little explored, of which specimens were con- tributed, with an illustrative series of rocks, by Baron Forrester. As in Spain, the tin was derived from a granite with a white nacreous mica. From Austria were sent instructive samples of the tin- of Austria; stone which occurs and is largely worked in the north of Bohemia. The mines of Schlaggenwald, which once pro- duced 200 tons of tin per annum, now yield little more than 25 tons. In the Mexican collection were some partially -rounded ami Mexico, pieces of tin ore, with a fibrous structure (the Cornish “ wood tin"), from San Luis Potosi, accompanied by ingots of metallic tin. Lead. — It is only within a few years past that the high Lead pro- position of Great Britain as a lead-producing country has of Britain; E 2 52 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Smyth ok Mining and Metallur- gical Peoducts. bf Spain ; of France ; been fully appreciated. The annual amounts for the last seven years have been as follows : — Year. Tons of Ore. Tons of Lead. 1848 . - 77,864 - 54,853 1849 - - - 86,773 - 58,703 1850 • - - - 93,043 - 64,527 1851 - - - 101,964 •• 65,110 1852 - - - 91,236 - 64,987 1853 - - - 85,043 - 60,969 1854 - - - 90,553 - 64,005 The amount for 1854 was extracted from 252 mines. besides the group included in Mr. Beaumont's mines, those of Derbyshire, and the Yorkshire valleys of Swaledale and Arkendale. From these ores there were extracted in 1854, 562,659 ounces of silver, for a large proportion of which we have to thank the scientific investigations of Mr. Pattinson, for which the Council Medal was awarded to him in 1851. The only illustration of British lead mining in 1855 was the series of specimens from Mr. Beaumont's mines in Northumberland, arranged by Mr. Sop with, F.R.S. Spain, so rich in other minerals, especially abounds with the ores of lead, specimens of which were contributed from Carthagena, Almeria, Linares , Zamora , and other localities. The amount given in the “Revista Minera," 1855, is no less than 1,385,560 quintals, besides 159,950 quintals of galena. No statistics accompanied the numerous specimens in the Exhibition, but other estimates place the annual production of lead in Spain at 25,000 tons. France possesses only a few lead mines working on a considerable scale, but these were well represented in the Exposition. 135. Pontgibaud (Poy de Dome). These extensive mines are now worked by a mixed English and French company under the management of John Taylor and Sons, and are setting an example of legitimate and skilful mining which may prove very valuable to France. Established on a group of north and south lodes, crossing through granite in close proximity to the volcanic rocks of the district, they meet with a peculiar difficulty in the continual evolution of carbonic acid gas, which requires a powerful ventilation for its extraction; yet in the course of a very short time they have been brought into a satisfactory state of operation. They were illustrated by a good series of specimens, including a cake of silver weighing 404*5 kilogrammes, or 889 English pounds, being con- siderably more than either of those exhibited from our own works in 1851. Pontpean, near Rennes, Jlais , Vialar, and V Argent ie re, also contributed series of their contributions ; and it is observable that, as remarked under the head of copper, the improved access to the coal-fields is now giving facilities to the establishment of smelting works, where the Pattinson process is employed for desilverizing, as that of Figueroa at Marseilles, in which lead to the value of 200,0007., and silver worth 64,0007. were extracted in the last year. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 53 The mines of Kef-Oum-Theboul, in the province of Constantine, Algeria, Mr. Smyth exhibited, with their ores, pigs of lead, a cake of silver weighing 223 kilogrammes on Mining (worth 2,080/.), and an ingot of gold of the value of 1,200 francs. The assay of metaelttb- the silver produced here being, silver 994*80; gold 3*66. gical Austria: The Hungarian districts* of Schemnitz, Nagy- K — banya , and the Bannat sent numerous examples of their ofAustna; products, as well as the mingled ores of lead, copper, and silver from which they were obtained, with instructive suites of the rocks with which those ores are associated. The beautiful and productive mines of Przibram, in Bohemia, now 360 fathoms deep, and employing 3,000 workmen, were represented in a particularly lucid manner, not only by well selected specimens, but by plans and sections, and by diagrams expounding at length the modes of dressing or preparing the ores for the smelting furnace. Ores and pigs of excellent pure lead were also sent from llaibl and Bleiberg, in Carinthia, at the last of which places several private companies are profitably emplo} T ed. Prussia : This kingdom possesses two centres of pro- ° f Prussia duction of lead and zinc ; the one on both banks of the Rhine, in Westphalia and towards the borders of Belgium, and the other in Silesia. Only the former was represented at the Exposition ; and although a full series of specimens from various localities were arranged in due order, there were only a few numbers which need to be mentioned. 136. The company of Stolberg Westphalen which extracts galena and zinc ores from deposits in dolimitic limestone, was remarkable for its ample collections and the importance of its products. Of lead, above 5,000 tons are annually produced. 134. The Alliance Company of Stolberg are combating greater difficul- ties in drainage than generally occur at the continental mines, and have erected a steam engine of 500 horse-power, on the Cornish principle, for pumping, 152. The Eschweiler company, also of Stolberg, are working under the direc- tion of M. Eichholtz, on a very large scale, having 12 lead furnaces, 36 Silesian zinc furnaces, 20 for roasting zinc blende, 1 1 Pattinson pots, employing 1,500 work-people, and yielding products of the annual value of 120,000/. 140. Suermondt and Co., working very fine crystalline galena, “ potter’s ore,” from lodes in the Devonian rocks of Wohlafat in the Eifel. Prussia produced in 1853, — Lead - Litharge Copperf Silver - - 6,442 tons. - 763 „ - 1,660 „ - 45,135 marks. Belgium : Although the production of lead in this coun- 0 f Belgium.. * It may be mentioned in illustration of the importance of these works that in the district of Lower Hungary ( Nieder- Ungarn) upwards of 16,000 persons are employed at the mines. At Schemnitz alone 4,100 workmen are employed, and 150,000 tons of various ores are annually extracted, the greater part of the vein-staff having to pass under the stamps, of which no less than l,75ff heads are at work in the immediate vicinity. t The copper works of Mansfield which yield about three fourths of the whole produce of Prussia, w r ere unrepresented at the Exposition. Mr. Smyth oh Mining and Metallur- gical Products. Mines of the Hartz. Silver mines — of Norway; of Mexico ; of Spain ; 54 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. try is not large, remarkable suites of ores and smelted products were contributed by tlie mines and furnaces of Corphalie (33), Tellin (29), and Masbourg (36). In 1850 the quantity of lead produced in Belgium was stated at 1,178 tons, an amount which is now much exceeded. Hanover and Brunswick : The most complete mining collection in the Exhibition of 1855 represented the clas- sical mines of the Hartz. A well-selected suite of specimens, illustrating the structure of the veins, was accompanied by a beautiful map and section, and an ingenious solid plan, contrived by the chief surveyor, Mr. Borcliers. This latter, having the workings of each separate level laid down on a light framework, exhibited, by placing the different planes at proportionate distances above each other, all the phe- nomena of the lodes in the complicated workings of the mines Dorothea and Carolina , near Clausthal, and gave that complete view of the veins and excavations which cannot be obtained either by plans or sections. The dress- ing processes were rendered intelligible by an excellent diagram, and by models of all the machinery employed ; and the smelting of the ores was similarly illustrated. A gold medal was awarded to the administration for this very instructive series. Silver . — This metal is so commonly associated with the ores of lead, that the mining operations by which it is extracted may be referred to what has been above said with respect to the lead mines, excepting in one or two remarkable instances.* The mine of Kongsberg, in Norway, exhibited its well known specimens of native silver, and appears to produce this precious metal to the value of 47 ; 000£. per annum. Mexico contributed a few examples of magnificent crystals of red silver ore ; but it is well known that the produce of the Mexican mines is derived from large supplies of com- paratively poor ores. Among the continental exhibiting districts which furnish the largest amounts of the precious metals may be cited, — Spain, yielding, according to the Revista Minera , Silver - - 173,890 marks, at 190 reals the mark. Argentiferous ores 42,400 „ Gold - 65 „ * A remarkable statement accompanied specimens of argentiferous galena from Then, probably to be explained by the fact of the compiler of the official Greek catalogue being no mineralogist, “ ils contiennent 80 percent, de plomb, le reste d’argeut.” Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 55 The Hartz, including Clausthal, Andreasberg, and Mr. Smyth Goslar, employing 5,450 workmen, — on Mining AND Silver 48,500 marks. Metallur- gical Gold - - io „ Products. Lead and litharge - 98,000 cwts. the Hartz ; Austria yielded, in 1853, as follows, — of Austria. Silver - 120,547 marks. Gold - - 6,292 „ Lead - 93,368 cwts. Litharge - - 21,671 „ Copper - - 45,265 „ Zinc - - 18,818 „ Quicksilver 3,378 „ Antimony (crude) - 2,211 „ Zinc . — The United Kingdom, although not deficient in g^ccf the ores of zinc, particularly in the sulphide or zinc blende, has not succeeded as yet in producing this metal on a large scale, and the demand is principally supplied from foreign countries. In 1854 there were imported, — Of zinc or spelter - 19,583 tons. Of oxide of zinc - - - 336 „ To the great company of the Vieille Montagne, which vieille Mon- possesses almost a monopoly of the trade, and carries on Com ' works in Belgium, Prussia, and France, we are indebted not only for an enormous production and the reduction of the price of this useful metal, but also for its application to a great variety of purposes. As in 1851, so in 1855 they were remarkable for a full and complete illustration of the ores raised from various localities, and of the multifarious products derived from them. This company, now making enormous profits, employs the ore called blende as well as calamine. For many years this substance, so rich in zinc, had been almost valueless, from the difficulty experienced in getting rid of its sulphur ; but the application of the reverberatory furnace to the preparatory calcination appears in great part to have overcome this obstacle. The Vieille Montagne Company, besides working the mines for zinc, lead, and some copper and iron ores, as well as their own collieries, purchase largely from other works the raw material for further manufacture. It is stated that they produce of sheet zinc alone 25,000 tons, and of zinc-white for paint 5,000 tons annually, employing directly about 7,000 workpeople. 56 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . me. smttii Whatever may be advanced in the abstract against the ° N and™ 0 virtual monopoly exercised by so powerful an association, ME oi A cAi rR * ^ must be conceded that it commands respect not only by Products, the magnitude of its operations, but by the intelligence and skill which it has brought to bear upon the various pro- wsses, and by the liberal and considerate spirit in which, cehilst not unmindful of its own profits, it consults the com- fort and well-being of its workmen. Nouveiio Among the establishments which endeavour to emulate Company! fh e above, I may instance more particularly the Nouvelle Montagne (Belgium, 34), which yields annual products to the value of nearly 80,000Z. The} T exhibited a very com- plete series of specimens, including ingots, wire, and sheets of the metal cadmium, which, however curious in itself, and applicable to the manufacture of certain pigments, is, from its association with the zinc ores, somewhat detrimental to their value. In Prussia the Eschweiler Company (152), and that of Westphalia and the Mark (138), also exhibited samples of zinc, produced on a large and profitable scale. Parer me- The mining and metallurgical treatment of the metals of and’ Nickel, rarer occurrence was but partially represented. The ores of cobalt and nickel, and some of their furnace products, were contributed by a few exhibitors in France, Prussia, Austria, and Nassau. One of the most remarkable exhibitions was that of Al. Schceller, at Berndorf (Austria, 90), including, besides the more ordinary specimens, a sheet of nickel-silver (an alloy of copper and nickel), above forty feet long and thirty inches wide. Uranium. Among these rarer metals may also be mentioned the fine examples of Uranium ore (pitch-blende), derived from the mines of J oachimsthal, in the north of Bohemia (Austria, 95). These mines have within the last five years been brought into a state of greater activity, and now pro- duce annually, besides some 6,000 marks of silver, lOOcwts. of uranium ore. It is principally for imparting a beautiful canary-yellow colour to glass that the “ Uranium-yellow ” is used ; the increased production of Joachimstlial has been the chief means of reducing the price from sixty to twenty- four shillings per pound.* Manganese. Manganese and antimony ores were exhibited by several countries, the former especially by Nassau, which produced * The ores are roasted with lime, and then dissolved in sulphuric acid. Car bonate of soda is then added, and the resulting Glauber’s salt eliminated by •washing. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 57 in 1852 about 9,000 tons of the ores termed psilomelane and pyrolusite, so important for glassmaking and bleaching purposes. About 2,000 persons are employed in the dis- trict of Runkel, Limburg, Hadamar, and Weilburg in the extraction and preparation of these ores.* Section Ninth. Non- Metallic Mineral Products. In this section, the number of British exhibitors was so small, — only 13, against 65 from France, 27 from Austria, 10 from Belgium, and 9 from Prussia, and their contribu- tions were so accidental, that I may be permitted to bring forward only a few of the objects in the Exposition at large which merited attention. Graphite or plumbago, which once made our lake district of Cumberland famous throughout the world, was not exhi- bited by England, but is now produced in vast quantities in several of the Austrian provinces. Baron Kaiserstein exhibited it from Raabs in Lower Austria, where he raises 6,000 cwts. per annum ; and Prince Schwarzenberg sent fine specimens from his mines at Schwarzbach in Bohemia, where no less than 60,000 cwts. are produced yearly. Within the last few years, new sources of this substance have been opened to us in Ceylon, in Canada, and Greenland, but it remains to be seen how far quality and price will render them available on the large scale. Millstones formed an important item in several of the collections. None can equal for grist mills, the celebrated “ Burr-stones ” of La Fertd-sous-Jouarre (Seine et Maine), expensive though they are in consequence of the necessity of carefully piecing them together. The combined roughness and hardness of this tertiary quartz deposit give it the advantage over several competitors excellent for other pur- poses. Mr. Landau, of Andernach on the Rhine (Prussia, 161), exhibited admirable millstones, which are sold at a comparatively low price, made to the largest size in single blocks from the rough gray trachite of that district. Belgium (40, 45, 47) contributed examples of the application of a new “ Silex molaire,” in the chert of the mountain lime- stone, which near Charleroi and Namur forms, as it does in parts of North Wales, massive beds of considerable thick- ness. * An excellent opertju on the minerals of Nassau, in an industrial and geological point of view, was prepared for the Exposition in Paris, by Dr. Guido Sandberger, under the auspices of the Ducal Government. Mr. Smytii on Mining AND Metallur- gical Products. Graphite largely pro- duced in Austria. Millstones — of France ; Andernach ; and Bel- gium. 58 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Smyth on Mining AND Metallur- gical . Products. Building stone. Roofing slate. Marbles of Austria, and Greece. The rocks employed as building and ornamental stone were in some instances placed in the 1st, in others in the 14th and 24th Classes. A good collection of the Cornish building stones was contributed by the Royal Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851 ; and the Cheesewring Granite Company gave an example in a fine pedestal, of the white Cornish granite, which from the large size and moderate cost at which it can be obtained, is particularly suitable to constructions on a large scale. A great number of granites and marbles were afforded by France, and Corsica was particularly remarkable for its cipollino and other marbles. The “ agate marble ” of Ain Tekbalek in the province of Oran, of which slabs and some vases, purchased by the Duke of Wellington, had been prepared, was among the most attractive objects in the Exhibition, and was particu- larly interesting as being derived from the re-discovered quarries, in which the Romans used to work the material so similar to the admired arragonite (miscalled oriental alabaster) of Egypt. The French slate quarries of Rimogne, Beville, and Angers contributed full collections of their products, which although so serviceable as to be largely employed, and to occupy some thousands of workmen, were scarcely equal to those sent by Messrs. Greaves and Holland from Ffestiniog in North Wales. A few of the ornamental stones exhibited as material, without reference to artistic treatment, may be mentioned. Austria exhibited good variously-coloured marbles from Adnet, St. Johanns, Untersberg, and Wiessthal, a very beautiful series from Bergamo, and handsome dark serpen- tine from Lend and Gastein. Among the more interesting were the following specimens from Greece : — Rosso antico slabs 40 inches by 12 inches, interstratified with white marble, from Laconia. Breclie de Me dee , gray fragments in a reddish ground, from Argolis. Breche de Sparte, gray, with curious white markings, apparantly from corals. Green veined cipollino, from the quarries of Carysto, in Negropont. Marbre de Mantinee, in reality a porfido verde antico , with the felspar crystals of a pale olive tint, but tending to decompose in the centre. Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products. 59 Marbre de Tenos, a fine green serpentine, with white veins. and METALLUR- GICAL Turkey exhibited slabs of a very beautiful translucent Pll( Ak CTS - arragonite, found near Tocat, which a century or more since was largely employed in ornamental work, although now seldom seen in articles larger than dagger hilts or the mouth- pieces of tchibooks. In the Indian collection were small slabs of a greenish yellow marble, from Bellary, Madras, which should be valuable if it can be obtained of larger size. Spain and Portugal contributed a great variety of marbles, many of them very fine in colour. It is notorious that great admiration was lavished in porcelain ° f Paris on the earthenware and china of the English manu- facturers, and that the low prices at which they could be obtained were a cause of surprise to the French public, accustomed to the expensive though beautiful Sevres. It may be interesting therefore, in conclusion, to refer to the materials of pottery in the two countries as one of the chief elements in the difference of price. Mr. Pike, of Wareham, the chief exporter of the Dorset- shire clay, exhibited a collection of that substance, which is shipped from Poole at the rate of about 70,000 tons a year ; and a series of the varieties of China clay (Kaolin) of Corn- wall represented that important branch of enterprize which exports annually about 80,000 tons, principally to Stafford- shire. The Cornish china-clay has all to be obtained from the Kaoiin^of granite with decomposed felspar by a series of washing and decanting processes, which have for their object the elimina- tion of quartz, mica, and other admixtures. Still, even after this preparation, it is scarcely equal in whiteness and beauty of appearance to the Kaolin which was exhibited from St. Yrieix, near Limoges, but it has so great an advantage in and France*, price that it has even been imported into France. The best qualities from Cornwall cost at the works in Staffordshire 50s. or 52 s. per ton; the so-called Cornish stone, after the grinding which it requires, 70s. The French Kaolin, which is, in fact, decomposed granite, costs at the works when ground, 4 tl. or 51. the ton. I am informed by my friend M. Arnoux, of Messrs. Min- applicable to ton’s works, that this latter Kaolin is far superior to any klndscff used in Germany, but not being applicable to the manufac- porcclaiu * ture of earthenware or soft china (pate tendre), unless freed from its imbedded quartz, ifc has stimulated the produc- 60 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. smyth tion of the hard china ( pate dure), in which France is pre- on Mining • and eminent. That obtained from Cornwall, on the other hand, ME e™- would not form a hard porcelain so fine and translucent as Peoducts. th e French, but having its particles in a minute state of subdivision, is excellently adapted for the earthenware and soft china or porcelain, which our manufacturers have brought to a high state of perfection. A curious and not generally understood instance is thus afforded of the dependence of the special variety of manufacture in different countries on the mode of occurrence of its raw materials. It may be added that examples were furnished by Baron de Veauce (France, 5,274), of Kaolin from a newly- discovered locality in the Department de la Nievre, which is said to promise larger quantities than the Haute Yienne. Limits of In conclusion, I must remark that our international Jury tionsofjury. was greatly indebted for its smoothness of action to the kindness and liberal feeling of Elie de Beaumont, the Pre- sident, and M. Devaux, the Vice-President, as well as to the unremitting exertion and widely-extended knowledge of M. Callon, of the Ecole des Mines, who acted as Secretary. The only serious difficulty in forming conclusions lay in the questions, 1st, how far, in subjects requiring a great variety of scientific study and technical skill, it was desirable to regard excellence other than that which appeared in the products exhibited ; and 2nd, in what degree the magnitude and importance of establishments should entitle them to be distinguished. Minerals, metals, and the processes by which they are discovered, worked, and brought to a certain stage of elaboration, formed the substance of the investigations of the Jury of the 1st Class. It was reserved for other Juries to consider these objects with reference to their farther application ; and thus the suitableness of certain irons to particular purposes, the adaptation of alloys to various manufactures, &c., remained to be reported on by persons practically conversant with the special branches of industry. Lesson However partially, in some respects, she may have been the g Exhibi- represented, Great Britain should, perhaps in a greater tl0U ’ degree than other nations, learn a lesson from the Exhibi- tion of 1855. Articles once manufactured exclusively by us are now produced in large quantities by several other nations ; their natural stores, which had long been neglected, are fast developing under the influence of associated capital; and every step in advance is firmly planted, because it results more from the establishment of definite scientific Mr. Smyth on Mining and Metallurgical Products . 61 principles than from hap-hazard trials, or mere manipulative skill. On most points we are still far ahead, but let us take timely heed, lest deficiency of system and of well- grounded knowledge should, in spite of our natural advan- tages, expose us to a much nearer race with the inventive genius and adaptability of the French, and the firmly-based perseverance of the German nations. I have the honour to be, &c. Warington W. Smyth. London, 1st March 1856. «I / SttJSiO oO'Xurf* ' kitoitewtnl o.dj \o toobh'rfi d - ,; t h . : i ■ "•-■ ' ^ vibYon 3ilt 0J.J7 £ar:(ii|>aiufMxo mdi dtiw iioanfiamo r 7 r 4- br * 'if; Olfi ; VJ ? . 1 f - 2 : ■ , r< a. - , • . . . r k f r . n * . . *~1 A -- ~ J ■ -w • •. ! yu * ... T OH 088 two I if difv, rt /,1 ■ /! V they are generally found to alternate in position with the large Peculiar coal strata, and occasionally the flux necessary for their re- duction is in close proximity. These advantages are almost Britain, peculiar to this country, and although iron is found in every formation and in every region, it is only in Great Britian and some few other localities, that the iron ores are so closely imbedded with cheap mineral fuel ; and yet all these con- ditions are essential to the development of a large and profit- able production. In Norway and Sweden, for example, the magnetic ores are exhaustless; but in those countries coal is wanting, and hence the difficulty and great expense of the manufacture. In Great Britain there are at least four or five great producing districts, where the ore and the fuel are found in juxta-position. Nearly the whole of these ores, par- ticuiary the earthy carbonates of black bands, are found in almost inexhaustible abundance, interstratified with the numerous coal-fields of Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, and some of the districts of South Wales. And it is only in some of the coal-fields of the northern counties that these ores are not found in sufficient quantity and purity to render them eligible for reduction. In north Lancashire and in Cum- berland the red ores exist in great variety and abundance, and they are considered of great value when used as an alloy, for mixing with the poorer description of the clay iron-stones. F 66 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Tairbairn on Machi- nery IN GENERAL. Mineral re- sources of Ireland. Distribu- tion of the iron ores. In fact, such is the richness of these ores, that large quantities are annually transported from Ulverstone and Whitehaven into South Wales, Staffordshire, and Scotland, for the exclusive purpose of improving the quality of iron manufac- tured in those districts. Altogether Great Britain possesses remarkable advantages over other countries in the pecu- liarities of her mineral treasures, and taking into considera- tion the extent of her coal-fields, and the power which these extensive mines afford for the smelting and manufacture of lead, copper, and iron, it would be a disgrace to us if we did not stand pre-eminent in this branch of industry.*' Sir Robert Kane, in his Industrial Resources of Ireland, gives an account of the vast mineral deposits which exist in that country, and also of the abundance of iron ore which is to be found in various districts and localities. These ores have not, however, been worked to any great extent, owing mainly to the absence of coal. The time may, however, arrive when they will be turned to profitable account, and the hope in this respect is rendered the more probable, by the establishment of railway com- munication with the large tracts of peat moss, which, if properly prepared and carbonized, would produce fuel of great value for smelting purposes. Very many of the Irish ores are of a superior description, and provided they were smelted with carbonized peat, it is more than probable that iron would be produced equal in quality to the best Swedish metal or to the charcoal iron of Newland, in North Lancashire. This iron, if properly prepared, might be worked at a cost calculated to meet the market for our finest description of iron and steel, or that quality from which our finest wire is produced.fi The Iron Ores of France. The iron ores of France are various in form and character r those of the Jura are found stratified in beds, and in some cases widely dispersed, or accumulated in masses in the * The specimens of iron ores and coal exhibited in the Annexe, as also those of steel, are equal, and in some cases superior, to those exhibited in Hyde Park in 1851. On that occasion there were the following varieties; — Haematite iron ore, Ulverstone, yielding - - 66 '47 metal. Kidney ore from Balcarry Bay „ - - 70*00 ,, Clay iron-stone, Arigua Mines, Ireland, yielding - 60*00 ,, If we add to these the argillaceous, calcareous, and siliceous haematite iron ores, the magnetic oxides, anhydrous haematites, the poorer ores of Staffordshire, and the black band of Scotland, we enumerate nearly the whole of the varieties exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851. And so far as can be judged from personal inspection, the collections in the Annexe were nearly similar in variety nd quantity. t See Tables in Appendix III. Mr. Fdirbairn on Machinery in general. 67 form of small kidney-shaped concretions, imbedded in the ms. fissures of the limestone by which they are surrounded. onMa™. Many of these deposits are only slightly covered by sand and genSrIjL clay, and in some cases are found scattered over the surface. — They are found dispersed over many parts of France. They are present in the Department of the Yonne, the Meuse, the Moselle ; in fact, they may be traced from the Pas de Calais on the north, to the Soane and the Jura on the south, indi- cating throughout an abundant and ample supply. The The want difficulty, however, that exists is the want of coal in the immediate neighbourhood of the ores. Although the mining diate neigh- and washing of the ores is cheap, the carriage is expensive, bourhood. and adds greatly to the cost at which the iron can be pro- duced. The smelting of iron ores in France is, however, greatly on Influence the increase. The facilities afforded by railways for the transit of the mineral products of the country have given of late nu f acture ~ years a wonderful stimulus to this branch of industry. Ten of iron, years ago nearly all the French iron was smelted by charcoal, but since the introduction of railway communication permit- ting the use of coal, the manufacture has advanced with a rapidity which has already doubled, and may very shortly quadruple the production.* Notwithstanding this progress, the French continue to import large quantities of iron. The French are perfectly aware of the importance of the Iron used application of iron to purposes of building, and almost every c °nstruc- house of any value now erected in Paris or any other large town of France is constructed with iron joists, and made fireproof. An equally great demand exists for railway con- structions and bridges of great span, iron ship-building, and similar works of equal importance, where iron is the chief material employed. The Iron Ores of America. In the United States of America, we have the same indica- Ores of the tions of an extended and increasing demand for manufac- s t "tes d of tured iron as in France. The productive powers of the America, native ores are about the same in both countries ; but looking at the number of square miles over which the former great country extends, we arrive at the conclusion that at no very distant period its iron industry must become of great impor- tance. * Canal navigation, although greatly extended and encouraged by Napoleon I., was not calculated to meet all the requirements of an active progression. It only extended (with the exception of the great links of communication) to a few localities, and these were at some distance from the markets or the seat of con- sumption. F 2 68 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Faiebaien on Machi- NEEY IN GENEEAL. The distri- bution of the ores. Want of cheap tran- sit. Smelting works of America. Ores of Prussia. We find the ores widely diffused, and the immense fields of anthracite and bituminous fuel are sufficient guarantees for the extension of the manufacture ; and those supplies, which at a future period may be brought into use, will add to the industrial resources of the country. At the present time the quantity of iron produced from the ores in America is about the same as in France, or one-fourth that which is produced in Great Britain. Certainly the Americans import large quantities of British iron, on account of their inability to supply the ever increasing demand for railways and other works. The iron ores of America are various in kind and degree. The carboniferous, haematite and magnetic ores are found in different localities ; but the valley of the Mississippi, west of the Alleghany mountains, is not only the great coal region of the States of Western Pennsylvania, Virginia and Ohio, but also the great iron ore district of that immense country, from which future generations will probably derive their supply. As yet very little is known of this enormous tract of carboniferous deposits. There is the same want of communication between the ores and the fuel as in France. This want applies even to the valley of the Mississippi, where the products of the ores have to be transported, either by land or water, from the furnace to the market ; but the ready resources of the Anglo- Saxon race will surmount these difficulties, and railways and canals will no doubt be constructed in rapid succession to meet the demands of the times. The districts in which the smelting and manufacture of iron is carried on, east of the Alleghany range, are those of New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland; on the western side of the Alleghanies, Western Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other districts. Most of the ores are smelted with charcoal, and some with anthracite coal, which is found in the eastern parts of New England, New York, and the eastern shores of Pennsylvania. The whole of the eastern States appear to be well situated for the manufacture of iron, but the greater part of this manufacture must eventually establish itself in the valley of the Mississippi, where both ores and fuel are found in abundance. The Ikon Ores of Prussia, Austria, &c. The production of iron in Prussia has been greatly aug- mented of late years, and there cannot exist a doubt that the same cause which has induced so large an increase in other countries has had its influence on Prussia also. The railway system in that country, as in all others, is largely developed. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 69 and the demand for manufactured iron bears a relative pro- portion to the extension and increase of this new system of ox Machi- communication. The consumption is not so great in Prussia Seral. as in France, and, with the exception of railways, roofs, and rolling stock, iron as a material for building is not so exten- sively used. It is applied to some extent in buildings, and the architects of Berlin and other parts of Prussia have availed themselves of it in the construction of the floors and domes of their great works, such as palaces, churches, &c. It is also used in the construction of bridges, chiefly of the lattice form, but in other works, excepting only those of agriculture and machinery, it is not much in demand. The chief seats of the iron manufacture are in the vicinity Iron manu of the great coal-fields of Ruhr, where are found valuable f iJ ctorl . esof strata of the black band, carbonate ore, and clay carbonates, similar to those found in Scotland and other parts of the United Kingdom. This mineral district is intersected by railways, and the River Ruhr, which communicates with the Rhine, affords great facilities for transit. Besides these black band and clay carbonates, there exist in Rhenish Prussia several varieties of hematite ore, of what quality I am unable to determine ; but they are found valuable for mixing with those of Westphalia, and, I believe, may be worked at a moderate cost. On the eastern side of the Kingdom, in Upper Silesia, on the Vistula and the Oder, large deposits of coal and iron are found, and several furnaces are now in operation for smelting and other purposes, in connexion with iron in its more advanced stage of manufacture. Austria does not manufacture iron to the same extent as ° res Prussia, but her iron is of excellent quality. This arises us ia ‘ from the ores being smelted and worked with charcoal, or in some cases with carbonized peat. It is similar to the Swedish metal, and like all other iron of this kind, is appli- cable to every description of manufacture, from the most ductile wire to the hardest steel. The ores are found in Plungary, Styria, Moravia, and Upper Silesia, and in each of these localities they are worked with charcoal and peat. Belgium is another country where both coal and iron of Ores of good quality are found in equal abundance. The coal mea- Be, g lum - sures extend across the country from east to west, and on them are the extensive works ofCockerill and Co., at Seraing, near Liege ; there are works of a similar character at Charleroi and other places in the immediate vicinity of the coal measures. The ores, which are chiefly haematite, are derived from the carboniferous limestone which lies at the base of the coal. 70 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. me. The quantity of iron produced in Sweden is not consider- ed machi- able, but that produced is of the very first quality, owing not (SerS. only 1° the very fine quality of the ore, which covers the face OreiTof comltr y to an immeasureable extent, but also to its Sweden, being smelted with charcoal, and worked in all its subsequent processes by the same material. Coal does not exist in this country, and even in the iron districts the makers are limited by law to a certain number of trees per annum on account of the forests, which the proprietors of the towns are bound to maintain. These laws are a great drawback to the Swedish iron-masters, and most seriously operate against the extension of this most important branch of manufacture. Ores of In Russia the state of the iron market is not so well known ; Russia. but several extensive works are in operation in the Ural mountains ; and the great works of Tulo, and some others in the interior of that vast country, evidence a progression, that must, nevertheless, be limited in extent from the want of mineral fuel.* Iron in its Manufactured State. Specimens If we proceed from the consideration of the raw material of pig, bar, to that of its manufactured products, several splendid speed- ed plate mens present themselves in the Annexe of the Paris Uni- versal Exhibition ; and in this department were exhibited samples of pig, bar and plate iron certainly not inferior to The French any thing yet produced in this country. In forging large superior in masses of malleable iron, the French works are decidedly in’ resistance to strain. This does not arise so much from ^ast. any defects observable in the ores or the fuel, but chiefly from the rapidity with which it is produced by the applica- tion of the hot blast and pit-coal in the process of smelting. Formerly, before the application of this process, the blast Increased furnaces of this country yielded from 40 to 60 tons of good production iron per week, and that with an expenditure of 6 to 7 tons ^ the hot of coal in the shape of coke for every ton of iron. Now blast, from three to four times the quantity is produced by the hot blast with little more than one-third the quantity of fuel ; and that again from the raw coal and raw ore, without the expense or trouble of the coking and roasting processes. The result of this immense saving, and the increased pro- duction, is a loss of strength, arising probably from the rapidity of the process and the consequent contamination by sulphur and phosphorus, two substances highly detrimental to the cohesive force with which the crystals of iron unite. Let me not be supposed to express a doubt that this cheap Advan- process of reducing the ores is as a whole, a great benefit to the country, as hot-blast iron, generally speaking, is of great value for many purposeswdiere strength is not an important element of its utility. Its fluidity, and the ease with which it can be worked, render it applicable to every description of construction that is not subject to severe strain. In the construction of artillery, beams, and bridges, it Defects of is not, however, at all times to be depended upon, and it [^ s j )0t would be w T ell in every structure of this kind to use it as * sparingly, or only as an alloy for reducing some of the harder and stronger iron.* * It is rather extraordinary, and not uninteresting, to watch the variable cha* racter of the hot-blast iron from the same works at different times, when smelted probably under different conditions and temperature. I have observed, at one period, specimens of iron to he elastic and strong, while others sent from the same works at another time have been weak and comparatively soft and short in their granulated texture, when submitted to strain. I may further mention, that shortly after the employment of the hot blast, a total change came over the pig iron market, by the introduction of a description of iron smelted from the cinder heaps of Staffordshire and other places. This iron gave the hot blast a rather unfavourable character. Such were the facilities which this new process had introduced, that the cinder heap iron, when re-melted, not only broke short off, but shrunk or lost in cooling one- ninth or one-tenth its original bulk. 74 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Faiebaiex ox Machi- XEEY IX GEXEEAX. Improve- ment of the quality of hot-blast iron. Rolling of bar and plate iron. Excellence of the Prussian thin plates. Whilst offering these observations, I should wish it to be understood that 1 do not condemn the hot-blast manufacture. On the contrary, I think it should be still more extensively pursued, as I have not only found that some of the best iron is derived from this source, but in some instances, in its powers of resistance to transverse strain and to impact, it has proved equal to some of our best cold-blast iron. The only objection to it is a want of uniformity of character, which renders its application at times uncertain. If greater care were observed in its manufacture, and a more judicious selection of the ores and fuel made, I can see no reason why a perfectly strong and rigid description of iron should not be made. Besides, I am of opinion that two kinds, possessing all the properties of' strength and elasticity on the one hand, and high working qualities, such as ductility and fluidity, on the other, may be produced ; and in effecting these objects it would enable the architect and engineer to make a selection with a certainty that they were purchasing an article suited to the purpose for which they intended it. If these two distinct qualities could be obtained, we should not, under the present exigencies of a war, have to experiment and hunt up material from every quarter of the globe to strengthen and render more durable our guns and mortars. Let us hope that more attention will be paid to this important branch of industry, and that we shall shortly be enabled to look upon the manufactured iron of Great Britain as the result of careful attention to all the requirements of quality as well as quantity. Malleable Iron. To the rolling of bar and plate iron the French and every other nation in Europe have been paying the utmost atten- tion. I have already noticed the immense works of Schneider and Co., of Creuzot, and those of Jackson et Freres: to these may be added those of Cockerill, at Seraing, near Liege, Gandit et C ie , Forge et Fonderie de Montataire, and some of the larger works of Prussia, which at the present moment are in full activity. I have not had the means of ascer- taining the amount of the production of these works ; but I have seen and examined numerous samples of the work pro- duced, and it is but fair to state that the quality of the rails, bars, and plates, whether viewed in regard to dimen- sions, weight, or workmanship, is not inferior to that of any manufactured in this country. In the manufacture of the thinner and finer descriptions of plates they excel, and some of these rolled for tin are so thin and so remarkably sound as to be designated by the name of iron paper. All these Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 75 pl Fairbairn a lie ox Machi- nery in GENERAL. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. plates are of excellent quality, and exhibit in a high degree Mr. the important qualities of flexibility and strength, specimens of rolled bars and rails in this exhibition were not superior to our own, but several excellent specimens of railway wheel-tyres of large dimensions were exhibited. In the manufacture of wrought-iron beams and joists the TheFrenci French have taken an undoubted lead; and the specimens su i )eriorin exhibited from the Forge et Fonderie de Montataire, and facttu-^of others indicate a degree of perfection which has not as wrought yet been attained in this country. Some of the joists, of iron j° ists * the sectional dimensions shown in the annexed sketch (Fig. 1), were rolled 60 feet long; and another specimen of still greater dimensions as at Fig. 2, was rolled 40 feet long. These specimens, and several others of different sizes, show how much * has been done, and how much may yet be accomplished in this branch of manufacture ; and we have yet to learn why the same facilities cannot be afforded for the introduction of this class of work direct from rolls by the iron-makers of England and Value of Scotland. If this description of beams were properly rolled rolled iron and manufactured, it would effect a great saving in mecha- beams * nical construction, and would, at the same time, produce much greater certainty in the strength of beams, by dis- pensing with the present system of joints, and the riveted angle iron, which consti- tute at the present moment our defective mode of constructions, as shown in the section Fig. 3. It would introduce also into our present system of manufacture a new and greatly enlarged branch of in- dustry, adapted to all the requirements of the architect, the builder, and the en- gineer. The introduction of this new description of beam, if properly prepared, would esta- blish a new and important era in the history of constructive science, as it would supply architects and engineers with an article on which they might safely depend for durability and power of resistance to strain ; which would not be liable to dry-rot, sap, or any of 76 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Sec-tiona! form of iron beams not suffi- cently at- tended to. the destructive diseases to which timber is subject ; and which would be free from oxidation when kept dry and imbedded in plaster. This is shown by the construction of floors in constant use in Paris.* Besides, a building so constructed possesses the advantages of being fireproof, strong, and secure. In the manufacture of malleable iron beams in France, sufficient attention has not been paid to form, in order to attain the section of greatest strength. The French philo- sophers and engineers are fully aware of the experiments made in the year 1845, for investigating the strength and form of iron beams, in order to establish the, principle on which the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges should be constructed. The formulae deduced from these experiments are well known in France, and up to the present time have been used for similar constructions. They proved that wrought iron beams followed a totally different law in their resistance to strain, to cast iron ; that in wrought iron beams the area of the bottom flange requires to be little more than one-half that of the top ; while in cast iron beams the area of the bottom flange should be six times that of the top flange. This difference arises from the great resistance which wrought iron offers to a tensile strain, and its compa- * It may here be stated, that the floors of all the better class of houses in Paris are now built with iron joists, placed at distances varying from two feet to two feet six inches asunder. Some of these floors supported on iron joists are 30 feet wide. At about every three feet six inches cross tie-rods are placed, on which rest slender wrought-iron rods half an inch square, three between each joist } these rods are run through perforated bricks of the annexed sectional Fig. 4. form (Fig. 4.) These bricks are built in a slightly arched manner, and the space below them filled with plaster, forming a perfectly solid floor. Across these rods and arches wooden sleepers are placed to receive the boarding for the floors, leaving a hollow' space between each joist, as at A A (Fig. 5.) In this description of floors there is every security from fire, and the plaster being a bad conductor of heat, equalizes the temperature of the room. The only objection is the open space A A (Fig. 5), between the arches and the boarding, serving as a receptacle for vermin. This objection might be removed by divisions of plaster six inches thick carried across the floor, and in contact with the boards. This description of building is in general use in Paris and most other towns of France, and viewing it as a permanent fireproof structure, I should earnestly recommend its adoption in this country. □ □ □ □ □ □ Fl C. 5. CEILING. Mr. Fairbairn on M achinery in general . 77 ratively inferior resistance to compression. Cast iron, on the other hand possesses a high power of resistance to com- pression and defective resistance to tension. The following Table of resistances will show how the material should be distributed in order to obtain the maximum of strength with the minimum or least required quantity of material : — The resisting power of — To tension, To compression, in tons. in tons. Wrought iron plates is - 23 - 12 Copper ,, 16 3 Cast iron ,, 8 - 5 1 From the above it is evident that to obtain the maximum strength in a wrought iron beam from the least quantity of material, the area of the top flange should be nearly double that of the bottom ; but as this is difficult in practice, I submit the annexed form as the nearest approach to a maximum sec- tional strength. It is desirable to make the top flange as broad as possible, for the purpose of giving the beam lateral strength, and in this form the useless material now given to the botton flange would be saved. In other descriptions of manufacture, ^ such as railway bars, angle-iron, T-iron, and other varieties, we are in advance of other nations, though in beams and joists like those so extensively used in France, we are far from perfect ; and although this may be Mr. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in general. Fig. 6. r]l owino; to the want of demand rather than of skill on the part of the iron manufacturers, still there is a gap to fill up, either on the part of the architects who lag behind, or in difficulties raised by those whose duty it is to overcome them. In conclusion, I would direct attention to the impor- tance of the assertion that Great Britain should never be behind in any description of manufacture which leads to the extension and enlargement of her iron industry. Superiority of our rail- way bars. Necessity of improv- ing our manufac- ture of ii'on beams. Other branches of industry. 78 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Decline of architec- ture in England. Superiority of the French architec- ture. On Architecture and its Progress. Before entering npon the question of machinery, it may not be uninteresting to examine as briefly as possible into the present state of architectural science, and the changes that are taking place both in the style and the material of construction. The architecture of Great Britain has pro- bably never, since the days of the old Norman Gothic, been at a lower ebb than that indicated by the architecture of the last two hundred years. The low state of the decorative art, and the paltry appearance and total want of taste in the buildings of that period sufficiently evince the decline of the high sentiment in the combination of material which constitutes the beauty and symmetry of architectural design. It is true that the country can boast of some distinguished exceptions among the architects of the past and the present day ; but the works of the founder of the Adelphi, and the builder of Buckingham Palace, are not to be compared with those of Inigo Jones and the high art and classical style of Sir Christopher Wren. The art of beauty and proportion in architecture appeared to be almost lost, with probably few exceptions, during a great portion of the last and a part of the present centuries ; and it is only within the last twenty years that the profession gives indications of its recovery from the state of degradation into which it had fallen. The country is indebted to Pugin, Sir C. Barry, Cockerell, and other leading men for the improvements which have been effected, and also to some of the junior architects of the present day for the revival of a better and more consistent style of decorative art. The impressions produced on my mind when viewing the improvements now in progress at Paris were, that we have yet much to learn in this refined and classical art ; and although the cheapness of the material, and facility with which it can be worked, be admitted, we are nevertheless still behind the architects of that country in attention to the harmony of proportions and to those laws which con- stitute the difference between high art and incongruity of form. I do not offer these observations as opinions, but simply as impressions forced upon me in the contemplation of decora- tive art as it appeared at Paris during my residence in that city. On the other hand, it is but fair to consider the difference of material at the command of the architects of Great Britain and of those of France. If we compare the light appearance of the buildings and the clearness of the Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 79 atmosphere of France with the red brick, dingy stone, and 1?AIEBA j RN the coal smoke of the Metropolis and our large towns, there 7 >n Machi- is evidently an advantage in favour of the Continent for archi- general. tectural display, and it is only an act of justice to make these admissions ; but allowing for all the advantages of difference of colour and difference of quality in the material, there is still great room for improvement. That brick buildings can be made perfectly architectural Iron as a by a judicious arrangement of stone in combination, I have not the shadow of a doubt ; and now that iron is coming into general use as a new and important material to be turned to account in the construction of buildings, it will not, I trust, be considered presumption if I recommend the consideration of its properties to the attention of the archi- tect and builder. Its durability, superior strength, and fitness for building purposes have already been demonstrated ;* and I am satisfied that the enterprise, intelligence, and good sense of our architects will at once perceive the advantages of its extended application. In floors, roofs, and domes for public buildings it is incom- parably superior to timber, and provided architects and builders of dwelling-houses would look more to security from fire, and durability, than to cheapness of construction, they would not only erect very superior structures, but would hand dow T n to their successors bu dings of a very different character to the rickety structures in which the poorer and some of the middle class of society now reside. It is always an unpleasant task to animadvert upon the customs of any particular profession, or on what may be considered material defects; but having been requested to give my impressions fresh from the anvil of the Paris Uni- versal Exhibition, I should ill perform that duty if I dis- guised the sentiments which that visit has produced. I have not, therefore, hesitated to point out wherein consists our deficiency, nor is it my intention to withhold what I am bound to admit, that in this country we are rapidly ap- Improve- proaching a new era in the history of architecture ; and, ment . in considering what has already been accomplished, I am satisfied ^tecture*" that our past failures will not be lost upon our future of the pre- success. The buildings now in progress indicate a totally sent day- different character to those which were rising into notice twenty or thirty years ago. Cheapness is not now so much the order of the day. Security, permanency, and beauty have taken the place of the false and depressed style of * Vide a Work lately published by Weale, “ On the Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes.” 80 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me, Fairbairr or Machi- nery ir GERERAi. Employ- ment of iron as a building material in France. former times, and we may reasonably look forward to a generous rivalry in all the requirements of architectural decoration and solidity of construction. These are steps in the right direction ; and the architect of the present day has only to persevere in the course already begun, and an improved taste for classical harmony and symmetrical pro- portion will shortly pervade the public mind, supplant past errors, and ultimately lead to important results. In conclusion, I would again venture strongly to recom- mend that more attention should be paid to iron as a building material ; its durability and its powers of resistance under the varied forms of columns, joists, and girders are too well known to require repetition in this place. I would therefore point out a few examples of its successful application ; and seeing what has already been done on the Continent, I entertain hopes that the time is not far distant when in this country also it may come into more general use. The French availed themselves of the experiments which resulted in the completion of the Britannia and Conway bridges,* to apply them to similar structures ; and nearly the whole of the bridges of large span, particularly those for the support of railways and heavy traffic, are constructed of this material. In France single plate girders are chiefly in use, and these united to cross-beams of the same material for supporting the platform of the roadway, answer every pur- pose of a strong and perfectly solid structure. The wrought iron beams also are most extensively used to support the floors of dwelling-houses, and the Government engineers have used the same metal with great success in the con- struction of flat arches of wide span. In structures of this kind, it may be noticed that the bridge, by M. Oudry, across the Seine, between the Church of Notre Dame and the open space in front of the Hotel de Ville, has very recently been completed on that plan. To these, to the Ex- hibition buildings, and to the plate roof so beautifully con- structed over the Terminus of the Paris and Versailles Rail- way Station, I may refer as examples where the F rench have been as forward as any other nation of Europe in availing themselves of the benefits to be derived from a judicious application of wrought iron to architectural purposes ; and the very high price of this material in that country has not deterred them from its free and liberal employment. * Vide the experimental researches in my Work on the Conway and Britannia tubular bridges. Mr, Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 81 In England we have the merit of its first application to m*. ship-building, bridge-building, and similar works of great onMachi- magnitude ; but we have not pursued its application to the genbeal. constructive arts with the same energy as has been done by Em — _ the architects of France ; and although we can exhibit some meat of splendid specimens of roofs, ships, and bridges, we have iron in much less to show in the shape of building and other varieties of construction, so successfully adopted by the & c . architects of other countries. In the Prussian, Austrian, and the smaller German States, Employ- iron is employed in the lattice form for bridges, but I ]”*”*„* have not seen it much in use, and also to a very limited England, extent, for the purposes of building, excepting probably at Berlin, where it is successfully used for girders, and the construction of domes for public buildings. Bridge-building has always been the chef-d'oeuvre of the bridges of building art, and I was much struck by the cheap and solid 1 ai ls * form of some of those across the Seine at Paris. Our bridges over the Thames are composed of a solid mass of granite, but in Paris they have only an outside veneering of cut stone, the whole of the interior or filling up, as shown at A A, Figure 7, being composed of a species of concrete or rubble closely grouted with plaster of Paris or cement. (See engraving on next page.) This cement when dried forms a perfectly solid mass for resisting the thrusts of the arches. The new bridge which crosses the Seine at the end of the Annexe and the Beaux Arts is of this description, and I am assured that most others in that city are composed of the same material. G Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 83 The Machinery of the Paris Universal me. Faiebaien Exhibition. on machi- NEEY IN In this extensive department of mechanical construction, 7 — I have endeavoured to collect and bring together such a ^ 1 a “ t ^' series of facts in connexion with the various forms and adap- this depart- tations of the objects that have come before me, as I trust ment - may prove advantageous in extending the industrial pursuits in which this country is so largely engaged. In the classi- fication that was adopted the Jurors might probably be ex- pected to confine their observations to the articles specified in their respective classes ; but conceiving that a more general and comprehensive description of the mechanical contrivances displayed in this Exhibition might be useful, I have endea voured to record them in such form as to show in what we are deficient, and wherein consists our superiority over other countries. The Paris Universal Exhibition differed from all Differences others in the extent of its productions, the variety of its t ! ie objects, and the facilities afforded for the disposal of the London 1 exhibited articles at a fair market price ; these conditions Exhibi- were of great value to the exhibitors in the immense selection tIons * submitted to view. In this respect it differed from the Exhi- bition of 1851 ; and looking at the numerous specimens of raw material and the display of manufactured articles, we at once conclude that it was an immense bazaar, from which might be selected every description of manufacture and almost every kind of produce. In this Exhibition nothing struck the observer more forcibly than the beauty and the extent of the articles offered for inspection, and the great skill by which such vast and varied forms of manufacture were produced. In the department of machinery it may be interesting to trace the development of many ingenious con- trivances. The self-acting and almost creative power of Advantages machine tools, and the facilities with which that branch of manufacture is endowed for the production and reproduction machines, of other machines, is a feature of incalculable importance to the national industry. Many of those now in constant use had no existence a very few years since ; but such has been the progress in mechanical science, that the finish of work performed many of these machines surpasses the most skilful efforts of the human hand. Such, in fact, are the advantages derived from the intro- duction of this kind of machinery, that the produce of our manufactures is multiplied and extended ten and in many cases upwards of a hundred fold. In the process of copying, or the reproduction of the same article by mechanical means, G 2 84 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Mr. Tairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Enumera- tion of the steam en- gines exhi- bited at Paris, there were in this Exhibition numerous contrivances, for which we are indebted to the Americans, and their system for the formation of objects by dummies , or what may be called the pantagraph system, by which the form of every .part of the object is traced, and by proper tools and cutters a fac-simile of the article to be copied produced. This system of repro- duction is fast coming into general use, and many examples of its utility were shown at the Paris Exhibition. Steam Engines and Steam Machinery. The number of steam engines in the exhibition was 112, consisting of 71 stationary, 24 marine, and 17 locomotives, as follows : — — Stationary. Locomotives. Marine. France - - 25 6 11 Great Britain - - 11 2 11 Austria - - 11 1 — Prussia - - 1 1 — Belgium - - 1 3 — Hanover - - - 1 — W urtemburg - - - 2 — Baden - - - 1 — Sweden - - 11 - 1 United States - - 11 — — Holland - - - - 1 Total - - 71 17 24 Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 85 Stationary Engines. ON Machi- The department of stationary engines comprised almost all the varieties of construction, horizontal, vertical, and oblique. - — The horizontal with one cylinder appears to be much in demand, and the vertical with two cylinders upon Woolf’s prin- France, ciple, having an expansion from four to five times the volume Belgium, of the small cylinder, has been for the last half century in &c * general use in France, and almost equally so in Bel- gium and most other parts of the Continent. They are worked generally at a pressure of 40 lbs. to 50 lbs. on the square inch, and the steam is supplied from boilers with the fire under two longitudinal tubes or generators. These tubes are connected with the boiler at both ends, and the heated currents having made two or more circuits of the toiler, make their escape to the chimney in the usual way. These boilers are not, in my opinion, superior in the economy of fuel to those with internal flues, or to the tubular system as constructed in this country ; but their power of resistance to IIoi ; izontal internal pressure is greater than in boilers of the English their ad- construction. The single-cylinder horizontal appears to be vantages, gaining ground upon the double-cylinder vertical engine, and, doubtless, this arises from their reduced cost. Their com- pact form, and the limited space which they occupy are con- siderations of some importance, and now that metallic pistons are so accurately constructed, the wear and tear upon the cylinder is greatly reduced. The condenser in this construc- tion is placed below the cylinder, and the air pump is worked by a lever attached to the cross-head of the connecting rod and horizontal slides. The air pump, like the cylinder, is placed horizontally, and various forms and devices are adopted in order to give the required motion to the feed- pump, and other organic parts of the engine. As an example, the annexed engraving will convey a pretty accurate idea of the arrangement generally adopted in this description of engine, and the methods employed for working the air pump and feed pump. In this construction A is the cylinder; B, the condenser ; C, the air pump, worked with a solid piston ; and D, the feed pump. The lever E receives motion from the links attached to the cross head and slide at F ; and in order to produce a perfectly horizontal motion in the con- nected rods of the air pump and feed pump, the oscillating lever E is suspended by two more links at «, which leave it free to slide up and down at the foot 5, and thus a hori- zontal movement is effected in the two pump rods before mentioned. 86 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 87 The valves in most of those engines are of the usual con- struction, worked by an eccentric from the fly-wheel shaft, but o* Machi- they have the peculiar feature of a variable lap, working through the spindles of the valves, and by a moveable cam, which works in a square frame at the end of the spindle, any required expansion can be obtained. This appears to be a very ingenious and a very simple contrivance, and seems to answer the purposes of cutting off the steam at any required point of the stroke. The consumption of coal in this engine is represented to be T36 kilogrammes of coal per horse- power per hour, or about 3 lbs. English ; and in order to convince the public of the truth of this statement, the makers publicly offer a guarantee that it shall not exceed that amount. The application of the horizontal in place of the vertical cylinders is an idea nearly as old as the steam engine itself ; but the difficulties formerly were the want of tools and other conveniences for attaining accuracy of construction in order to render the working parts smooth and steam tight. This is no longer an obstacle, as the perfection of the automaton tools surmounts all those inconveniences, and hence the conceptions of former days, which, for want of instruments requisite for construction, have remained in statu quo up to the j>resent time, are at last accomplished. Such are the retardations and such the advancements of science, one generation conceiv- ing schemes and projects which, for want of the means, they are unable to execute ; and the next having, in the process of time, realized those means, are enabled to perform what their pre- decessors had tried in vain to accomplish. In the realization of old ideas, there is generally a strong desire on the part of the successful practitioner to force upon the world his adopted bantling as an original conception, forgetting at the same time what he owes to his predecessor who first made the discovery. No doubt there is great merit in being the first to perfect an original invention, but there is no merit in claiming as a dis- covery what was known before ; and this desire for originality of conception is as strong, if not stronger, in the minds of our French neighbours than among ourselves. There is great credit m being the first to render useful what was before con- sidered impracticable, and he who accomplishes this is cer- tainly entitled to acknowledgment. In the Paris Exhibition the claimants for originality of design, and the practical appli- cation of schemes previously known, were numerous ; and, although the desire to become an original inventor may, in some cases, be objectionable, it nevertheless has its advan- tages in stimulating that active race to renewed exertions in furtherance of future developments in practical science. 88 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Fairbaien on MACHr- NEEY IN GENEEAL. The hori- zontal likely to supplant the vertical form. English engines. Foreign engines. The “ Eu- genie.” The horizontal engine on account of its reduced cost and compact form is likely to supplant the old vertical arrange- ment; and assuming the same rate of expansion to be in operation, and the steam to be cut off at one-fourth or one- fifth of the stroke, the result, so far as regards the economy of fuel, will be the same as that derived from the double cylinder. In this country these improvements, although well known, are not carried to the same extent as in France ; and although the same kind of engine is in operation, we have made slower progress, excepting in the horizontal non- condensing engines, which in Lancashire have got the name of Thrutchers , and are now extensively used as an auxiliary poAver to the condensing engine in most of the manufac- turing districts. There is, hoAvever, still AA r anting a well- digested arrangement of the horizontal condensing engine, compact in form, and adapted tot he work it has to perform : the Paris Exhibition presented numerous examples for our guidance. Locomotive Engines. The locomotive engine had its origin in this country, and those of English origin still retain their superiority over all others, both in design and construction. It would, however, be unjust not to accord great merit to the many excellent specimens contributed to the Paris Exhibition by Continental nations. Nearly all of them Avere somewhat complex in arrangement and design, but evincing great care and attention to solidity of construction. Many of the engines Avere upon the system of Crampton, Avith the valve motions outside, Avhicli gives to the engine an appearance of complication that does not occur in those of English construc- tion. In other respects the engines are the same as our oavii, with the link motions and other indispensable attach- ments. There Avas, hoAvever, one engine to which I would refer — “ the Eugenie, 5 ' built on Mr. MacConnelFs principle of the large firebox and short tubes. This and another from Messrs. Stephenson and Co., of Newcastle-on-Tyne, Avere the only English locomotives exhibited ; and considering the large number brought forward by our Continental competitors, the English constructions were very imperfectly represented. Mr. MacConnelFs engine is on the same principle as the large goods and express engines now av or king on the London and North-Avestern Railway. They have several valuable propei ties, Avhich it may be useful to enumerate in con- nexion Avith the experimental trials made Avith the “ Eugenie 55 Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 89 on the London and North-western Railway, the results of which are as follows : Principal Dimensions of the Engine “ Eugenie. Diameter of cylinders - - 15 in. Stroke of piston - - - 22 in. Diameter of driving wheel - 7 ft. Heating surface, fire-box, &c. 159 sq. ft. Tubes - 7Slsq. ft. Weight of engine in working condition - - 21 tons 18 cwt. Diameter of boiler •4ft. Length of barrel of do. 10ft, . 6in. Length of fire-box 3ft. 9^in. Number of tubes 414 Length of tubes 6ft. Outside diameter of tubes - l|in. Me. Fairbaiek on Machi- nery in general. 90 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. Fairbairn oit Machi- nery in GENERAL. Similarity of all loco- motive en» gines. Improve- ments have been slight. Results obtained during Three Weeks’ Running on the London and North- western Railway, on a Course of 83 Miles with Express Trains. — No. 1 Trial. No. 2 Trial. No. 3 Trial. Number of carriages 15 12 9 Total Weight - 75 tons. 60 tons. Coke burnt, per mile 1 9 lbs. I 5 lbs. — Speed per hour - 40 miles. 45 miles. 75 miles. Ratio of evaporation of water to coke 8*90 8-75 — In these experiments the engine ran with perfect steadiness in all its parts, and can make a journey of 55 miles without stopping. This engine burns coal of the worst quality without smoke, and with great economy ; the generation of steam is most powerful and regular, both at high and low speeds. The arrangement of the furnace and large mixing chamber effects the combination of the gases, so that there is no smoke, and permits the use of a much larger number of smaller tubes, so as to give a tube surface of the same extent as in the ordinary arrangement, but of much greater efficacy. The curve or recess employed in the cylindrical part of the boiler, as shown in the annexed sketch, is of great advantage for forming a metallic bridge betw-een the fire-box and mixing chamber, where the gases are combined, and where it is easy to admit hot or cold air in sufficient quantity to complete the combustion of the gases disengaged from the fuel. This hollow curve adds also to the steadiness of the engine by lowering the centre of gravity, and producing the same if not greater advantages than are obtained by the use of outside cylinders. It would be invidious to draw inferences or to make com- parisons on the construction of machines that are so exactly similar in character and almost identical in principle. The locomotive engine is the same in all countries, and however varied in form or construction, it invariably consists essentially of the blast pipe, tubular boiler, and outside or inside cylinders. Some slight additions and improvements have been effected in the different motions and organic parts of the engine ; but they all resolve themselves into enlarged heating surfaces in the boilers and the employment of the exhaust tube, which is, in fact, the bellows that blows the fire and maintains the supply of steam under every circumstance and every velocity at which the engine may travel. In every construction of this kind the following conditions must be observed, namely, the proportions of the furnace, tubular surface, and the blast pipe ; and these once accomplished, the mere form of construction becomes a consideration of less importance. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 91 Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. greater engines Superiority Doubtless much has been done in proportioning the working parts, such as the wheels and axles, motions, connecting rods, &c., to the work they have to perform, but nothing more is apparently left to be accomplished unless it be to increase the pressure, and by an extended expansion to effect economy in the consumption of fuel. The foreign exhibited in the Annexe were substantially made, and some of them too much so, as a considerable amount of weight and expense might have been saved in the reduction of the material where it is not wanted, and where it does not add to the strength of the engine. In the foreign engines there appeared to be a want of accurate proportion in the distribu- tion of the material, and of simplicity in the movements ; and having had some experience in the construction and proportion of the parts, I am probably the more able to judge of their comparative merits. Under all the circumstances, I am, however, of opinion that the locomotive engines of Great of English Britain are superior to most others, and although they may not have the same amount of exterior polish, there is, never- theless, a simplicity of form and a soundness in the work- manship that gives a character and stability that cannot be mistaken. Marine Engines. In this department there was little to recommend, as the Scantiness contributions were very scanty, and will not bear a comparison ^^ions* with those that were exhibited at the Crystal Palace in 1851. to t h,- s With the exception of a pair of neat engines from the Mor- partment. tala Works in Sweden, two pairs from Cail and Co., and a small pair from Tod and M‘Gregor, of Glasgow, constructed for the screw propeller, there was nothing except some models that de- served the name of marine construction. The rest were not of the best or simplest forms, and cannot, therefore, be con- sidered of much value, either as regards design or construction. It is to be regretted that owing to the exigencies of the war, The exi- and the great demand for marine engines, that the English gencies of makers were unable to forward any for exhibition. In 1851 the tf ^ v '^ ed Crystal Palace was supplied with some splendid specimens of the English marine construction, and we have only to enumerate those of makers Boulton and Watt, Penn, Napier, Maudslay and Field, and others, to be convinced of the superior description of construc- tion for which the British engineer is so justly famed. It will be fresh in the recollections of all those conversant Appiica- with the steam engine, that considerable advances have been of made of late years in the use of steam worked expansively and sure steam at high pressure. This has been strikingly exemplified in worked ex- every description of engine, and it is evident that whether of P ansivel y» land or marine construction, the tendency is to increased pressure. That increased pressure, when accompanied by a 92 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Faiebaien on Machi- NEEY IN GENEEAL. Employ- ment of the turbine in foreign countries. Compara- tive merits of turbines and water - wheels. Hydraulic machines in England. more extended expansion, is invaluable as an element of power, and economy in the consumption of coal, and the greater the length through which the steam is worked expansively the greater the benefits to be derived from its application. I have no doubt that the experiments of Eegnault on steam, and those of Joule on head, and work done, will ultimately lead to a new and more extended application of this principle. All that is wanted in this new application will be the construction of boilers of sufficient tenacity to resist from four to six times the pressure at which it may be prudent to work the steam, and with these precautions, I see no reason why we might not reduce the weight of our engines and increase the pressure of our steam up to 100 lbs. or 150 lbs. on the square inch. Hydraulic Engines and Machines. The turbine appears to have almost entirely supplanted the water-wheel in the estimation of the French engineers and manufacturers ; and the millwrights availing themselves of the Universal Exhibition have contributed a great variety of articles of this kind. In many parts of France, Switzer- land and Germany, particularly in the mountain districts, where fuel is expensive, the turbine is of great value, and in many parts of the country where water and high falls abound, it is a more convenient and a less expensive machine than the water-wheel. On the subject of turbines and their compara- tive economy, there exists, however, considerable difference of opinion, the advocates for the turbine contending that they are as effective as the water-wheel, and yield from seventy to eighty per cent, of the theoretical w T ork of the fall ; others again asserting the superiority and economy of the water- wheel. In my own experience, I have found the work done by the turbines to range from fifty to sixty per cent, of the work due the the fall, and in some cases as high as sixty-five to seventy per cent. ; but they are certainly not so effective as the breast wheel, which, when well con- structed, yields from seventy-five to eighty per cent ; in the turbines there is, however, a considerable reduction in the first cost of the machine, and looking at their great velocity when propelled by high falls, and their relative weights, they are certainly preferable to water-wheels under certain con- ditions and in some localities. In other respects where the fall of water does not exceed fifty feet, the water-weel will be found to possess, as far as my experience goes, consi- derable advantages over the turbine. The hydraulic machines of this country have been almost exclusively confined to the water-wheel and the hydraulic Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 93 engine for raising water from mines. This latter engine is worked by a head of water, which by its initial force raises a on Machi- piston or plunger in a cylinder, and by opening a valve when G eneeal. the length of the stroke is attained, allows the water to escape, - — ■ . and the weight of the mass raised reacts upon the plungers in en g ine> the pit and raises the water in the usual way by the plunger pump. This is a very simple machine, which may be applied in mountainous districts where high waterfalls exist. The water-wheel has maintained its ground from time Water- immemorial against every new invention and all competition ; * heel * and I am persuaded that for simplicity of form, durability of construction, and economy of action, it still retains its claim to importance. It has received many improvements, first from the experiments of Smeaton, the constructions of Rennie and Hewes, and still more recently, from myself. The experiments of Smeaton first determined its relative powers when employed on high and low falls. The late Mr. Rennie improved its construction and the mode of applying the water ; and Mr. C. Hewes of Manchester was the first to apply and perfect the flexible malleable iron radius rods to the shrouds or periphery in place of arms. All these inventions, including my own for ventilating the buckets and working wheels to greater depths in back water, have contributed to make the water-wheel one of the most economical and perfect machines now extant. The researches of Poncelet showed the best form and cur- vature for the buckets ; and it would be ungracious to deny that the turbine itself would never have existed in its present state of perfection but for the sound principles first promul- gated by that distinguished philosopher, in his lectures on hydraulics and hydrostatics. Altogether these machines were well represented in the Exhibition, and although they are comparatively useless in Great Britain, where the steam- engine is so extensively employed, yet on the Continents of Europe and America, where water is plentiful, they are of great and paramount importance in the pursuit of the indus- trial arts. Machinery for the Manufacture of Cotton, Silk, Flax, and Wool. It would ill become me to attempt any description of ma- chines used in the manufacture of the textile fabrics, when it is known that the much abler pen, of Professor Willis, of Cambridge, has undertaken that duty: suffice it to observe, that in the French, Belgian, and Zollverein departments of Foreign this description of machinery, several excellent specimens specimens were to be found. Some of them were highly finished ; and exlnblted - 94 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. . Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Excellence of English contribu- tions. Scanty re- presenta- tion of English machines for the ma- nufacture of flax and silk. Old forms of flour mills. the new combing machine made by Messrs. Schlumberger and Co. appeared conspicuous for its ingenuity, and the effi- ciency of its operations. This machine has been greatly im- proved by Messrs. Hetherington and others since its first introduction into Manchester and Bradford, and in the prepa- ration of cotton for fine yarns it is one of the most valuable machines that has come into use for many years. In the combing of flax and wool it is becoming equally important, and its application to the manufacture of the long wool, alpaca, and mohair fabrics of Bradford, has at once established its superiority over the system of carding and combing by the old process. The contributions of machinery from the hands of such men as Platt Brothers and Co. and other English firms are sure to be of unrivalled excellence. Several improved machines for the manufacture of cotton, of the best construc- tion, were to be seen in the space occupied by the English. Messrs. Platt, Brothers and Co. contributed a complete sys- tem of cotton machinery ; and Messrs. Elce and Co., of Man- chester, did the same, with the exception of the blowing and spreading machines, which were not sent. Mr. Mason, of Boch- dale, also contributed several exceedingly well made machines. The machinery for the manufacture of flax and silk was, however, very imperfectly represented in the English depart- ment, and with the exception of the samples of yarn, there was nothing to point out the superiority of machinery in those branches of industry. This is much to be regretted, as for many years past we have taken the lead in the flax and the silk manufacture, and large quantities of machinery for both have for the last fifteen years been exported to France and many other kingdoms of Europe. Mr. Peter Fairbairn, of Leeds, a large constructor of flax machinery, stands promi- nently forward as having effected the greatest improvements by his contributions to the perfection of these machines : in fact, his machinery is to the flax manufacturer what Mr. Whitworth's machine tools are to workshops. The reason assigned by him for not exhibiting was the enormous expense of showing his very extended series of machines to advantage. Flour Mills. Thirty years ago the flour mills of France and most other parts of the Continent were of rude construction, and exhibited few traces of improvement from the constructions of the pre- vious century. The corn mills in England, Scotland, and Ireland had also been nearly stationary up to the same period of time, with the exception probably of some changes and improvements effected by Smeaton and the late Mr. Bennie. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 95 At the close of the last or about the commencement of the mr. present century the Americans and ourselves introduced the system of creepers and elevators, by which a considerable neryin amount of labour was saved, and the operations of grinding - — rendered more complete. From time immemorial it has been the custom to drive the millstones from a large spurwheel in the middle of the mill, round which they were placed. This arrangement of the grinding process is still in use in French many parts of France, and several exhibitors have given exam- exl ^ pies of some of their best mills on this principle. Like those stones ’ of this country they are nearly all of them continuous in the placed in process of cleaning the grain, grinding, and dressing the flour. a tircIe - The millstones are generally driven b} r straps or belts, Introduc- whilst those in England are almost invariably driven by tlon . of gearing. It is upwards of thirty years since Messrs. Fair- Em^iand" bairn and Lillie, of Manchester, and some others in York- the°stones shire, first introduced the new system of placing the stones P lacet ! 111 in a line, driven by bevel gear along one side of the mill, and i;^ e lalg by this arrangement affording considerably increased space for the convenience of stowage and other purposes required in the manufacture. On this plan some of the best mills are now constructed; and although they differ from the French method of driving the millstones by straps, they nevertheless work with less power, are in many other respects pre- ferable, and they do not crowd the room with belts in posi- tions crossing the mill in almost every direction. It has been asserted that the straps are less expensive and give a smoother motion, but of this there is much doubt, as the gearing, when properly constructed, is found to work per- fectly smooth, and is less troublesome than straps. The old method of feeding the stones was by a slide or Old me- spout at the bottom of the hoppers. This was a little inclined, and acted upon by what is technically called a damsel,” or, in other words, by a small spindle fixed upon the centre of the running stone, which passing upwards in the direction of the hopper, acted upon the slide by three projections or tappets, and gave it a noisy, shaking motion.* This motion, and the rate of inclination at which the slide is fixed, gave the supply or required feed of grain to the stones. About the same time, or shortly after the introduction of the plan of placing the stones in line, Messrs. Fairbairn introduced their new feeder, shown in the annexed Cut, (p. 95), which exhibits a section of a pair of millstones, with a portion of the stone floor, hoppers, case, &c. * The damsel was substituted for the “ clapper,” which in ancient times con- sisted of a piece of wood suspended from the upper frame rope over the mill- stones, which at every revolution received a blow from a tappet fixed into the back of the stone, and thus produced the rattling motion for feeding the stones. 96 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Faiebaien on Machi- NEEY IN GENEEAX. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 97 By this arrangement the stones are fed from the hopper A by the tube a, about two inches in diameter, which conveys the grain into the cup c. This tube is suspended on the point of the lever b, and is fixed within a quarter of an inch from the bottom of the cup. As the millstones revolve, the cup goes round with it, and the tube being stationary, the grain escapes from below by centrifugal action, and is scat- tered as a thin stream over the edge of the cup, in a beau- tiful series of oblique, tangental currents into the eye of the stone. This has been called i the silent feeder, owing to the total absence of noise. The quantity of feed is regulated by raising and lowering the tube by the lever b. The lower part of the figure represents the horizontal shaft, and the mode of driving; the stones, as also the screw D, that regru- lates the lever on which the spindle E and the running mill- stones are supported. The contributions to the corn -mill department were nu- merous and interesting, and the contributors showed no small degree of skill in the numerous forms and devices by which they respectively recommended their machinery to public attention. A flour-mill, by Burdon, of five pairs of stones, and driven by a turbine, on the principle of Poncelet, deserves especial notice, from the novelty of its design and the facility with which the stones can be stopped and started. The turbine with its cistern is placed below, in the centre of the stones, five in number, and the main shaft or spindle penetrates the first floor, and from thence ascends to the top of the mill, and in its passage gives motion to the different machines for dressing, cleansing, and elevating ; it is, however, doubt- ful whether the novelty of this arrangement does not consist more in the ingenuity of the contrivance than in its utility. H Me. FAIKBAIRN on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Mr. Fair- bairn’s silent feeder. Burdon’s Hour-mill. 98 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Fairbaien on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Division of the labours of the Jury. What this section comprises. Extent of this col- lection. Mr. Whit- worth’s collection of tools, lathes, &c. Special Machinery and Apparatus for Workshops. Submitted to the adjudication of the Jury in Class VI. The articles submitted to the adjudication of the jurors of Class VI. comprise a collection of such varied forms and character as to render any enumeration extremely difficult, and the distances by which they were separated from each other rendered it still more troublesome to arrive at a just and correct decision. The almost innumerable articles in the Class caused a division of the labours of the Jury into sections, as follows: — • 1. The separate pieces of machinery and apparatus for workshops. 2. Metallurgies machines. 3. Machines used in the preparation of timber. 4. Machinery used in mining operations. 5. Machines used in agriculture and the preparation of alimentary substances, including machines used in non-metallic minerals. 6. Machines used in the chemical arts and those in con- nexion with dyeing and printing. 7. Machines used in the manufacture of metal. 1. — The Separate Pieces of Machinery and Appa- ratus for Workshops. This section contained all descriptions of tools, screwing apparatus, copying and embossing presses, and implements of steel, iron, brass, copper, &c. In this section were assembled an immense variety of machines, which, from their magnitude, cost, and extensive developments, required the most careful attention. The tools of Whitworth and others, and the machines for embossing, screwing, &c., were minutely inspected, and the opinions of the different members of the jury about them were given, with great judgment, on the spot. Some idea of the extent of this collection may be formed when I state that not less than 400 articles were submitted to adjudication, some of them of great value, of exquisite workmanship, and comprising some highly skilful appliances admirably adapted for the purposes they were intended to serve. In Mr. Whitworth’s collection, tools, lathes and slitting machines of gigantic dimensions were to be found, some of them weighing from 10 to 12 tons, and a large lathe for turning wheels, with four rests cutting on both sides. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 99 with almost mathematical precision. These and others of Me. smaller dimensions were neatly proportioned and admirably ^?mach?- executed by the machine, and without the aid of the human JSotbS hand, beyond putting the parts together. Nearly, if not the — whole, of Whitworth’s machines are executed in this manner; his screw-cutting machines, gauges, and other works are so well known as to require no further description than is necessary to point out their presence at the Exhibition. Next to Whitworth’s tools and machines for turning and Graflfcn- cutting metals must rank those of Graffenstaden, from the vicinity of Strasbourg, for cutting and turning wood. c f tools. These machines are beautifully and substantially made: they machines, are mounted on cast iron frames, and for ingenuity of de- futtin^ and sign and perfection in execution they are not inferior to turn j no . any other description of machinery in the Exhibition. Their wood, morticing, boring and turning machines are admirably con- structed, and the whole series appear to have been got up with the utmost care in order to meet the various require- ments of every description of carpentry, cabinet-making, &c. Others, from America and other places, some of them of Specimens great ingenuity, were also exhibited, but none of them equal fl ; om Ame to those of Graffenstaden for solidity of construction and harmony in the proportion of the parts. To the American mechanics and engineers we are indebted for many inge- nious and useful contrivances in this department of industry. Their pantagraph or dummy machines are admirably con- trived, and no nations have displayed more skill in the appli- cation of machinery to the cutting, carving, and shaping of timber than those of Canada and the United States. Their system of colonization and the clearing of forests have given them facilities, and suggested inventions for saving labour, that could only be attained in a country where labour was scarce, and timber was the chief material for construction. 2. — Metallurgic Machines. This section embraces a large field of operations, such as WIiat tllis the forging and rolling of steel, iron, and copper, the machi- embraces” 1 nery for blowing, smelting, and the manufacture of other metallic substances, and all the instruments and machinery used in the conversion cf the metals from their crude state in the oven into the manufactured article. Notwithstanding the great extent of the subject, and the number of machines which it includes, the Jury had not so much to do in this as in some other departments, as many of the machines, such as rolling mills, steam hammers, & c., were of great magnitude. Most of these were found exceedingly inte- resting, and evinced considerable skill in their adaptation to II 2 100 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Tilts and steam ham- mers. French machines for the ma- nufacture of nails in- ferior to I he English. Iron slit- ting and rolling ma- chines, &c. Wire-draw- ing ma- chines, &c. the attainment of the objects for which they were intended by the exhibitors. The Jury in this, as in other Cases, exercised a sound discretion in the awards. From the variety of tilts and steam hammers exhibited, it . would appear that the construction of those engines has been much cultivated in France: and notwithstanding the im- provements and ingenious contrivances introduced by its inventor, Mr. Nasmyth, the French appear to have kept pace with us in the use and application of this important machine. Lately Mr. Nasmyth has introduced, by the as- sistance of Mr. Wilson, of the Low Moor Iron Works, a new, exceedingly ingenious, and, I believe, a very simple contrivance for working the hammer. By this application any length of stroke, any amount of blow, and any amount of variation can be given by the operation of a single lever, and by this improvement the machine has attained a rapidity of action and of change of motion suitable to the powers of the engine, and the form or consistency of the articles under the hammer. These improvements have not as yet been introduced into France, but the employment of so many large and small hammers, most of them well made, evinces a rate of progress in the operations of the forge as great, if not greater, than some of our best performances in this country. In the construction of vertical t£ tups” or friction hammers, our Continental neighbours have made less progress, but they exhibited some clever contrivances in tilts, some by steam and others by tappets, driven by gear, and acting in the usual manner on the tail or hilt of the tilt. Several French machines for the manufacture of nails were exhibited, but none of them indicated either novelty of conception or superiority of workmanship ; on the contrary, I considered them inferior to the machines used for similar purposes at Birmingham and Wolverhampton. In the machinery for slitting and rolling iron there ap- peared to be nothing new excepting some beautifully con- structed steel rolls, manufactured by Krupp, and others of the iron manufacturers of France. All the other machines of this class, such as wire-drawing and cutting machines, were of the ordinary construction, with the exception of the American plate-cutting machine. This machine consists of a strong cast-iron frame from nine to ten feet wide, having a steel plate along its outer edge on which the plate to be cut is fixed, and is held fast by a faller, that rests upon the upper side of the plate. On the upper side of the frame a revolving steel cutter traverses its whole length, and in its passage cuts the plate in a perfectly straight line corresponding with the edge of 101 Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. the steel plate below. The circular cutter is an old invention, _ Me. , . * . .. . . FaIRBAIRN but its traversing motion is certainly new, and is ettected onMachi- by various ingenious contrivances. The travelling cutter, (Sneral. which requires considerable power when cutting thick plates, is driven by a strap over a pulley at the end of the machine. 3. — Machines used in the Preparation of Timber. This section embraces every description of saw-mill. What this planing, morticing, and tenoning machines, carving and sectlon . grooving machines, and all the tools, implements, &c., used tom P nses ‘ in the preparation of wooden constructions. In this section were found a great number of interesting and instructive devices and adaptations, many of them of American origin, but greatly improved since their first introduction into European workshops. The treatment of timber, and the Seasoning mode of seasoning, is a subject as yet not clearly understood; of timber, much has yet to be learned : and the Jury, fully aware of the difficulties which surround the question, entered into a care- ful inquiry as to the best methods now in use, and the most effective processes adopted in different countries for season- ing and rendering timber as strong and durable as possible under the varied conditions of quality and growth, and also the objects to which it can be applied. The Jury appeared perfectly alive to the consideration that different qualities of wood required in seasoning different treatment, each requiring a treatment that would consolidate their fibrous structure, strengthen their power of resistance to strain, and render them impervious to moisture and those atmospheric changes which so frequently affect the durability of struc- tures composed of wood. Of the machinery, there were some excellent specimens in Saws, cut- the shape of saws, cutters, planers, morticers, and groovers, ters » P la " which received careful attention, in order to guide the Jury n s ’ * in the award of the prizes and other marks of distinction to which the exhibitors were so justly entitled. The most striking objects in this department were the Saw-mills, saw-mills, and those of Mr. Norman, of Havre, stood pre- eminent for the ingenuity and skill with which they were executed. His vertical saw for cutting timber of any re- quired form for ship-building was admirably contrived, and the moveable frame on which the timber was fixed exhibited a variety of motions for giving any degree of obliquity to the cut ; and thus, for ship-building purposes, the required twist or form necessary to be observed in the bows or stern of the vessel was easily attained without interruption to the cutting process by stopping the saw. Another vertical saw driven by steam power, in imitation of the hand frame saw. 102 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Faiebaien on Machi- NEEY IN GENEEAL. Endless saw. Veneering achine. and most ingeniously contrived, was also exhibited ; its operations were very complete, and it formed one of a series of machines of great value in accomplishing th£ more intricate operations of cutting timber into shape. The steam saw frame of M. L. Schwartzkop, of Berlin, was also an exceedingly well executed machine. The steam cylinder is mounted on the top of a substantial cast iron frame, and the piston gives motion direct to the saw.* In this machine everything requisite to make it substantial was accomplished, and the traverse motions were well made and ingeniously contrived. The greatest novelty among the whole group, however, was the belt, or endless saw for cutting scrolls, squares, and circles of every possible curve. This instrument was so admirably contrived, that from its rapidity of motion, flexibility, and continuity, it accomplished in cutting almost every description of form, and its vagaries (if I may use the ex- pression) were so eccentric as to require a steady hand to guide and a steady eye to trace its operations in the lines of the cut, and some of these are so fine and so curiously curved as to puzzle the conception of the casual, and sometimes even that of the practised observer. The machine itself consists of a thin flexible riband of steel, almost three-quarters of an inch wide, and about the thickness of the blade of a lance, or a thin visiting card. The extreme ends of this riband, about 18 to 20 feet long, are run through two narrow slits of a table, and having passed over pullies fixed at the top and bottom of the frame, it is brought into a state of tension by screws, and thus rendered fit for use by steam or any other motive power attached to the axle of the bottom pulley. The table on which is fixed the article to be cut has a sort of ball and socket motion, which enables the operator to cut at angles from the vertical to any degree of obliquity which the nature of the work requires. This simple, yet ingenious machine, has been purchased by Colonel Tulloch for the carriage department of the Boyal Arsenal at Woolwich, and its applicability to the purposes of preparing timber of intri- cate forms, will, I make no doubt, prove equally beneficial in this as it is in ornamental cabinet work. The next machine, although not new, is nevertheless of some importance for cutting veneers ; this is effected on the principle of the common hand plane. It consists of a strong cast iron frame, on which slides another frame, to which the cutter is attached. This cutter is so constructed as to plane * This description of saw is an adaptation of one patented by Mr. Sang, of Johnstone, near Paisley, and has been in use in this country for many years. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 103 or cut off the veneer at an angle of about 20°. In Fig. 11, Mr. A is the timber, and B the frame which contains the osMachi- NERY IN GENERAL. Pig. 11. cutter. This frame moves in the direction of the arrow, shaving the timber in its passage to the required thickness of the veneer. The cutter or plane iron is placed at a certain angle with the horizon, in order to cut clean and deliver the veneer through the opening or slit a a in a perfectly sound and an unbroken state. To prevent injury to the fibres of the veneer by tearing, and to deliver it free from cracks or flaws, it is not only necessary to keep the cutter perfectly sharp, but to steam the block, in order to prevent the veneer from tearing during the progress of cutting, as it would in a dry state. Machines, almost identical, have been in use at Manchester and other places for years in cutting the sides and bottoms of hat and pill boxes. Some of these machines will cut slices or shavings the whole length and width of the block, from the finest riband to one -tenth or one-eighth of an inch in thickness. In the American department the model of a machine was Machine exhibited for bending timber for ships' knees, and every fo ^ bending description of curved work employed in cabinetmaking, shl P tiraber * joinery, &c. This machine, according to the inventor, Mr. Blanshard, has been used successfully at New York, and the consideration has been, how far it is applicable to other purposes besides those of ship-building and cabinetmaking. 104 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Faiebairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Judging from the model and the full-sized specimens of ships’ bows and stern posts exhibited, the machine must be one of great strength, and though the piece of oak, ash, or other description of timber to be bent must first be steamed, it is clear, that a piece of solid oak 12 inches square cannot be curved to a radius of four or five feet without the application of an instrument of great power. The apparatus having such work to perform, consists of an exceedingly strong frame, to which the timber to be bent is fixed. One end is forced against a stop by a screw or a wedge at the opposite end, and the back or convex side of the timber being covered by a flexible iron plate fixed at one end to the stop, the plate as well as the timber is then drawn round by a capstan and chain at the opposite end to the desired curve, which varies in force according to the shape of the block round which it is bent. From this description it will be seen, that the fibres of the timber on the convex side cannot be torn asunder, so long as the piece is not elongated, and the plate on the back being pressed with great force against the whole surface, effectually prevents the starting of the fibres during the ope- ration of bending. The result of this process is to secure the convex side from fracture, and a crushing or sliding of the fibres into each other takes place on the concave side, which latter process is evident from the appearance of the crushed fibres and the new condition and form it is forced to attain. From this it will be seen, that the forces employed are chiefly those of compression, and that the fibres are not seriously injured by tension. In order that the timber may retain its form, it is not removed from the frame until it is quite cold and has taken a permanent set. The machine appeared to be one of great importance when applied to the preparation of timber for ship-building and other descriptions of curved work, extensively used in furni- ture and other -works of utility and ornament. The inventor, Mr. Thomas Blanshard, of New York, has, I believe, applied the machine with great success to the bending of timber for plough handles, wheel felloes, and other purposes of utility. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 105 Machinery used in Mining Operations. In this section were comprised every description of engine tools, lifts, and parachutes, used in mining, and especially those affording greater security to the miner, and those for increasing the facilities and means of underground workings, including those for subterranean transit, and the raising of the mineral products at a cheap rate to the surface. There are few subjects of greater importance to the com- munity than that of the machinery of mines. So many of the comforts and enjoyments of civilized life depend upon the labours of the miner, that every discovery and every invention whicli tends to his advancement and security under the perils and hardships of his laborious life, must always be acceptable and justly entitled to reward. At the Paris Universal Exhibition, the machinery of mines and other devices for assisting in mining operations, were both nume- rous and instructive ; and conceiving that a brief description of some of them may be useful, I shall endeavour to describe in detail a few of those which exhibited the greatest excel- lence and greatest ingenuity. It will not be necessary to notice the larger machines and. engines, such as those for pumping and winding : they are already so well know n as not to require description here. 1. Parachutes : An Apparatus for Preventing Accidents in Coal Pits . — The ancient method of raising coals from the bottom of the pit to the surface was by a basket, suspended to the end of a rope wound round the barrel of a windlass, worked by hand or by the horizontal horse gin. Since the introduction of the steam-engine these primitive methods have given way to a better system, one of which is, by using one or more buckets or tfC corves,” as they are called in the north, attached to each end of the ropes or chains, so that those at one end are descending whilst those at the other are ascending the pit. It not unfrequently happens that the ropes or chains which are used break, and the baskets or corves are precipitated to the bottom, and should any of the workmen be ascending or descending at the time, the result is attended with a serious loss of life. The present method of raising coal is a great improvement upon the old plan ; it consists of four lines of iron rods, or, more frequently, wooden guides, which extend from the top to the bottom of the mine. Between these guides slides a wooden frame with two or more shelves, on which are placed boxes containing from eight to ten hundredweight of coal. These boxes are con- structed to run upon tramways through the workings, where they are loaded and sent forward, either by horse or manual Mb. Fairbairn on Machi- _ NERY IN GENERAL. What this section em- braces. Importance of this branch of inquiry. Old plan of raising coal to the surface. Present method. Me. Faiebaien on Machi- NEEY IN GENEIIAL. Parachutes. Lift appa- ratus for raising ma- terial and men tc the surface. 106 Reports . on the Paris Exhibition. power, to the bottom of the shafts, and are then at once run on to the shelves of the sliding frame already described ; in this position they are raised by the steam-engine to the top. They are then received by a moveable frame, with a corre- sponding tramway, which slides over the mouth of the pit, and from this again they are run forward to the screens, where they discharge their contents. It is evident that in our improved workings, great facilities are afforded for the raising of large quantities of coal in a short period of time ; and in order to show with what despatch these operations are effected, I may refer to the colliery of Mr. Astley, at Dukin- field, near Manchester, probably one of the deepest mines in this country, where the coal is raised in four boxes, each weighing eight hundredweight, upon one rope, from a depth of upwards of 2,000 feet, at the rate of 20 miles an hour. To prevent accidents in mines of this description, para- chutes were invented ; they generally consist of two strong iron blades, which in their working state remain at a short distance from the vertical slides. They are attached to the top of the cage, and in the event of the rope breaking, these blades by the falling weight and the assistance of a spring press forcibly against the slides, and thus by the friction against the sides, stop the cradle and prevent its falling to the bottom. One of the parachutes made by M. Fontaine, of Anzin, had, it is said, saved the lives of 37 persons, and in no instance has it ever been known to fail. In England, as well as on the Continent, this description of apparatus is in general use, particularly in deep mines. 2. Apparatus for Raising Coal and the Workmen from the Bottom of the Mine by the Pump Rods . — This is not a new contrivance, as I believe it was first used in Cornwall, where the workmen to this day, in many of the copper and tin mines, continue to make their ascent and descent by ladders. M. Warocque, of Belgium, however, exhibited a beautifully constructed working model of an apparatus to save this labour. It consisted of the shaft and pump rods, with a series of platforms attached to the pump rods at every ten feet in height, that being the length of the stroke of the pumps. The pump rods move alternately, one being at the bottom of its stroke when the other is at the top. The baskets contain- ing the material are run on to a platform which is raised by a self-acting apparatus attached to the pump rod to a height of ten feet, the length of the stroke; they are then transferred to the next, ascending, pump rod, which again lifts them ten feet, and so on alternately. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 107 The transfer, both in the ascent and descent, from the last Me. to the next lift, was not only very ingeniously contrived but ^mach* was effected with great precision. The raising or lowering of the workmen was effected by the same process, but with — this difference, that they had to step from the ascending platform every time they arrived at the height of the stroke, and thus by a succession of lifts they arrived at the top. This very complicated process is greatly inferior to the plan of winding, which brings up the workmen and the coal at once from the bottom, saves all this complexity of motion, performs the work with five or six times the rapidity, and effects the whole operation with much greater certainty. This apparatus failed in Cornwall, and from every appearance it is not likely to succeed in either this country or in France. 3. Machinery for Washing Coal. — I am not prepared to Machinery state to whom the public is indebted for this machine : I ^washing believe it is of English origin, and has been in use in this country for some years past with considerable success, at the Cleater Iron Works in Cumberland, where I have seen it at . work ; it is also used in France at the Decazeville mines. It consists of two rollers, which crush the coal to a proper size, when it is collected into a runner below, and from thence elevated to the washing apparatus above. This consists of several perforated plates, the first having holes about one inch in diameter, and the second about half that size. These plates receive an oscillating motion, and a stream of water being forced through the openings, a regular deposition takes place according to the densities of the different parts as they pass through the water in their purified state. Several of these machines are at work at Newcastle, Witham, Wales, and Wigan. 4. Boring Tools . — It is difficult to determine whether the Boring apparatus for boring to great depths used on the Continent is tools ' superior or inferior to the apparatus employed in this country. Several ingenious tools of this kind have been brought into notice, such as those which cut out the core from the centre of the base. The recent improvements of Mr. Mather, of Salford, appear to execute this difficult process with the desired effect. An apparatus constructed by Mr. Degoriue was exhibited at the Exhibition, and is calculated to bore from 200 to 2,000 feet. It consists of a small oscillating steam-engine, which works a windlass, and moves the boring rods by a cam for pounding hard homogeneous rocks ; and it is also calcu- lated to work at various speeds, according to the depths and density of the strata into which it penetrates. The tools them- 108 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Fairbairn on Machi- NEKY IN GENERAX. Superiority of English mining operations over those of other countries. selves were exceedingly well made, of almost every possible variety of form ; those used for deep boring, for catching and recovering broken rods, &c., deserved great praise for the skill and the ingenuity displayed by the maker. It would be necessary, before venturing to express an un- divided opinion as to the merits of the mining operations of France, Belgium, &c., as compared with those in which this country is engaged, to make the tour of Europe, and examine personally into the different methods by which these objects are attained. Judging, however, from the different machines and apparatus contributed for exhibition, I am of opinion, that there is probably no country where the operations of the miner are carried to the same extent or the same perfection as in Great Britain. Here we have mines of greater depth and of greater extent than in most other countries, and we have probably greater experience, arising from the abundance of fuel, and the advantages of steam power always at command. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 109 Machines used in Agriculture, &c. me. Fairbairn Reaninq Machines. on Machi- J ° % NERT IN Machines of this kind arc of great antiquity ; they were general. known to the Romans, and a graphic description is given of Great an- them and their uses by Pliny. Those of modern date have tI( i ult y many properties which bear more or less directly upon those machines, of antiquity; but we hear nothing of them during the dark and middle ages, and from these remote times up to the present we have few traces of improvement or successful attempts to substitute machine reaping for the sickle. Various machines were invented in the early part of the Modem present century, though the probably first successful attempt inachines - was made by Mr. Smith of Deanston in 1812. This machine was followed by those of Ogle in 1822, Mann in 1832, and Bell of Carmyllie, Forfar, in 1826. Mr. Bell has used his machine and gathered in his harvest by it for the last 29 years ; and it is not too much to say that most of those now in use, both in this country and America, are based upon the principle which he introduced. There is a great similarity in all these machines, and those shown at the Universal Exhibition of Paris exhibited nearly the same characteristics in principle and construction as those at the Exhibition of 1851. M £ Cormick, Croskill, and others in- troduced some slight improvements, but the principle of the machine remains unaltered, excepting the receiving boards, which in those brought forward for competition at the Paris Exhibition are exceedingly variable in form and construe- Expert- . tion, and some of them very ingenious. The period of the ^ n ^ a with Universal Exhibition -was most favourable for giving a fair chines ex- trial to machines of this description, and the month of Libited at August afforded an excellent opportunity for testing their Pans * merits by actual experiment. Through the liberality of M. Dailly, a distinguished agriculturist and member of the Jury, a field of oats on his farm at Trappes, was set apart for the exclusive purpose of ascertaining the properties and proving the value of these machines. On the 2nd August at 11 o’clock, the machines were divided into three groups. and the contest for superiority commenced as follows : — f Mr. Cournier’s allotment Metres. W 8 Division of Group 1st Mr. Wright’s „ - 1,733 the ma- L Mr. Laurent’s „ . 1,825 chines into 1 fMr. Mazier’s „ - 1,826 groups. Group 2d < Mr. Manny’s „ - 1,900 1 Group 3d < [Mr. Croskill’s „ r Mr. McCormick’s „ Mr. Dray’s „ - 1,958 1,987 2,250 1 L — Canadian „ - 1,650 110 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Mr. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. the first group ; Cournier’s machine. Wright’s machine. The points to be ascertained, in order to judge of the merits of the machines, were, as far as I could learn, the time required to cut the allotment, the number of hands employed, and the perfection by which the work was executed without injury to the grain. The first group commenced operations by beat of drum at 11 o'clock, all three starting at the same, time.* Group lsf; Cournier’s Machine (Trench ) on Bell’s Principle. — This machine (with one horse) cuts clean, but the cutters are liable to get entangled with straw, and a great deal of time was lost from this cause. This defect appears to be common to all the machines when the speed happens to be reduced under two and a half miles an hour. In this respect I found the maximum velocity of the machines to be as nearly as possible three miles an hour, and the knives for every 18 feet in distance, that is, for one revolution of the wheel, made 11 single or 22 double cuts. This machine had a sliding rake motion, to enable the reaper to clear the receiving board of the grain as it was cut. It might be improved and made more* effective, and would work much better with two horses and a wider cutting board, so as to take a greater width of grain and maintain the speed necessary to a maximum velocity and a maximum result. From the frequent clogging of the cutters, it required 67 minutes to cut 1,628 square metres of corn. In this machine the reel for gathering the corn went too fast, and injured its working by striking the grain too high up the stalk. J. S. Wright’s Automaton Machine (American) executed 1,733 square metres in 24 minutes. This machine is nearly self-acting, requiring only a driver and one attendant to follow the machine in case anything goes wrong. Its novelty consists in a rake worked from the wheel that drives the cutter shaft ; it is attached by an arm or connecting rod to the bevel wheel, and by a combination of levers receives a rotatory motion, which, along with that in a longitudinal direction, drags the grain forward over the edge of the board ; in order, however, to make sure of the discharge, another rake or cleaner strips the before-mentioned one of its load, and lays the straw in parallel lines, ready to be bound into sheaves. This machine, like Cournier’s has some clever devices, but requires further alterations and contrivances to simplify and make it more effective and complete. * The Imperial Government, ever alive to the interests of the community, and the advancement of the useful arts, took a deep interest in the trials ; and in order that the Jury.might.not be incommoded, the Prince Napoleon sent forward some mounted gens d’armes and a few soldiers of the Line to maintain order and keep back the crowd. Mr Fairbairn on Machinery in general. Ill Laurent (French).— This machine, like Cournier’s was con- stantly choking with the straw round the cutters. It is a copy of Bell's, and requires two men at the pole, a driver, and a reaper to work it. It is a heavy machine, and almost too much for two horses to work. The falling off in the speed was the reason of its entanglement. In all these machines speed is an element of success, as whenever the velocity of the knives and the speed of the machine was reduced, choking and entanglement of the straw resulted. Under these cir- cumstances it is therefore a consideration of much importance to have these machines of such dimensions as to enable the horses to work them with ease at the required velocity. Group 2d : Mazier*’ s Machine (French). — This machine is of light construction, adapted for one horse, and cuts a breadth of 2 feet 7 inches in a line all round the field. It cuts either right or left, by means of the frame containing the cutters turning on a central axis. The knives are worked by a wheel and worm, and are well calculated to cut light grain, such as oats and barley, but might prove inoperative on a field of heavy wheat. The machine as a whole was rather slender for the work it had to perform ; but if well constructed, and the parts judiciously proportioned for two horses, there is no reason why it should not reap any description of grain. In the attempt to cut the allotment, it unfortunately broke down, some of the parts giving way. J. H. Manny (United States). — Mr. Manny’s allotment consisted of 1,900 square metres, which was cut in 26 minutes. The machine is worked by 2 horses and cuts a breadth of 4 feet 6 inches. Mr. Manny speaks highly of his machine, and gives numerous testimonials of its efficiency, exclusive of medals, premiums, and awards from different districts in America and from different countries in Europe for its per- formance. According to Mr Manny’s account, “ it will cut either grass or corn when down , ivet or dry, and in whatever direction the wind blows, without being stopped for a single instant.” Mr. Manny further observes, “ that it can in a few seconds be converted from a reaper into a mower, as the only thing required is to withdraw the platform, and change the scythe of the reaper for the cutting scythe of the mower.” The cutting apparatus for corn or for grass is made in such a way, that it cuts as well backwards as forwards. When the machine is reaping, the wheat is received on the platform, gathered, and put into a heap by the action of a wind board, and by a single stroke of his rake the attend- ant puts down on the ground, at the back of the machine, the already made sheaves, which only require tying.” It will not be necessary to follow Mr. Manny in his de- Mr. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Laurent’s machine. Trial of the second group ; Mazier’s machine. Manny’s machine. 112 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery IN GENERAL. Crosk ill's machine. Trial of the third group ; lYTCor- inick’s machine. Drays’ m .ichine. scription, which evinces great confidence in the superior performance of the machine ; suffice it to observe, that it did its work moderately well, though some parts were not clean cut. CroshilVs Machine (English) is an improvement upon Bell’s, and in great repute amongst the farmers of the North Riding of Yorkshire and other parts of England. In the hands of Croskill it has received several improvements, but unfortunately on this occasion the key of the connecting rod that works the knives got loose, dropped out, and stopped the process of reaping; under these circumstances it was con- sidered advisable to withdraw the machine, and leave the field open to the other competitors. Group 3d: M e CormicJis Machine (American). — This reaper is probably one of the best machines of its class. It reaped 1,987 square metres in 17 minutes; and judging not only from the quantity of work done in so short a time, but from the manner in which the ground was cleared, and the grain cut, it evidenced much greater perfection in its oper- ations than any of the others whose powers were brought to the test. It cuts a clean track of 5 feet 6 inches wide, and per- forms the operation with a degree of certainty and precision sufficient to account for the very short time in which the allotment was cut down. This machine, like most others, is susceptible of still further improvements ; and I am glad to find that Messrs. Burgess and Keys (the makers) are about to introduce a new moveable apparatus, consisting of Archi- medean screws, for delivering the grain from off the receiving board, as it is cut. This would render the machine much more perfect, as the great defect of this machine was the way in which the grain was delivered from the platform after being cut, and the evident want of some method of laying the heads and straw parallel and in bundles or sheaves ; and also for clearing the track for the horses on the return cut. Burgess and Keys’ clearing apparatus, if properly constructed, may probably remedy this evil, which is the principal objection to the use of this machine.* W. M. Dray and Co.'s Machine (English) is of an exceed- ingly compact form : it is entirely without a reel for gathering in the corn to the cutters, and requires only one man as a reaper to watch the cutters, and discharge the corn as it is received upon the board or wooden platform behind. The cutters are 5 feet wide, and it reaped 2,250 square metres in * A trial has been made of this apparatus since the above was written, but without success. I am not prepared to slate from what cause, but will take an early opportunity of ascertaining the facts, or of witnessing its performance. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 113 35 minutes.* The peculiar features of this machine are its Fai J*®* irs . portable construction, and the receiving board, which moves on Machi- upon an axis ; and by the pressure of the reaper’s foot the genekal. platform is tilted, and the grain drops behind, ready for the — person who follows to bind and tie it up. The only objection to this process is, that it requires the binding to be done immediately ; otherwise the working of the machine would be impeded, and the horses at every succeed- ing cut would trample over that previously reaped. Under these circumstances the track previously cut must be entirely cleared, in order to prepare for that which succeeds. This appears to be the chief defect in the machine. A different clearing apparatus to effect the discharge of the cut grain in a lateral direction would render the machine much more valuable. It would give time for binding up the grain into sheaves, and at the same time it would clear the track for the horses and machine in their return for the next cut. The last machine (Canadian), which completed the three Canadian groups, was withdrawn from some cause that was not explained. machuu ‘* The following Table, which Mr. Edw. Combes has kindly handed to me, gives the results of the different trials as follows : Trial of Reaping Machines, on the Farm of Mr. Dailly, at Trappe, near Paris, 2d August, 1855. Maker’s Name. Country. j Breadth of Cut- ting Part. No. of Square Metres cut. Time. No. of Horses. Price. J Courtlier France 4 ft. 3in. 1,628 67 1 £26 1 J.S. Wright U.S. America 5 3 1,733 24 2 36 J Laurent - France 5 0 1,825 l 1 66 2 | ! Mazier - France 2 7 : Broke d< >wn - 1 1 Manny - 1 U.S. America 4 6 1,900 i | 26 2 26 Croskill (Bell’s.) England 5 0 j Broke down - 2 45 M'Cormick U.S. j America.] 5 G 1,987 17 2 30 Dray - England i 5 0 2,250 35 2 25 The Canadian machine; G 6 Retired 2 — Remarks. Driving wheel 3' 3" ; crank makes 1 1 revo- lutions to one of the wheel ; knife not ser- rated. Diameter of driving wheel 4' 4" ; erank makes 24 to 1. Diameter of driving wheel 3 feet ; crank makes 15 to 1 (similar to Bell’s). Small machine, cutting either right or left by means of the cutter frame turning on acen- tral axis; knives work- ed by wheel and worm. Diameter of driving wheel 2 ' 6 " t crank makes 13 to 1 . I • The particulars of these are well known. * Some say 34 minutes. I 114 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. On a careful examination of the several machines entered on Mach?- for the prizes, it should be observed that in every one of gSJeea?. them an attempt was made to effect a certain purpose Greatde ^y means of transmission, calculated to retard rather feet of all than facilitate the process of cutting. It is true that in the ma- machines of this description, where horses are employed as theTmair a m0 ^ ve power, it is desirable to make the parts as light as size of the possible, and to effect the motion of cutting, reaping, & c., gear. with as light wheels and motions as can be made. But these small wheels and their attachments, as applied to these machines, appear to me to be the very worst and heaviest parts of the machine, and I would earnestly urge upon the makers of reaping machines the absolute necessity of in- creasing the diameter and dimensions of the gearing which works the cutters, and at the same time to attach the journals and ends of the shaft into one casting , so that they cannot vary in position, but must move, and, speaking tech- nically, go and come with the machine. These alterations being made, and proper clearing apparatus attached to the receiving boards, we might expect these machines to per- form the labours of the harvest with much greater certainty and effect than is at present accomplished. Order in From the above Table it will be seen that M‘Cormick’s which the American machine performed the most work in the least time; that Wright’s and Manny’s executed as nearly as pos- regard to sible the same quantity of work in the same time, there time. being a fraction in favour of Manny, and that Dray was the next in the order of time and the quantity of work done. Reducing the whole work done to a standard of 2,000 square metres, the competing machines will stand thus : — Metres. Minutes. M‘Cormick’s would cut 2,000 in 17-llq Manny „ 2,000 ?? 27-36 f Wright 2,000 ?> 27-69 ( Dray „ 2,000 31 • 11 J Mean, 25*81. The above Table shows the order in which the competitors stood in regard to time. Necessity In the investigation of this subject we have hitherto con- °f doing fined our observations to the machines. There is, however, thtTpresent another element equally important and essential to the effi- system of ciency of the process of machine reaping, and that is the ridges, in ■preparation of the land; and, in fact, before we can look for- secime sue- ward to complete success, the surface must be levelled, and cess to the present injurious system of ridges dispensed with. To machines, apply machinery to the labours of a farm, the land must be prepared not for hand but machine culture, and the success- ful introduction of reaping machines will chiefly depend Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 115 upon the preparations that are made for their reception. Mr. The system of ridges may be tolerated and overcome with the 0 n machi- sickle, but to give to the new process of reaping by ma- Seral. chinery its full effect, a totally different plan of operations — must be pursued, and the fields laid down with a perfectly smooth surface. The larger description of stones and other obstructions should be removed, and in place of the super- fluous waters not required for the nourishment of plants being allowed to flow between the ridges on the surface of the field, sweeping, in heavy showers, everything before them, the new system of drainage will require to be adopted, and the water carried under in place of running over the surface. To make a machine, such as a reaping machine, work Agricultu- well, everything must not be left to it ; the agriculturist rist’s duty must do his duty as well as the engineer; and the duty duly ™^ r l ^ ed performed on both sides , will secure certainty of action, solve well as the great problem of machine labour, and effect satisfactory engineer’s, results. When this is accomplished we may then, and not till then , reasonably look forward to the crops being well and quickly gathered by machinery, to the exclusion of a labo- rious process effected with difficulty, and often imperfectly executed, by the human hand. One of the great advantages of machine over that of manual labour is the great saving of time effected by the machine, and this alone is of vast im- portance in countries like England, where the climate is precarious, and where a whole harvest may be lost or seriously damaged by a wet season, unless rapidly cut and housed. At such times the machine reaper becomes invalu- able ', and cannot fail, when properly constructed and pro- perly applied, to prove a great national benefit. Thrashing Machines. When discussing the comparative merits of the reaping Thethrash- machines, and tracing the improvements that have been ln ? ma " effected and are still in progress in the machinery of agri- except ; on culture, we had occasion to advert to the circumstance that to the rule no machine of this description (however perfect its construe- on-ecipro- tion) could ever become generally useful unless the land was ca ‘ u y ' prepared by a special process of culture for its reception. The same reasoning does not, however, apply to the thrash- ing machine, which is stationary in its operations, is well understood, and has undergone little or no improvement (excepting only in form of construction) since the days of its inventor, Mr. Andrew Mickle. The portability of some and the stationary characters of others render their applica- bility more certain than heretofore, and although a large and 116 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. Faikbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Steam ma- chines and horse ma- chines. Experi- ments on the steam machines. well conducted farm is seldom or ever found without a steam engine and a thrashing machine, there are nevertheless a great number of small farmers who are without them. To provide for these, portable thrashing machines were contrived. The thrashing; machines of the Universal Exhibition were of two kinds, those driven by steam and those by horses ; nearly the whole of them were portable. The advantages of this construction are the convenience of transporting them from place to place, and for giving to the small farmer the same benefits of thrashing and winnowing by machinery as are enjoyed by the large farmer with his fixed engine. One of these machines, with a small engine (which serves a whole district), will thrash, winnow, and clean a stack of wheat or barley in a comparatively short period of time. Most of the machines of this description exhibited at the Exposition were experimented upon, first at the Conserva- toire des Arts et. Metiers, and lastly at the agricultural sheds between the Palais de l’Industrie and the Annexe. At the Conservatoire des Arts the trials were made under the direction of M. Tresca, Sub -Directing Engineer of the Con- servatoire, with a portable steam-engine by Tuxford, of the nominal power of six horses. M. Tresca had by various experiments ascertained the quantity of steam that would pass through the throttle valve at each degree of opening (which he had graduated) ; then by knowing the quantity of steam used, the pressure, and the number of revolutions made, he found the power expended by the engine. There was no pressure indicator to the cylinder, but the pressure in the boiler was kept constant at five atmospheres, or 75 lbs. on the square inch. | Maker’s I Name. Country. I Total Number of Fly-wheel Re- volutions. Weight of Sheaves in Ki- logrammes. i to i § 1 0) \ & No. of Revolu- tions made by the Drum. Diameter of Drum in Inches. Power expended in H. P. French Calculation. Remarks. J. A. Pitts 1 1 Buffalo, u s. 2,800 951*75 20T 5" 24,192| I6in. 1 | 7*45 Broke the grain and straw. The drum carried teeth, which worked between others fixed. j Paige &Co. i Canada 1,020 380*70 10 20 9,588 J 16 7*45 Pretty good work ; this drum was also made with teeth. | Cumming France J 1,504 285*50 11 0 5,91 C j SO 6*50 Good work. j Garrett - England 1 1,G08 378*9; 13 45 11,899 22 9,46S 21 8*52 Ditto. ' Hornsby - Ditto | 1,315 378*90 9 25 10*52 Very good work. | Clayton & 1 Co. Ditto j | 1 955 364*00 6 39 6, 446i 20 ! 1 j 1 ! Cleaned the straw well, and did not break the grain. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 117 The numbers in the eighth column, giving the quantity of Me. power expended by each machine, were given me by one of the Conservatoire engineers, who superintended the throttle- valve. Correct results of the experiments of pressure could — not be obtained with certainty, and cannot therefore be depended upon. R educing the foregoing Table to the rate or quantity that Order in each machine would thrash in an hour, and assuming that in wh,ch . the all of them the straw Avas equally well cleaned, and without st0 od in injury to the grain, the makers would stand in the following regard to order : — quantity thrashed. Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., j England, would thrash in one > hour - - - - - J J. A. Pitts, Buffalo „ Hornsby, England „ Paige and Co., Canada „ Garrett, England „ Cumming, France „ 3,284' 2,820 2,415 )>Mean, 2,323 2,211 1,653 1,557 The average or mean of the whole is therefore 2,323 kilo- grammes per hour, and the difference between the perform- ance of the first and last machine would be 1,727 kilo- grammes per hour. On a careful examination of the work done by each machine, it was found that Clayton and Shuttleworth's not only thrashed out the greatest quantity in the same time, but the work was well done, and the straw properly cleared without breaking the grain. The next class of machines were those worked by horses, Experi- of almost every possible variety of construction. Some were ments 0,1 made to fix with a frame imbedded in the ground with machines stakes, and a start or pole extending to the extremity of the horse walk. This pole was generally fixed to the back of a crown or bevel wheel, which gave motion to an underground shaft for driving the machine ; others dispensed with the shaft, and by a pair of spur-wheels gave motion to a vertical shaft and. pulley, which drove the machine by a strap over- head. All these machines some of them well contrived, had two faults ; first, the limited radius of the horse-walk, and, secondly, the small diameter of the wheels for attaining the required velocity and for driving the drum. More than one- half of the power was lost from these defects, exclusive of the difficulty and severe labour the horse had to undergo in travelling round a small circle. In fact, there could not be a worse application; and I hope the millwrights will in their calculations take these objects into account, and endeavour, by enlarging the diameter of the horse- walk, to bring the line of traction in a more direct line. 118 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. It will not be necessary to give an account of all the onMach?- experiments made on the different machines ; suffice it to geSrIx. observe, that those which indicated the best results are given — in the following Table : — * Thrashing Machines worked by Horses. Thrashing Machine Trials , 21 st August 1855 . o Maker’s name. Country. Weight of Straw. Time taken. Diameter of Horse Walk. Diameter of Horse Wheel. Dia. of Drum. Remarks. Kil. Min. Ft. Ft. in. In 1 J. Pinet, Jun. Abilly, France. 285 8 20 4 1 19^ Made very good work of both straw and grain ; machine driven by an overhead strap ; drum is open ; horses not worked very hard. 2 Lotz, Sen. Nantes, ditto. 279 12 28 3 10 19 The horse- works and thrashing part are made together, the horse-wheel being on the top of the machine. The pinions in this machine are all very small. Horses worked very hard. 3 Jasquet Roux. Issoudan, ditto . 291 19 131 3 10 2 5 \ Bolting the straw, leaving it in a very good state. Made pretty good work, but seemed verv liable to derangement. Driven by an overhead shaft. Drum and blower driven by straps. Drum spindle runs one side on antifriction rol- lers; the other is placed on the short arm of a lever, kept down by a spring. Horses worked very hard. 4 Renaud & Lotz. Nantes, ditto. 269*7 14 16 2 0 17 Machine driven by an overhead shaft ; very small pinions. Hard work. Broke the straw. 5 Terrolle - > > 277-5 15 21 2 6 18 Has its horse-works enclosed; made pretty good work, but very hard for the horses. 6 Arthuis - Chateau Gortier, France. 21 2 5 20| The horse-wheel has nothing to keep it in gear; consequently the teeth kept slipping ; the trial could not be continued. 7 E. Ram- in erer. Bromberg, Prussia. Broke down 24 6 0 19^ Copy of a machine exhibited at the York show, 1848, by Rawlings. Drum makes 298 revolutions to 1 of the wheel. 8 Drewitz & Rudolf. ' Thorn, ditto. 1 ' 283-3 16 20 2 6 16 1 Thos. Barrattand Exell’s “ con- cave ” adjustments. The drum is driven by the fric- tion of its pulley against the internal part of a fly-wheel, makes 248 revolutions to 1. 119 Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general . o £ Maker’s name. Country. Weight of Straw. Time taken. Diameter of Horse Walk. Diameter of Horse Wheel. B u n o Q Remarks. Kil. Min. Ft. Ft. in. In. 9 Arthuis. Chateau Gortie r, France. 253 15 21 5 2(H This was tried on the 21st, but failed ; however, they ma- naged to make it work a quar- ter of an hour to-day. Drum makes 250 revolutions to 1. 10 Steimmig. Dantzic, Prussia. 282 15 22 5 8 18 A complete copy of Ransom’s old horse works, with Cam- bridge’s machine 344 revolu- tions to 1, made pretty good work. 11 A. Logen- dre. St. Jean d’ Angel y, France. 154 1 15 19 2 10 18 Much too small “ feeding box,” causing a drag on the straw, consequently cutting it into chaff; made 313 revolutions to 1. Reducing, as before, the experiments in the above Table to Order in the quantity of work done in one hour respectively by each ^chineT machine, the results will be : stood as to J. Pinet, France Lotz, jun., do. Renaud and Lotz, do. Steimmig, Dantzic, Prussia Terrolle, France Drewitz and Rudolf, Prussia Arthuis, France Jasquet Roux, do. - A. Logendre, do. - Kilogrammes. - 2,137 'l - 1,395 | - 1,155 | - 1,128 - 1,110 - 1,062 - 1,012 918 616 V Mean, 1170*3 quantity- thrashed. In the above average of work done, it will be seen that a wide difference exists between J. Pinet and the two last makers, Jasquet and Logendre, the first being nearly double the average, and the other two being below that point by as much as 252 and 554 kilogrammes respectively, the latter being only half the average. The others are remarkably near, and, perform almost the same duty, excepting Lotz junior, who exceeds the average 226 kilogrammes. Some of the horse machines were of iron, but the most of Beneficial them of wood. In the report of the Jury the experiments °^ t will be brought forward more in detail, and considering the o^these^ great care bestowed upon the investigation by Mr. Moll, the machines, reporter, and General Piobert, we may reasonably conclude that the promulgation of the report in the rural districts of France will have the effect of stimulating those that are 120 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ^ Me ' ™ behind to a friendly rivalry in the attainment of improve- lAIRBAIRN ill* 7 ! J . pi A it onMachi- ments calculated to advance the interests or the public, general, and to compete with M. Pinet, who stands prominently forward at the head of the list. Machines for making Bricks and Tiles. mind for" These machines are extensively used in agriculture ; tbisdescrip- and of late years great attention has heen bestowed upon t,0 f ctureof ^eir construction. The great demand for draining tiles and hollow bricks has given a new impetus to this descrip- tion of manufacture, and the machinery by which they are produced has undergone an entire revolution during the last few years. At the Paris Exhibition a great variety of clever contrivances were observable, and the manufacture of tubular bricks and tubular tiles of almost every form were exhibited. late years. Machines exhibited at Paris. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 121 Typographical Machines. me. mi , IIP! PAIBBAIKN The mec nanism or printing or typography has or late years osMachi- been held in high estimation, and the rapidity, exactitude, genkhal. and facilities which that department of mechanical industry Geil ^J now exhibits are, amongst many other improvements, the importance wonder and luxury of the age in which we live. The art of" 1 tJ "® printing involves other considerations besides those of 1 ° mechanical construction : it embraces the art of despatch in production, and effects the wide and rapid diffusion of know- ledge. Audit is no small boast that upwards of 50,000 copies of a daily paper like “ The Times” can be composed, printed, and distributed to the remotest part of the United Kingdom within a period of less than 1 8 hours. Such, in fact, is the pro guess of mechanical typography ; and the different naachines and printing presses contributed to the Universal Exhibition were no small indication of the progress made in the art of printing in France, in this country, and in other parts of Europe. Typography is an art of such vast importance to the com- munity, that it cannot fail to interest the observer and advo- cate of intellectual progress ; and every improvement which tends to increase the facilities for rapid production in this art must always be acceptable to the politician and philo- sopher. With these impressions the Jury entered upon the investi- Ableassist- gation of the numerous machines contributed by different ^ makers to the Universal Exhibition. In this inquiry, the Jury were ably assisted by M. Holm, the representative of Sweden and Norway in this mechanical department, and to the discrimination and sound judgment of that gentleman the J ury are indebted for an able investigation of the merits of most of these machines. M. Holm was the reporter to this Division in Class VI., and has exercised a sound discretion and great care in his inquiries into the peculiar properties and novelties of each machine ; and having accompanied him in his investigations, I am the better able to j udge of the value of each machine taken separately, and the rewards to which they are respectively entitled. It is, therefore, with pleasure that I have to record in this report, the peculiar features of these machines, as they came respectively under the notice of the Jury. The first was a double or compound machine, exhibited by M. Dutar- M. Dutartre, of Paris, (No. 1395 in the Catalogue,) consisting tlVs c ° m " of typographical press for printing “ vignettes’ 5 and a ma- machine, chine for printing two colours on the same sheet. The typo- y i(rnette graphical machine is remarkable for the solidity of its press. 122 Reports on the Raris Exhibition . Me. construction, and the great attention paid to the working out oSach?- of the details. In the motion of the tables several improve - general ments have been effected ; the oblique action of the connect- — ing rod being neutralized by an ingenious application of the guides, which effects a smooth and perfectly horizontal motion. This movement is obtained by a crank motion in connexion with a forked end connecting rod, and by means of a toothed wheel, a motion at once alternate and rotatory is produced. This wheel, acting by an ingenious contrivance upon the upper and under side of a rack attached to the impression table, pro- duces an extended reciprocating motion, four times that of the radius of the crank. The inking process is also well con- trived, and a novel arrangement was observed in the roller and ink-box, to which M. Dutartre has added a supplementary roller. This is worked by a toothed wheel, and not only acts as an agitator in producing the necessary fluidity and mixture of the ink, but regulates the necessary supply, with the proper quantity and thickness of ink for vignettes. This pro- cess obviates the necessity of warming the ink to maintain its fluidity. The inking rollers are worked by wheels instead of bands as formerly used, which ensures absolute certainty of motion, and maintains perfect uniformity and fluidity in the ink boxes. At the end of the machine is a table formed to receive the sheets as they are printed, and to clear the impres- sion cylinder. Two-colour The two-colour printing machine has nearly the same machine motions as the vignette press. It has a table of sufficient area to take in two frames at once, and two other tables (one at each end) for the retention and distribution of the two colours. Two inking boxes are also attached to each end of the machine, and the impression cylinder is proportioned in its circumference to the length of the table. The movements of this machine are so adjusted as to give two revolutions to the cylinder for one strike of the table ; and the sheet is retained in the frame until two revolutions of the cylinder are accomplished, when it stops to receive another sheet. This contrivance appears very well adapted for certain kinds of work. Looking at the mechanical arrangements of the two machines and considering the objects to be attained in the printing of vignettes and two colours by one and the same process, the J ury were of opinion that the silver medal should be awarded to M. Dutartre for the utility as well as the novelty of these constructions. Steam-press Second. — Messrs. Marinoni, Chevalier, et Bourlier, of Paris, Mari n on i* exhibited a steam press, (1,403 in the Catalogue,) of four cylin- ders for printing newspapers, and a single cylinder jDress for other purposes. On examination the newspaper press appeared to be well constructed, and is calculated to print 6,000 sheets Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 123 on both sides per hour. It is rather complicated, but with Mr. proper attention to the arrangement of the parts, it may be on machi- much simplified in its movements, and rendered a still more <255*2. effective machine. It prints on both sides at once, but the sheets have to be cut in two, and on that account require four men to work the machine. Messrs. Marinoni, Cheviller, et Bourier exhibited another Machine machine for prints, similar to that of Dutartre as respects the for prints ‘ movement of the impression table, but with this difference, that, the table is supported on four rollers, which constitute the reciprocating movement of the press. This mode of moving the table is to some extent defective, as the only guides to the reciprocating movement in the table are the ends of the rollers, which are liable to wear, and entail variation and un- certainty in a part of the machine which requires great accu- racy in its movements. In other respects it is well executed, and is in high estimation among printers, who prefer it to most others. Taking all these circumstances into account, the Jury were of opinion, that it was justly entitled to the Silver Medal, Third. — M. Nicholais, of Paris, (No. 1,408 in the Catalogue,) ^chine°of exhibited a continuous machine, with a cylinder calculated m. Nicho- to cover a large surface, and approach as nearly as possible to Iais - a plane. The peculiarity of this machine is, that the cylinder works by a fixed rack (on the principle of Baker’s mangle,) attached to the table, and it is so constructed that it works only during the time it is in contact with the sheet, the period of rest being effected by the removal of a few teeth in the mortice wheel, which produces the stoppage without retarding the progress of the other parts of the machine. In this way the table is reversed in and out of gear, and in such form as to suit the impression, but not to stop the continuous movement and onward progress of the machine. The machine, although containing nothing new, is well constructed, and considering the objects for which it is in- tended, and the facility with which it works, the Jury have awarded to M. Nicholais the Bronze Medal. Fourth. — M. Normand, of Paris, (1,409 in the Catalogue,) exhibited a three-cylinder machine for newspapers, and a press, machimi of The machine for printing newspapers indicates an important M. Nor- improvement of recent date, by which rollers in combina- n)and * tion with other rollers, that revolve by a peculiar movement, effect the printing on both sides of the sheet. All these movements are on fixed bearings, which renders the machine more effective in its operations and much simpler in its con- struction. The motion of the impression cylinders is obtained from a rack on each side of the printing table ; and the table is also moved by a rack and pinion fixed upon an “ articu- lating " axis. M. Normand claims the invention of this 124 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Fairbairn ox Machi- nery ix GENERAL. M. Nor- mand’s press. Vignette machine of M. Alauzet, Visitof the Jury to M. Alauzet’s establish- ment. Steam lithogra- phic ma- chine of Messrs. Huguet et Vate. peculiar motion of returning the sheet upon one and the same cylinder, which he patented in the year 1848, but having neglected to fulfil the recpiisite forms required by law, the patent has become null and void, and is now the property of the public. Disregarding, however, the question of pri- ority of invention and patent rights, the organic parts of the machine appear to be well constructed, and in perfect accord- ance with the operations required to be performed. In the press, M. Normand has also introduced several im- provements in the arrangement and adjustment of the pincers which hold the paper to the cylinder 'when working, and giving to it the requisite position in the press. Taking all these movements and adjustments into account, as also the per- fect execution of the machines as pieces of merchandise, the Jury awarded to M. Normand the Silver Medal. Fifth. — M. Alauzet, of Paris, (No. 1,387 in the Catalogue,) exhibited a machine for printing vignettes. It is well con- structed, the parts being carefully developed : and it is remarkable for its solidity and superior workmanship. The table movement is effected by the ordinary rack motion, excepting that the teeth are of hardened steel. The impres- sion table is furnished with two distinct sets of apparatus, with four rollers to each set for spreading the colour, and the table, rollers, &c. are of large dimensions, which gives solidity and greater exactitude to the performance of the machine. M. Alauzet, finding it impossible to exhibit more than one machine, invited the Jury to visit his establishment, and to judge for themselves as to the merits and advantages peculiar to this construction. In that establishment the Jury found several ingenious movements and devices for simplifying and facilitating the process of printing, and amongst them a contri- vance for giving the requisite pressure to the cylinder by means of eccentric curves placed above the axis of the im- pression cylinder. A brush is also attached to keep the paper to the cylinder, and in order to ensure uniformity in the impres- sion, hollow bronze rollers are used in some cases above the other rollers, to equalize and distribute the ink. Taking all these improvements into consideration, and the very perfect manner in which the machines did their work, the Jury unanimously voted M. Alauzet the Silver Medal. Lithogkapiiical Machines. Messrs. Huguet et Vate, of Paris, exhibited a machine (No. 1,400 in Catalogue) which greatly resembles the typo- graphical press. It is w r orked by steam, and consists of a table, upon which the stone is placed, and the impression is obtained by means of a cylinder with regulated stops, moved by racks, and worked by pinions, having an articulated axis Mr. Fawbairn on Machinery in general. 125 attached to the impression table. The platform or surface for the distribution of the ink is fitted to the impression table, and the machine taken altogether is nearly the same as the ordinary printing machine, but with this difference, that there is just sufficient space between the circumference of the cylinder and the impression table to admit the stone. When the stones are of different thicknesses, the required height is obtained by zinc plates ; and to obviate any defects or unevenness of the surface of the stone, a thin piece of felt is interposed between it and the impression table. In working lithographic presses by hand, it will be ob- served that the workman has to moisten the stone with a water sponge after the impression and before the ink is applied. This operation is effected by Messrs. Huguet and Yate by damping rollers, covered with cloth saturated with water. The motion of these rollers is ingeniously con- trived, and immediately after the impression is taken the rollers are raised by curved eccentrics, and the motion is so well timed as to prevent them touching the stone after it is inked. This application of the damping rollers constitutes the novelty and superior efficiency of the machine; and such is the facility by which the impressions are taken, that 5,000 copies can be produced per day, while only one-fifth of that number can be executed by the hand-press in the same time. Considering the importance of this application, the economy of labour, and the increased rate of production, the Silver Medal was awarded to Messrs. Huguet and Yate. Messrs. Dupont, Daret, and Carlier, of Paris, were large contributors in typographic as well as in lithographic presses. The former (three in number) are of great importance ; and the fourth, although not equal to Messrs. Huguet and Yate’s machines, has nevertheless some points about it entitled to consideration. This machine may be used as a compound press, one-half worked by steam and the other half by hand. Like other presses of the same kind, the stone is placed upon a table, and the impression is taken by a cylinder rolling over its surface. The table is moved by a rack and pinion, but the stopping and starting is effected by hand; and the process of inking, fixing the sheet, &c., takes place during the time the press is at rest. From this it will be seen that a great deal of valuable time is lost by this process ; and although some attempts have been made to remedy these defects by steam rollers at each end for distributing the ink, the machine is nevertheless far from perfect. Taking, however, into account the number of machines and presses exhibited, and the manner in which the work is performed, a Bronze Medal was awarded. Among other articles of the lithographic art was a small portable press by M. Ragueneau, of Paris, (No. 1,152 in Mr. Fairbairn ox Machi- nery in GENERAL. Presses of Messrs. Dupont, Daret, and Carlier. Portable press of 126 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Me. P AIEBAIEN ON Machi- NEEY IN GENEKAL. M. Rague- neau. M. Schnautz samples and rollers. M. Bris- set's litho- graphic press. Hand ma- chine of M. Thuvien. Catalogue,) which reproduces any kind of writing or drawing without transcribing the original on stone. This was done by simply writing the original, or what is wanted to be re- produced, on autograph paper with ink; it is then trans- ferred to a metallic plate composed of pewter, antimony, and bismuth, fixed in a frame of the required size of the plate. The plate is inked by a roller in the same way as the litho- graphic stone, and a small tympan, or frame covered with leather, is attached to the block, and serves to cover the paper attached to the plate. The impression is taken by a small lever, which works the press by forcing the leather of the tympan upon the plate. The whole apparatus, with its inking rollers, &c., is contained in a small box, the price varying, according to size, from 50 to 150 francs. The facility with which writings can be reproduced by these means, the arrangement of the parts, and the compact form of the machine, were considered to entitle M. Ragueneau to a Medal of Bronze. The articles contributed by M. Schnautz (No. 1,412 in Catalogue) consisted of divers samples of his manufacture of lithographic impressions taken by rollers in black ink, and graduated tints of different colours. These rollers are com- posed of iron, covered with an elastic body of felt-cotton, and this again with an envelope of leather, chemise en lair, so neatly fitted as to render the jointing as near as possible imperceptible to the naked eye. Looking to the importance of having well constructed rollers in the lithographic art, and the superior manner in which those of M. Schnautz were executed, the Bronze Medal was awarded to him. M. Brisset, of Paris, exhibited an iron lithographic press (No. 1390 in Catalogue) of the same construction as those generally employed in workshops for lithographic purposes. The price of M. Brisset’s machine is 900 francs, if the framing be of iron, and 600 francs if made of wood. This press has a supplementary framing, with transverse bars, and in these are point-holes for the purpose of adjusting the register when required to take more than one impression upon the same sheet. This arrangement of the parts is of some importance, as two or more colours can be taken by these means on the same sheet. These constructions, and other minor points of improvement, obtained for the machine the Bronze Medal. M. Thuvien exhibited a hand-machine (No. 1,413 in Cata- logue) similar to that used for letter-printing, and known as the Ctf Stanhope press/’ but with the difference that the space between the table and the faller is sufficient to admit the lithographic stone in place of the type. In addition to this arrangement, M. Thuvien has established a supple- Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general . 127 mentary plate of such thickness as to make up the difference ^ Mr. of height suitable for lithographic impressions. In fact, it is o^mYch?- neither more nor less than the printing press converted, and by these means it answers the double purpose of lithographic — and typographic impressions. The tympan of this press, like some others already described, has point-holes, which enables the operator to give different coloured impressions, similar to those produced by M. Brisset’s machine. For these contrivances, and other considerations of minor im- portance, M. Thuvien was awarded with the Bronze Medal. Messrs. Cellerin and Devellier, Paris, contributed a ma- Enlarging chine for enlarging or reducing designs. It is very ingenious, or reducing and consists of a circular table, with the edges rounded. Upon ° this table is stretched a sheet of vulcanized india-rubber, of Cellerin & about three millimetres thick. The edges or circumference Devellier. of the india-rubber are drawn tight, and fixed to a circular ring, which regulates the caoutchouc by a screw that increases or diminishes the tension. Hence an impression taken when the caoutchouc is half stretched can be enlarged by lowering the ring, and, vice versa , the impression can be diminished by raising the ring. The impression of the design or the engraving required to be enlarged or reduced is first traced upon a sheet of gelatine or calking paper ; it is then laid upon the vulcanized rubber, and when the size of the impres- sion is fixed, two or three enlarged or reduced proofs may be taken, in their relative proportion the same as the original. The utility of this machine is obvious in facilitating the operations of artists and designers for stuff, printing upon coloured paper, wood engraving, and vignettes; and con- sidering all these advantages, and the improvements effected by this process, the bronze medal was awarded to Messrs. Cellerin and Devellier. Messrs. Heim Brothers, of Offenbach, Grand Duchy of Machines Hesse, exhibited a great variety of machines and presses, and P resses remarkable for their cheapness and for the quality of the HeinT^* workmanship. Two-hand typographic presses were intro- Brothers, duced, from which impressions are taken by a combination of levers. Also a lithographic press (No. 8 in Catalogue) from which impressions are obtained by a long lever and clutch fixed on one side of the press. This lever and clutch operate upon two shorter levers, one on each side, with con- necting rods across the rateau. The motion of the impres- sion table is effected by racks arc) pinions on each side of the press, and the whole of the operation is very simple, and may be established at a comparatively small cost. In addi- tion to the above, there are two presses for cutting paper, two others for giving impressions in relief upon skins, with the table resting upon springs. These are chiefly employed 128 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Failibairn ox Machi- nery in GENERAL. M. Bus. ser’s press. Immense variety of this class of machines. Machine for com- pressing and folding chocolate in paper. Machine for the ma- in book -binding. A machine, with a curved knife, for cut- ting pasteboard, was also exhibited ; the peculiarity of this instrument is the angle at which the knife is set, in order to place the edge in the most favourable position for the opera- tion. Another press, with steel rollers, and table covered with steel plates for glazing and polishing, completes the series of Messrs. Heim Brothers’ constructions ; and, looking at the sacrifices made in the exposition of so many articles of value, and the utility of these different instruments of in- dustry, the Bronze Medal was scarcely considered an adequate compensation. In the department of lithography, M. Busser, of Paris, exhibited a press of the ordinary construction, but with this modification, that the movement of the rubber rateau is effected on each side of the press, in order that the rateau should always be in a position parallel with the surface of the stone. The arrangement gives sufficient elevation for the movement of the rateau ; but in ordinary presses, where the pressure of the rateau is produced from only one side of the press, it becomes necessary to use a spring on the oppo- site side, in order to obtain the required elevation between the rateau and the tympan. These modifications constitute the principle improvements of the press, and for them a recompence of Honourable Mention was given. Miscellaneous Machines foe various Purposes. It would prove an endless task to attempt a description of the contents and immense variety of this class of machines. Those for the manufacture of hooks and eyes, grinding, com- pressing, and folding in paper chocolate cakes, washing, clean- ing, and corking bottles, cutting ivory, shell, and bone for combs, and machines and tools for the manufacture of brushes, may be enumerated as a sample of the curiosities of this numerous list. The machine for compressing chocolate into cakes and folding it in paper coverings was a clever and most ingenious contrivance ; it was designed by a young man from a verbal description given by his employer of the envelope machine, which he had seen at work at the Exhibition in 1851. Its operations in forming the cakes were well performed; and such was the exactitude of its motions in folding the paper and sealing it with red wax, that the human hand could not have done it with greater precision. The levers, pliers, and folders were equivalent to so many fingers, which handled the package with a degree of certainty highly creditable to the ingenious contriver of the machine. There was also a well constructed machine for the manu- facture of hooks and eyes ; it was driven by steam-power. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 129 like the chocolate machine, and manufactures all sizes, from the largest clasp to hooks and eyes hardly perceptible to the naked eye. Like the card-making machine, it cuts and bends the wire, forms it into loops, and stamps it to the required form with the greatest rapidity and precision. It manufac- tures four or five times as many as could be made by the old hand process in the same time. Amongst other machines exhibited, that for moulding bevel, spur, and other wheels deserves mention, and is said to possess the following advantages : — The ability to give to the teeth of each wheel a true epicvcloidal or other form that may appear advisable ; great saving of time and expense in making patterns, as a short segment only is required for moulding the wheel. It further enables the attainment of much truer wheels than could be produced on the old plan, and hence gearing made by this machine may safely be run at much greater speed than that of the ordinary construction. Fig. 12 is a vertical elevation of the machine, showing the moulding box and apparatus connected with it. Fig. 13 is a plan of the machine. It consists of a vertical spindle A, with a horizontal table or face plate B upon it ; this spindle works in the conical bearing formed in the frame C. The foot of the spindle A is supported by four diagonal struts D D, extending down- wards from the frame C, which supports the table B, and everything that is laid upon it, by means of the footstep E, by which the table can be raised at pleasure in the conical bearing in the frame C, thereby enabling the workman to turn the table round with very little force and perfect steadi- ness, though bearing a great weight. F F is a horizontal slide bed attached firmly to one side of the frame C ; upon this slide is moved the sliding jib Gr, carrying at its extremity the vertical slide H. A rack I I is attached to the slide bed, into which works a pinion on the shaft J, driven by bevel wheels and the crosshandle K. By means of this apparatus the vertical slide Hcan be placed in any position over the table B, or removed clear from it on either side. The set screws L L are for the purpose of fixing the sliding jib firmly upon the bed, and holding it in any position that may be required. The vertical slide H is moved by a rack and pinion worked by a handle and shaft M, and is rather more than counter- poised by a weight T attached to a chain passing over a pulley at top. A ratchet wheel with pall is fixed upon the handle M, to hold the slide from being drawn up by the balance weight, or forced up by the moulder ; and the balance weight is made a little in excess, to insure a pressure always upwards against the ratchet. K Me. Faiebaiex ox Machi- NEEY IX GEXEEAE. nufacture of hooks and eyes. Machine for mould- ing bevel, spur, and other wheels. Its advan- tages. Descrip- tion of it. 130 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Pig. 12. WHEEL MOULDING MACHINE. SIDE ELEVATION. Mr. Fairbairn oh Machinery in general. 131 Fig. 13. WHEEL MOULDING MACHINE. PLAN. Mr. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. IF 132 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. A worm wheel is fixed upon the underside of the circular on Machi- table B, and is moved by the worm and shaft. O, turned by general. the handle and change wheels P, similar to an ordinary — dividing or wheel-cutting engine. By turning the handle P the required number of times, having previously adjusted the change wheels to suit the number of teeth in the wheel Manner in which wheels are moulded by it. Machines for setting up and distributing type. Mr. Soren- sen’s ma- chine. intended to be moulded, the circular table B is moved round an interval equal to the pitch of the wheel, and this movement can be accurately repeated through any part of the circum- ference. The short segment pattern of the wheel to be moulded being attached to the vertical slide H, and the moulding box to the table B, the segment pattern is brought down by the slide till it rests on the levelled sand intended to form the bottom of the mould, the top of the segment being level with the edge of the moulding box ; the moulder then rams up in the ordinary way that portion of the box opposite the seg- ment pattern by means of the slide H, and then turns the circular table B, by the handle P, through an interval equal to the number of teeth contained in the segment pattern ; the pattern is then again lowered and the ramming up of the mould proceeded with in the new position of the box ; and this process is repeated till the whole wheel is moulded. Machines for setting up and distributing type. — Three of these were exhibited, two from Belgium, and one from Copen- hagen. One of the Belgian machines was for setting up, the other for distributing by the movement of keys alphabetically arranged. In the Copenhagen machine, invented by Mr. Sorensen, these two operations were performed by one ma- chine, the distributor being above, and the composer below. All these machines exhibited great skill and ingenuity in the arrangement of the grooves or conduits for conveying the types to the composer as they were struck off by the dis- tributer. Mr. Sorensen’s machine consisted of a cylinder about 16 inches in diameter, the upper part of which contains grooves, in which the type is arranged. From this part of the cylinder they are dropped into their respective grooves by action of keys, like those of a pianoforte, as the compositor spells the words ; the grooves convey them to the composing stick, and arrange them side by side. All the type was of the same length and thickness, and the machine is admirably contrived to insure their falling with their heads up into the channels which convey them to the composing stick, where they are divided into lines according to the size of the page. Mr. Sorensen’s machine was beautifully made, and its opera- tions, in the hands of its inventor, were highly satisfactory, and well deserved the commendation of the Jury. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. 133 Conclusion. It is to be regretted that we have no statistical accounts on which reliance can be placed, of the condition of the work- ing classes abroad, as compared with that of the English operatives ; judging, however, from what I saw of the con- dition of the population in Paris and other parts of Europe after the peace of 1815, and during several subsequent visits, I should infer that the whole working population of the capitals and large manufacturing towns has undergone a considerable change, and is still in a state of transition. The increase of manufactures of all kinds, and the earlier intro- duction of railway communication, have rendered this change more strikingly apparent in our own than in foreign countries, and the population of Great Britain has already felt, and in some degree accommodated itself to these influences, which abroad are only beginning to produce their results ; and on the Continent the effects of a transfer from one system of operations to another are now developing themselves. The French ouvriers are active, intelligent, and well em- ployed ; the German, Swiss, and Belgians, patient and enduring : and although foreigners may take a longer time in executing work than English workmen, they are nevertheless expert, and in many cases better educated, and therefore better able to cope with the difficulties and surmount the obstacles in the way of a successful progress. I do not mean to intimate that the mass of the workmen abroad are better educated or better informed in the practice of their respective callings than in England, but I firmly believe from what I have seen, that the French and Germans are before us in a knowledge of the principles of the higher branches of industrial art, and I think that this arises from the greater facilities afforded by the institutions of those countries for instruction in the chemical and mechanical sciences. When reporting on the manufacture of iron, I endeavoured to show that, notwithstanding the natural resources placed at our disposal, the quality of our cast iron is not to be depended on, that under the powerful stimulus of self- aggrandizement we have perseveringly advanced the quantity, whilst other nations, less favoured and less bountifully sup- plied, have been studying with far more care than ourselves the numerous uses to which this material may be applied, and are in many cases in advance of us in quality. I also adverted to the advantages of the employment of iron as a building material, and pointed out that the educa- tion of that important class of men, the architects, who give Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery IN GENERAL. Changes in the condi-' tion of the working classes. Foreign workmen. French and Germans before us in the higher branches of indus- trial art. Inferiority of the qua- lity of our pig iron. Culpable neglect of iron in con- struction 134 Jtepoi'ts on the Paris Exhibition. Fairbairn on Ma'chi NERY IN GENERAL. bv our ar- chitects. fabrics. Superiority of Great Britain in this branch of industry. Mr. taste and character to a community, is behind that of other countries. The architects of Great Britain have not availed themselves of the use of iron in construction to the extent they might have done ; that it should be so energetically and profitably employed in buildings in France, where its cost is nearly double what it is here, is a reflection on the intelli- gence and enterprise of a profession that has always stood, and I hope will continue to stand, high in the estimation of all who wish well to their country and to the advancement of the industrial arts. Machinery Several ingenious contrivances have from time to time ducticm^of" been brought forward by our Continental and American com- the textile petitors in machinery for the manufacture of the textile fabrics, and a friendly rivalry has always existed amongst the contributors to this department, and has had the best possible influence on the progress of the manufacture. Great Britain has assuredly every reason to be proud of the position she holds in regard to this division of the mechanical sciences ; to maintain it she must exercise the same skill and indomi- table perseverance which have marked her past career ; and so long as the same inducements are in operation, and the similar encouragements for active exertion are held out, her spirit of enterprise and energy of execution will lead to the best results. I have already expressed my opinion of the great progress that has been made in the construction of steam engines, iron bridges, and machinery, wherever the railway has made its appearance, and in this department our superiority is not so strikingly marked, and although we still take the lead, we are not much in advance of others, as the engines exhibited at Paris fully proved. In marine constructions we are still superior to all other nations ; but abroad rapid advances are making in that direction also, as was evidenced by the engines of the Mortala works in Sweden, which were admirably made, both as regards simplicity of form and compactness of construction. In the construction of millwork this country stands unri- valled ; and although repeated attempts have been made to imitate the transmissive machinery of our manufacturing districts, they have not been as successful as might have been expected ; and our millwrights stand alone for neatness of design and judicious proportion of the parts of the transmissive machinery employed in all the branches of that useful department cf industry. . f In the manufacture of tools for workshops we are also un- our' tools ° equalled, as with one or two exceptions the tools of foreign vor work- construction will not bear comparison with those of this shops. Progress made in mechanical engineer- ing. The mark- ed superio- rity of our millwork. Great su- Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general. IS 5 country. The same cannot be said of the lighter descriptions Mediocrity of machinery and instruments of precision; in many of these dj constructions the French, Germans, and Swiss are even in cjfptfonsdF advance of the manufactures of this country. machinery. With the exception of reaping machines, in which America Superiority excels, our agricultural implements, including those for work- ofouragri- ing plastic materials, are superior to those of most countries, machines and this superiority appears to be due to the variable nature and imple- of our climate, which necessitates an improved system of ments * culture and the use of machines calculated to save time and to insure success to the labours of the farm. In conclusion, it only remains to state that the Paris Good ef- Universal Exhibition of 1855 and that of London in 1851, fectsofthe have produced their proper effects. They have shown to the Exhibitions world, in every department of industry and of practical of is 51 science, wherein consists the prosperity of nations and the ai d 1855 * happiness of mankind. They have shown how all materials, whether derived from the forest, the field, or the mine, may be turned to purposes of utility; how the labour of man may be multiplied a thousandfold; how the fruits of the earth may be cultivated and gathered in for man's neces- sities ; and how works of art may be elaborated to in- crease the happiness and enjoyment of his existence. All these things were exhibited on a scale commensurate with the greatness of an undertaking so vast in extent, so varied in form, and so characteristic of all the duties and w r ants of human existence, as to elicit the admiration and praise of astonished multitudes from every country of the civilized world. I have the honour to be, &c. W. Fairbairn. 136 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAH. Mr.K. Black- well’s valua- ble paper. Reducing power of fuel due to carbon only. Similarity of vegetable and mineral fuel. Neglect of mechanical cleansing operations in this country. Classification of substances used as fuel. CAir.g coals. Advantage ol carbonizing the fuel be- fore introduc- Appendix No. 1. The very valuable paper of Mr. J. Kenyon Blackwell, F. G.S., entitled “The Piesent Position of the Iron Industry of Great Britain with reference to that of other Countries,” contains views and opinions so similar to my own on the manu- facture of iron, that I have applied to the author and obtained his permission to give some extracts from the paper, as an Appendix to the foregoing Report. In speaking of the quality of the fuel, and its chemical and mechanical effects in the reduction of the ores in the blast furnace, Mr. Blackwell states, that “ The fuel employed in the reduction of ores in the blast furnace possesses this reducing power only in respect of, and in proportion to, the carbon which it contains. Whether, therefore, it be wood or coal, the question regarding its employment in the raw state, or partially or wholly carbonized, rests solely on the circumstance whether it can be more perfectly and economically carbonized in the open air, in closed ovens, or in the blast furnace itself. “ The differences in the chemical nature of the various elements, forming on the one hand vegetable and on the other mineral fuel, are only in degree and not in kind, except in so far as regards the composition of the earthy residuum of ashes left after the volatilization of the other elements. It may, therefore, be in the different nature of the substances present in the ashes of wood and of coal, that we must seek for the explanation of the causes which produce such a widely different quality in iron smelted with these two species of fuel. Sufficient attention has not hitherto been paid to ascertaining the exact nature of the diversities in the composition of this portion of the constituents of wood and coal, and of different varieties of coal. “ The mechanical operations, by which a large part of the earthy impurities of all coal-seams of a caking nature might be separated from them before they are converted into coke, have been hitherto generally neglected in this country. “ Abstraction being made of these variable constituents (a large part of which are only present in coal as impurities), no distinct line of demarcation, founded on the chemical nature of the two bodies, can be drawn between wood on the one hand and coal on the other. Both are composed essentially of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Oxygen is present in the largest quantity in wood, while its proportion is lowest in the most highly mineralised or anthracite coal. “ The whole of the combustible bodies of this nature range themselves in one general series, the different classes of which may be divided into the following seven species, in accordance both with the physical characters which they exhibit, and at the same time their greater or less degree of oxygenisation, namely, wood, lignite, cannel or splint coal, non-caking coal yielding a long flame, caking coal, non-caking coal yielding a short flame, and lastly, anthracite. “ It has already been observed, that the fuel employed in the blast furnace, possesses a reducing power only in proportion to the quantity of carbon which it contains, and that the question whether this fuel ought to be used in its raw state or carbonized, and whether the coke or charcoal into which it must be converted should be prepared in open fires or in close ovens, depends solely on the quantity and quality of the coke or charcoal which will be obtained from it by these various systems, and the comparative economy with which they can be prepared.” The latter part of these observations are of great importance, as the coking of the coal and the combination of the ores have considerable effect on the quality of the iron produced; and it is only in some localities, where the ores and fuel contain only a very small per-centage of sulphur and phosphorus, that iron of great strength is obtained. On the subject of fuel, Mr. Blackwell goes on to observe : “ Those species of coal which it has been found most easy to employ in the blast furnace, have been the non-caking varieties. Caking coals require to be mixed with coke to a greater or less extent, to prevent the adhesion of the whole of the fuel in one mass. ; “ Notwithstanding the great extent to which raw coal and partially torrified wood have been long used in the blast furnace, both in this country and abroad, . it certainly appears, on a careful consideration of the nature of the process to Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general (Appendix.) 137 which both coal and wood must be subjected, either within or out of the blast Me. furnace, before the carbon which they contain can be utilised in the reactions of Fairbairn the furnace, that their carbonization may be effected with most economy, and that the quality of the charcoal or coke which results from this process will be best, general. when effected in close ovens, prior to the introduction of the fuel into the blast 7 — - furnace, and not within the furnace itself. blastfurnace. “ When wood or coal are coked at a low temperature, the hydro-carbon Temperature* products, which carry off a large quantity of carbon, are formed much more best for car- abundantly than when this operation is conducted at a high temperature. Under bonizmgfuel. the influence of high temperature, the hydrogen of these substances passes off either alone or in its proto-carbonated state. If wood or coal are coked in closed ovens, the degree of heat to which they are subjected in that process, and its duration, which is necessary to harden the product, can be controlled. When this operation takes place in open fires, or in the blast furnace itself, these two conditions cannot be regulated with the same facility, nor can the supply of oxygen to the incandescent carbon be determined with the necessary exactitude to limit its supply simply to that necessary to obtain the requisite temperature. The form adopted in the construction of the coking oven is an important element in obtain- ing the requisite temperature. “ Coal and wood not only give the highest yield in coke and charcoal, when their carbonization is conducted at an elevated temperature, but they are found to be superior in quality, and better fitted for use in the blast furnace, when they have been subjected for a considerable time to the action of this elevated tempe- < rature, than when they have been coked rapidly at a low heat. It is, moreover, important that the temperature to which they are subjected should be raised to its highest point as soon as possible after the carbonization commences. These necessary conditions can only be obtained by coking in close ovens. “ The system of coking in close ovens possesses another advantage, in permit- Generation of ting the utilisation of the heat afforded by the combustion of the waste gases of the coal in the raising of steam. Many of the largest Continental works derive the cokhig 8 ° the whole of their supply of steam from boilers set over their coke ovens.” process. The generation of steam by the combination of the waste gases, is a considera- tion of great importance in every country where the smelting process is carried on. It is not enough to say that fuel is cheap : that circumstance is no excuse for wasteful extravagance ; and the French and Belgian manufacturers are fully aware of the advantages which this highly commendable process affords, and employ it in all those localities where steam power is required in the immediate vicinity of the coking process. I strongly recommend the use of the waste gases for the generation of steam. On the separation of earthy impurities from the ores in the process of smelting, Reduction of Mr. Blackwell is particularly clear and explicit. He states that “ The separation iron, of the iron in a metallic state from the earthy matters and impurities contained in its ores, is effected most perfectly in the blast furnace, when the heat of the furnace is sufficient to produce at least a medium degree of carburation in the iron, and when there is a sufficient amount of lime present as flux to produce a fluid cinder. White or imperfectly carburised iron usually contains the whole of the sulphurets of the ores, and probably variable quantities of unreduced oxide, and of the earthy matters contained in the ores mechanically mixed with it ; at the same time the heat of the furnace not being sufficient to effect a perfect reduc- tion of the ore, a large quantity of oxide passes into the slag in the state of silicate. In this country, in South Wales especially, very large losses are constantly sus- tained by the iron-masters by this imperfect smelting. “ The oxide of manganese, found in larger or smaller quantities in almost all ores of iron, is to a great extent reduced in the blast furnace and passes into the in the ores^f pig iron. It is partially or wholly removed by oxidation in the subsequent pro- iron ‘ cesses of the refining and puddling furnaces. “ An elevated temperature in the blast furnace has a tendency to reduce a R e( j uc ti 0 n of portion of the silica contained in the ores to a metallic state, when it enters as an silica with the alloy into'the crude iron. The same cause appears to act to a minor degree in iron * producing to a small extent the reduction and alloy of other bodies present in the furnace; but silicium and other metals of this class are entirely, or in great part, eliminated in the subsequent oxidising processes of the refining and puddling furnaces. 138 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Decomposi- tion of sul- phuret of iron. Reduction of phosphuret of iron with the metal. Hot and cold ■blast iron. Other causes of the inferi- ority of hot- blast iron. Conversion of crude into* m illeable* non. “ The sulphurets of iron contained in the ores of that metal, and often, even more largely, in the mineral fuel used in its reduction, are partially, but not wholly, decomposed in the blast furnace. An elevated temperature and the presence of lime aid this decomposition, and the elimination of the sulphur as sulphuret of calcium. “ The phosphate of iron contained in these ores is reduced to the state of phos- phuret in the blast furnace, and passes entirely into the pig iron. This substance has been found, but only rarely, in furnace slags as phosphate of alumina; it may possibly have existed in that combination in the ore previous to smelting. The phosphuret of iron which is reduced in the blast furnace, is again subjected to oxidation in the refining and puddling furnaces. It passes partially or wholly into the slags, which are separated in those processes.” The next question which attracts attention is the comparative merits of the hot and cold blast in the process of smelting. He states that “ Much controversy has taken place with respect to the difference in quality supposed to exist between pig iron smelted with cold and with hot blast. While no doubt could exist with respect to the economy of fuel, the greater regularity in the action of the blast furnace, and the larger quantities of metal obtained under equal circumstances by the use of the hot blast, it has generally been considered that the pig iron smelted with hot was inferior in quality to that produced with cold air. Undoubtedly, this opinion has been created to a great extent, from ignorance of the facts of the case. Furnaces blown with heated air exert greater reductive power than those in which a cold blast is used. This has led, since the introduction of hot blast, to the extensive usage in iron smelting of refractory ores not formerly smelted, a large part of which have been ores of a class calculated to produce inferior iron ; and it is from the use of ores of this nature, far more than from any deterioration in quality arising from the use of a heated blast, that this opinion has originated. ‘‘ At the same time it appears to have been proved, that the more elevated temperature of the hot blast furnace has a tendency in a slight degree to increase the quantity of silicium and other cognate metals, which form alloys with pig iron in the smelting process. Phosphuret of iron is said to have been found to a minutely increased extent, in combination with pig iron smelted by hot air, when compared with that obtained from the same minerals by cold blast. On the other hand, the sulphurets of iron appear to be removed to a greater extent by the agency of hot air. The subsequent oxidising processes in the conversion of pig into wrought iron, eliminate in part, or wholly, these foreign metals as oxides, and the phosphuret of iron as phosphate in the slags produced.” On this important subject Mr. Blackwell appears to consider that the intro- duction of the hot blast has led to the reduction of inferior ores, and that the cause of deterioration in the iron has arisen from that cause. To some extent this may be the case; but we must look to another cause for a great many of the anomalous conditions of iron from the same furnaces. If it could be traced to the ores alone, there is at once an answer to the difficulty ; but the use of raw coal and uncalcined ore, with an elevated temperature arising from the heated air, has doubtless something to do with the variable products which proceed from the process. Time, and the purification of the ores and fuel previous to smelting, appear to be essential to the production of good iron, and hence it follows that the high temperature, together with the impurities of the raw material, is much more likely to produce iron of inferior quality than the old process with duly prepared ores and fuel. I offer this opinion from no feeling of opposition to Mr. Blackwell’s superior chemical attainments, but from a knowledge of the different results from the same ores and same fuel at different times. Mr. Blackwell’s observations on the conversion of crude iron into the malle- able state are so forcibly given, and so much to the purpose, that any observations upon them would rather tend to obscure than render them more explicit. I therefore give the quotation in his own words. “ The carburised crude iron obtained in the blast furnace is converted into malleable iron by one or more operations, all of which are of an oxidising character. By these it is sought to separate the carbon combined with the iron in the gaseous form as oxide of carbon, whilst the metallic bodies, forming alloys with it, and the phosphuret of iron present, are also oxidised, and pass partially or wholly into slags. Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general {Appendix). 139 “ In the Catalan fire, one of the earliest forms of the blast furnace, all the varied processes required to produce malleable iron were combined in one operation. The production of carburet of iron took place in the upper part of the hearth, (the fluidity thus acquired separating the metal from the earthy matters associated with it in the ore,) and this carburet was subsequently decarburised, to a greater or less extent, in the lower part of the hearth, by the reactions resulting from the effect of the blast, of the oxide of iron produced under its influence, and of that remaining unreduced in the slags formed. In the production of natural steel, the skill of the workman arrested this decar- burising action at the necessary point. “ In the modern system these operations are subdivided. The pig iron pro- duced with charcoal, when its conversion into malleable iron is to be completed with charcoal, is decarbonized in the charcoal refinery, with or without an intervening process termed mazeage . Charcoal pig iron, wherever mineral fuel is accessible, is now, however, generally converted into wrought iron in the puddling furnace with coal. Pig iron produced with coke is either subjected to a preliminary decarburation in the oxidising blast hearth, termed also in this country a refinery, and the operation thus commenced is afterwards completed in the oxidising air-furnace, termed the puddling furnace ; or, in recent practice, the complete decarburation of the crude iron is effected without the intervention of the refinery in the puddling furnace, by the process called boiling. “ It is said that, at several works abroad, the attempt to arrest the process of decarburation in the puddling or boiling furnace at that point in which the conversion has proceeded only so far as to leave the iron in the state of steel, or subcarburet, has been successful ; and that a valuable natural or puddled steel, not requiring cementation before conversion into refined or cast steel, has been the result. “ All the processes employed in the conversion of crude or carbonized iron into malleable iron, are processes of oxidation, in which the carbon is removed either by direct oxidation, or by the reactions occasioned by the presence of oxide of iron formed or introduced during the process. The presence of oxide of iron in excess appears necessary in all these processes to form fusible slags, consisting essentially of silicate of iron, in which the silica aud other bodies, separated by oxidation from the iron, or present accidentally, are wholly or partially removed. “ The question for investigation, in examining the nature of these various processes of conversion is, therefore, whether the removal of the carbon of the crude iron, and at the same time the elimination of the impurities contained in it, is effected with the smallest possible waste by oxidation of the iron subjected to them. “That the present systems of procedure are frequently extremely faulty, appears to be a necessary deduction from the fact, that in some of the largest iron-making districts of Great Britain the production of one ton of wrought iron of inferior quality is only obtained by the consumption of nearly one and a half tons of crude or pig iron “ The crude iron from which wrought iron of the best quality is produced, is that possessing a medium degree of carburation, or what is usually termed grey pig iron. White iron, which possesses an inferior degree of fluidity to grey pig iron, and which comes, as it is termed, more rapidly to nature, is that quality which is most generally employed in the manufacture of wrought iron, especially when the conversion is effected by the single operation of boiling in the puddling furnace ; but this species of pig iron, being the result of imperfect reactions in smelting, is always more impure than grey or more highly carburised pig iron obtained from the same materials, and does not produce wrought iron of the best quality. “ In those countries in which the pig iron produced is smelted with charcoal, but coal is available for conversion into malleable iron, the charcoal refinery is generally abandoned for the puddling furnace, it being found that the quality of the iron resulting from the latter process is sufficiently insured by its previous treatment in the blast furnace with charcoal. “ In Great Britain, where the smelting process is almost exclusively conducted with coal or coke, it is found that nearly the same result can be obtained, with Mr. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAE. Catalan fire. Modern system. Production of steel direct from the ores. Processes for conversion of crude into malleableiron are processes of oxidation. Faulty cha- racter of present systems. Crude iron best adapted for conver- sion into mal- leable. Results of conversion of charcoal iron by coal : and of coal iron by char- coal. 140 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Fairbairn oit Machi- nery 1ST GENERAE. Process of coke refinery and mazeage. Loss of iron in refinery process. Charcoal re- finery. reference to the quality of the bar iron produced, by the treatment of the pig iron thus smelted, in its final stage of conversion into wrought iron, in the charcoal refinery with charcoal. “ It is an important subject for investigation to ascertain what are the precise causes to which this amelioration of quality from the use of vegetable fuel is due, when used in the treatment of iron in processes which have no analogy to each other. The circumstances of the two cases appear to point to the possibility that the eliminative effect exercised as fluxes in both instances by the ashes of the vegetable fuel employed, may have some effect in producing this improvement in quality. Should such really be the case, we may then replace charcoal as fuel with advantage in those cases in which it is still employed, by the use of artificial fluxes producing an equivalent effect. “ The coke refinery or running out fire occupies in this country, by its results, the same position with reference to the charcoal refinery as the process termed mazeage on the Continent. Previously to the introduction of the process termed boiling(in contradistinction to puddling) in the treatment of iron in the puddling furnace, the whole of the metal puddled was subjected in the first instance to the oxidising and decarburising process of the coke refinery. Refined metal is still used to a large extent, either alone or mixed with pig iron, in the puddling fur- nace in this country. It is also employed exclusively in the charcoal refinery. “ The pig iron to be decarburised in the refinery is usually melted with rich silicates, and occasionally with oxides of iron, intended, as in other processes of this nature, to protect the melted iron in some degree from the oxidising effects of the blast, and to react on the carbon which it contains. The quantity em- ployed depends on the degree to which the pig iron is carburised. “ In the presence of silica in excess in the refinery hearth, the oxide of iron formed by the blast is not reduced by the carbon, but is lost by entering into the slags. It is, therefore, desirable to exclude it as much as possible in the opera- tion. For this reason, the coke employed should be free from shale, and contain only a low per-centage of ash. Lime in small quantities may be used advan- tageously in the refinery, to enter into combination with the silica present, but it can only be employed to a limited extent, as it would otherwise render the slags too thick. “ It is of the utmost importance that the cokes used in this process should be as free as possible from sulphuret of iron, which they often contain largely. The greater part of tin's sulphuret present enters into combination with the metal, and does not pass off' in the slags. “ Phosphuret of iron, if present in the pig iron, appears to be converted into phosphate, and enters into the slags. It is found largely in many refinery cinders which have been submitted to analysis. “ The loss of iron in the refinery process is very large. It varies from 10 to 20 per cent. “ The charcoal i-efinery in general use in those countries where mineral fuel is not accessible for the conversion of crude into malleable iron, is still employed in this country, when it is desired to produce iron of the best qualit) r . It has already been observed that the causes of the amelioration in the quality of iron smelted and partially decarburised with coke, when the last stage of its conversion into wrought iron is effected by the agency of charcoal in the refinery fire, forms an important subject for investigation. “ The charcoal pig iron treated in these fires is usually that termed white, or mottled, which is selected on account of the less degree of fluidity which those qualities possess, and the greater rapidity with which they corns to nature. When grey pig iron is used, it is ordinarily decarburised, to a certain extent, by some of the processes termed mazeage. In this country, w'here iron smelted with coke is thus treated, grey pig iron possessing a medium degree of carburation is generally employed, on account of its greater purity, as compared with white or mottled iron ; but it is always converted into refined metal in the coke refinery prior to its use in the charcoal refinery. Fluxes, strictly speaking, are not used in the charcoal refinery. They would not be advantageous unless the metal treated had been imperfectly refined in the coke refinery, the silicium of the pig iron and the silica accidentally present being removed by that process. The oxides of iron from the hammer and the subsili- cates formed in the charcoal refinery during the latter part of the operation, are Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general (Appendix.) 141 returned to the fire, where they in some degree protect the metal, as it subsides ]\i H< in the hearth, from the too long continuance of the decarburising effects of the Fairbairn blast, whilst they also exert on it, by reaction, a similar influence, accompanied by a reduction of a part of the oxide which they contain. general. “ The melted and partially decarburised iron israised, as it sinks in the refinery hearth, in order to expose it in every part to the action of the blast, and this opera- tion is repeated on the collected mass, which is again brought to the surface of the fire, re-melted and sunk before the blast, until the whole is found to be suffi- ciently decarburised and refined throughout. “ In estimating the precise nature of the effects produced in the charcoal re- finery, it is necessary to observe that this fire, in common with all blast furnace?, contains, at the same time, at different elevations, a carburising and deoxidising, and an oxidising and decarburising zone. The imperfectly converted and imper- fectly purified metal under treatment can, therefore, by a simple change of posi- tion in the fire, be re-subjected to the reactions which take place in it, until the effects desired are perfectly accomplished. “ The conversion of crude into malleable iron is now effected on the largest Puddling, scale, both in this country and abroad, in the reverberatory furnace, termed a puddling furnace. The actual process followed is termed puddling or boiling, according to variations in the degree to which it is necessary to carry the reactions of the furnace, according as partially decarburised or refined metal or pig iron is treated. “ The term puddling is applied to that process in which refined metal, pre- viously partially decarburised and separated from the impurities it contained in the coke refinery, is converted into malleable iron by subjecting it to the action of a current of heated air excited by the combustion of fuel in the reverberatory fur- nace in which the operation takes place. The boiling process is that in which pig iron is converted by one operation into malleable iron by the more energetic reactions induced in connexion with this deoxidising current by the more elevated temperature of the puddling furnace, and by the presence of a bath of rich subsili- catcs of iron. “ The bottom and sides of puddling and other furnaces used in the conversion of iron ought to be constructed of cast iron, kept cool either by currents of air, or, in those portions exposed to the greatest heat, by water, to prevent the re-action which would take place between the oxides of iron formed during these processes and the silica of a brick lining. The silica, which might be introduced acci- dentally, ought to be carefully excluded, as its presence must occasion unnecessary loss in the operation. These points are not always attended to with sufficient- care. The cast-iron bottom of the hearth is covered by a layer of scoria) or silicates of iron. It is found that those slags which are the richest in oxide of iron, and in which the oxides have been converted into the state of sesqui-oxide by calcination, offer the greatest resistance. The cinders of the charcoal refinery are much es- teemed for this purpose. When melted into one uniform mass, with the addition of oxide of iron, these scoriae form a bottom, off ering great resistance to the action of the melted metal. “ It has already been observed that in the process of puddling, refined metal only is used, and that its conversion into malleable iron is effected solely by the reactions induced by the current of air excited by combustion in the reverberatory furnace. This operation is effected at a lower temperature than boiling, and without the addition of the oxides and subsilicates employed in the boiling process in conjunction with a more elevated temperature, to produce the more energetic reactions required in the latter. “ The process of boiling is that which is now almost generally used for the Boiling pro- conversion of pig iron into malleable iron by the agency of mineral fuel. Its cess, nature permits it to be employed for this purpose, without the introduction of any process of decarburation similar to the coke refinery. Grey pig iron, smelted with coke, may be converted into malleable iron by this single process, thereby avoiding the serious waste incurred by oxidation in the coke refinery, at the same time that the use of the best qualities of pig iron without excessive waste is rendered practicable. “ Grey pig iron, of a medium degree of carlniration, being the result of a more perfect state of action in the blast furnace than that by which white or 142 Reports on the Paris Exhibition , Me. Faiebaiek ok Macbi- KEEY IK GEKEEAL. Its value. Its defects. Means of im- proving the process. Rapidity and economy of the conver- sion of iron in the rever- beratory fur- nace. mottled iron is obtained, is always more pure than iron of those classes produced from the same minerals. The length of time and amount of work which is required in the puddling furnace before grey pig iron is sufficiently decarburised and brought to a malleable state, is also to a certain extent advantageous, in respect to the quality of the wrought iron obtained from it, because this long exposure to oxidation has the effect of more perfectly eliminating the oxidahle alloys which crude iron contains. “ The process of boiling, therefore, which enables pig-iron of this class to be converted into malleable iron on a large scale without the intervention of any other process, and without excessive loss, possesses great value, and it becomes- important to inquire whether there are any ameliorations which may be intro- duced into it which would enable it to be more universally adopted than it has hitherto been. “ The defects in the boiling process are the following : — the wear and tear in the puddling furnace, which occurs in treating grey pig-iron, particularly that of the more fluid descriptions ; the slowness of the operation ; and the amount of manual labour which it entails to produce good results. “ The reverberatory furnace possesses the advantage that in the conversion of crude into malleable iron, the oxidising and decarburising reactions necessary to effect it take place without the metal itself being at the same time in contact with the fuel, and thus subjected to the waste which would be occasioned by the earthy silicates present in the mineral fuel, generally employed, entering into combination with the oxide of iron formed. In its existing form it has, how- ever, the disadvantage that the combustion of the fuel is necessarily very im- perfect, and that neither the extent of action nor the nature of the oxidising current is sufficiently under control. “ To produce perfect combustion in furnaces of the nature of the reverberatory furnace, the air entering them ought to be divided into two parts; one of these should pass through the fuel to excite combustion to volatilise the hydrogen present, and to convert the carbon of the fuel into carbonic oxide; the other portion should be air previously heated, and this air ought to enter the furnace under pressure, causing it to traverse the furnace at a different velocity to the current of inflammable gases derived from the fuel, since it is evident that fluids of nearly equal densities, travelling in the same direction at equal velocities, will not tend to mix and enter into combination in the same intimate and rapid manner as they would if the last entering current were heated, and if they were travelling respectively at different velocities. “ The current of air passing through the common reverberatory puddling fur- nace is not sufficiently under the control of the workman, either with respect to its volume or its nature. This class of furnaces would be greatly improved and rendered more effective in their action in the conversion of iron by such modifi- cations as would enable the current of air which passes through them to be rendered either oxidising or deoxidising, as required. The effect of this change in the nature of the furnace would be to restrict the oxidising action to the exact extent necessary for removing the carbon of the crude iron, and for elimi- nating the oxidable alloys present, while excessive waste in the metal treated would be avoided. £- The more perfect combustion of the fuel employed, and the necessary control over the nature of the gaseous currents within the furnace, may be obtained by restricting the amount of air admitted through the ash-pit to that required for the generation of the inflammable gases, and by the application of blast to produce their perfect combustion, and to afford, as required, the necessary excess of atmospheric air for oxidation and decarburation of the metal. The supply of air, namely, that required for the combustion of the fuel and the blast, should be heated separately by the waste heat and waste gases of the puddling furnace. “ The puddling or boiling furnace is that in which the conversion of crude into malleable iron can be effected with the greatest rapidity, on the largest scale, and at the least waste and cost. It is also the furnace in which mineral, as compared with vegetable fuel, offers the greatest advantages. "Where mineral fuel cannot be obtained, it is necessary to endeavour to apply those species of fuel which exist with the utmost economy. Processes of the nature above described have therefore been adopted when the use of wood, of turf, or of Mr. Fctirbairn on Machinery in general (Appendix). 143 the waste gases of the blast furnace have been resorted to in puddling, and with great success, under the name of gas furnaces. Fairbairn “In the United States, the non-flaming character of the mineral fuel in the on Machi- principal coal-bearing regions of the Atlantic States, has caused the use of the blast to be resorted to, to produce combustion and a sufficiently extended flame in the reverberatory puddling furnace. The w’hole system, as now explained, has been An * eri can adopted extensively on the Continent to produce in puddling a perfect combus- tion of the waste gases of the blast furnace of wood, of turf, and, in some cases, of bituminous coal. “ The use of fluxes in the puddling furnace offers a wide field for experiment. Fluxes used Hitherto, their use has been generally confined to the oxides and subsilicates of in. the pud- 8 iron. The energetic reactions of these oxides and subsilicates on the carbon of a ing urnace ' the crude iron, when brought in contact in a melted state, has given rise to the term boiling, but the silicates act also as fluxes by entering into fusion with and carrying off’ as slags after oxidation, the greater part of the alloyed metals and other impurities contained in the crude iron. The employment in addition of fluxes composed essentially of common salt and oxide of manganese, has been successful in this country in the refining of crude iron in the puddling furnace, to a degree which has permitted the malleable iron obtained from any of the ordinary classes of minerals to be used for conversion into steel of good quality. Fluxes of this nature are employed in foreign works wherever the production of natural steel has been effected in the puddling furnace. This has been accom- plished not only with pig-iron smelted with charcoal from the manganesiferous carbonates of iron in Germany and in France, but also in Belgium, at the Seraing works, from pig iron smelted with coke from the ordinary minerals of that district. “ Grey pig iron smelted from a large class of ores with coke possesses so much Difficulty of fluidity, and retains the carbon with which it is combined with so much tenacity, P° n verting as to create a great element of difficulty in treating it in the puddling furnace. grey pig iron ’ In reducing crude iron of this class to the malleable state, by employing the intermediate process of the coke refinery, great loss from oxidation is incurred. From these causes it is commonly sought to obtain white pig iron from the blast furnace, and this species of crude iron (notwithstanding the inferiority in quality of the wrought iron which results from it) is that which is generally employed for its production. “ To obviate this difficulty, and to avoid these disadvantages, it appears desir- Means of ob- able to introduce between the blast furnace and the puddling furnace some difficulty” 8 intermediate process, which, like that of the mazeage practised on the Continent, shall sufficiently decarburise the grey pig iron, (which is always produced most advantageously in the blast furnace,) at a small cost in fuel and labour, and without entailing the enormous waste of the coke refinery, so as to enable it to be treated rapidly and without difficulty in the puddling furnace. “ The great objection to the coke refinery is this, namely, that the decarbura- Objection to tion of the crude iron, and the elimination of the oxidable alloys which it con- j* e c °ke re- tains, cannot be effected in it without extensive oxidation of the iron itself, nor ' without separation and loss of this oxide, as silicate, in combination both with the silica formed during the operation and accidentally present, and with the silicates of the fuel. “ To fulfil the proper requisites, the process adopted for decarburation ought to be such as to enable it to be effected without this excessive oxidation of the crude iron ; the oxide formed ought to be reduced again ; and the silica and silicates present ought to be removed as fusible earthy slags by the introduction of lime. “ It appears that this decarburation might be advantageously effected by a Simple pro-' very simple and convenient process, in which perfect control could be exercised cess for the over the extent to which the operation was carried ; namely, in a blast furnace of grey jhg iron: the nature of the common re-melting cupola used for re-melting pig iron in foundries. By re-melting grey pig iron in a furnace of this nature, either alone or along with minerals containing nearly pure oxides of iron, the decarburation of the metal would be readily accomplished, the oxides melted with it would be reduced to the metallic state, while the silicates of the fuel, with the silica, alumina, and other easily oxidable alloys eliminated from the crude iron, would be separated in the form of fusible earthy slags. Reports on the Paris Exhibition. 144 Me. Fair bair^ os' Machi- nery IN' GENERAL. Superiority of GreatBritain. Superiority of foreigners. Exhibitions of metallur- gical pro- ducts. Exposition of iron industry in the Paris Exhibition. French de- partment. Machinery. High quality of the iron steel. Rolling mill. “ The iron decarburised in a blast furnace of this description should be charged in its melted state into the common boiling furnace. By such a combination of the two classes of furnace, the conversion of crude iron would undoubtedly be effected with more economy of fuel, reduced loss of iron, together with greater rapidity and regularity in the operation.” The mechanical operations for the manufacture of iron and steel are briefly treated, and the whole is summed up in the following remarks : — “ The principal mechanical agents in these operations are the hammer and the rolls. It is only by a proper combination of both of these agents, that all the requisite qualities in well-manufactured iron can be obtained. In this country latterly there has been a tendency to supersede the use of the hammer by that of the rolls in effecting every class of operations in this manufacture. This is prac- ticable in the production of small sizes of iron, in which the bulk is small as com- pared with the immense mechanical power under command, but it is not practic- able with iron of large sizes, in which soundness is requisite. Soundness in rails, large bars, plates, and thick sheet iron, cannot be obtained without the use of the hammer ; nevertheless, its use is almost discarded for these purposes in this country.’ The following remarks on the Paris Exposition, and on the comparative merits of the iron industry of Great Britain in reference to that of other countries will be appreciated by those who desire to maintain their superiority, as well as by those who are more immediately interested in this important branch of in- dustry. The observations of our author evidently show that, although we are greatly in advance of other countries in the extent of our metallic productions we are, in many cases, behind them in quality. In the manufacture of steel, in rolling plates and bars, and stamping “uses ” and other articles which require ductility and strength, our Continental neighbours are not behind the best performances of this country, and in many instances they are considerably in advance. The manufacturers of Erance and Germany have displayed in their productions of iron and steel, a degree of knowledge and skill not unworthy of imitation by our own. In proof of the progress which has been made in every department of industry, amongst the different nations of Europe, take our author’s closing remarks : — “ To render exhibitions of metallurgical products complete, they ought to com- prise the minerals in their raw state, the fuel, the products in each stage of manufacture, the residual matters, and the metal in its finished state. The speci- mens in this state ought to display the quality of the article, to illustrate processes of manufacture, and to show its fitness for the various purposes for which it is applied. The selling price at the place of manufacture of the article exhibited ought in all cases to be affixed to it. “The expositions of the iron industry in the Erench, Prussian, and Belgian departments, were in many cases complete in these respects, with the exception of the element of price. The British department was extremely incomplete. Even the feature of price, in which, if not in quality, a degree of superiority might have been established, was entirely neglected. “ The French department did not fully represent the iron-producing industry of that country. The principal exhibitors were Boigues, Rambourg, and Co., of Eourchambault; the Company of the Loire and the Ardeche at La Voulte ; the Company of the Aveyron at Decazeville; Dupont and Co., of Ars-sur-Moselle ; Jackson, Petin, and Co., of Vierzon and Rive de Gier ; the Company of Audin- court (for charcoal iron); the Company of Montataire ; the Company of Denain and Anzin; and Schneider and Co., of Creuzot. “ The chief features of the expositions presented by these Companies were the general possession of machinery of a very powerful class, the perfection of the mechanical operations as evinced by the soundness and finish of the specimens shown, and the high quality of the iron itself. Another striking feature among these expositions was the position in which the manufacture of steel is taking- in foreign metallurgy, not as an exceptional product, but as one of the numerous conditions in which iron can be applied to the arts. « The attention now paid abroad to the possession of machinery capable of working iron in the largest masses w ith facility, and the engineering skill applied to perfecting this machinery, was, among other evidence, shown in the French department by the rolling mill, fulfilling the important desideratum of rolling Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general (Appendix). 145 heavy iron in two contrary directions without reversing the machinery, with its Me. connected travelling carriages, designed by M. Cabrol, the director of the Decaze- Fairbairn ville ironworks, working drawings of which were shown. “ The quality of French boiler plates was well shown by the remarkable speci- general. mens of forging out of the plate, of flanges and other connexions required for French boiler tubular and locomotive boilers, without the least fracture in the metal, and with- plates, out necessity for rivetting in any case. The dimensions of the boiler plates and heavy sheet iron were at least equal to those in the English department. The double T iron exhibited was up to twelve inches in vertical section, and the angle Double T iron to seven inches on each flange. Locomotive wheel tyres, rolled without weld- and angle ing, were exhibited both in the French and Prussian departments. iron * “ The Belgian department contained numerous specimens of well-finished payment C ' boiler-plate and sheet iron of large dimensions, from the works of Couillet, Grivegnee, Ougree, Sehlessin, Serai ng, and many others. The most remark- able expositions in this department were, however, those of sheet-iron shown by Ilemacle and Co., of Lanheid, and by Delloye and Co., ol Huy; and of steel resulting from the refining of puddle steel, shown by J. Cockerill and Co., of Seraing. Both of these latter expositions were well worthy the attention of British manufacturers. “ The Westphalian and Rhine provinces of Prussia were well represented by ^rtment** 8 * Jacobi, Haniel, and Huyssen, of Ruhrort ; by the Company of the Phoenix, of Esch- vveiler; by Boing, Rhor, and Co., Limburg-sur-Lenne ; by the Company of Dillingen, near Sarrelouis ; by the Company of Horde ; by the Royal Foundry of Lohe, near Siegen ; and especially in their important steel industry by Krupp and Co., of Essen. There were numerous other exposants from Prussia in this department, some of them from Silesia. The above expositions were, however, those containing the most important objects. The boiler plates and sheet iron Boilerplates, shown by Jacobi, Haniel, and Huyssen, were very well finished ; one plate was the largest and heaviest exhibited. Its dimensions were 134 feet by 5 feet, sheared. Its weight was 2,500 lbs. The Phoenix Company, of Eschweiler, displayed the heaviest rolled bar. Tins bar was 10| inches diameter by 23 feet 6 inches long. It weighed 3-g- tons. These specimens were remarkable as evidences of the character of the machinery now erecting at Continental works. The expositions of these two houses presented numerous other examples of their manufacture, and complete series of the ores, fuel, fluxes, and products in the various stages of pro- Series of gress ; the whole were also arranged in such manner as to enable them to be closely ^ es > ^ uxe= ’ inspected. These features of completeness and good arrangement were prominent throughout the whole of the Prussian metallurgical department. In this point of view Great Britain presented a very unfavourable contrast. “The remarkable exposition of Krupp and Co., of Essen, in Westphalia, Messrs, showed the wide range of purposes to which cast steel may be applied with ad van- " tage. This house exhibited rolls of large size, axles, piston rods, cranked shafts, and other objects, up to the weight of about 5 tons in this material, proving its applicability to those purposes in which an extreme degree of strength and dura- bility combined with lightness are required. Krupp and Co. are said to use the newly invented puddled steel largely in the production of their cast steel. “ The iron industry of Great Britain was neither adequately nor advantageously British de- represented at the Paris Exposition. The display possessed in no respect the partment. features required to place this great manufacture in a prominent point of view. “ A large number of the ironworks of this country did not exhibit, and the specimens displayed by the others were not classified in any manner either with reference to their nature or the locality of their production. The position also in which they were exposed prevented access, for the purpose of examination, to any other than a few of the more bulky objects. The numerous smaller specimens were so placed, that it was impossible to approach them near enough to inspect them properly. “ The quality of the iron exhibited was not shown in any conclusive or advan- tageous manner, nor were there any specimens displayed proving the application of greater or even of equal mechanical power in the working of iron in this country as compared with others. 3. L 146 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Tairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Want of ve- getable fuel in Great Bri- tain. “ So far as equality in the iron exhibited was concerned, there can be no doub that great superiority was manifested at Paris by other countries as compared with Great Britain ; and unfortunately there was no attempt made to place promi- nently in view that point in this great industry in which we are at present unquestionably without rivals, namely, the cost of production. By an unaccount- able omission, there were no prices affixed to any of the specimens of iron exhibited in the British department. “ In concluding the present subject, the following reflections appear to present themselves. Great Britain does not possess the resources of vegetable fuel, the use of which in some processes of the iron manufacture produces such valuable results in the quality of the metal so treated, and when its partial employment can be combined with that of mineral fuel, in those other processes in which the latter can be most advantageously applied, enables the best quality of this metal to be obtained coincidently with cheap production ; but Great Britain possesses almost inexhaustible supplies of mineral fuel, and of iron ores, (for the most part of good quality,) in immediate contiguity to each other, and these advantages are less generally possessed by other countries engaged in this industry. “ Perhaps the very abundance of the mineral resources which support the iron industry of Great Britain have contributed to produce, somewhat extensively, a slovenly system of manufacture. It is at least certain that in this country an inferior quality of iron, badly smelted, wastefully converted, and carelessly manu- factured, is often produced when a superior quality might be obtained atno higher cost than that which is inferior. “ It appears desirable, therefore, with reference to our future success in this department of industry, to recognize clearly, that we have no exclusive monopoly of the sources of production, and that the progress of material civilisation is facili- tating the means of transport, and removing the natural difficulties interposed to this manufacture in other countries, while their industrial energies are receivings constantly, rapid development. “ It appears, therefore, highly important that we should prepare ourselves by every means for the industrial rivalry which awaits us ; and the question arises, whether, in this country, we neglect any available means for this purpose ? There can be no doubt that the industrial energies of foreign countries are directed generally by very accurate scientific knowledge, and in no department in a higher degree than in the manufacture of iron. It can only be by the diffusion of this scientific knowledge, more completely than has hitherto been the case, among our industrial population, and by its combination with that energy and practical knowledge which have hitherto directed them, that we can expect to maintain our present position as the chief manufacturing country in the world.” Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general (. Appendix \ 1 47 Appendix No. 2. Introductory Remarks to the Reports and Labours of the Jury, Class VI. The multifarious and widely extended labours of the Jurors of this Class will be a sufficient excuse for a few introductory remarks on the different sections into which they were divided. Before, however, adverting to these divisions, it may not be inappropriate to notice a few of the more prominent features of the p rom * men t Paris Universal Exhibition as compared with otners that have preceded it. The features of first exhibition which was recognized as a national institution was held in France the Paris Ex- in 1798, and again in several subsequent years, but it was not until 1849 and pared with 1850 that a great International Exhibition was thought of. Exhibitions of that of 1851. machinery, raw material, and the products of manufacture have been held in different localities to a limited extent, but it was reserved for the Great Exliibi tion of 1851 to show forth to the world the products and industrial develop- ments of every country, upon a scale commensurate with the importance of the undertaking. All nations were invited to forward samples and specimens of their industrial pursuits, and such was the ardour, both of the Governments and the people of every country, to contribute, that a collection was formed unequalled in splendour and extent by anything which had ever been brought together before, Acting upon this example, the French Government, with unbounded liberality, last year reproduced the Exhibition of 1851, and collected within the walls of the Palais de 1’ Industrie, the B aux Arts, and the Annexe, one of the most splendid collections that can possibly be conceived. The Paris Exhibition differs from that which was held in London, so far as relates to the facilities afforded to exhibitors to dispose of their articles at a fair market price, and thus to give an additional stimulus to them in bringing forward their contributions for sale as well as for exhibition. This judicious arrangement had the desired effect, and subsequent measures adopted by Prince Napoleon and the Imperial Commis- sion, in order to afford time and space for the display of every article of manu- facture, contributed in no small degree to ensure the success of the undertaking. In this widely extended Exhibition, the Jury of Class VI., in the exercise of Labours of their duties, found it necessary, in order to ensure a careful examination of the ^ lass v ** numerous machines and articles contained in the catalogue, to appoint exa- miners to each section ; and as these sections contained a great variety of articles of different kinds and descriptions, it became necessary to select persons ac- quainted with the uses and application of the articles on which they had to adjudicate. In this selection the President and Vice-President were fortunate in having at their command the services of the following Members of the Jury, to whom was entrusted the examination of the articles in their respective sections, as under : — First : Metallurgic machines, machinery used in building, and apparatus for Sections into workshops. — M. Polonceau, assisted by the President, Vice-President, and Com- ^h* c h Class i /-y • i • vi. was qi- mander CjiuIio. vided. Second; Mining machinery and other sundry articles. — M. Phillips and M. Bialon. Third: Hydraulic machines, corn-mills, &c. — M. Herve Mangon, assisted by the President and Vice-President. Fourth: Apparatus for workshops and mechanical contrivances. — M. Gouin and M. Clapeyron. Fifth : Agricultural implements and machinery. — M. Moll, assisted by the President and Vice-President Sixth : Machines for the manufacture of small articles in metal. — M. Corridi and the Chevalier de Burgh. L 2 Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery IN GENERAL. 148 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Fairbajrn on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Progress in every de- partment of industrial avt. Tools for workshop--. Mining ma- chinery. Corn-mills, &c. Seventh : Machines for priming and dyeing. — M. Holm, assisted by the Pre- sident, Vice-President, and Mr. Bialon. In treating of these separate divisions it will not he necessary to enter into detail, as that duty has already been performed by the gentlemen whose names are at the head of the sectional reports. What is here proposed is to offer a general outline of the productions illustrative of t he varied forms and ap- pliances of the machines which in this department came under the consideration of the Jury. Most of those machines were executed with great precision, and contained the elements of a healthy progression in almost every department of mechanical construction. The ingenious contrivances and varied forms and conditions of the different machines are highly creditable to the constructors, and whether they are considered in relation to the quality of the workmanship, or their application to specific objects of manufacture, they are equally com- mendable. In the article of tools for workshops, such as turning, boring, planing, and slotting machines, it is only necessary to refer to M. Polon^eau’s Report, to be convinced of the progress that is making in that department of mechanical development. The contrivances of Whitworth for iron, and of Graffenstaden for wood, are striking proofs of the onward progress of mechanical science ; and adding to these the saws of M. Norman, of Havre, the flexible and endless saw, together with the timber-bending machine of Mr. Blanshard, of New York, there are marked evidences of the changes which are taking place in the substitution of the automaton machine for the human hand. The exactitude and mathematical accuracy of Whitworth’s constructions, the cutting, boring, morticing and tenon- ing of the self-actors of Graffenstaden, and the square, oblique, and other forms produced by the saws of Norman, are all of them indications of mechanical combinations of a high order, and are the strongest proofs of the advantages to be derived from the Exhibition. Amongst the numerous mechanical and engineering improvements that have been going forward for the last half century, those which apply to the operations of the miner have not been neglected, and this becomes the more strikingly apparent by a glance at the different contrivances, as given in the Report of M. Phillips. In this department of practical science the health and safety of the miner has not been lost sight of among the numerous projects here ex- hibited for ventilation, and for boring, sinking, and raising of the mineral products. For parachutes to prevent accidents in shafts there are not less than five different projects, some of them well contrived, and most of them in general use. Similar apparatuses to those shown at the Exhibition are now extensively used at the mining districts of England and Scotland, with greatly increased security to the miner in his descent and ascent from the pit, and with increased economy to the proprietors of the works. Another description of machinery recently introduced are the coal-washing machines. These machines are of great value in purifying the coal from foreign ingredients, removing the admixtures of slate and earthy matter, and preparing it for the blast furnace, where the impurities are considered injurious. Among other miscellaneous articles included in this section, Mr. Phillips found an ingenious machine for compressing, folding, and finishing chocolate ready for the market. It is founded upon the principle of the machines exhibited at the London Exhibition of 1851 for the manufacture of envelopes, and certainly the projector, as well as the maker cf the machine, has done full justice to its production as well as to the utility of its application. The new’ system of corn-mills, as investigated by M. Mangon, has been generally adopted in France, and in more than one instance it has been intro- duced into England. In the latter kingdom it has not, however, made much progress, as the mode of driving the millstones bv gearing (toothed-wheels) has the preference over the French system by straps. It is found desirable in England to place the millstones in a line along the side walls of the. building; this ar- rangement is found convenient, as the whole of the mill is left open in the centre for stowage. Mr. Fairbaim on Machinery in general {Appendix). 149 The high price of coal, and the subsequent difficulty of employing steam sue- Mb, cessfuliy, in the interior of France and most other Continental districts, has Fairbairn caused great improvements in hydraulic machinery and the application of water. The turbine, on the principle of Poncelet, has to a great extent supplanted the general. cumbrous water-wheel, and it not unfrequently happens that a single pair of 7 stones is driven by a small turbine acting upon and attached to the lower part of machines! the spindle. At other times as many as six or eight pairs of stones, similar to some of the mills of M. Darley, are driven by a single turbine. In this ar- rangement the turbine gives motion to a vertical shaft, on which is fixed a large horizontal drum, and that again gives motion by straps to the millstone spindle by a tightening pulley to increase or diminish the tension. This altogether is a bulky and somewhat complex operation, but it is much liked in France, and the construction is successfully pursued by Messrs. Ferny, of Essonne, near Paris. In this department of the constructive arts will be found several other clever contrivances for hand-mills, and the machinery for cleaning wheat and dressing the flour, all of which are ably described in M. Mangon’s Report. Mechanical contrivances and apparatus for workshops is a wide subject, and Mechanical comprises a large class of instruments and machines, entrusted to the considera- amfappara^ tion of M. Gouin and I\I. Clapeyron. To these gentlemen the community is tus for work- indebted for a Report on steam and tilt hammers, including such other appa- silops * ratus as is used in foundries, forges, &c. A great variety of these engines were exhibited, many of them of first-rate construction, and greatly admired for precision of action and the facilities which they present for the manufacture of ‘‘uses” from the forge. On consulting M. Gouin’s Report it will be observed that not less than 10 to 12 hammers and tilts came under the cognizance of the Jury for adjudication, and that the effi- ciency and simplicity of some of the constructions were highly creditable to the mechanical skill of the age. For the details of these constructions reference may be made to M. Gouin and M. Clapeyron’s Report. On the subject of agricultural machinery a wide field for improvement pre- Agricultural v o * * 1 lUdcPincrv sents itself, and I may safely affirm that in this department of mechanical science * ' the whole of Europe and America are in a state of transition. The London Exhibition of 1 851, and agricultural meetings in England and Scotland, pre- sent enlarged samples of produce and new improvements in machines. The International Exhibition was not behind its predecessors in this respect, as may be seen by the Report of M. Moll. To that Report reference may be made for detailed descriptions, and it will be seen from the variety of forms and con- trivances given in the list of reaping machines, thrashing machines, and win- nowing machines, that the agricultural public are alive to improvement, and that a desire is prevalent among that class to avail themselves of the introduction of machinery into the operations of the farm, and the consequent advantages which the change would effect in the saving of labour in almost every' department of industry attache ! to the preparation of the produce of the land. The introduction of reaping and thrashing by machinery are of themselves indications of progress, and notwithstanding the difficulties which remain to be encountered in the application of an improved mechanism to the operations of agriculturists, there appears to be no reason to doubt the certainly of a still onward progression, and that the time is not far distant when the plough itself may become a machine of greatly increased utility and greatly increased economy in the preparation and cultivation of the soil. In a report on the subject of the experimental trials of the reaping machines at Trappe, it is stated that, in order to render machine culture available, it is essential not to trust entirely to the machine, however ingeniously contrived, but to prepare the land for its introduction, and thus enable the engineer to apply his skill with certainty and effect. What is advantageous for reaping machines will be equally beneficial for the plough, and whenever the new system comes into operation, whether by steam or any other motive power, it will be found essential that the farmer should co-operate with the engineer in all the changes to produce an improved and more effective system of culture. 150 Reports cn the Paris Exhibition. Me. Fairbairn on Machi- nery in GENERAL, Indications of what may yet be accom- plished. Machines for the manufac- ture of small articles in metal. Typographic and lithogra- phic ma- chines. Mechanical type com- positor. In this brief notice it is not necessary to show how these improvements are to be attained ; suffice it to observe that the present exhibitions give indications, not only of what has been done, hut what may yet he accomplished by indomitable perseverance in the right direction ; and there appears no reason to doubt that the same exercise of skill and the same energy of thought will hand down to posterity a series of improvements not unworthy of an age that has witnessed in numerous instances the subjugation of matter to the imperishable domination of mind. To Professor Corridi, of Turin, and the Chevalier de Burgh, of Vienna, were entrusted the investigation of the class of tools and machines intended for the manufacture of small articles. These objects were numerous and interest- ing. and the great ingenuity displayed by the contributors was highly creditable to their inventive powers. It would be a waste of time, in the face of Professor Corridi and the Chevalier’s Report, to enter into any discussion on the merits of these machines : most of them were skilfully constructed, some of them self- acting, and others effecting a combination of movements adapted in almost every form as a powerful auxiliary to the labour of the human hand. These machines afford in most instances great facilities for construction, they increase and multiply to a great extent the article manufactured: the machine for the manu- factuie of hooks and eyes is one of that description. In its operations it is as near as possible self-acting, and whether viewed as a contrivance adapted to a particular purpose, or considered as a well- constructed piece of mechanism, it is equally effective, and may safely be looked upon as one of those productions that does great credit to the inventor and to the. country to which it belongs. These machines are applicable to a variety of purposes, and most of them have been considered worthy of the careful consideration of the Jury. Improvements in typographic and lithographic machines are of such vast im- portance to the extension and maintenance of civilized existence as to render every improvement and every new development a subject of deep interest to the public. The art of printing, when viewed in the light of the promulgator and preserver of all other arts, cannot be considered otherwise than as one of the very first order in the category of useful inventions. It is one on which the existence of civilization and human progress depends, and it comes before the public in a form peculiarly attractive wdien considered in relation to the art as it existed fifty years ago and what it is now’. In London the newspaper press gives evidence of what has been done and what may yet he accomplished in the resources of an active progress ; and refer- ring to the printing of “ The Times,” where upwards of 50,000 impressions are taken within the short period of a few hours, it ceases to be a wonder that some of the machines exhibited in the Annexe should throw off’ from G,000 to 8,000 im- pressions in one hour. In this section it will, however, be seen from the Report of Mr. Holm, that the contributions of machinery calculated to facilitate and improve the art of printing are both numerous and attractive. Where so much has been done on all sides, it would be invidious to select in a general notice any individual or particular establishment for distinction beyond what has been already done by the decision of the Jury. One very important improvement in the setting and distribution of type, by a mechanical compositor, deserves especial notice. Without going into detail, the mechanical distributor of Mr. Sorensen, of Copenhagen, appears to be one of the happiest essays in the w r ay of alphabetical arrangement and composition that has taken place since the introduction of the art of printing. The skill and intelligence displayed in the arrangement and design of the mechanism of this machine is certainly of the highest order, and the exactitude of the construction, and the harmony of the parts, render it one of the first and most C »ccessful machines of the kind that has yet been produced. On examination it is found to effect three objects: first, alphabetic classification of the type; second, the distribution ot the letters required in the formation of a word or sentence; and, lastly, in the func- tion or power of consecutive arrangement in constructing the w’ords or sentences so prepared into lines. These properties of the machine appeared to be of great importance, inasmuch as the compositor can sit in front of the instrument, and effect the composition with a facility that it is difficult to appreciate. In this Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in General (. Appendix ). 151 operation the compositor has only to stroke out of their respective grooves the letters required to form the words in the MS., and this is effected in nearly the same way as the notes of a musical performance would be sounded on the pianoforte. It is to such inventions and such discoveries as those alluded to above that the present as well as future generations are indebted. They constitute, like the steam-engine and the electric telegraph, the real value of the changes which progressively make their appearance in the useful arts, and assuredly nothing can be more acceptable or more interesting to the intelligence of a nation than a. saving of labour when accompanied with increased facilities in the art of printing. From this description and the Report of M. Holm it is evident that the art of printing keeps pace with the improvements in other arts. Several splendid specimens of machines are to be found in the Exhibition, and much has been done in France since the English Exhibition of 1851 for the improvement and more perfect construction of the machinery connected with this important pro- cess. The same cannot be said of the lithographic machinery. It has not made the same progress in improvement as the letter-press printing; and although several specimens of machines have been produced, they are to every appearance neither so effective nor so w'ell constructed as those for typography. The foregoing remarks are not intended to supersede but to direct attention to the Reports ;* in these will be found descriptions explanatory of the uses and appliances of the different tools and machines entered in the catalogue of Class VI. of the Exhibition. They constitute a large collection, which, although varied in character and design, have nevertheless undergone careful examination, both as regards novelty of design, superiority of construction, and the require- ments to be obtained by an improved and greatly increased production of their respective products. These objects have to a greater or lesser extent been obtained ; and the Jury, in the exercise of an onerous duty, have not hesitated to pronounce to the best of their judgment an honest and an impartial verdict. Me. Faiebairk ok Machi- NEEY IK GEKEEAL. Progress of the art of . printing. Reports of the Juries. * These remarks apply to the French Edition of the Reports of Class VI. 152 Reports on the Paris Exhibition, Me. Fairbaien on Machi- nery in GENERAL. Appendix No. 3. Since the article on iron ores was written I have had an opportunity of con- sulting the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, published by the Museum of Practical Geology, in which the following returns of the produce of crude iron, exhibit the total quantity smelted in each district of Great Britain in 1854. It will be observed that they do not widely differ from the returns given by Mr. Blackwell, and assuming the same rate of increase to be going on as during the previous years, it will not be too much to estimate the production of 1856 at 3,100,000 tons. Total Produce of Pig Ikon in Great Bkitain in 1854. England : — Tons. Tons. Northumberland, Durham, and North Yorkshire - 275,000 Cumberland and Lancashire - 20,000 Yorkshire - - - - - 73,444 Derbyshire - - - - - 127,500 Staffordshire - - - 847,600 Shropshire - - - 124,800 Gloucestershire - - 21,990 1,490,334 Wales : — Flintshire - - - - 32,900 Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire “ - 750,000 782,900 Scotland : — Ayrshire - - - 249,600 Lanarkshire - - - 468,000 Other counties - - 79,040 796,640 . Total - - 3,069,874 The statistical returns of the production of pig iron are so intimately con- nected with those of the fuel used in the reduction of the ores, as to suggest an estimate of the total quantity of coal consumed in the manufacture of iron. From the same returns by Mr. Hunt, the Keeper of the Mining Records, we have the following tabulated results of the quantity of coal raised in Great Britain in 1854 r — Total Coal Produce cf the United Kingdom, 1854. England: — Northumberland and Durham Tons. 15,420,615 Cumberland - - - 887,000 Yorkshire - - . 7,260,500 Derbyshire - - - 2,406,696 Nottinghamshire - - - 813,474 Warwickshire - _ - 255,000 Leicestershire _ . - 439,000 Staffordshire and Worcestershire . - 7,500,000 Lancashire - - - 9,080,500 Cheshire - . - 786,500 Shropshire - - - 1,0S0,000 Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and Devonshire - 1,492,366 47,421,651 Mr. Fairbairn on Machinery in general {Appendix). 153 Brought forward • Wales Anglesea, Flintshire and Denbighshire - Monmouthshire; Glamorganshire, and Pembroke- shire ----- Scotland : — Total of all the coal-producing districts - Ireland: — Total of all the coal-producing districts - Tons. Tons. 47,412,651 1,143,000 8,500,000 9,643,000 7,448,000 7,448,000 148,750 148,750 Total - - - 64,661,401 On referring to the above table it will be seen that the quantity of coal raised in 1854, was 64,661,401 tons. If we allow three tons of this immense quantity for every ton of iron smelted, and also three tons for the consumption required to convert one half of that quantity of pig into malleable iron, the result is: — 8,069,874 x 3 = 9,509,622 1,534,937 x 3 = 4,604,811 13,814,433 Or 14,000,000 tons, as the annual consumption of coal for the manufacture of iron in Great Britain ; nearly one-fourth of the entire quantity raised. Mb. Fairbairn on Machi- nery IN GENERAL. .•I Hi J ■ - J ■ i r-i a:-.-, r.no ■ ■- S- • ; ' : tm* ' : .. — “ ~ - V •• ... •• 'V; '<} " \rwu..iJL$f « ..... .. .• 9 171 >? France a 1846, 141 a Bussia 99 1849, 1851, 20 99 German Customs Union „ 1850, 60 Austria 99 a 130 99 Belgium 99 99 217 99 Sweden » 99 51 99 Norway 99 1841, 1845 62 99 * This is calculated from the returns of iron ore, taking five tons of ore for one of pig iron, which appears to have been the proportion in previous returns. O 194 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ow B Mbtal The f avoura ble result shown by this table to have been Work, obtained by British industry, in the development of mineral Gt. Britain, wealth, is undoubtedly due to several causes. The proximity Iron ' of the iron ores to the mineral fuel, and their occurrence in thickly populated districts — close to the sea, or to navigable rivers or canals — are, no doubt, most important aids to suc- cess. The temperate climate of Great Britain, and the remarkable physical power and industry of the labouring population, have in no small degree facilitated progress in occupations which, whether from confinement under ground, or from the excessive heat of the furnace above ground, must require sacrifices of comfort of no ordinary character. The proprietors of the land have aided by letting their lands on a system of royalties, depending for their benefit on the suc- cess of the undertaking, instead of requiring the purchase of the freehold or a certain fixed rental. In selecting their tenants, they appear to have given the preference to active intelligent men, who had by saving and industry raised themselves from a lower position, rather than to the system of forming companies of capitalists, to be conducted by less practical men. There have been, no doubt, inconveniences in such a sys- tem; mines have been worked without proper plans, and great losses of life and property have occurred through neg- ligence and incompetence ; but a mass of practical knowledge has been obtained by experience (which will enable such errors to be avoided in great measure for the future), such as never could have been accumulated by any a priori reasoning and which, we may hope, may become a solid basis for the application of the true sciences. Uninteresting as the specimens forwarded to Paris to re- present the great industries of iron and coal might appear, yet these trades directly provide subsistence for a twentieth part of the population of Great Britain, and indirectly con- tribute to the maintenance, to the comforts, and to the luxuries of the whole population. In contemplating the more attractive exhibition made by those engaged in other occupations, we must, therefore, not forget the important, though different, path in which the Bri- tish coal and iron masters have laboured. Not only have they, in the last thirty years, raised the production of iron and coal to its present enormous amount, but they have not waited for the aid of Government to provide them with the means of inland communication they require.* * The first railway was formed by Messrs. Pease, of Darlington, asso- ciated with a few other individuals interested in the neighbouring coal mines, and carried out without an Act cf Parliament. It was on this occasion that an Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 195 The distinction between the ancient and modern system of reducing ores, lies principally in the dimensions of the furnaces, and the greater masses manipulated at the present time. Metallurgy is greatly indebted to the practical mechanic for the means (now available) by steam power of obtaining and moving about large quantities of material with ease and at trifling cost into every position which may be requisite, thus giving a facility for carrying on works on a much larger scale than was formerly practicable. Pure che- mistry has yet to be brought to bear upon the practice of the metallurgical arts, and it is to be hoped that this duty will be performed by the young chemists, who, having completed their curriculum of studies at the schools and colleges, are now distributed (not as teachers, but as learners) in the iron producing districts. The data they are collecting, the obser- vations they are patiently recording, and the experiments they are watching, we may hope will enable them, at some future period, to add a valuable contribution to those stores of facts which guide the furnace workman in his daily toil,, and which we cannot doubt have descended from nations, who having left no written record of their history for our instruction, have yet handed down to us in their tumuli inte- resting proofs of their metallurgical skill and ingenuity. France, — We have now to consider what causes have influenced the commerce in iron in France; and among the most prominent will be found restrictions placed on the development of mineral industries by legislation in favour of landed proprietors. We should naturally expect to find that in a country like France, where the preservation of opportunity was offered to George Stephenson to distinguish himself ; and having clearly shown his remarkable abilities, he was, by some of the partners in the Stockton and Darlington Railroad, placed at the head of an engineering esta- blishment at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The first step in railway works taken by the Durham mineral proprietors was soon after eclipsed by the scheme supported by the great manufacturers and merchants of Lancashire, who subscribed the capital for the Manchester and Liverpool line. This remarkable work was, however, constructed by Stephenson,, and the locomotives designed and made by him in the Newcastle manufactory. In contemplating the finished work, we are too apt to forget the slow stages by which it was attained. It is therefore to be regretted that the particular steam- engine constructed for the first railway (the most splendid instance of English invention of modern times), which gained the prize at the first trial of locomo- tives, was not exhibited last year in Paris. The “ Rocket” is carefully preserved at Stephenson and Co.’s works at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and will no doubt be forthcoming, should a national collection of the best trophies of English skill be made. It should be remembered that there are other still earlier locomotives in existence, one of which is at the Sheldon works, ten miles west of Darlington. By a little inquiry, some of the steam-engines prior to the time of Boulton and Watt, might be brought to light. It is possible that models of the engines con- structed in Scotland by Fulton for the first steam-boat ever made, might also be procured. o 2 Me. Tylok on Metal Woek. Gt. Britain, Iron. France, Iron. 196 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mi;. Ti j.or ok Metal Work. France, Iron. timber is considered one of the most important duties of Government, there are rigid laws as to the quantity of charcoal that might be annually removed from each district for the use of the ironmasters. Such supervision would be evidently necessary to enable the stock of timber to be kept up; for, it appears, that in 1846, 519,991 tons of charcoal were consumed in the manufacture of only 282,683 tons of iron. .Regulations for keeping a proper supply of wood are, however, not necessarily an injury to the iron- master. For instance, in Sweden, where the production of charcoal iron is more than half that of France, similar laws existed for the preservation of forests; but they were accom- panied by others which gave to the proprietor of each licensed forge the right of obtaining a sufficient supply of charcoal at a very low price, quite independently of the wishes or con- sent of the proprietor of that forest. Although these latter regulations have been lately repealed, no forge can be set to work without the sanction of the Mining Board. It is con- sidered in Sweden that forges should be separated a certain number of miles from each other. In France, however, the legislation since the reign of Napoleon 1. has been of an exactly contrary character, having the effect of keeping the price of charcoal up to its highest possible point, and treating the manufacture of iron as a secondary occupation, that should by no means interfere with the privileges of the landed interest. This subject lias been investigated in a careful manner in the Cf Journal des Debate,” in January of this year (1856), in such language as the following, referring to the year 1814: — An income w r as to be created for the remains of the great families returned from the emigration, and restablished in the possession of their forests. To raise the price of iron was to raise the price of wood. One of the first acts of the Government of the Restoration was to augment the duty on iron, then only 3 5s. per ton, and in 1822 it was again raised, so as to bring it to 11/. per ton for heavy bars made with coal. In spite of this tariff, the trade of the iron manufacturer was not so profitable as before ; and an inquiry was made by a commission in 1829, by whom it w T as reported that, while the ore, inclusive of mining expenses, formed only 11 per cent, of the total cost of the iron, the fuel, exclusive of the cutting and carriage, amounted to 39 per cent. Some in- stances are recorded w r here, upon the alteration of the tariff, wood rose to three times its former price. The average value of French iron was above 20/. per ton, and of some qualities 24/. per ton, showing an excess over that of English of 10/. per ton. Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 197 M. Chevalier says, the proprietors of wood (the land- Mk Tylor N . , . J f , . L T . 1 . v , . .on Metax. owners) received the profits ; and there is no exaggeration m Work. the calculation made, that the subsidy paid by the public to FrauccT the iron manufactory, from 1814 to 1848, in consequence of lron ' these duties, amounts to 1,200,000,000 francs, or 48 million pounds sterling. From these statements, which are confirmed by many allusions made by M. Le Flay in his works on South W ales, &c., as to the restrictions introduced by the French Government for the supposed benefit of one class, the landowners, and for the very certain injury of all other classes of the population, we cannot but admit the conclusion which has been drawn from the foregoing remarks, viz , that, as a general rule, the iron manufacturers have been the col- lectors of a tax of 48,000,000/. levied upon the public ; and that, at least, the producers of charcoal iron have not re- ceived any share of this spoil, the whole of which has gone to the landed interest, and to the manufacturers of coke iron. Thus, those who have adopted what is called the “ English system” in France (that is, the substitution of coal for charcoal, and the use of refineries, puddling and boiling furnaces, and rolling machinery in the place of ham- mers), and who have chosen good positions, have made splendid fortunes ; those who were ill situated have vege- tated, and the public has paid for all. The increase of the manufacture of coke iron is evident from the following tables; but still the whole quantity made does not exceed that turned out by the united efforts of three of the largest English makers, Ebbw Yale Company, Baird and Co., and Guest and Co.* * “ With regard to the ironstone, France is very rich in the minerals of iron, but, with some exceptions they are found at places distant from the coal, and as the cost of the iron depends upon the price of the fuel, it is easy to understand that this is one of the principal causes why France is behind other countries, and of Great Britain in particular. “ The quantity of ironstone raised in the year 1847 was 8,413,718 tons, the price at the mine being 2s. 2d. per ton. In 1848, a year of disturbance, the quantity was not taken, but it was considered to be about equal to the average of the two following years. s. d. 1847 - 3,413,718 - price C } 2 per ton, 1849 - 1,740,913 - 55 <2 9 „ 1850 - 1,794,892 - 55 2 10 55 1851 - 1,748,771 - 55 o 11 99 1852 - 2,050,612 - 55 3 0 55 “ Thus by the crisis of February 1848, the production, and consequently the consumption of ironstone w-as diminished one-half, and the mean price was raised, a natural consequence, when it is considered that the preparations in 1847 ‘ que nous prenons pour unc annie normale ,’ w’ere made for a regular consumption, and when the demand decreased the general expenses necessarily increased.” — Scri- vener. 198 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. Tylor ok Metal Work. France, Iron. The following table, published in the <( Comptes Rendus des Travaux deslngenieurs de France,” and also, page 25, Jurors' Report for 1851, gives a tabular view of the proportions of coke and charcoal iron made in France : — Year. Quantity of Pig Iron made with Quantity of Pig Iron made with Total. Coke. Charcoal. Tons * Tons. Tons. 1819 2,000 110,500 112,5001 1830 27,103 239,258 266,361 [jurors’ Report, 1840 77,063 270,710 347,773 [ 1851. 1846 239,702 282,683 522,385 J 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 . . . 1 • 583,054"] g cr j vener i&SS i k- %94. 399,800 \ T ° f i 4 o Q « 7fi Arts Journal, EKSj A p" il > 1856 - 1855 M. Chevalier estimates . 600,000 As might have been expected from the small total of this table, the quantity of iron produced in France has been far less than that really required ; and M. Chevalier alludes to the impossibility of obtaining supplies of iron, even at the enormous prices quoted, because the manufacturers pre- ferred to make a small quantity to be sold at a very high price. With such a temptation in the way of profit, there must have been not only the extortions of the landed interest and the restrictions on the part of Government already alluded to, but also great apathy on the part of the manufacturers, who must have been at one time ignorant of, or unduly prejudiced against, the use of coke iron, which is certainly for foundry purposes equal or superior to what is ordinarily made with charcoal. It is not quite the same, as regards the manufac- ture of wrought iron ; for although wrought iron made with coke answers all ordinary purposes, there is undoubtedly a select class of objects for which iron made with charcoal is desirable. This branch of metallurgy has been brought to great perfection in France, and such an exhibition as that of the Forges d’Audincourt was, indeed, creditr.ble to the skill and ingenuity of the French manufacturers, although against the received notions of political economy. In this case, a company that has for many years led the progress movement in France, exposed specimens of what in England would have been the produce of eight or ten distinct manufactories; there * The difference between the French and English ton is 35 lbs. Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 199 was hardly a specimen there that could be surpassed by that of any other country. The sheet iron was the smoothest and most malleable; the girders and sash-bars of most difficult form were unsur- passed ; the ether machine, composed of tubes of elliptical form drawn out of the solid, the brass and iron tubes, twelve feet long, made out of round pieces of sheet metal (two or three inches diameter, and a quarter of an inch thick), were •certainly marvels of ingenuity and skill in manufacturing; but the jury could not recommend such a system of manufac- turing for imitation, because, in the first place, they were informed that the production of many articles exhibited must be given up, or the plans modified, since the goods could not be sold at a remunerative price ; and, secondly , because it is an objectionable system for one company to lay out its capi- tal in works and plant of kind so different as to require the attention of a great number of superintendents to manage the different trades followed. There requires no argument to show that the successes of modern manufacturers have, in no small degree, arisen from great capital being invested in special plant for producing one class of articles, with the maximum amount of division of labour and minimum of cost. The interesting exhibitions of metal work contributed by many foreign companies would, in the opinion of our soundest writers on such subjects, indicate an imperfect idea of the true principles of manufacture ; and they would praise the practice of those leading firms of the United Kingdom who have gradually given up the fabrication of articles of small demand, and have concentrated their attention to first and second products. Thus, Baird and Co. only manufacture pig iron; the Ebbw Yale Company, and Guest and Co., only railway bars ; yet these three firms produce together as much iron annually as the whole of Prussia, and more than any other country, excepting France and the United States of America. Specimens of all the different articles manufac- tured by these three firms was compressed into a few feet ; and, unattractive as they might be to the public, must have read to many a foreign ironmaster the important lesson that the production of iron in the first stages is quite sufficient to employ the capital of any iron company now in existence, however vast may be its resources. It cannot be said that the want of means of communication between the iron ore districts and those abounding in mineral fuel prevented the early introduction of iron smelted with coke, for Mr. Blackwell states, the great production of char- coal pig iron is in regions in close proximity to some of the Mr. Tylor on Metal Work. France, Iron. 200 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mu. T J’LOR <>n Metal Work. France, Iron. most important coal fields in France; page 70, fc Society of Arts Journal," December 1855.* Looking at the extensive new works in the great coal field, 80 miles long, which has been opened out in the last ten years in the department of the Pas de Calais, (and which is laid down in a map which will be found at page 252 of the Geological Society’s Journal for the present year,) it seems hardly possible to explain the statements which have been published upon official authority respecting the comparative quantities of coal raised in France in 1847 and 1852, since they appear so much smaller than might have been anticipated. Year. French Coal raised. Foreign Coal con- sumed. r T , 1 otal. | Tons ( British). Tons (British'). j Tons ( British). 1841 3,370,840 1,619,160 4,980,000 1847 5,010,382 2,501,901 7,512,283 1852 4,782,515 3,033,888 7,816,403 1854 .... 3, 123,S92 — 1855 . 3,954,056 — It will be observed, therefore, up to the year 1853,f that the use of foreign coal had increased by upwards of 2 1 per cent, since 1847, whilst that of French coal had decreased nearly 4J per cent. * Mr. Kind, whose system of boring was noticed in the “ Mining Journal” of 1855, has recently been busily engaged in boring a new Artesian well in the Avenue Charles X., at the angle of the Avenues St. Cloud and Petit Parc, near Paris, for the purpose of supplying the ornamental lakes of the Bois de Boulogne. An interesting paper has been communicated to the Academieby M. Dumas on the subject, from which it appears that Mr. Kind has undertaken to bore a well 29 inches in diameter, and continue the sinking, if necessary, to the depth of 2,500 ft., and thus obtain a daily supply of 10,000 cubic metres of water, being nearly equal to the volume of water delivered by the Seine through the Pont de la Tournelle at Paris. The boring was commenced on 2nd August last, with a diameter of about 41 inches. For some time, when the operations were through marl and chalk, the average daily progress was 16j ft. ; then, through sand, it was reduced to 8^ to 10 ft. ; and now, having reached another stratum of chalk containing boulders, the speed is 5 ft., the depth being already upwards of 980 ft., and by May 1 it is expected that the enormous depth of about 2,860 ft. from surface will be attained, being more than 490 ft. deeper than the Artesian well at Grenelle. M. Dumas gives a detailed account of the process, but as we have before fully described the mode of operation, the repeti- tion is unnecessary. We may remark, however, that the sole motive power is a steam-e n gine of 24-horse power. M. Dumas was authorized by Mr. Kind to make known to the Geological and Mineralogical Departments of the Academie that, when any stratum appeared particularly interesting to them, he would detach and bring to surface a specimen 20 inches in diameter, and from 8 to 6^ ft. in length, in order to show the real composition of the soil Mining Journal. f The returns of coal, &c., raised in France have not been published later than 1852, and therefore the comparison cannot be carried further. This is unfortu- nate, as the consumption of fuel is one of the best tests of the activity of manufacture. Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 201 The following table exhibits the countries from which coal Mr. tvlor is imported into France : * — °Vork U 1841. 1852. 1854. Belgium Great Britain Rhenish Provinces Other Countries . • Tons. 992,226 429,950 196,502 482 Tons. 2,081,338 640,740 318,470 \ 127 J Tons. 2,142,112 590,336 391,444 Total . 1,619,160 3,040,675 3,123,892 France, Iron. As peat has a considerable consumption, it may be as well to state that the annual average quantity raised in France was 468,395 tons, average price 7s. 7 d. per ton. It is remarkable that, on examining the returns of the iron imported into France in the last year, we should find a higher rate of increase in the importation of iron than of coal. It would be interesting to learn whether this is owing to the demand for metal for war purposes, or whether it is in conse- quence of the increased consumption of iron for purposes connected with agriculture, which, according to M. Chevalier, is an almost unopened field for commercial enterprise ; the average quantity of iron now used in France, on account of its excessive price, being only one-third of what would be employed on an equal acreage in Great Britain. The iron imported into France, from customs’ returns, is as follows:! — Year. Pig Iron. Wrought Iron. Total. Tons. Tons. Total. 1827 7,790 7,130 14,930 1841 26,933 6,070 33,004 1845 55,640 6,980 62,620 1847 85,000 . — . — 1854 80,723 7,085 87,808}: 1855 134,219 J — — Of this quantity Belgium, in 1854, supplied five-ninths, England three-ninths, and Sweden and other countries one- ninth. * These statistics of coal indicate a marked contrast to what lias taken place in Great Britain, where it is supposed the production lias increased from 34,754,750 tons in 1815 to 6‘4,6’61 ,401 tons in 1854. f In 1854, 42,874 tons of iron were exported frotnGreat Britain to France, according to the official returns published by the English Board of Trade, and this differs from the French figures. J The amounts of cast iron imported into France are given by Mr. Lack as above, but as the wrought iron returns are not yet published, 1 cannot state the total increase of the importation of iron into France in 1855 over 1854. This 202 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Tylor ox Metal Work. France, Iron. It may, perhaps, be thought that whilst the English have been occupied in producing great quantities, the French have laid themselves out for producing good qualities, by a more scientific system of manufacture than we have attained to. It is true that the attention of most of the eminent che- mists France has produced has been turned to the improve- ment of metallurgical processes, and the experiments of Reaumur in 1728, in his essays at the expense of Govern- ment to prepare French iron so as to rival the Swedish, are matters of history. The axiom that Reaumur started with was, that France, with its variety of rich minerals, must possess some equal to those found in any other country ; and his want of success in producing steel equal to that made in Sheffield from Swedish iron was ascribed by him to his ignorance of the mysterious flux* used by the English. Grignon and Buffon took up the subject where Reaumur left it. Diderot, in the “Encyclopedic,”*)- in 1751, whilst acknowledging the superiority of English steel, ascribes it rather to the skill of the manufacturer than to its true cause, the superiority of Swedish iron. Trial after trial was made year after year. Notwith- standing the favourable report of the Commission appointed by the First Consul in 1801, and of many other persons, as to the improvement that could be made in iron by the applica- tion of scientific treatment, it is now admitted by the latest French writers that the only cast steels, manufactured in France, which have successfully competed against the supe- rior steels of England have been manufactured in the depart- ment of the Loire, with Swedish iron. In another work, M. Le Play, one of the most eminent chemists of Europe, expressly states that the only new principle introduced into practice in this century, in metallurgical workshops, was that of using the hot-blast, a plan adopted by manufacturers in is evidently considerable, owing to the duty having been reduced January 1855, from a Si. 2s. 6d. on pig iron, and Si. 7s. 4 d. to 16/. 14s. 9d. on plates and bars, to the following : — £ s. d. Pig iron, per ton, entering France - - - - 1 15 4 Bars, according to dimensions - - f from 4 t to 6 8 3 0 4 Iron plates ----- 16 0 Steel in bars, cast or wrought - - - - 13 4 0 Iron rails pay the same as bars ; hut iron plates for ship-building purposes are admitted free of duty, by a special exception. * “ Annales des Mines de France,” 1846, page 25. f Ibid, page 231. • H. R. Lack, Statistical Journal, Dec. 1855. Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 203 opposition to the theoretical views then current.* Whilst no mr.Tylok one looks forward with more hope than M. Le Play to the 0I \\SJ AL progress which will be made in metallurgy when the multitude Fra ~ of facts accumulated during the thousands of years in which iron, the present processes of reducing ores have been employed (many of which processes, before his own investigations, had never been published beyond the workshops in which they were carried on) are accurately recorded, and have become a basis for true science to work upon, yet M. Le Play acknow- ledges how little aid pure science has been able to offer to the practice of metallurgy up to the present time (1848). Unsuccessful as the long continued efforts of French manufacturers have been in bringing up their iron to the Swedish standard (the good properties of which depend upon the original quality of the ore), yet they have undoubtedly maintained the quality of their wrought iron, for ordinary purposes, to a point which is not exceeded by any other country, if we except that made into sheet iron in Russia. From the small increase of 20 per cent, in the production of the sorts of iron smelted with charcoal in the last 26 years in France, whilst the cheaper coke iron has advanced in the same period 800 per cent., it is evident that the in- creased -wants of the consumer have been almost entirely met by supplies of iron produced on what is called in France the English system of manufacture, namely, the introduction of high furnaces, with hot instead of cold blast, puddling fur- naces fed with coal instead of lumping furnaces fed with charcoal, and rolling mills in the place of the hammers in use from time immemorial. That is to say, the demand on the part of the consumer has been in France, as with us, in a constantly increasing ratio in favour of the cheaper material. With regard to the comparative quality of coke iron pro- duced in the two countries, this is not only dependent upon the skill of the manufacturer, but upon the quality of the ores and coal employed. Whilst there are some works well situated, like those of M. Dietrich of Niederbrohn, where no expense of manufac- ture is spared, and where choice ores are brought from a great distance, there are, of course, a much larger number where the aim is to produce a marketable article at the lowest pos- sible cost. Still, in one of the late French expositions, the jury considered it the highest praise to pay to M. Dietrich, when they stated that his tires, &c., appeared to be in all * “ Annales ties Mines,” 1848, page 13. Pattinson’s process of de-silverino- lead should be also excepted. 204 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mu. tyloe respects equal to those made at Lowmoor in Yorkshire. — • French Jury Report, 1849, page 306. PranccT* As ^ ar as can seen > ' m France as in England, it is the iron. consumer who regulates the class of iron that is to be pro- duced ; as taste and demand change, so will the manufacturer follow; there is iron of all sorts and qualities in the French market, as in the English, and the relative proportion of best and common iron consumed in France probably varies from that existing in England, not because the French use more best, but because their common iron is so dear, that for many ordinary purposes they cannot afford to buy it at all. The abundant and accessible supply of mineral fuel and iron ores in France has been already alluded to; and it is also in this very period that new lines of railways have been brought into operation, causing not only a great demand for mineral fuel for locomotive purposes, but also facilitating the progress of that great branch of industry which is now springing up in every country, namely, the carrying the metallic ores from distant localities to the mineral fuel with which they are to be smelted. Either the Revolution of 1848, long after its immediate influence had passed away, must have subdued the spirit of enterprise more than has been supposed ; or, perhaps, the railways, laid out by Government with a view to cheap construction and to obtain routes di- verging from Paris in all directions, have at present rather tended to the benefit of the public generally, considered as travellers, than assisted the special industry of iron, whose wants must be met by arrangements purely local. In England we are rather suffering from the opposite extreme, capital having been expended in undertakings got up for the benefit of local interests, and not altogether meeting the necessities of the general travelling public. Instead, there- fore, of laying, as M. Chevalier — one of the most distin- guished advocates of free trade — appears to do, the entire onus of the want of progress of the iron and coal trade in France, during a period in which Great Britain has made such an extraordinary advance, upon the protective duties levied on the importation of iron, I think it safer to mention a number of causes which have all tended in one direction during the last 10 years, many of which causes are accidental, and not likely to arise in the next decennial period. Such as, — 1st. The Revolution of 1848. 2nd. The want of railroad communication expressly organ- ized to accommodate mining districts, and of proper rolling stock, stations, &e., for mineral traffic. Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Worh, 205 3rd. The apathy among manufacturers, caused by the system of protection, and the diversity of operations carried on by the same firm. 4th. The unfavourable sites formerly chosen for works, in regard to abundance of fuel and cheap carriage. 5th. The tenure of property, and the general system of carrying on works by paid managers and with the aid of capital raised by a number of shareholders engaged in other occupations ; instead of as in England, where such business is generally conducted by persons who have risen from the ranks of the working population, and with capital made in the same trade. Their progress is much facilitated by the landlord being remunerated according to the minerals raised, and not by a fixed rent. 6th. The interference of Government with the affairs of the miner, and the deep-rooted superstition pervading the minds of shareholders and directors, that it requires a large amount of theoretical knowledge for the successful practice of the metallurgical arts, notwithstanding the evidence to the contrary collected by the President of the French School of Mines in his extensive travels. 7th. The ancient custom of using wood and charcoal, and the prejudice of smiths and founders against the use of iron manufactured with coke, through a want of acquaintance with the best modes of working it. 8th. The absence of banking accommodation. Tables indicating the depression in the French iron trade between the years 1847 and 1852, collected from Mr. Scri- vener’s paper in the “ Journal of the Society of Arts,” April 25, 1856; the figures are from the “ Fesume des Travaux Statistiques des Administrations des Mines,” 1847 to 1852. F RANCE. Year. Iron Ore raised. Charcoal Pig Iron. Coke Pig Iron. Total. Tons. Per Ton. Tons. Per Ton. Tons. Per Ton. Tons. s. d. £ s. d. £ 5. d. 1847 3,413,710 2 2 334,535 8 2 0 ! 248,519 6 4 7 583,054 1849 1,740,913 2 9 247,703 5 19 0 160,516 5 0 6 408,219 1850 1,794,892 2 10 226,208 5 17 10j 173,592 4 14 3 399,800 1851 1,748,771 2 11 243,543 6 3 2j 195,833 4 13 9 439,376 1852 2,050,612 3 0 259,540 6 11 7 255,562 5 1 0 515,102 Mr. Lack gives the amount of pig iron manufactured in France in 1852, as 601,789 tons. The above, and in fact all such statistics, must therefore be considered as approxima- Me. TVLOJi ox Metal Work. France, Iron. 206 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Tylor on Metal Work. France, Iron. tions as to absolute quantity, but yet may give a true indi- cation of the relative increase or decrease of trade in parti- cular years. France. (From Journal of the Society of Arts, April 25, 1856.) Year, Rails. Iron Castings. Tons. Per Ton. Tons. Per Ton. 1847 87,466 £ d. 13 11 2 108,066 £ 5. d. 15 15 7 1849 40,648 12 8 7 58,680 13 10 4 1850 22,754 12 5 2 70,267 12 17 6 1851 26,716 12 7 7 81,039 12 15 7 1852 59,590 10 17 7 88,800 12 18 2 The depression in the iron trade varied extremely in dif- ferent departments. Since 1852 the destruction of the grapes by the oidium must have affected the resources of a considerable part of the population of France. Mr. William Bird, who is largely connected with the home and foreign iron trade, and who took a very active part in the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1855, entirely agrees with the views of M. Chevalier. He considers the root of the evil to be the “ leave-well-alone ” system, which always follows a monopoly, and which was in full force before 1848. Mr. Bird remarks, that the canal system of France provided cheap and abundant transit for minerals, if the ironmasters had been disposed to avail themselves of it. As an instance of the different views of the direction in which improvements are sought, and remedies applied for to Governments in different countries, I would remark, that whilst our ironmasters complain of the break of gau 6 440 16 0 0 Gefle Gefleborg . 1 291 16 0 0 1 Gefle S Stockholm C Vindtjern avec Sjo- j qrufvan et Sverd- k sjosocken. » • 2 68 16 0 0 » »> 99 99 6,446 Elfsborg . 6 492 18 10 0 CUddevalla l Gotheberg | Persberg. Wermland . 3 259 18 10 0 Gotheberg Persberg avec Langban. 99 6 452 17 15 0 Persberg avec Langban West Norr- f Sundsvall l Stockholm et Ramsberg. land. 420 17 15 0 7 Persberg avec Lang- ) ban et divers. Wermland . 3 279 17 5 0 Gotheberg Persberg and others. Elfsborg . 2 125 16 13 0 99 # 2,027 6,446 8,473 1 Sweden, Iron. Sweden, Iron. 222 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Names of Forges. Names of Provinces. nnber of Re- ining Fires. nual Produc- Lon of Forges. Price at Sheffield per Ton. Name of the Port of Embarkation. Names of Mines which supply the Forges. £ Borjvik Wermland . 4 310 £ s. 16 13 d. 0 99 Persberg, Langban, et Ramsberg. Storforss . 99 • 8 545 16 5 0 „ „ „ Bjurback . 99 • 3 236 16 5 0 99 99 99 99 Oxnas Elfsborg . 4 278 15 15 Q ; 99 99 99 99 Nses and Westre . 4 698 18 10 0 OsterRiisoa Mine de Solberg et Roe. autres (Groupe D’ Aren dal). Laurwig . . 3 420 18 10 0 Laururg . Different mines of « Groupe D’Arendal. TJddeholm . Stjernforss Gustafsforss 2,4S7 i Loviseberg Foskeforss Munkforss . Uprana - Wermland I 10 Uo 832 832 17 15 16 15 0 0 j Gbtheberg ( Langban avec Taberg X et Nordmark. Halga . Wara Likana . Femta i ; • Snoa Kopparberg 2 127 16 0 0 — — Andersforss „ 4 272 16 0 0 — — Ericsforss . „ 3 210 16 0 0 i “ — Tollforss . Gefleborg . 4 336 15 10 0 Gefle Bisberg. Meldersstein Non’botten 4 111 16 0 0 ( Lnlea t Stockholm | Gellivara, Toreaforss „ 2 125 16 0 0 Mackmyra Gefleborg . 2 166 15 5 0 Gefle Bisberg. Thurbo Kopparberg 2 137 15 15 0 Stockholm Wikmanshyttan . „ 2 68 99 „ Nornsberg 3 210 • •1 ! „ 99 Hammarberg Gefleborg - 4 340 . ( Gefle X Stockholm | Bisberg et divers. Risshyttan Kopparberg 2 144 • « ' „ 3,910 2,487 -■ A •* 6,397 Hoforss Gefleborg . 2 168 15 5 0 s Gefle X Stockholm j Bisberg. Robertsholm 99 • 2 169 15 5 6 „ Stjernsund Kopparberg 3 25,0 15 6 0 „ „ Rorshytlan „ 2 126 15 5 0 Stockholm Garpenberg % 99 7 440 15 5 0 „ Bisberg and others. Horndal 99 4 252 15 0 0 ( Gefle X Stockholm j Bisberg and Norberg. Elfsbacka,lst mark Wermland . 5 302 15 10 0 Gbtheberg Nordmark with Eng- qrufvan and others. Mr. A . Tylor on Metal Work. 223 1? ~ would, probably, have shown a less favourable result. The iron, proportion of coal raised, per miner, is also less in Belgium than in England. The only difference between the principle of manufacturing iron in the two countries is the manufac- ture of a certain quantity of charcoal iron in those districts where wood is abundant. The hot-blast furnace, which was introduced from Scotland in 1836, has become very general ; and in Belgium, as in other countries, the mode of manu- facturing iron is gradually becoming identical with that of Great Britain. The demand for wrought iron girders enabled the Societe Anonyme de Couillet to exhibit some excellent specimens of girders made of wrought iron, of different forms, at the Paris Exhibition ; while the use of polished stove pipes has created a demand for very smooth sheet iron, which is excellently rolled in Belgium. There are also specimens of puddled steel made by the Prussian process. Similar as are the general productions of Belgium to those which we manufacture, the manner in which their industries of coal and iron are managed appears to be extremely different. The construction of the works of Cockerill and Co., at Seraing, near Liege, by the aid of Government money, as before related, would prepare us for the expenditure of an enormous sum, and for the lapse of a long period before such an establishment could become self-supporting, if such an event could ever happen. This “ model manufactory” of Belgium undertakes entirely the mining of coal and iron, smelting and rolling of iron, together with the manufacture of steel, and machinery of all descriptions. In fact, it is hardly an exaggeration to say that every article in metal, from a pair of scissors to a locomotive, is manufactured in this curious establishment. In England it is universally admitted that the greatest successes have been achieved by those who have concentrated their attention on perfecting the manufacture of a very limited class of articles ; and it is by this means that the art of manufacture has been wrought up to its present standard. It, therefore, appears that the establishment at Seraing is conducted on principles exactly opposite to those adopted by our most skilful manufacturers, and laid down by our best writers on the economy of manufactures. We may learn the system on which other works in Belgium have been conducted from the following paragraph, written by R. C. Taylor in 1847, respecting the collapse of trade which followed the excitement of 1838. R 242 Report* on the Paris Exhibition. onMetal “ Belgium has but just recovered from the effects of Wqbk. excessive speculation, over-production, and the sudden es- Beigium, tablishment, a few years since, of a vast number of com- panies for working coal mines before adequate markets could be established. A crowd of new men, adventurers and speculators, without restraint, suddenly appeared, and exposed the honest producers to ruin by their rashness and ignorance. Formerly each worked with his own capital. All this is changed. Agents, having but little personal interest, managed the affairs of societies, justly named ‘anonymous! ’ Economy did not preside in the formation of these com- panies. They constructed superb palaces , they founded spe- culations upon exorbitant and transitory prices, and on the day of awakening, they found that they had squandered immense capital, and had created the means of considerable production for an end which it was difficult to attain.” When the crash, similar to our panic of 1825, occurred, it produced an enormously disastrous effect on the production of iron. Out of 58 blast furnaces in existence in 1839, 30 remained out of blast for three years, and were not blown in again until after 1842. The total production of Belgium appears to have fallen as low, at one time, as 52,000 tons of pig iron in a year; an amount only equal to the annual make of one of the moderate-sized ironworks of Great Britain. Since the iron trade of Belgium has now been for some years in a healthy condition, and has been progressing at a moderate rate, it would be hardly worth alluding to this former want of commercial knowledge and foresight, were it not for the statement made by M. de Cocquiel, in his “ Report on Industrial Instruction in England,” to the following effect : — “ If the personal qualities of the English are taken duly into account, it will be found that, in reality, that country is not, in an industrial point of view, more advanced than certain nations of the Continent. Our establishments are, beyond any doubt, managed with more order, and in a more skilful manner, than the manufactures of England. Our mines are worked with greater economy, and more in accordance with the laws of science, than those of any other country.” Now, as an impression of a totally different character has been so widely spread through the works of Taylor and Scrivener, based upon the evidence of public Belgian reports, it is unfortunate that M. de Cocquiel does not state the evidences upon which he bases his broad assertion ; especially as M. de Cocquiel’s “ Report” is stated to be the basis of a new law of industrial education in Belgium. Mr. A. Tyler on Metal Work. 243 Had it been stated that we had formerly derived great advantage from communication with the Low Countries, we should have agreed with him ; for it is perfectly well known that many branches of manufacture now successfully cultivated in England, were introduced, during the Middle Ages, by the Flemings, who, preserving their own language, still form a considerable portion of the Belgian population. In Britain, the Flemings appear to have merged into the general population, except in a part of South Wales, where their villages may still be distinguished from those of their Cymric neighbours, as they adopted the English instead of the Welsh language. In Belgium, also, the Walloons, the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of Belgium, are still distinguishable, both by language and habits, from the other inhabitants of Belgium. Without in the least denying the assistance our manufactures have, in times past, received from these parts of the Continent, (and even in modern times, as regards particular branches of the manufacture of glass,) yet we have always been led to suppose that latterly the current has been settling strongly in the opposite direction. English manufacturers have been invited to settle in Belgium, in order to introduce those great branches of manufacture which they have so successfully cultivated at home ; and English engineers and capitalists have constructed several railways, as well as introduced the locomotive into Belgium. Some improvements in the art of producing particular kinds of coloured glass were brought by a workman named Vincent to Birmingham, soon after the period when the repeal of the high duties on the importation on foreign glass, and of the excise duties, gave a stimulus to the English glass trade. Vincent originally lived at Maestricht, where he became a skilful workman. He then went to Clichy, near Paris. Here, from the fact of his not knowing how to write, it was thought he might be trusted with the processes, which were generally unknown to the workmen employed. He, however, learned to write at an evening school, and then engaged himself to a manufacturer at Birmingham, where he saved several hundred pounds as a workman, and then went into business on his own account. His habits had not been at all adapted for commercial success ; he lost his property, was obliged to relinquish his glassworks, and returned abroad. The art of pressing glass is better understood in England than in any other country. This partly arises from the cheapness of the materials used and of fuel, partly from the skill of the workman and the division of labour, and partly from the fact, that the manufacturer of the moulds has be- come an independent trade ; a better article being produced, K 2 Me. Tylok on Metal WOE fc. Belgium, Iron. 244 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Metal an< ^ a muc ^ cheaper rate than when the glass maim- Work, facturer himself produced his own moulds. Belgium, With regard to the smaller branches of metal work, large purchases of arms have been for many years advantageously made in Belgium by English merchants, for the African trade, at much lower prices than they could be bought for in Birmingham. The reason was not that the cost of pro- ducing arms was there lowered by the introduction of machinery, but from the extraordinary abundance of manual labour, at excessively low prices, in Belgium. Indeed, it is said, that the detached pieces were not made in factories at all, but carried to the workmen's homes, and finished without the aid of any machinery whatever. Low prices of labour and absence of machinery, or the employment of but rude machinery, often go together, but always indicate an unsatis- factory condition both of commerce and of the labouring population. The great taste and ability of the French manufacturers, and their liberal expenditure in special tools and patterns, have caused the supply of articles of metal work, where design is an element, to be furnished by France for con- sumption in Belgium. A large quantity of the best goods manufactured in Birmingham and Sheffield are also exported thither. Indeed, zinc, smelted on a large scale and in an admirable manner by the Belgians, is sent largely to Paris and towns in other countries to be worked up into artistic forms, whence some is returned again in a manufactured state. As far as manufactures in metal are concerned, it is difficult to imagine any branch to which the description of M. de Cocquiel can apply. The facts on which his observations are based would form interesting subjects of investigation to the English manufacturers who may attend the approaching Free Trade Congress in Belgium. At that Congress it will, most probably, be discovered what effect the high duties levied on many articles imported into Belgium, and the pre- miums given by the Belgian Government on the export of articles of home manufacture, have had on the development of their manufactures, and on the welfare of their working classes. u.s., iron. United States. — The mineral wealth, and its distribu- tion over this immense country, was not well represented at Paris ; the English public are, however, well informed on the subject, as they are in possession of the complete reports in connexion with the New York Exhibition, drawn up by Sir C. Lyell and Professor Wilson. Under these circum- stances I shall, therefore, only remark that the United States 245 Mr. A. TyJor on Metal Work. do not appear to present any exception to the gradual approach to uniformity of process of manufacture which is taking place in every iron producing country ; and there does not appear to be, practically, any difference in the plans adopted in the United States and in Europe, except such as are produced by the more extensive employment of anthracite coal, and the more general employment of the gases of blast furnaces for heating the steam boilers attached to them. The anthracite fuel in the United States is not only abun- dant, but from its property of decrepitating, when brought to a high temperature, it is found much more suitable for use in the blast-furnace than coal yielding the same ultimate products found in this country. The high price of fuel, and the scarcity of labour, has tended to promote the application of waste gases for such purposes as they could be applied to. The reflection that must naturally arise from a comparison of the progress of iron manufacture in Great Britain and North America will be, that whilst the British production of iron has doubled in ten years, that of the United States, notwith- standing its protective duties, now remains at the figure of 1846, the intermediate period having been marked by an enormous depression. The statistics are as follows : — Iron manufactured in the United States. Years. Tons. 1832 - 200,000'" 1840 - 315,000 1842 - 225,000 1846 - 765,000 y 1847 - 800,000 1852-3 - - 500,000 1853-4 - - 805,000^ Professor Wilson's Beport, pages 40 and 42. ese figures are given only as an approximation. The iron produced is of fair average quality, and only ill one* locality is there superior iron, suitable for making steel, of really good character. The Americans are excellent judges of steel, and are accordingly large purchasers in the Swedish market of superior iron for their own steel manu- facture ; and probably imported in 1854 one-third of the quantity of iron from Sweden that Great Britain generally is able to take. The first introduction of the Dannemora iron into America took place during the great depression of trade in England preceding the abolition of the corn laws,f when the consumption of Swedish iron in Sheffield was * The remark referred to is by J. L. Hayes, of Massachussets, quoted in Dawson’s “ Geology of Nova Scotia.” f See the list of unoccupied houses in Sheffield in 1841, page 257 of this Report. Mr. Tylor on Metal Work. U.S., Iron. 246 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Tylor reduced to two thirds of its usual amount, and when a great °Vork AL emigration of Sheffield workmen took place to the United u s~ iron We find * n America, therefore, as in France, so soon as the steel manufacturers became acquainted with the special properties of the best marks of Swedish iron, a steady demand sprung up for this superior material. According to Professor Wilson, the American manufacture of steel, at the present time, may amount to 10,000 tons per annum, judging from the number of steel furnaces in exist- ence, always a very uncertain method, as they are not constantly in operation. The following table will indicate the importation : — Steel imported into the United States. Tons. In the year 1840 from all countries 2,225 1 Professor Wilson’s „ 1850 „ 6,375 J Report, page 46. » 1 5 ' 268 { E ”f“ Eipotl The great increase in the consumption of steel (exhibited in the returns of 1854) is probably owing to the prosperity of the railway and agricultural interests ; but the demand for this metal has been to a certain degree stimulated by a new and more expeditious mode of producing it. The value of the manganese present in the ores of iron used for the production of steel has been long suspected, but it has only been within the last thirty years that the plan of adding man- ganese during the smelting process has been discovered and brought into use at Sheffield, and this operation has been found materially to improve the qualities of all but the first- class steels. By the addition of this metal (manganese) any scrap iron can be run down at a single operation into a steel of common quality, at a cost for melting of from 8/. to 107. per ton, the expense of 50 s. per ton for the intermediate process (of con- verting bar iron into blistered steel by heating it in a close chamber for many days in contact with charcoal) being thereby entirely saved. There is no want more felt by the manufacturers of agri- cultural implements and machinery in all countries, than that of obtaining a material intermediate in price between ordi- nary iron and the expensive qualities of steel which have been hitherto in use. There are multitudes of purposes for which, if price permitted, such a material might be used. The Americans seem to have taken the lead in substituting steel for iron in agricultural purposes, and, in fact, spades and forks, probably made of English steel, are exported from Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 247 the United States to Great Britain, while on the other hand the Germans have been the first to bring into use steel cranks, Work. tires, and bells. u.s.7iron Before the use of manganese, all attempts had failed at improving artificially the steely propensities of irons ; but now it may be stated that it has improved the steely pro- pensity or body of some of the best English irons already equal in purity and closeness of grain to the lower qualities of Swedish ; and that steel made from English iron is now used for purposes for which, a few years ago, it would have been quite unfit. I have already alluded to the exportation to the United States of an iron prepared in Scotland out of Swedish blooms adapted for engraving pur- poses at a price of 60/. per ton ; and I am also informed that two-thirds of the expensive Swedish iron sold in New York passes through the hands of Sheffield firms having partners in Sweden, and also in the States. I only mention these circumstances again since so much has been said about the purchases of iron through English merchants having been entirely of low qualities. This idea has probably arisen from the circumstance that the ad valorem duty of 30 per cent, charged on foreign iron entering the United States has pre- vented the consumer from taking so large a proportion of the best qualities as he would, had the duty been a fixed sum per ton. It has also been thought by the American railway directors to be more important to them to have cheap iron to commence with, and to increase their length of line with the cash saved than to lay out their capital on a very durable iron rail. These are, however, arrangements made entirely by the purchaser in America ; and the seller in Great Britain has nothing to do but to execute the order he receives to the price and quality required. That up to the present time he has met the wishes of the purchasers is evident from the following table, if increased demand is any criterion of satisfaction: — Prof. Wilson’s Special Beport, p. 47, 1854. Consumption of Iron in the United States. In the Year. Manufactured in the States. Imported. Where from. Total. 1840 Tons. 286.903 Tons. 80,866 From all countries - Tons. 367,769 1847 800,000 — — 1850 564,755 441,514 From all countries - 1,006,269 1853 1854 | 805,000 | 640,389 519,773 From Great Britain only - From Great Britain only - 1,445,389 1,324,773 248 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Mr. Trios o iv Metal WOEK. U.S., Iron. With a small exception the whole of the iron ore smelted in the States is of native origin. I, however, learnt from Sir E. Logan, the Canadian Commissioner at the Paris Exhi- bition, that an exportation of magnetic oxide of iron had commenced from mines in Canada to the United States. This ore could be shipped free on board at 5s. per ton, and after two trans-shipments could be delivered in Pittsburgh at 2 5s. per ton. Supposing this ore to contain 50 per cent, of iron, this freight (for bringing the ore to the coal) would add 21. per ton to the cost of pig, or 3 1. per ton to the cost of the bar iron. Such an illustration proves that the success of the ironmaster in the United States does not depend only upon the cost of labour at his works, but also upon the cost of bringing the ore from a distance to the coal, and after- wards of carrying the iron made to the place of consumption. The freight of ore only, in the particular case alluded to, added three times as much per ton to the original cost of the American bar iron as the freight from England has added to the cost per ton of rails made in Great Britain for the new Indian railways ; indeed, a contract for the shipment of 150,000 tons has been taken at 17s. 6d. per ton from England to India. The addition to the cost of iron arising from freight and duties to America may be seen from the following table, published in 1854; followed by Professor Wilson's views on that important question in America — the supply of labour— which has since assumed a new phase. ee In a recent report from the Secretary of the Treasury, which was referred to the Committee on Finance, the average annual price of iron in the English and American markets respectively for the ten follows : — year! ending 1853 Average of merchants’ bar iron at Liverpool „ „ at New York „ ,, at Pittsburg Ditto of best refined iron at Liverpool „ „ at New York Average of railroad iron in Wales ,, in New York Ditto of pig iron in Glasgow - „ in New York - ,, in Pittsburg - The production of iron for the past year, 1853-4, exceeds that of any former year, and appears to approximate pretty closely upon the total capacity of the furnaces at present in is given $ c. 31 78 56 52^ 55 4 54 47 644 74 5(f 34 51 42 20 13 21 26 72 26 57 as Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 249 blast. The stimulus the trade has received from the increas- Mb. Tylor ing demand for its produce has already produced some work' 1 disturbance in the supply of labour, and caused a rise of -^.s/iron from 20 to 25 per cent, in its market value. How far labour could be obtained in force sufficient to sustain in the various operations connected with iron making, as mining, quarrying, furnace work, &c., an increase in production in a ratio equal to the increase in consumption remains to be tried. If it could be done at all it could only be effected, I think, by the payment of a much higher rate of remunera- tion than that at present paid. In these operations very little skilled labour is needed, while the muscular labour of the immigrant finds an equally remunerative, and at the same time a more congenial employ- ment in developing the surface riches of the mighty west. Thitherward the great mass of immigrant labour moves, and this is only likely to be diverted from its course by the temptation of such a rate of wages as will materially increase the cost of their produce. At the present time a very small number of the men employed in the ironworks are native Americans, the great proportion is either Irish or German ; indeed, these two countries appear to furnish throughout the States the subordinate labour in all the various branches of industry.” Since the above was written, the official returns of emi- gration from Great Britain show that only 103,414 emigrants sailed for the United States in 1855, against 193,065 for that country in 1854. The falling off of emigration to our colonies was equally marked from our own country and also from Germany. There has also been a current of emigrants returning, some successful and others dissatisfied. In conse- quence of deficient harvests in the eastern States, provisions of many kinds have been as dear in those districts as in Eng- land ; and employment has been scarce, even at lower rates than in Great Britain. This has happened in a period of unexampled prosperity in the western States, now connected with the Atlantic and lake navigation by lines of railway. The profits of the iron trade in the eastern States have been small indeed, compared with these investments of money in land in Iowa and such districts in the west, where large tracts have doubled in value annually, and where the small capitalist, who has bought an estate, and mortgaged it at the rate of 30 per cent, interest per annum, has been able, not only to pay the interest, but pay off the incumbrance with the profits of two harvests. Since the United States take nearly one-half the total quantity of iron exported from Great Britain, we feel almost 250 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. on'mSal instantly a diminution or increase of the prosperity of any part Wokk. of that active and energetic community. Indeed, the consump- u.s.7iron. tion of iron per man is greater in the United States than in England, and the subject of cheap iron is one that affects the entire population. The high tariff fixed on metals imported into the States is continued, not entirely as it was in France, for purposes of protection, but partly for revenue. The dread of the duty being reduced has always hung as an incubus on the American ironmasters, and prevented capital being embarked in erecting works in situations where, from the abundance of fuel and minerals, iron could be produced under the most favourable circumstances. Indeed, in the iron, as in all other trades placed under care of Governments, instead of being left to their own resources, the manufac- turer relies on the Government for his profit and not on his own skill and energy. The extreme cold of winter and ex- cessive heat of summer has also been a drawback, rendering the employment disagreeable, and also materially affecting the earnings of the workman, if paid by the ton, for the labour performed. The reason why the manufacture of iron is conducted by foreigners appears to be, in the first place, because the furnace work requires to be commenced at a very early age, and also needs more confinement in an un- pleasant atmosphere than a native American would care to submit to ; and in the second place, because the remunera- tion to workmen and to employers, under a trade fostered by an artificial system of protection, is uncertain, because it is particularly affected by external influences, and exposed to fluctuations, from political and other causes, which cannot be provided against. Steel. steel. This subject has been already frequently alluded to in con- nexion with the iron trade, with which it is intimately allied. The art of manufacturing steel commenced in England in the 17th century, but after weighing the evidence carefully, M. Le Play, in his work on the “ Manufacture of Steel in Yorkshire/’ attributes the great stimulus given to this trade in Great Britain to the discovery of the art of casting steel, by Benjamin Huntsmann, a working watchmaker, born in Yorkshire, in 1704, in the course of some experiments in connexion with his own trade. In 1740, induced by the success of his trials, Huntsmann settled at Handsworth, near Sheffield, and established the first factory where cast steel was manufactured for purposes of trade, and which is still carried on by a descendant. Walker and Marshall soon established works in Sheffield and its neighbourhood, but Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 251 notwithstanding the new process made but a slow progress ; Me. Ttloe in fact, the art of casting steel, a century after it had been woek nsed in England, was stated by a French writer to be, steel - although the best, the least known process in the preparation of that metal. At the present time, the revolution in the steel trade, which has been brought about by the memorable discovery of Huntsmann, is entirely accomplished in Great Britain, and a similar movement is every year more strongly felt upon the Continent. It is, however, since 1835, that the enormous advance has been made in the production of steel in Great Britain and the United States, and which is, therefore, coincident with the development of railways and steam navigation, and their accompanying workshops. Mr. Unwin, of Sheffield, gives a table of the number of furnaces for the production of steel in Sheffield. There are a few other furnaces in other parts of England which are not enumerated. It is difficult to ascertain whether they are all at full work ; but taking, however, 250 tons per annum, as a low estimate of the production of each blistered steel furnace, we can, by these means, compare the French and English productions. Steel Furnaces in Sheffield. Blistered steel furnaces, 1 835 . 56 Cast steel furnaces, 554 11 „ 1842 . 97 11 11 774 „ 1846 . 105 „ 974 11 „ 1853 . 160 11 11 1,495 11 „ 1856 . 206 11 11 2,113 Comparative production of steel in France and England : — France. 1835 ' . . 6,300 tons. 1842 . . 9,339 „ 1846 . . 12,954 „ 1853-4 . . 14,954 „ England ( Sheffield ). . 14,000 tons. (Sanderson.) . 20,500 . 26,250 . 40,000 * Consumption of steel in France and England : — France. 1835. Tons. 1853-4. Tons. Steel manufactured in Trance . j-6,300 (Le Play) 14,954 (Sanderson) Steel imported into France . 1,614 „ 413 (British Exports) Steel consumed in France . . 7,914 15,367 * “Journal of Society of Arts," May 11, 1855, page 4 56 . f Mr. Porter places the production of steel in Prance at 2,725 tons in 1836. This must surely refer to some particular description of steel or district, and not to the production of the whole country. 252 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mb. Txlor ox Metal Work. Steel. 1835. Steel manufactured in England . Steel exported uu wrought from do. Steel consumed in Great Britain England. Tons. 1853-4. Tons. 14,000 (Unwin) 40,000 (Sanderson) 3,100 (LePlay) 20,793 (BritishExports) 10,900 19,207 Allowing for inaccuracies in these figures, it may be generally remarked that the consumption of steel in France has increased rather faster than in England in the last eighteen years (up to 1853), and the total consumption in the two countries only varies 20 per cent., whilst, if a similar approximate table is constructed, showing the relative con- sumption of iron in the same countries, very different results will be obtained. It will be as follows : — France. Pig iron manufactured in France . Iron imported into France Iron consumed in France 1835. 304.909 tons. 16,000 „ 320.909 tor. s. 1853-4. 600,000 tons. 90,000 „ 690,000 tons. Great Britain. Pig iron manufactured in Great Britain Iron imported into Great Britain Iron exported from Great Britain Iron consumed in Great Britain 1S35. 1,000,000 tons. 20,000 „ 1,020,000 tons. 200,000 „ 1853-4. 2,500,000 tons. 35,000 „ 2.535.000 tons. 1.035.000 „ 820,800 tons. 1,500,000 tons. Since I constructed the above tables, Mr. Unwin has kindly furnished me with information, not only of the number of furnaces, &c. in Sheffield, but of those situated in other parts of England, which have not been enumerated in previous statistical returns. 1856. Production of cast and shear steel in Great Britain : — In converting furnaces in Sheffield (206) . . . 51,500 tons. In converting furnaces in other localities in England (54) . 13,500 „ In melting holes used for the direct manufacture of cast steel from iron without conversion in a separate furnace , . 3,000 „ 1856. Production of cast steel in Great Britain : — In melting holes for cast steel in Sheffield (2,113) In melting holes for cast steel in other parts of England (245) 68,000 37,834 tons. 4,410 „ Carried forward 42,244 Mr. A. Tylor on Metal JVork. 253 42,244 tons. Mr. Tylor on Metal Work. in England Total production of cast and shear steel 68,000 The steel consumed in France has continued for 18 years to be four* fifths of that consumed in Great Britain. The iron used in France was, in 1835, a little over a third of that used in this country. It increased in France in eighteen years to nearly half the quantity worked up in Great Britain. The reasons for such discrepancies in the relative proportions of iron and steel used in two neighbouring countries are not very apparent ; they are, perhaps, connected with results pro- duced in France by the political feeling, that France ought not to be dependent for steel (the material of which arms are made) upon any foreign country. On the other hand, the English, rendered apathetic by the duty they levied on Swedish and Russian iron until that was removed, never appear to have suspected that coke iron could be employed for conversion into steel ; and, therefore, they drew their supplies of iron for such purposes entirely from Sweden. It is an interesting point in the history of free trade, that until the British ironmaster was thrown upon his own resources, by the entire abolition of any protective duties, he did not make this important discovery. From that time, English iron began to be used for steel purposes, and by recent im- provements, both in the preparation of the iron and of the converting process, an amount of steel is manufactured in Great Britain, with coke iron alone, equal to what is produced in France with both French and Swedish iron added together. By this discovery, the increased demaud for steel has been supplied without requiring larger quantities of iron than Sweden had been in the habit of furnishing to Great Britain. It is, however, worthy of remark, that the importation of Swedish iron into the United States, during the year 1854, was nearly double that which took place in 1853. During the same period, the consumption of this metal in Great Britain slightly decreased, whilst the amount used in France was unusually large. The Swedish trade in iron depends undoubtedly less upon the original cost than upon the superior quality of the iron, which is almost entirely required for conversion into the finer qualities of steel ; and no metal has yet been produced in other countries which could in any way replace the valuable material, so much appreciated by the manufacturers of all those nations where the qualities of steel are well understood. The truth 254 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. a? met?? ^is fact has been acknowledged by long experience and Work* after repeated trials. Mr. Sanderson of Sheffield says, — steel “ I estimate the weight and value of the steel made England (Sheffield) as follows : — Tons. £ s. 23.000 of cast steel, all qualities, at 45/. per ton . . 1,035,000 0 7,000 bar steel, including German, faggot, single and double shear steel, average 35/. per ton 10.000 coach-spring steel, 19/. per ton 40,000 tons. From the foregoing statistics we find that France produces Prussia „ Austria „ United States „ 14,954 tons, average value of 5,453 tons, „ 13,037 tons, „ 10,000 tons, „ . 245,000 . 190,000 0 0 0 0 £1,470,000 0 0 £ s. d. . 443,850 0 0 . 170,824 0 0 . 321,073 0 0 . 212,500 0 0 . 1,470,000 0 0 to persuade the England (Sheffield) 40,000 tons, „ Considerable efforts have lately beer French public that Algeria can produce iron which will rival that of Dannemora.* Great expectations have been raised, which have, however, been disappointed in the same manner as those which have, at one time or other, been formed by patriotic persons (residing in almost every department of France), as to the eligibility of the minerals of their own neighbourhood to surpass those of Sweden. The hope of enriching their own country, and delivering from its depend- ence upon foreign supplies this important branch of French industry has been clung to in France with the greatest tenacity. A similar feeling has prevailed in Great Britain and the Colonies, and with the same result ; even during the last twelve years, gentlemen connected with Canada, and interested in its progress, have used exertions of every kind to intro- duce the Acadian iron (smelted with charcoal in Canada) into regular consumption in the Sheffield market. The promoters of this Company are so much interested in the prosperity of Canada that they do not allow themselves to be discouraged by their present want of success, in obtaining for the Acadian iron a good position in the price current of Sheffield ; this price current appears to be the standard by which the value of steel-irons are universally measured, and against which there is no appeal. Indeed, the professor of metallurgy in the Royal French School of Mines, and author of the history of “ The Steel Trade of Yorkshire/' positively states, after visit- ing every part of Europe where the industry of this metal is * The name of the celebrated district where the finest iron in Sweden is found. Mr. A. Tylor on Meted Work. 255 carried on, that he has arrived at the conclusion that the Mr. .Tylor price current of Sheffield affords a more precise classification wobk. of the different descriptions of iron that can be obtained in stec~ any other manner; he has, therefore, published this list in extenso, in the “ Annales des Mines de France,”* with the fol- lowing remarks : — “ An experience of two centuries at Sheffield, pursued under circumstances of the most active competition, has placed in evidence all the useful qualities of the different irons, while all those causes of error which render it impossible to deter- mine exactly the value of steel-irons, have yielded in time to the prolonged experience of the purchasers.” These errors, which arise from the prejudices of buyers, and from the preconceived notions and private interests of consumers, have naturally neutralised each other. All these disturbing causes being eliminated under the powerful in- fluence of time and experience, there ought only to remain, in the price current of the steel-irons used in Yorkshire, those elements upon which essentially depend the true value of those irons. Again, speaking of the anxiety felt in all countries to enhance the steely propensity of iron j by improving the smelt- ing operations, M. Le Play observes, “ All these efforts have remained without any good result. This experience is not only conclusive for the practice of the small factories where the ores of the third class in Sweden and Norway are smelted ; but during two centuries the same experiments have been tried on a vaster theatre in the factories of Great Britain and its Colonies, particularly in America and the East Indies. All these experiments have invariably furnished the same result. “The authors of these experiments, taking their wishes for facts, have almost always stated, in the commencement of their essays, the superiority or the high value of their pro- ducts. The proprietors of English steelworks, highly inte- rested in the object of freeing themselves from their dependance upon Sweden, have always received with sympathy the hopes that have been conceived by the sellers of iron. The most persevering efforts have been made with a view of establish- ing the superiority of steel-irons belonging to the British dominions. I have assisted myself, in 1836 and 1842, at the experiments upon different sorts of iron that had been specially produced in England and the Colonies (and particularly in the * This list is translated in pages 221 and 222 of this report, f The purity and closeness of grain has been improved. This is a distinct pro- perty to that of steely propensity. 256 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ©V Metal sou ^ a Hindostan), after attempts continued with that WoRK:f L tenacity natural to the English character. All these trials steel"" h av e given some results interesting in a scientific point of view, and of a certain industrial utility ; but the fundamental conclusion has always been exactly the reverse of that which the English industry is interested in establishing. “For it has been proved that those parts of the globe acces- sible to the commerce of Europeans cannot furnish any iron which, with respect to steely propensity, can compare with the best marks of Sweden.” Tried by the standard of price at Sheffield at the present time, the Acadian iron ranges with the lowest marks of Russian and Sweden, and below the best coke-iron3 of Eng- land. This is attributed by the Company to the fact that Acadian pig iron has only been supplied at present, and that when the machinery which has been sent from this country is erected in Canada, the pig iron will be converted into wrought entirely by charcoal ; the promoters of the Company hope that then a different result will be met with. We must remember that, even if the quality should improve, the sale for steel purposes will be probably very limited ; as, of the great variety of qualities furnished by Sweden, only 24,436 tons were actually consumed in the year 1854. One particular brand, possessing no marked character, can therefore meet with little success in Sheffield. There ought to be, however, room in Canada for the development of some good ironworks, to supply the local wants of the district, and in this manner, it is to be hoped, that the enterprise may succeed. The British Government, it is said, have contracted for Acadian iron for the manufacture of ordnance ; we may presume that this is for using in some of the extensive series of experiments which they have in view, to determine from what iron the most perfect cannon should be manufactured. I saw specimens in Yorkshire of Acadian iron, some said to be very good, others bad. Before leaving the subject of steel, it may be well to re- mark, that since the most distinguished metallurgists and most eminent chemists in Sweden, have in vain attempted to state the reason of the marked aptitude of certain ores for subse- quent conversion into steel, at present, chemical analysis cannot be admitted as a test of the value of iron. Neither have the experiments upon comparative merits of iron for special purposes, undertaken by the French scientific men, given better practical results ; the history of the steel trade in France, since the time of Reaumur, in 1720, up to 1835, is one continued series of alternate hopes and disappoint- ments ; samples were analysed, experiments were made with 257 Mr. A. Tijlor on Metal Work. the most favourable results, shares were sold, but Company me. Tylok after Company retired from the trade with heavy losses, and Voek. without having even produced a first-rate article ; during all stcoT~ this time, the French manufacturers were excelled in quality and distanced in extent of trade by the Sheffield manufac- turers, who sent large qualities of fine steel into France, not- withstanding the heavy duties.* Until, at last, in 1835, the manufacturers on the Loire began to purchase the same materials and adopted the same processes which had been in- vented and carried out by the workmen of Great Britain, men skilled in the practice of their own branch, metallurgy, but without any pretensions to the knowledge of the pure sciences. The proof of the want of relation between ths chemistry of the laboratory and the workshop is, that the workman has been able in this, as in other branches of metallurgy, to detect minute differences which the philosopher has, unfortunately at present, no means of expressing in words. Thus, M. Le Play does not attempt to explain the reasons of the differ- ence between two irons of different sorts, but he refers directly and solely to the price current, which is the index of their commercial utility, and accepts that, without any analysis, as conclusive evidence of their relative superiority or inferiority. The author of the work already alluded to upon “ The Manufacture of Steel-iron”f pays the following tribute at the close of the first part of his memoir to those manufacturers who have been the means of raising the industry of steel to its present high position, both of quality and quantity : — “ Constantly occupied to maintain the quality of their own, Swedish metallurgists have wisely resisted the temptation which has elsewhere often cursed the progress of ironworks, to depend upon the economy of fuel; they have always * Mr. Thomas Smith, assistant -overseer of Sheffield, has given the following information of the population of Sheffield and adjoining parishes: — 1801, 45,755; 1811, 53,231; 1821, 65,275; 1831, 91,702; J841, 110,891; 1851, 135,307; 1852,143,099; 1853, 150,379 ; 1854, 157,212; 1855, 161,927. Houses in the same district : — — Occupied. Empty. Building. Total. 1841 22,753 3,223 192 26,168 1851 j | 27,118 267 263 27,648 1852 28,685 499 982 30,166 ' 1853 30,150 594 1,070 31,814 1854 31,522 795 1,293 33,610 1855 34,472 1,568 989 35,029 f Annales des Mines, 4th Series, vol. ix., 1846, page 207. S 258 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Me. Tiloe on Metal Wokk. Steel. Steel files. understood how to combine attempts' at progress with the respect due to tradition. Convinced that the success of the cemented steelworks depends essentially upon the confidence that manufacturers repose in the raw material, they have made all the sacrifices, both individual and collective, that are necessary to a scrupulous preservation of those qualities represented by the distinctive brands of each forge. Thus, for instance, the establishment of the lern-Vagen, a model institution for all commercial people,* which by a severe control over the quality of the production, guarantees the entire industry of the country against the injury that might be effected by too close an attention to particular interests. It is then to the intelligence and commercial probity of the Swedish ironmasters, not less than to the genius of the York- shire manufacturers, that the springing up of this new art is due, which, opening for the future the industry of steel to the capacity of the people of every land, has assisted the promo- tion of one of the most marked requirements of modern society. This art (the artificial production of steel from iron) has, by a large production of steel of a quality more perfect and more hard than the natural steels, endowed our civilization with means of action proportioned to the energy of the efforts with which it acts upon matter, and to the grandeur of the results that it wishes to attain. On the other hand, in the jury reports of the French Exhibition of 1849, page 344, we find the practices described which some of those interested in the prosperity of the steel trade in France has most justly condemned, and as this subject (the piracy of English trade-marks on the Continent) has recently engaged the attention of the English public it is important to point out how disastrous this policy has been to those who have adopted it, and to the general standing of French manufacturers in foreign countries. I have translated the French report as follows: — Steel Files. “ The fundamental obstacle to the growth of this branch of industry results from the custom adopted by almost all ma- nufacturers of placing false marks on their produce. This deplorable custom is due in part to the desire that uncon- scientious manufacturers, convinced of their real inferiority, have to turn to their own profit the renown of the best * This is evidently not the view that would he taken in England. The English are glad to have the opportunity of purchasing iron from Sweden, which is paid for by British manufactures. In England the name of the maker, which is allowed to bo u ;ed by his successors, is found to be a guarantee as to quality. Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 259 foreign manufacturers, acquired by a long succession of me.^tylor talent and honesty ; it is encouraged by the retail dealers, 'work. who wish to keep manufacturers dependent upon them, and steelmes. to hinder the consumer from knowing the real marks of steel goods. “ Manufacturers, short of capital, submit in this manner to the terms dictated to them by the dealers, renounce their individuality, and stamp upon their goods such marks as the buyer chooses to order, and even to substitute the name of the retail dealer for their own. “ Another obstacle to the prosperity of the file trade, arises from the inaccuracy of the price-currents published by the manufacturers. “ The history of the English steel trade proves that a skil- ful manufacturer, who consecrates his life to found the repu- tation of the trade mark he has chosen, can leave in the sole possession of that mark a large fortune to his descendants. “ The Government will, therefore, render skilful and con- scientious manufacturers (the only ones that ought to be encouraged) an immense service in imposing upon each producer the obligation to place his own mark upon his manufactures/’ The dependence of the progress of an important branch of Industry upon the 'probity of those commercially interested in ' it is thus shown in a most interesting light by the facts and observations of independent authorities, and places in a con- spicuous point of view the feelings of integrity and honour winch have alike actuated the workmen and the employers, the buyers and the sellers engaged in producing and dealing in an article where the opportunity for fraud was more easy and less exposed to immediate detection than in any other manufacture. COPPEK. M. Le Play, engineer-in-chief of French mines, and pro- Copper, fessor of metallurgy in the Mining School of France, after having visited all the copper works of the Continent, including those in Siberia, and having made repeated visits to South Wales, for purposes of study, during the last twenty years, has furnished elaborate accounts of every known process relating to the smelting of copper, and has also made the most minute calculations on the cost of each operation, accompanied by a statistical review of the remarkable pro- gress of this industry of Great Britain. These carefully prepared essays will be found in the “ Annales des Mines de France" for 1848. M. Dufrenoy, inspector-general of mines in France, and s 2 260 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mr. Tylor deputy chairman and recorder of the jury, class 1, in the Exhibition of 1851, has also published a treatise on the copper! Swedish copper works, in the “ Annales des Mines de France" for 1854. There are thus at the present time most valuable supple- ments to the account of the process of smelting copper as conducted at the Hafod works, near Swansea, published by the late J. II. Vivian, in the £f Annals of Philosophy ” for 1823. Since 1848, when the labours of M. Le Play were concluded, great attention has been paid in Swansea to the separation of the silver contained in the ores of copper. It appears that a German process was first used, which was patented; but since expensive plant, for this purpose, has been erected by different individuals, not only at Swansea and Llanelly, but at Birmingham and Liverpool, it is probable that considerable modifications on the original system have been introduced. The ores containing silver sent to this country are known to have much increased. They are mostly sold by private contract, instead of at the public sales. In 1854, the quantities of copper ore sold by private contract amounted to 24,770 tons, against 220,650 tons, sold at public sale. One principal object of M. Le Play's visits to this country was to ascertain the reason of the extraordinary increase in the amounts of copper smelted in South Wales since 1825. They are as follows: — Approximate Weight of Copper 1825 British Copper Ore. Tons. 110,613 extracted from British Copper Ore. Tons. 10,647 1830 150,876 11,904 1835 171,393 15,144 1840 160,763 12,539 1844 171,598 13,213 1847 152,615 11,900 1854 205,706 14,192 1855 216,630 14,484 1825 Foreign Ore imported. Tons. None Approximate Weight of Copper extracted from Foreign Copper Ore. Tons. • None. 1830 1,437 316 1835 13,945 3,068 1840 42,249 9,506 1844 58,591 13,359 1847 41,490 9,009 1854 50,940 — 1855 58,089 — Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 261 Up to the year 1842, although there was apparently a Mn.Tn.oB heavy duty on the importation of foreign copper, yet in °Voek A ' reality it was often nullified by the permission to smelt, as it Cop ^T were, in bond, the smelter undertaking to re-export an equi- valent quantity of copper, and thereby being released from t?he payment of the duties, which were altered in the following manner from time to time : — £ s. d. 1809, per ton of ore 0 13 4 1812 „ „ 20 13 4 1819 „ „ 21 0 0 1825 „ „ 12 0 0 In 1842, duties were placed on ore which averaged the amount of 6/. per ton on the copper extracted ; at the same time, metallic copper imported paid a tax of SI. 1 5s. per ton, and the privilege of smelting in bond was withdrawn. The influence of this direct tax on raw material which was imported from foreign countries, and then re-exported, in the course of a few years appears, with other causes, to have assisted in stopping the rapidly increasing importation of foreign ores, as it gave, of course, a premium of 5 per cent, upon the importation of foreign metallic copper, which could still be imported in bond, and consequently re-exported without payment of duty. In 1851, these duties were almost entirely removed, having produced, in 1849, only 2,292/. 14s. 3d. The position of the copper trade, in 1854, is shown in the following summary, for the ee Mining Records of Great Britain,” by R. Hunt, page 31 : — Summary of Copper Value. Total produce of English mines „ „ Irish mines „ „ Welsh mines Foreign copper sold at ticketings . Included in private contract sales . Tons. cwts. qrs. lbs. £ s. d. 13,042 4 2 21 1,229,807 12 6 1,124 13 3 18 128,053 9 6 25 3 3 3 2,010 18 6 3,455 15 0 11 378,498 2 6 5,426 7 3 14 593,434 0 0 £ 2,331,804 3 0 The produce of the foreign ores was 16 J per cent, of copper in 1854, whilst that of British ores was only 6§ per cent. The per-centage of copper in the 6,351 tons of copper regulus is so great, that probably one ton of regulus produces as much metal as four tons of foreign ore. 262 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. osMeiai Division of copper ores and products containing copper Work, into seven classes, according to the nature of the process by Copper. which they are smelted, according to Le Play, page 102 : — 1st Class. — Ores containing between 3 and 15 per cent, of copper are calcined in process 1. They are generally sulphurets of iron and copper mixed with a small pro- portion of oxides. The earthy matter contains, besides some deleterious substances, a good deal of quartz, and a very considerable quantity of sulphuret of iron. 2nd Class. — Ores having from 15 to 25 per cent, of copper, contains less earthy matter than the first class. They are calcined in No. 1, and then passed to No. 5 to be melted with other materials already partly smelted. 3rd Class.— Ores containing from 12 to 20 per cent, of copper, principally in the form of oxide of copper. They are not calcined, but fused in No. 2 along with ores that have been calcined. They contain very little sulphuret of iron. 4th Class. — Ores containing from 25 to 45 per cent, of copper in quartz matrix, containing very little sulphuret of iron. They are composed of oxides of copper of various kinds, associated with very little sulphuret of copper and iron. 5th Class. — Ores from mines, the quality of which is well known, containing 10 to 15 per cent, of copper, and 18 to 24 per cent, of sulphur. They contain no dele- terious substances whatever, and are generally sulphuret of copper, with sulphuret of iron and quartz. 6th Class. — Ores from 60 to 80 per cent., exclusively composed of matter free from sulphuret of iron and any noxious substances. They are natural, or artificial sul- phurets of copper (regulus), with native copper and oxides combined, with silica and carbonic acid. The matrix is generally quartz. Besides the above classes, there are the old materials which are produced in such large quantities, the cuttings of copper, the sweepings from the great sheets constantly being rolled. The average of these must contain a very high per-centage of copper. From results of a smelting work where 47,000 tons of ore were heated in the year, and 6,250 tons of metal Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 263 produced, the following table was constructed by M. Le ^-Tylor P lay (page 105) : — Work. Classes of Ores. Relative Weight. Total Weight in Tons of Ore smelted per Week. Proportion of Copper per 1,000 of Ore. 1st Class, treated in 1 and 2 •790 720*1 0-098 2nd „ „ 1 and 5 •023 21-5 0-228 3rd » » 2 •085 77*6 0*182 4th 4 >> 99 ’ 4 •081 73*5 0-385 5 th „ 6 •Oil 10*0 0*120 6th »> »> 9 •008 7*4 0-662 7th »» j» 4 •002 2-0 0*750 Totals and Means 1-000 912*1 0-137 Copper From the above figures it would appear that the per- centage of copper in ores of the year it refers to must have been much higher than at present, viz., at an average of 13 J per cent. Last year the average was only 9 per cent. The high price of copper, and consequent appearance of ores which would not bear transport at former rates, may have affected this to some extent, but the difference appears large. Copper imported into Great Britain (Pari. Reports) : — — Copper Ore. Copper Regulus. Smelted Copper. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1849 46,237 1,196 2,836 1850 40,388 5,473 5,322 1851 35,683 6,442 5,589 1852 37,817 5,226 6,172 1853 45,285 5,107 6,307 1854 50,940 6,351 4,845 1855 58,089 8,510 9,482 Smelted copper and Muntz metal exported from Great Britain : — — 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. British . Foreign Tons. 20,480 697 Tons. 21,307 990 Tons. 17,555 1,327 Tons. 16,936 1,356 Tons. 15,632 1,705 Tons. 13,678 1,813 Tons. 16,658 1,055 21,177 22,297 18,882 18,292 17,337 15,491 17,713 264 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Mk . Tylor on Metal Work. CoppeV: Le Play has estimated the production of copper in the whole world, (excepting China,) during the year 1846, at 52,480 tons. The following tables, collected from his works, will approximately represent the production, consumption, and reduction of copper from the ore in different countries, for 1846.— (pp. 560 and 562, Le Play.) Table 1. Copper contained in the ore annually raised. Consumption of Copper annually. Copper annually smelted. In the following countries : — Tons. Tons. Tons. Great Britain . . . ' 15,800 10,600* 28,600 France . . . j 30 9,200 700 Russia 3,900 2,000 3,900 Austria 4,500 2,600 4,500 Sweden and Norway . 2,200 400 2,100 German Association 1,500 5,400 1,500 Turkey in Europe and Asia 2,000"] f 2,000 Different European States. 1,100 ' j 800 around the Mediterranean I f 1 Basin. J L America, particularly Cuba and 16,600 6,100 5,900 Chili. Oceania, Australia, New Zealand, 2,400 8,300 and Asia (except Turkey, China, and Japan). Japan • . • 2,400 1,200 2,400 52,430 52,400 52,400 The statistics of the copper trade in Great Britain having been noticed, those of France next claim our attention. Table 2.t Consumption of Copper in France. Quantity of Copper smelted in France. Copper imported into France. Tons. Tons . Tons. 1831 . . • • 3,080 1836 , , , 5,720 1840 , , • • 8,670 1842 10,597 257 10,340 1845 10,100 520 9,580 1847 8,385 605 7,780 * The Tables pages 260 and 263, indicate that the consumption of copper in Great Britain was in 1855 about 24.000 tons, an enormous increase, f From pages 586 and 590, vol. xiii. “Annales des Mines,” 1848. Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work, 265 Table 3.* Tons of Copper imported into France from the following Countries : — — Great Britain. Russia, Sweden, Norway, Germany, and Low Countries. Turkey. Mediterranean States, Switzerland, and Austria. America. Other Countries. Total. 1831 980 1,100 340 130 210 170 150 3,080 1836 1,960 2,310 790 150 230 270 10 5,720 1840 5,330 1,500 410 430 150 830 20 8,670 1842 8,310 400 540 170 70 850 # # 10,340 1845 7,100 460 1,460 10 70 470 10 9,580 1847 3,838 559 1,543 114 195 1,529 2 7,780 Almost the whole of the copper ore imported into France copper, was formerly from South America; but since 1846 not only the ancient quarries of Algeria (which furnished such rich materials to the Romans) have been re-opened, but the new mines of this important colony have been surveyed, and many of them successfully worked. Their products were at first sent to be smelted at Marseilles ; a spot chosen for intro- ducing the Welsh system of copper smelting, with which the French founders had become well acquainted, through the elaborate researches of Le Play. This system has not, how- ever, yet taken root in France, where the enormous difficulties caused, by the complicated system of differential duties, navigation laws, and heavy customs dues, turn trade out of the natural channels, and place obstacles in the way of any branch of commerce which is dependent for success, not only upon manufacturing skill, but upon facilities of regular and cheap transport of the raw material from distant places. On a recent visit to Swansea, I found that notwithstanding the privileges given by the French Government to their favourite colony, Algeria, yet that the ores from that country had begun to arrive at Swansea instead of at Marseilles, where works had been recently established to compete with the Welsh smelters. It may be here mentioned that M. Le Play had in his calculations understated the quantity of fuel required for the process of smelting. Instead of being 25 cwt. of coal to each ton of ore, it is really 33 or 34 cwt. ; and in a district where coal costs 205. per ton, this error adds 135. per ton of ore, — or, reckoning the Swansea average of 1 1 tons of ore to one ton of metal, 61. 135. per ton of fine copper produced, — to the estimate which has been made of the cost of smelting. Should the average yield of ores now being used in France be, as in Swansea, about 9 per cent, instead of 13f, the * From page 586, vol. xiii. “ Annales des Mines,” 1848. Me. Tylos on Metal WOEK. 266 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . calculation made by Le Play, this would make the expense of smelting each ton of fine copper proportionately larger; while, if they should be still richer, that would be in favour of the French manufacture as far as the expense for fuel is concerned. This is illustrated by a statement given to me by a Welsh smelter who, when the yield of the ores purchased during a whole year averaged 6J per cent, of copper, found that 16 tons of coal were consumed in producing each ton of fine copper; while in the next year, when the average yield was 9 per cent., he accomplished their reduction with 15 tons of coal per ton of fine copper produced. The large foreign coal trade of Swansea employs a great number of small vessels, trading to all parts of the world, for which a back freight of ore forms a convenient cargo. The following return of the comparative tonnage of the ships belonging to different countries shows how inconve- niently the French smelter is situated, since he can only receive his ore at the low duty when carried in the ships belonging to his own country, the probability being that only one out of twelve vessels sailing from any particular port is French, while the total tonnage of French vessels is only one-eighteenth of the whole mercantile navy afloat. Nation. V essels. Tons. Great Britain and Colonies possessed in 1850 . 34,281 4,232,962 United States 1851 . , . 3,772,439 France 1850 . 14,354 688,130 Norway n 1853 . 4,893 454,856 Holland 5* 1850 . 1,793 390,910 Spain and Colonies 1850 . 7,606 361,401 G reece 5) 1850 . 3,970 264,981 Prussia >> 1849 . 1,531 265,320 Austria 1849 . 6,083 259,583 Russia (Finland excepted) 1849 . 1,512 251,000 Sweden 9J 1853 . 2,826 249,440 Denmark 1852 . 4,701 245,947 Two Sicilies 1850 . 10,368 221,749 Finland 1849 . 1,375 159,379 Sardinia 1850 . 3,467 159,263 Hamburgh >> 1853 . 408 123,882 It is a singular fact that Norway, with only one and a half millions of inhabitants, stands the fourth in the scale of maritime nations. The parts of England and France, settled by the Northmen originally, furnish the largest supply of seamen at the present day. Their descendants were also the founders of the mercantile marine of the United States. Mr A. Tylor on Metal Work. 267 The high price of fuel near the coast of France, and the difficulties caused by the artificial system of commerce created work. by legislation, are probably among the causes which have copper rendered the new French smelting works less successful, in a commercial point of view, up to the present time than those with us. There are, however, other causes which may help to influence this result : for instance, the climate renders the employment much more disagreeable than in South Wales; the habits of the labouring population are not yet fully formed for this work ; and finally, the expenses of management, where companies are concerned, are great compared with those incurred in South Wales, where the factories are managed by those personally interested in them, and worked with capital accumulated in the copper trade itself. It should be mentioned that there are copper-ore furnaces attached to numerous rolling mills in France, where rich and easily fusible ores are reduced without any calcination, when they happen to arrive, almost as easily as scrap copper. There are works of a similar kind both at Swansea and Liverpool ; but a strong distinction must be drawn between these and the Welsh factories, where a great variety of poor and intractable ores are reduced by a system created by a succession of minute practical improvements, the dates and authors of which are unrecorded, but have attracted the warm admiration of Le Play. At Swansea, where enormous sums of money have been spent in experiments, the principal processes of copper smelting now used are precisely those employed forty years ago. Yet, the different characters of the ores lead to daily modifications. There is no absolute rule for the duration of any process, or for the quantity of material that shall be manipulated at one time. The ores, in which an immense number of foreign substances are associated with the metal, are calcined, melted, roasted, refined, and mixed with each other, and with slags produced previously by the workmen, under direction of their fore- man, in order to get out the product, fine copper, with the minimum of fuel and labour, and in the quickest time. Practice has rendered the workmen so acute as to appreciate shades of difference in the products of their furnaces, which the chemist, even with the aid of the most minute quantita- tive analysis, can hardly follow. Thus Le Play mentions fp. 127), that not more than a three-thousandth part of the fuel used can be detected among the debris of the Welsh slag heaps, while (in pages 157 and 158) he sums up the advantages obtained by using the Welsh Reports on the Paris Exhibition. 2 r,8 "oJmetS reverberator 7 fu rn ^ce (drawn in plate 3, accompanying his work, text), in the following manner: — Copper^ “ The air admitted across the fire is the exact chemical equivalent of the solid fuel that is to be converted into gas : in its progress it follows that course which is best suited to the performance of the reactions required, and to the economy of heat ; it arrives pure and cold in that part of the furnace where it is to produce an oxidizing flame, the essential object in this operation, and where it ought to prevent the too rapid heating of the material to be operated upon. At last, the air which is not decomposed by the roasting does not arrive at the place where it ought to burn the combustible gas, until it has become highly heated in its slowly ascending movement. The two combustible gases then mutually act under the most favourable conditions, that is to say, after both have acquired an elevated temperature. Finally, the results hereafter described respecting the Welsh system will furnish the best proofs of the perfection of economy that I attribute to this operation. These results demonstrate that the consumption of fuel is three times less than in the other reverberatory furnaces employed on the continent for analo- gous operations.” I should mention that I believe Le Play has, to some extent, over-estimated the economy of the system of copper- smelting practised in South Wales, in his admiration for this reverberatory furnace, to which he alludes in the following manner (p. 76) ; after speaking of the importance of finding some use for the small coal, which is often a waste product in the neighbourhood of coal mines, — and pointing to the im- possibility of burning non-caking coals in ordinary furnaces, on account of the fuel passing through the bars of the grate : fc Many metallurgists have vainly attempted to turn these materials to better uses. These researches received a new impulse when I had proved, in 1835, that the solid combusti- bles employed in blast furnaces acted essentially by means of their gascfied products. We all took, as a point of departure for these new experiments, the idea of first converting into gas the fuel in the blast furnaces ; and then of conducting it into separate apparatus, to turn its chemical and calorific properties to our profit. The trials of this kind that I have observed in all parts of the continent have not, up to the present time, answered the expectations of their authors. ■Almost always, the inconveniences resulting from the com- plications of apparatus have balanced the advantages obtained, and often these trials have ended in pure loss and enormous expense. It is worthy of remark, that at the very period when Mr. A. Tylor on Metal Work. 269 we attempted so fruitlessly, and by the aid of apparatus so Mr. Tyior expensive, to use non-caking fuel in dust (slack) for the fun- °Voe? L damental operations of metallurgy, on the continent, by the Cop ~ Welsh founders this problem had been already solved in a manner as simple as it was efficacious. It is, without doubt, to this ingenious discovery that the superiority which they retain up to the present time is due. It would have been difficult for them to have employed, as fuel the saleable coal for which there is so large a demand at such high prices on the shores of the United Kingdom, and on the Continent of Europe. On this occasion, as well as at so many other facts belonging to the history of the industrial arts, we have reason to be astonished, that one of the most ingenious and memora- ble discoveries of metallurgy has, up to the present time, passed unnoticed, and has not been even mentioned by the British writers on technology. Since the year 1836, the date of my first journey to England, my attention has been particularly directed to the gasefaction of combustibles, and I have noticed the characteristic feature of the Welsh method ; but no person could tell me at what period it was introduced into practice in the workshops.” The Welsh furnaces are described and illustrated by accurate plans and sections, at pages 117 and 127 of Le Play’s work. Besides their peculiar form and dimensions, he draws attention to the substitution of a thick layer of clinker, along the whole length of the fireplace, for furnace-bars. This mass of clinker is, of course, a non-conducter, and is full of small interstices through which cold air enters the furnace ; and while white-hot in its upper surface, it is comparatively cool at the bottom. A few iron bars prevent the whole mass of clinker from falling into the ashpit. The furnace-man keeps the clinker in a proper condition, so as to admit through its substance the exact quantity of air required. The small coal is distributed from time to time over the surface of the clinker, and meeting with the air which enters the furnace entirely through the small apertures of the heated clinkers, is converted at once into carbonic oxide gas ; and, caught by the draught of the chimneys, rises over the bridge which separates the fuel from the ore or metal, placed in the same furnace for it to act upon. The carbonic oxide gas then forms a distinct stratum, and occupies the roof or upper portion of the furnace, and burns only at its lower surface, where it comes in contact with the ore or metal, and with an additional supply of oxygen, which converts the carbonic oxide into carbonic acid gas. If this plan of burning slack be so advantageous, it appears remarkable that it should not 270 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. JnMem have been extended to other works besides those for smelting Work. copper. Copper. The ease with which some of the ores of copper, principally oxides and carbonates, can be smelted, has been already alluded to ; and in one of the Swansea works there is no calcining furnace at all, the ore being simply roasted, melted, and then refined. There is also a variation in the plans, according to the class of copper that is to be produced. Thus, in a factory I visited, where the object was to make cake-copper for rolling and hammering, Cornish ores were used, and these were sorted in definite proportions pre- viously to being calcined. In another factory, the best selected copper was required for conversion into yellow or Muntz metal. This necessitates the production of a purer description of metal than ordinary cake-copper, and the process of smelting is modified by the introduction of an extra process. In this, the property that metals, such as tin, lead, antimony, nickel, &c., (which may be accidentally associated in the copper ores,) possess of being more readily reduced, is now taken advantage of, by the smelter. The watt, or regulus; of copper is exposed to a temperature sufficient to reduce a small portion of the copper, and almost a// the other metals present. The contents of the furnace are then run out into ingots, when the metallic portions, being heavier than the oxides or sulphurets which form the matt , fall to the bottom of the ingots of metal. The two portions separate readily, on cooling. The matt forms the upper part of the ingots, and the inferior metal is contained in the bottoms. The matt will furnish, in the next operation, what is called ~ - 70° to 75' 0-To » “ - 60° <4 „ - - 100° to 105‘ M. Nachet’ s Object-Glasses in 1851. M. Nacliet’s. Focal lengths. Angles of Aperture. Of inch - - - - 88° Of 9f * - 108° o-V „ - - 134° Mr. Ross intended to exhibit in Paris object-glasses of a still higher order than those which we have mentioned, and he would thus have found himself in competition with his eminent rivals Messrs. Smith and Beck and M. Nachet. He was prevented, however, by the pressure of business from exhibiting the new object-glass, which he had prepared for Medal of the that purpose; and Messrs. Smith and Beck, who had no a^udgedfto English rival, carried off the microscopic prize by receiving Smithand a Medal of the First Class. Although the microscope of Beck at the M. Nachet was not equal to that of the English artists, it Stion. Exp °* had such a high degree of merit, that a Medal of the same value was adjudged to him. Oberhau- MM. Oberhauser, of Paris, exhibited an excellent achromatic scope? 10 ™’ microscope, and also one intended for observations in the vacuum of an air-pump, for which a Medal of the First Class was adjudged. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instruments. 289 Mr. Pillischer, of Bond Street, exhibited a microscope with an achromatic object-glass half an inch in fecal length and of such excellence that a Medal of the Second Class was awarded to him. Mr. Pillischer also exhibited what he calls a lenticular microscope, for examining urinary deposits at the bedside, which has been highly spoken of by the late Mr. Golding Bird and Mr. Queckett. Mr, Pillischer's “ student’s microscopes” were remarkable, not only for their cheapness, but the excellence of their con- struction. The following is a list of the angles of aperture and prices of his object-glasses : il lengths. Angles of Aperture. Prices. 2 inches - 14° - - 21. 2s. i 99 - 26 ° - - 21. 2s. 0-4 99 - 60 ° - - 4/. 05 . 04- 99 - 90 ° - - 51. 05 . 04 - O 99 - 109 ° - - 51. 05 . The following Table contains a description of the Achro- matic object-glasses which Mr. Ross intended to exhibit : — Mr. Boss’ s new Object-Glasses in 1855. ! Object- glasses. Pocal An gles of Magnifying Powers with four Eye-pieces. Prices. lengths. Aperture. A. B. c. D. 2 inches. 12 degrees. 20 30 40 60 £ 3 s. 0 d. 0 1 „ 15 11 60 80 100 120 o 0 0 22 11 60 80 100 120 3 10 0 0^ ” 65 1J 100 130 180 220 5 5 0 j> 85 11 220 350 500 620 5 5 0 oi » 125 11 220 350 500 620 7 10 0 0£ „ 135 11 320 510 700 910 10 0 0 » 130 400 670 900 1,200 11 0 0 ! °\ ” 150 11 400 670 900 1,200 12 0 0 170 11 650 900 1,250 2,000 18 0 0 Messrs. Smith and Beck sent two achromatic microscopes to the Paris Exposition, namely, one of their very best instruments, and another of an entirely new construction, to which they gave the name of “the Educational Micro- scope.” The first of these microscopes differed very little from the one which they exhibited in 1851 at the Crystal Palace. It U Sin David Brewster ox Optical Instru- ments. Mr. Pillis- cher’s micro- scopes ; the lenticu- lar micro- scope ; the stu- dent’s mi- croscope. Mr. Boss’s newest ob- ject-glasses. Messrs. Smith and Beck’s mi- croscopes ; 290 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. their educa- tional micro- scopes. Fine micro- scope shown to the Jury byM. Amici. M. Nachet’s object- glasses. had, however, object-glasses of a shorter focus and greater angular aperture, as is shown in the following list : — Focal lengths. 11 inches. Of „ O-rV » >> 0 £ 3 , Angles of Aperture. 13° 27° 90° 110 ° 120 ° The Educational Microscope exhibited by Messrs. Smith and Beck is an instrument of great value, and from its low price and excellence it cannot fail to have an extensive sale. With object-glasses of one inch and a quarter, and apertures of 22° and 75°, its price, packed in a case is only 10/., and the additional apparatus, including one Lieberkhuan, a Wen- ham’s parabolic reflector, a Wollaston’s camera lucida for drawing, and a polarizing apparatus complete, with prisms and selenite, amount only to 51. additional. Since the middle of 1855 no fewer than 100 of these Educational Microscopes have been sold, and two-thirds of this number had the ad- ditional apparatus. When the J ury of Class VIII. were comparing the rival microscopes, M. Amici, of Modena, distinguished by his optical inventions, showed a microscope which exhibited certain striae in test objects better than any of the instruments under examination. This superiority was produced by the introduction of water between the object and the object-glass ; but as M. Amici was not an exhibitor, the Jury was not called upon to adjudicate to him a Medal. The following were the object-glasses which M. Nachet exhibited in 1855, and which were much admired by the Jury : — Focal Lengths. Angles of Aperture. Prices. No. 3. \ inch. 75° £ 5 . d. 2 10 0 No. 4. u » 90° 2 10 0 No. 5. ~Q 5 ) 95° 3 3 0 No. 6. To m 110° 4 0 0 No. 7. 1 4 55 125° 5 5 0 No. 8. 1 1 8 ” 165° 7 5 0 With these two last object-glasses, M. Nachet states that there is no test object too difficult to be resolved when it is plunged in Canada balsam. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instruments. 291 III. Optical Apparatus for Lighthouses. Polyzonal lenses, or lenses composed of separate pieces having a common focus, were 40 years ago recommended by by myself as peculiarly adapted for lighthouses ; and their introduction into the Scottish lighthouses in place of the old parabolic reflectors was pressed upon the Engineer and the Commissioners of the Northern Lights before Fresnel had submitted them to the French Lighthouse Commission. I persisted for many years in urging the Trinity House and the other Lighthouse Boards to adopt this great improvement. The Scotch Board at last authorized me to get one of the dioptric lenses constructed in London. It was executed in flint-glass by the Messrs. Gilberts ; but nothing farther was done in the matter till Mr. Alan Stevenson was sent by the Board to Paris in 1834, for the purpose of comparing the dioptric lights, which had so long been guiding the mariner on the French coast, with the parabolic reflectors used in Britain. The result was such as had been long before pressed upon the Board and the British public,* and the new lenses have been partially introduced into Scotland, England, and Ireland. Much, however, remains to be done ; and as Messrs. Chance and Company have an establishment where the diop- tric apparatus can be manufactured to any extent, the Board of Trade could not perform a greater service to humanity, and to the commercial interests of our mercantile navy, than by extinguishing every parabolic reflector on our shores, and replacing them by the new lenses. In 1851 Mr. Wilkins exhibited a lighthouse apparatus executed in Paris, of St. Gobin glass, by M. Letourneau, and at the same time Messrs. Chance and Company exhibited another of a similar kind. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. Optical ap- paratus for lighthouses. Eirst poly- zonal lens made in England ; manufac- tured by Messrs. Chance ; by M. Le- tourneau At the Paris Exhibition of 1855 the Minister of Agricul- £yM- Le - ture, Commerce, and Public Works exhibited a catadioptric lighthouse apparatus of the first order, with eclipses every minute, constructed by M. Henry Lepaute, under the direc- tion of MM. Leonce, Beynaud, and Degrand. A Great Medal of Honour was adjudged to the Administration of Lighthouses, and a Medal of Honour to M. Lepaute for this beautiful apparatus. Another lenticular apparatus was exhibited by M. L. ter and Co Sautter and Co., who received a Medal of Honour from the jury. * See Edinburgh Review, April 1833 and April 1835, vol. lvii. p. 169, and vol. lxi. p. 221, for an account of the British Lighthouse System. U 2 292 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . sib David M. Blazy Jaliffier exhibited various pieces of apparatus IiRFWSTFR * 1. X X ox Optical for lighthouses, and for lighting town clocks and railways, xSxts.' and was rewarded with a Medal of the First Class. m. Blazy Ja- The same honour was conferred on Messrs. Chance and pSatusXr Company, the only British exhibitors of lighthouse apparatus, lighthouses. for their catadioptric light of the first order. In the quality class 16 glass, either in reference to colour or freedom from Messrf ed to anc ^ ‘ m the fitting up of the various parts, this apparatus Chance*. seemed to be very little, if at all inferior, to its rival. Its glass seemed to be somewhat whiter than the French glass, having a slight tinge of yellow, that of the French glass having a tendency to blue. IV. Stereoscopes. stereoscope; The fundamental principle of the stereoscope, that in seeing objects in relief we unite the two dissimilar pictures produced by the right and left eye, was known to Galen, tirst con- Aguilonius, Porta, and others. The first person that seems to SS have thought of constructing an instrument for uniting two Wheatstone suc ^ pi c t ures was Mr. Elliot, of Edinburgh, but he did not publish his invention. Mr. Wheatsone, in 1838, communicated to the Royal Society of London, and was the first to publish, an account of an apparatus called the stereoscope, for uniting two dissimilar pictures, and thus producing solidity or relief. This apparatus consisted of two reflecting mirrors, and is known by the name of the reflecting stereoscope . To another form of the stereoscope invented by myself, and now Lenticular in universal use, T gave the name of the lenticular stereoscope , stereoscope. f rom consisting of half or quarter lenses, which magnified while they combined the dissimilar images. First exhi- Only one stereoscope, namely a lenticular one, was exhibited bited m i 8 oi. ^he Crystal Palace of 1851. It w^as made by M. Duboscq, of Paris (from a model one which I had given him in 1850), and formed part of his fine collection of philosophical instru- ments. Although the stereoscope is known principally as an instrument of amusement, it has claims upon science and fhe arts of no ordinary kind; and the time is not distant when it will be regarded as an indispensable auxiliary in the education of the people. Stere< scope: bited Paris sition Millet exhibited hexagonal stands with six stereoscopes, which were visited by crowds of spectators. Messrs. Lefort, Queilhe, Lamiche, Warren Thomson, and Dejongealso exhi- 3 exhi ^ great number of stereoscopes, besides the one exhibited in the by myself, were sent to the Paris Exposition. M. Claudet, Ex p°* M r . Williams, of Regent Street, M. Duboscq, and Mr. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instruments. 293 bited stereoscopes, and MM. Couppier, Moulier, and Soulier s^david produced admirable binocular slides for tlie instrument. on Optical x Insteu- Y. Kaleidoscopes. M — " Although the kaleidoscope has been long used both in Kaieido- England and on the Continent, for creating patterns for scopes ' carpets, and for analogous purposes in the decorative arts, it is generally regarded as an instrument of amusement. The kaleidoscopes which I was requested to exhibit in the Paris Exhibition were two in number. The first was Bate’s kaiei- a very fine instrument, constructed with much care by the with°metai- late Mr. R. Bate, optician, London. It consisted of reflectors licreflectors - of speculum metal, which could be set at various angles which were the aliquot parts of a circle. The second was an universal kaleidoscope , constructed so Universal^ that by a piece of ingenious mechanism the reflectors could for obtain- separate round an axis and give circular patterns, or take a ln sP atterns - parallel position at various distances to give rectilinear patterns, or converge to a centre at any required distance, so as to produce curvilinear patterns of any radius of curvature. No specimen was exhibited of the telescopic kaleidoscope , Telescopic its most interesting form, in which objects at any distance, scope. * living or dead, at rest or in motion, can be introduced into the figure or pattern. YI. Photographic Cameras. In the English Exhibition of 1851, various photographic cameras were exhibited. That of Mr. Andrew Ross with two lenses, about three inches in aperture, was considered the best. In this instrument the foci for the chemical and luminous rays were united, and the spherical aberration was carefully corrected for central and oblique pencils. A remarkable camera, with two achromatic lenses eight inches in diameter, was exhibited by a French artist, M. Plagniol, but the size of its lenses was its principal recommendation. During the last four years, great improvements have been made in the photographic camera, and much ingenuity has been shown in its adaptation for taking binocular pictures. Cameras have also been made for the use of travellers, in which the photograph can be developed and fixed without resorting to a dark apartment. Among the most eminent improvers of the photographic camera, M. Voightlander, of Vienna, occupies a distinguished place, but he has not exhibited any of his instruments either in the Exposition of 1851 or 1855. In the Paris Exhibition several photographic cameras wei’e exhibited by the English opticians, Messrs. Horne and Photo* graphic cameras of 1851 ; M. Ross’s camera ; M. Plag- niol’s. Voightlan- der’s ca- mera ; those of other artists. 294 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. M. Jamin’s camera object- lenses. Large lenses useless in taking por- traits. Thornthwaite, and by Mr. King, of Bristol, who received a Medal of the Second Class ; and by the French opticians, M. Jamin, M. Ch. Kelandin, and M. J. G. Schiertz. M. Jamin, who received a Medal of the Second Class, exhi- bited several fine object-glasses for photographic cameras. He constructs them of three kinds ; 1st, on what is called the Ger- man system, with two object glasses ; 2ndly for landscapes, and according to the wish of the purchaser, either for rapid operation or for pictures of a large size ; and 3rdly, for land- scapes and portraits. The following is a list of the sizes and prices of the larger object-glasses. Size of Object- glass. First System. Price in Francs. Second System. Price in Francs. Third System, j Price in Francs, i Inch, parts. 1 7 20 i 16 35 2 3 40 25 80 3 0 90 50 140 4 0 300 120 350 5 0 500 200 550 6 0 700 300 800 7 0 900 450 1,100 8 0 1,200 600 1,500 14 0 5,000 2,500 5,500 : 1 However creditable it is to the ingenuity and enterprise of the artist in executing lenses of such magnitude and value as most of those in the preceding list, it is very difficult to appreciate the advantages which are expected from them. If we require to take a photographic landscape with singular rapidity, or in twilight, a large lens is absolutely necessary. If our object is to take a large picture, it may be taken with a small camera, and afterwards enlarged by an enlarging instrument, and therefore a large lens is by no means ne- cessary for this purpose. The only advantage of large lenses, which would justify an artist in increasing the expense of them, would be in taking almost instantaneously the por- traits of animals. In taking the portraits of human beings such lenses are worse than useless. I have proved, both from theory and experiment, that such portraits so taken are monstrous re- presentations of humanity, even when the lenses have an aperture of three or four inches. With an aperture of four- teen inches the human face would be the most vulgar carica- ture. M. Jamin exhibited also another photographic object-glass with new properties. It was what he calls a double com- bined one, with the optical and chemical foci coincident. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instruments. 295 and was furnished with a cone centralisateur , which is said by the Abbd Moigno to add considerably to the distinctness and to the prompt fixing of the pictures. It has also a variable focus, and may be used either for landscape or por- traits. With this lens M. Disderi took colossal pictures nearly 30 inches high by 21 broad. M. Jamin exhibited also three sets of lenses of great per- fection, and of all curvatures, made of crown glass, flint glass, and rock crystal, and also a fine set of prisms of all sizes and forms. VII. — Optical Apparatus for Physical Researches. In the Exhibition of 1851 several important instruments for carrying on researches in different branches of physical optics were exhibited by French opticians, and none whatever by British artists. M. Duboscq exhibited the beautiful heliostate of Silberman by which a solar ray reflected into a dark room remains fixed during the greater part of the day ; — the ingenious saccharimeter of M. Soleil for deter- mining the quantity of saccharine matter in any solution ; — the haloscope of M. Bravais for exhibiting the phenomena of halos and parhelions ; the polarimeter of M. Arago for measuring degrees of polarisation, and the lenticular stere- scope of which I had communicated to him the construction. M. Dul'oscq exhibited also Arago’s apparatus for showing the interference of polarised light, Babinet’s goniometer and Fresnel’s screw for producing by compression the polarising structure in glass. * The Paris Exposition contained many ingenious instru- ments for prosecuting researches in physical optics. One of the most important of these was, — 1. A Solar Telescope. This instrument, which was exhibited by myself, was con- structed for my use, at the expense of the Royal Society, by the late Mr. Dollond for the purpose of examining the de- ficient lines in the solar spectrum. For several years I had been engaged in this inquiry with an achromatic telescope by Ramsden, and a prism executed by the late distinguished optician, M. Fraunhofer of Munich. As the part of the spec- trum under examination necessarily consisted of homogeneous light, it occurred to me that an achromatic object-glass was unnecesssry, and that an object-glass more suitable for the * So early as 1817, Colonel Colby constructed and presented to me a powerful screw with which I made my experiments in the compression of glass and minerals. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. Apparatus for physical research ex- hibited in 1851. Apparatus exhibited in Paris. A solar tele- scope. 296 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. bSwstee P ur P ose required to be corrected only for spherical observa- ox optical tion. The object-glass was therefore composed of two lenses mkxts.* of plate-glass, of which the curvatures were obtained from. Sir John Herschel’s formula, and the eye-glasses were made on the same principle. The focal length of the object-glass is 3 ft. 6 inches ; the diameter of the object-glass, 4 inches \ fcy m* mS? 1 height °f the large prism executed by M. Merz is of Munich. 3 inches, and the three sides of its horizontal triangular section, 5 inches, 4*45, and 3*7. Several cylindrical lenses, which have a peculiar action in rendering visible faint lines in the spectrum, and a large hollow prism for holding oil of Cassia and other fluids, accompanied the instrument. Its- 6ides were equal, and 8 inches in length. Arago’s polarimeter. Arago’a 2. Aragd’s Polarimeter. This instrument, intended to measure the polarisation of the atmosphere was exhibited by M. Duboscq in his fine collec- tion of optical instruments in the Crystal Palace of 1851. It consists of two parts, not easily explained without diagrams,, one of which is to measure the degree of polarisation of the sky at any point to which the instrument is directed, and the other to determine the altitude of that point above the horizon. The first consists of a bundle of ojass- plates, 6 inches long, and 1^ wide. This bundle has a motion round the axis of a graduated arch, which measures the angle of incidence of the light reflected from its surface, when its degree of polarisation is balanced by the opposite polarisation of the bundle of plates. This angle affords, by polarimeter. a we p.l mown process, a measure of the degree of polarisation required. The point of compensation, or the angle at which the polarised light of the sky is reduced to common light, is ascertained by a polariscope with a doubly refracting prism at the eye end, and a piece of rock crystal at the other, which exhibits none of the polarised colours by common light. Another aperture in the polariscope, close to the piece of rock crystal, and receiving directly the compensated light, enables the observer to compare the whiteness of its two images with the whiteness of the other two. Perimeters In the polarimeters which I employed in the three years the Re- y observations* from which I determined the form of all the lines of equal polarisation in the atmosphere, as published in Johnston’s Physical Atlas, I employed the ingenious polari- scope of Savart, and measured the requisite altitudes with a common quadrant. The determination of the point of com- pensation does not require nicely divided instruments. * Memoirs of tlie Royal Irish Academy, vol. xix. part 2. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instruments. 297 3. Lithoscope for discriminating Minerals. This instrument was constructed for me by the late Mr.Dollond, and exhibited for the first time at Paris. Without noticing the ingenuity of the artist in fitting it up, it may be described as a small rectangular prism placed horizontally above, and upon, the polished surface of a precious stone or mineral. A drop of one or other of three or four oils having the least and the greatest and intermediate refractive powers, is placed between the lower and larger surface of the prism and the upper surface of the stone. The film of oil being a parallel one, the images of a small candle or disc of light reflected from the common surface of the oil and prism, and the common surface of the oil and stone, are coincident; but if by a means of a screw at one end of the prism we lift up that end, we convert the film of oil into a prism, and the two images separate. The brightness of the image reflected from the glass and the oil is a constant quantity for that oil, and the comparison of it with the brightness of the image reflected from the oil and the stone, enables us to tell which of the precious stones we are examining. We can thus, at a single glance, determine whether the stone is diamond, ruby, sapphire, or only glass. Different fluids may, in like manner, be distinguished. 4. Brunner's Refractometer . The object of this instrument is to measure with great accuracy the index of refraction of doubly refracting crystals and other bodies. Our countryman, Dr. Blair, first used accurately divided instruments for this purpose. Mr. Brunner, the Troughton of Paris, has produced an instru- ment of great beauty and accuracy, which without diagrams it is impossible to describe. Being a juror he received no medal. 5. Steinl dll's Refractometer. This instrument, constructed by Mr. Becker, Newman Street, London, and exhibited by him, was invented by Dr. Steinhill. It consists of two prisms formed by two plane parallel glasses and one plane convex lens. Both prisms are filled with distilled water, and the cross wire of a micro- meter is made to bisect a platinum wire, when the index is at zero. One of these prisms is then emptied and filled with another fluid, whose index of refraction we wish to ascertain. The wire no longer bisects the platinum wire as before, and when they are brought again into bisection by the micrometer screw, its divided head will give a measure of the deviation of the wire produced by the larger refractive power of the fluid Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. Lithoscope for discrimi- nating minerals, precious stones, and fluids. Brunner’s refracto- meter. Steinliill’s refracto- meter. 298 Reports on the Paris Exhibition Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. Telescope for measur- ing dis- tances. Herapath’s artificial tourmalines. Varley’s graphic telescope. in comparison with water. This instrument gives measures equal to the ? - b T 0 - 0 - of an inch. 6. Telescope for measuring Distances. This instrument, intended for military purposes and for a coming-up glass at sea, was exhibited by myself, and was constructed by W. Harris, optician, in London. A pair of wires or points absolutely fixed in the field of view in the focus of the eye-glass nearest the eye was opened and shut optically by the motion of a second object-glass to or from the first, and the change of angle was indicated by divisions engraven on the tubes. In another form of the instrument a divided object-glass which gave double images was made to move to and from the main object-glass, and thus to vary the angle subtended by the images. A patent was taken out by me for these instruments in 1812. 7. HerapatK s Artificial Tourmalines. These very interesting crystals, to which the name of Herapathite has been given, was discovered by Dr. William Herapath, of Bristol, and were exhibited in the Paris Ex- position. They are intended to supersede plates of real tour- maline and Nicol’s prisms, which have been hitherto used in experiments and researches on the polarisation of light. These plates are thin crystals of the sulphate of iodo-qui- nine, and so completely do they absorb one of the pencils produced by double refraction, that two transparent plates, scarcely thicker than gold leaf, are totally impervious to light when crossed at right angles. Dr. Herapath has ob- tained them more than six-tenths of an inch broad. These delicate plates are preserved between two thin plates of microscopic glass, interposing a film of an ethereal solution of Canada balsam. The process of making them is so simple that Dr. Herapath has often prepared a dozen good artificial tourmalines in an hour, and he remarks, “ that before long these splendid and useful crystals will be offered for sale by opticians at as many shillings as real tourmalines cost pounds, and certainly of equal value and practical utility.” 8. Varley’s Graphic Telescope. Mr. Cornelius Yarley, an ingenious optician in Charles Street, Clarendon Square, London, and the author of an admirable treatise e( on Optical Drawing Instruments/’ exhibited in Paris his graphic telescope , an instrument with which the most distant views or the nearest objects may be drawn of any size that is required. This instrument may be described as resembling a compound microscope having an Sir David Breivster on Optical Instruments. 299 object-glass, a field-glass, and an eye-glass. A plane spe- Sir David culum placed at an angle of 45° to the axis of the instru- on optical ment reflects the object to be drawn into the object-glass, ^ents.* which would form a image of it in its focus if the rays were — not obstructed by the field-glass which contracts the image, and this image is seen distinctly by an eye-glass. The rays from the eye-glass enter the eye parallel but being pre- viously received upon a small plane speculum inclined 45° to the axis of the instrument, the eye receives them after reflexion ; and while one portion of the pupil looks into the speculum, and sees the image projected upon a sheet of paper, the rest of the pupil looks past the edge of the speculum, and sees the paper itself upon which the drawer can readily draw with a pencil the picture before him. The size of the image may be varied very considerably without altering the size of the apparatus, so that sketches on a very large or a very small scale may be made by the same instrument. This telescope may be converted into a graphic microscope for drawing the magnified images of objects. 9. M, Duboscq s Polariscope. The object of this instrument, constructed and exhibited m. Du- by M. Duboscq, is to enable philosophers to observe the laws poianscope. of elliptic polarisation produced by reflexion from the surfaces of bodies as discovered by M. Jamin, and also the laws of reflection and double reflection produced by crystals having a metallic lustre, as investigated by M. Senarmont. 10. Ar ago s Interference Refractor. This instrument, constructed and exhibited by M. Du- Arago’sin- boscq, is intended to show and to measure the displacement refractor. 6 of diffraction fringes, in order to determine inequalities in the refractive power and densities of solid, fluid, and gaseous bodies. M. Duboscq exhibited also the new and improved heliostate Heliostates of M. Silberman, and the ingenious photometers invented meters.° to * by MM. Babinet and Bernard. VIII. Instruments for Scientific Instruction. Many instruments of great interest were exhibited at the instruments Paris Exposition for assisting the teacher or lecturer in con- instruction. 0 veying knowledge to his auditors. Several of these were intended for instructing the blind in music and in writing ; but the most ingenious and important were those for exhibiting by optical means phenomena and scientific truths to large audiences. Among these stands pre-eminent M. Duboscq's regulator of the electric light. 300 Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. Duboscq’s regulator; its applica- tion to various pur- poses. Reports on the Paris Exhibition . 1. Dubose fs Regulator of Electric Light. The magic lantern was for a long period the only instru- ment in use for exhibiting phenomena to large audiences. From the faintness of its light, however, and the imperfec- tion both of the optical apparatus employed and the drawings which it projected magnified upon the wall, the effect was very unsatisfactory. The lime-ball light of Mr. Drummond became an excellent substitute for the oil or the gas-lamp of the magic lantern, but the expense of bringing the lime-ball to a white heat with alcohol, and the danger of doing it with a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases have prevented it from coming into general use. The brilliant light produced by placing charcoal between the two poles of a galvanic battery being subject to none of these disadvantages, M. Duboscq has contrived an apparatus by which the electric light produced at the contact of the two charcoal points traversed by the electric current is maintained with a high degree of brilliancy, continuity, and equality of intensity. He has, therefore, been enabled to employ this light either for the ordinary purposes of illumination, or for producing and exhibiting the various phenomena of physical optics, the structure of organic bodies, physical phenomena of all kinds, chemical compositions and decompositions, micro- scopic objects, and objects of natural history. In exhibiting with this apparatus very minute microscopic objects, such as the globules of blood of different animals, where a magnifying power of 1,000 or 1,200 diameters is required, the loss of light is so great that the objects them- selves would disappear. This difficulty has been surmounted by M. Duboscq in a very ingenious manner. With the electric light, which is highly photogenic, he takes negative pictures of the globules of blood with a power of 300 diameters, which does not extinguish too much of the light that he employs. With these negative pictures he obtains positive ones upon albumenised glass. These positive images are then placed as objects in the tube of a double apparatus, and when illuminated by the electric light, which diverges from the focus of the lenses, they are represented upon the white screen of an enormous size, being magnified 1,000 or 1,200 times. In order to measure the dimensions of these minute objects thus highly magnified, M. Duboscq places in one of the tubes which receives the divergent light a plate of glass, on the surface of which is a micrometrical scale cut with a fine diamond point. A magnified image of this scale is projected upon the scene, and by a slight motion of the tube which contains it, it is made as distinct as the image which it covers. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instruments. 301 in order that the observer may see and measure the di- sie^avid mensions, that is, the diameters of the spherical globules of on optical blood, or the axes of the elliptical ones, so that he not only Cents'.’ sees, but has the power of appreciating the magnitude of the ’ different bodies and their parts, which are submitted to his observation. 2. Nacliet's Multocular Microscopes. M. Nachet, of whose microscopes we have already spoken ^achet’s^ in high terms, exhibited various new forms of the instrument, microscope by which their utility has been greatly extended. In order to adapt the microscope for anatomical demonstrations, so that two or three persons may see at the same time the result of microscopical dissections, M. Cachet has constructed two microscopes — a double and a single one. By means of the first, one person can examine the progress and result of a dissection which is performed by another person; and by means of the second, two persons can enjoy this advantage. In the microscope for two persons, this result is obtained by placing above the object-glass a prism, the section of which is an equilateral triangle. The rays from the object- glass entering the lower face of the prism perpendicularly, the two halves of the pencil are reflected in opposite direc- tions from the other faces of the prism at angles of 45°, and thus enter the two separate tubes, in each of which they form an image of the object. These images are, in a certain sense, erect, but in order to see them in exactly their natural posi- tion, in which case alone the anatomist can use his scalpel, a prism is placed in each tube between the former prism and the eye-pieces, so that their planes of reflection are perpen- dicular to those of the other prisms. By this means the images are perfectly erect, and the demonstrator can proceed with his work without fatigue or difficulty. If the de- monstrator and observer should have eyes of different focal lengths, the adjustment is effected by moving the eye-piece to or from the object-glass. When the microscope is constructed for three persons, the pencil of rays from the object-glass is divided by three prisms placed in the same plane, and whose, reflecting faces, if brought together, would form a triangular pyramid. The pencil from the object-glass is then divided and directed into three separate tubes, in which three prisms erect the three images, and place them in their natural position. M. Nachet has also constructed the instrument for the use of four persons. 3. Nacliet's Binocular Microscope. The idea of a binocular microscope can hardly be called an Nachct's invention, if constructed on the same principle as the binocu- microscope; 302 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Brewster ^ ar telescope with two object glasses as well as two eye- ojf Optical glasses. The additional expense of such an instrument will uents. not be repaid by any advantage which it is supposed to possess. An instrument of this kind was constructed by Pere Cherubin about 1670, but, in so far as we know, no other binocular microscope has been made. In 1851, Prof. Riddell, of the University of New Orleans, devised and constructed a binocular microscope with the view “ of rendering both eyes serviceable in microscopic observations. ” RiddeTrs “ Behind the objective,” says Professor Riddell, “ and as of New ’ near thereto as practicable, the light is equally divided and Orleans. fo en {; a t right angles, and made to travel in opposite directions by means of two rectangular prisms which are in contact by their edges somewhat ground away ; the reflected rays are received at a proper distance for binocular vision upon two other rectangular prisms, and again bent at right angles, being thus either completely inverted for an inverted microscope or re- stored to their first direction for the direct microscope.” “ With these instruments,” the author adds, (i the micro- scopic dissecting knife can be exactly guided. In looking at microscopic animal tissues, the single eye may perhaps behold a confused amorphous or nebulous mass, which the pair of eyes instantly shapes into delicate super-imposed membranes Xachet’s with intervening spaces, the thickness of which can be microscope, correctly estimated. Blood corpuscles, usually seen as flat discs, loom out as oblate spheroids. In brief, the whole microscopic world as thusdiplayed acquires a ten-fold greater interest in every phase, exhibiting in a new light beauty and symmetry indescribable.” With this instrument. Professor Riddell obtained dissimilar drawings of solid objects by the aid of the camera lucida, and by uniting them in the stereoscope, he brought them out in their natural relief. When the two tubes of M. Nachet’s double microscope are placed vertically and parallel to one another, and are brought so near to the central prism, that their distance is equal to 24 - inches, the distance between the two eyes, the instrument becomes a binocular one, similar to that of Professor Riddell, to whom we must ascribe the merit of the invention, and of that ingenious combination of prisms which constitute the most important part of the multocular microscopes of M. Nachet. Foucault’s pendulum. 4. Foucault’s Pendulum for showing the Earth’s Motion. M. Foucault’s celebrated experiment for showing the motion of the earth was exhibited in a new and highly interesting form in the Palace of Industry. Above the centre of a large Sir David Brewster on Optical Instruments. 303 circle divided into 360 parts, there was suspended from the ceiling by a wire 35 ft. long, a ball of soft iron, 5 inches - in diameter, terminating below in a point. When the pendulum oscillated, this point passed along a diameter of the circle, at a short distance from its surface, so as to show any change in the plane of oscillation of the pendulum, or in the divided circle. The plane of oscillation of the pendulum being invariable, a fact which we need not here explain, the divided circle, with the building in which it stands, and the observers who are watching it, are all turned round by the earth’s daily motion, so that if the index below the iron ball begin its motion along the radius corresponding with zero, it will in thirty-two hours appear to have made the round of the complete circle. In so far this is the experiment exhibited some years ago by M. Foucault in the cupola of the Pantheon in Paris with a pendulum about 200 ft. long, and repeated in every part of Europe ; but in all those experiments the oscillations of the pendulum continually diminished, and ceased before the index had completed its round. In the present experiment, however, M. Foucault has employed a singularly ingenious contrivance for restoring to the pendulum the force which it loses at every oscillation. This is done by the agency of an electro magnet of a cylindrical form, resting vertically upon a very flexible spring, and reaching nearly to the centre of the divided circle. When the ball of soft iron is at the extre- mity of its oscillation, the galvanic current is established, and the magnet, now active, attracts the ball in its descent, and restores to it the force which it had lost from the resistance of the air in its previous ascent. But the moment the index reaches the centre with the ball, the electro-magnet is raised Avith the spring which carries it so as to interrupt the current, and deprive the electro-magnet of its magnetism, and there- fore it ceases to act upon the ball during its ascent. In giving an account of this beautiful invention, the Abbe Moigno remarks that the motions of the pendulum are so regular that it will soon be made to indicate the time of the day, and thus become the most extraordinary of clocks. 5. Ouviere s Uranoscope. This astronomical instrument was exhibited in the garden of the Palace of Industry, and was intended to be, as it were, e: a popular observatory,” in which every passer by could study the phenomena produced by the daily motion of the earth. In the instrument itself there is no novelty. It is nothing more than a gigantic armillary sphere in which is represented the earth’s axis, the plane, of the meridian, the celestial equator, the plane of the ecliptic and the zenith Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. Ouviere’s uranoscope. 304 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir David Brewster on Optical Instru- ments. and nadir of the place. M. Ouviere, of Marseilles, who constructed it, proposes that one should be established in every town in some public and frequented locality. When erected on a lofty pedestal, 20 or 25 feet above the ground, the axis of the instrument is placed parallel to the axis of the earth, and its meridian in the meridian of the place. By looking along the axis the observer below will see the place of the pole star, round which the starry vault seems daily to revolve. By placing himself in the plane of the equator he will trace in the sky the true celestial equator which divides the vault of the heavens into two hemispheres. He will observe the sun at the vernal equinoxes follow that line in his daily movement, approaching gradually to the northern point of the ecliptic as he advances to the summer solstice, returning again to the plane of the equator at the autumnal equinox, and then descending to the lower end of the ecliptic at the winter solstice. The daily motion of the stars will also be understood from the uranoscope. The observer will trace them from their rising till they pass the meridian of the instrument, and with the aid of his watch he will observe them descending in the same time to the horizon. Day after day they will repeat the same perennial movement, quitting the horizon at the same point, and reaching it where they reached it the day before. The planets, on the contrary, will, like the sun of their system, pass from their highest northern to their lowest southern declination, varying in their meridian altitude and in their semidiurnal arcs, with a rapidity of change de- pending on the lengths of their years. Such is a brief notice of the more important optical instru- ments, &c., to which my attention was called as Vice-Presi- dent of the Jury appointed to examine them. In the great departments of reflecting telescopes and achromatic microscopes, England occupied a place above all other nations. In the department of achromatic telescopes, and in that of philosophical instruments of the highest class, as well as in those for educational purposes, she was far behind France and Germany; and unless the British Government look with more favour upon inventions and inventors, upon science and scientific men, she must be content with occu- pying the place of a second-rate power in all those phases of civilization which depend upon inventive genius, and the still higher forms of intellectual power. I have the honour to be, &c. D. Brewster. Dr. Neil Arnott on Warming and Ventilating. 305 On Warming and Ventilating. — By Dr. Neil Arnott, Dr Ar * 0T1 ’ Member of the International J ury for Class IX. Warming ' AND VENTI- LATINO. To the Right Hon. the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Board of Trade, &c. My Lord, I have the honour in this Report to submit to your Lordship some notes and reflections made during my service as J uror at the late Paris Exhibition. Among the things necessary to human life, health and Necessaries comfort, next to food and clothing, must be ranked the ofh * c * means of obtaining for dwellings, in cold climates and seasons, fit warmth, conjoined with sufficient ventilation. The simple means of getting heat, and which has been Kinds of known from the earliest stages of civilization, is fire, or the fuel ‘ burning of some combustible material. Such materials, where cheap, are called fuel ; of these wood, peat, and coal are used nearly as nature offers them, and charcoal, coke, and inflam- mable gas as prepared by art. But all these combustibles in giving out heat give out Poison from also smoke, or burned air containing carbonic acid, which fE lug has the properties of defiling and damaging, more or less, whatever it touches, and if retained and concentrated where living beings are breathing, of causing, first, distress, and at last fatal suffocation. The art of warming safely by fire, therefore, includes also that of separating the poison from the warmth ; that is, of sufficiently ventilating the places warmed. The modes of using fuel with such intention, and the Modes of degrees of success attending them, have been and still are usms fue1, very different in different countries. The modes may be classed under the four heads of, — 1. Open fires.— These commonly lose all the heat which combines with the smoke, and also much heat diffused in that part of the warmed air of the place which mixes with the smoke as it rises and departs with it to waste. 2. Close stoves. — These allow no air to reach the fire or chimney but what is required to support the combustion, and they permit much of the heat of tfie smoke to remain in the room, after passing through the thin metallic cases or tubular chimnies. They generally warm a room as much with one portion of fuel as a common open fire does with four portions. X 306 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Arnott on Warming- and Venti- lating. Open fires. Effects in London. Evils but lately under- stood. 3. Circulation of hot water in pipes or other vessels, heated from a furnace, having nearly the economical qualities of the close stove. 4. Diffusion of heat from metallic pipes or vessels, which receive steam from a boiler with an enclosed furnace. These four modes are here to be considered in succession. I. — Open Fires. The open fire, although, as above stated, it is more waste- ful than the close stove, and has other disadvantages yet to be spoken of, still has properties which cause it to be generally preferred wherever fuel is cheap. It is so simple that any person can learn to light and feed it ; it is pleasing to the sight, and it is felt by many to be in winter a cheerful com- panion. The great faults of open fires of the common type are, — 1. Smoke. 2. Waste of fuel. 3. Unequal heating of the rooms. 4. Trouble of management and watching. © © In London alone, for instance, examination has ascertained that on account of the smoky atmosphere the inhabitants have to pay for washing their clothes two millions and a half sterling per year more than if they lived in the country ; that they now consume at least another million's worth of coal more than even with good open fires would be needed ; that a considerable part of the winter diseases and premature mortality of the city is due to faults in respect to temperature nnd ventilation ; and that the number of domestic servants is much greater because of their having to manage the present open fires. It is but lately that these evils connected with common open fires have been fairly looked at and acknowledged by scientific men, and particularly by architects, whose business it was to avoid and correct the errors. Architects have been earnest in devising beautiful forms, but have deemed the che- mistry and mechanics of the fireplace and chimney not worth their notice. The construction and management of grates were left, therefore, almost entirely to the care and misconceptions of little-educated workmen and servants. It is true that Mr. Gauger and others in France, Dr. Franklin and others in America, and Count Rumford and others in England, made important remarks, and gave very useful counsel respecting fifes, and that the latter particularly improved not a little common practice by explaining the advantages of narrowing the chimney throats; but man) lessons are required to change Dr. Neil Arnott on Warming and Ventilating. 307 established practice founded on popular ignorance. Rumford Dil - ^rnott showed that of the heat produced in the common fires of his Warming day about seven- eighths went up the chimney to waste. rating. In 1838 Dr. Neil Arnott, of London, the writer of this ^ ^ oWt . article, having, during the exercise of his profession, re- Treatises, marked that a large proportion of the diseases occurring were caused by errors of management in regard to heat and air, published a little work on warming and ventilating, in which many common errors were pointed out, and some modes of remedying faults were described; But being then fully occupied in practice, he could do little more than advise; and because he had not reserved any patent in- terest in his suggestions, many, doubting whether they were of practical value, waited for proofs. The book, however, awakened the minds of stove manufacturers to the impor- tance of the subject, and patents without number, as again at present, were taken for supposed improvements. These evinced, however, rather the former prepossessions than the correct knowledge of the parties. Dr, A. has lately published a second treatise on the same subjects, entitled “ On the Smokeless Fire, and other Means, “ Old and New, of Warming and Ventilating.” It contains the substance of the former treatise, with additions. For the novelties deemed of importance, the Council of the Royal Society of London, in 1854, awarded him their Rumford Medal, and for the same and some other means, as the water-bed, of a remedial or sanitary nature, of which London manufacturers had sent specimens to the Paris Ex- hibition of 1855, the Council of Presidents of the Inter- national Juries awarded him the Grande Mddaille d’Or, for the Class XII., Cf of Hygiene, Surgery, and Medicine,” and the Emperor added the Croix de la Ldgion d’Honneur. The principal novelties are, — Novelties. 1. The smokeless open fire. 2. Self-regulating and self-feeding close stove. 3. The same, with modifications, for warming spacious buildings by hot water or steam. 4. Ventilating pump for large edifices. 5. The heat-transferrer, by which hot foul air passing away is made to warm pure air entering. The President of the General Board of Health in London Commission has now deemed it right to name a commission to examine ° mqiury * and report on the performance of some of the objects above mentioned, which are already in use. This has been done to test again the merits ; and, if merit be found, to lessen obstacles always existing to the introduction of novelties X 2 308 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Narrow chimney throat. Fuel sup- plied from beneath. de. Ae>-ott and especially if no individual has pecuniary interest to labour Warming for their adoption, A um-fr 1 " In the new smokeless fire are combined various particulars — which intelligent men at former times had thought of and used singly, but of which, when used singly and imperfectly, the value was so small that the} r have not been duly ap- preciated. 1. Such v/as the narrowing of the throat of the chimney proposed by Count Rumford, which, when effected in the exact degree required, allows only what may be called the true smoke to pass away, and not also four or many more times as much of the pure warm air from the room accom- panying the smoke to waste, as happens in common wide- throated flues ; but, for want of a throttle valve or other register in the flue, with an index always clearly seen, which might be adjusted carefully, after lighting the fire, to the force of the chimney draught as influenced by the wind and other causes, the brick-contracted throat of Rumford was found generally to be either too much or too little contracted, and the true value of the contrivance was not understood. 2. Such, again, was the plan of Mr. Cutler and others, of placing the charge for the day of fresh coal in a box under- neath the fire, so that when coal was wanted, it could be raised up into the grate b} r mechanical force, ensuring that all the smoke issuing from it should pass through the ignited coal to be burned. But because of the complexity of the raising mechanism used, and the want of a proper throt- tle-valve or damper for the- chimney, as above described, with contraction of the space over the fire (yet to be ex- plained), to give strong draught and perfect command of the combustion, that plan, although strongly pressed on public notice, was soon abandoned. 3. Then, again, many persons saw how strikingly the activity of the combustion of a common fire is under com- mand where there is a blower or apron to the grate, or where the space between the fuel and the chimney throat is lessened by a lining of fire-brick, producing nearly the same effect as a blower ; but not sufficiently aware that excessive action of these is completely preventible by the chimney throttle valve, and believing erroneously that the hot smoke, while rising through a large open space over the fire, radiates much heat into the room, they did not contract that space nor use the blower, and so missed both the required control over the combustion, and allowed the true smoke to mix with and drag along with it a large quantity of the pure warm air about the fire. Blower arid narrowed space. Dr. Neil Arnott on Warming and Ventilating. 309 4. Then, intelligent persons had noted the extraordinary Dr. Arnott powers of ventilating the room obtained by an opening made warming- near the ceiling where the hot foul air is usually collected, A: ;®X E * TI * into the flue of a strongly drawing chimney; but from not — knowing that, by narrowing the space over the fire and the by chimney throat of the chimney, only very hot air is allowed to enter flue. the flue, — and not reflecting that the chimney draught is strong in proportion to that heat, — and not aware that a balanced valve of metal placed in the ventilating opening would allow the foul air from the room to enter, but no smoke to escape, — such arrangement has been rarely adopted. 5. Then, lastly, persons have made channels for fresh air Admission to enter the rooms, and spread from near the fire-place, but ,tsnan - because the inner openings were either under the grate, so that the air blew the fire irregularly, and scattered the ash dust, or because the air was admitted to channels too close to the grate, in which it was overheated, and then ascended away to the ceiling, like a fire-balloon, doing little service below, the plan got little favour. By allowing the fresh air, however, to enter under a broad clean fender, it is gently warmed by contact with that, and then spreads insensibly in the room, pure and tempered, preventing quite the cold draughts from windows or doors, so much complained of in ordinary cases. In the new smokeless open fire, these five objects are combined in fit manner and degrees, and other important objects, as the high or low position of the fire, are attended to. The chief results may be enumerated thus : — 1. The fire is smokeless. Qualities of lIig new 2. It consumes one third less coal than a common grate smokeless does to warm the room to the same degree. 3. It so much increases the chimney draught as to cure any smoky or ill-drawing chimney, and it perfectly ventilates the room, through the valve, at any desired rate. 4. It diffuses the heat generated much more equably than common fires. 5. It will remain alight, when fitly arranged, without being touched, for twelve hours and more. 6. It saves chimney sweeping, for it makes little or no soot. 7. It diminishes remarkably the trouble of attendance. A very important object exhibited in the Paris Exhibition Chavtoiidc was a prepared fuel, called the “ charbon de Paris.” The manufacturer takes fragments or dust of bituminous coal, or of anthracite, charcoal, or coke, and mixing these in 310 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. A-rnott certain proportions with coal-tar, he makes a soft mass. Warming- which, by moulds, he shapes into cylindrical pieces of about A latIng TI ’ 4 inches long and 1J in diameter, and he afterwards hardens — them by heat. These burn very like charcoal, free from smoke, and giving intense heat. There are now many makers of such fuel, seeming to believe the excellence of their product to depend chiefly on the proportions of the ingredients, and attributing too little to the uniform size and shape of the pieces, which allow that rightly proportioned approach of air to them on which perfect combustion so much depends. otherarttfi- There were in the Exhibition 'many specimens, both Continental and English, of artificial coal or fuel of kindred composition, in much larger masses. An obvious advantage of such over common coal is that the lumps, when put together, occupy less space than an equal weight of irregularly broken common coal, and therefore can be stored more advanta- geously in ships. And in the composition there may be of bitumen or pitchy matter just what aids the steady combus- tion without causing smoke, having, therefore, neither the excess nor the deficiency found in many natural coals. Gas fuel. The use of coal gas as a fuel for cooking, and sometimes for warming rooms, is spreading over Europe, and well suited apparatus had been sent to the Exhibition from several countries. For the purpose of warming a room gas is a very expensive fuel,, but for cooking it may, in many cases, be both convenient and economical. Evident advantages are, that the fire has not to be lighted until the moment when the cooking begins, that it can easily, by the regulating cock, be rendered and maintained of exactly the requisite strength, and that it can be extinguished at once when the work is done. °rates fire ' I n the U aias Exhibition there were open fire-grates, of variety almost endless, fitted for burning wood or coal. Many were very tasteful, and of perfect workmanship, but exhibiting no important novelty of principle. There were very ornamental and costly grates from England, as might be expected, from the open grate being there the universal fireplace, owing to the abundance and cheapness of the bituminous coal fitted for them. Several of the London manufacturers had sent specimens of the new smokeless grate. Londonand Until recently the kinds of fuel burned in Paris were Paris/ chiefly wood and charcoal, which, from their nature, produce very little smoke. Hence the remarkable clearness of the sky in Paris, and the unsoiled exterior and interior of the build- ings, compared with the smoke-loaded atmosphere and the Dr. Neil Arnott on Warming and Ventilating. 311 blackened walls of London, where bituminous coal almost alone is employed. Now, however, the use of bituminous coal is rapidly extending in Paris, and, unless precautions be taken, the same consequences will follow as in London. There is no good reason why the legislatures in both cities should not interfere with respect to the smoke of domestic fires, as has already been done in London so usefully with respect to that of the furnaces of steam engines and others. Thus all the evils from smoke, as set forth at the beginning of this Report, would be much abated in London, and would never exist in Paris. II. — Of the Close Stove. This has been made hitherto nearly in the same ways in all countries. It encloses the fires, so that no air can enter it, or can pass by the chimney, except what is wanted to support the combustion ; and much of the heat of the smoke passing through the metallic or brick material of the construc- tion remains in the room, as already mentioned. One portion of coal burned in such a stove warms a room as much as about four times the quantity burned in an open fire. Little smoke is produced in it. Close stoves are very common in Paris, and are of great variety of form. They differ from English specimens, in having generally greater extent of exposed metallic chimney- tubes for giving out heat, arranged in tasteful ways. Among the close stoves sent to the Paris Exhibition by English makers, were some for burning non-bituminous fuel, as coke, anthracite, or charcoal, showing the modifica- tions devised by Dr. Arnott for obtaining important new qualities in that form of fireplace. The balanced valve re- gulator gives complete control over the entering air, causing the combustion to be as uniform as is that of a candle, and by a simple adjustment of it, the consumption of fuel may be increased or diminished at will, by a single pound in 24 hours. A receptacle to contain fuel enough for 24 or even 48 hours is placed with its open mouth immediately over the fire, and fresh fuel falls from above as the fuel below is consumed. The fire burns thus during a whole winter without being extinguished, and requires little more service than a kitchen clock. Such a stove as now described has performed in the dining-room of the writer for sixteen years, and during that time there has not been need to sweep the chimney. The regulator of this stove is minutely described in the published treatise. It is of great simplicity, and costs only a Dr. Arnott on Warming and Venti- RATING. Close stove. Stoves which burn uninter- ruptedly. Self-regula- tion of com- bustion 312 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Di:. Aejs-ott few shillings. It is not easily hurt or deranged. Many WABMT3T& forms of such regulator were devised by the inventor, when ^xatixg* 1 " years ago he formed arrangements for maintaining an ab- solutely uniform temperature in chemical and other appa- ratus. Mons. M. E. Holland, of Paris, has lately devised kindred forms of thermostat for his apparatus, called Torre- facteur, exhibited in Class IX. of the 'Paris Exposition, without being aware that such arrangements had been made before, III., IV. — Self-regulating Fire for heating Water AND FOR PRODUCING STEAM. in furnaces. The stove above described may have its walls double, with water between them, and thus will maintain hot any desired quantity of water for the use of bedrooms, nurseries, &c. ; and a larger fire or furnace so regulated may be used to heat boilers for the warming of large buildings, by circulation of water, or to produce steam for the same purpose. V ENTILATION. ' Ventilation. Ventilation of a single room in summer may be effected by windows open at the top. In winter it is supposed in general to be sufficiently secured by the stream of air passing up the chimney from the fireplace, and it may then be rendered perfect by a ventilating valve, properly managed. But where a spacious building is to be ventilated by night and by day, in summer and in winter, as a hospital or barrack, other means are required. Those, now for some years employed. Heated are chiefly of two kinds. 1. A lofty shaft or chimney, heated by a fire or hot water pipes , and having communication with the places to be puri- fied. In F ranee such a shaft is called cheminee d’appel. Air pumps, 2. Air pumps or fan wheels, driven by machinery, which may be used either to force air into the building through fit channels, or to draw air out, like the heated shaft : and by -whichever of these means the vitiated air from the rooms is caused to leave them, it may issue either through openings near the ceilings, producing upward ventilation, or through openings near the floors, effecting downward ventilation. Downward In many English prisons ventilated by a hot shaft, the pure air, warmed or cool, is caused to enter the cells near the top, and the impure air is withdrawn through openings near the bottom. This system has not given great satisfaction. With some desirable qualities, it has one which is decidedly bad. A good qualitiy is, that it diffuses in a room the Dr. Neil Arnott on Warming and Ventilating. 313 warmth of entering air more equably than when the source of heat is below ; for warm air entering being lighter than the mass in the room, spreads itself all over that, and descends only as it cools and as more fresh warm air enters. The system is economical also, for the air which is passing away at the bottom, being the heaviest air in the room, is also the coldest, and therefore in departing carries away little heat. The heaviest air, however, is not the most impure air, as that should be which is departing, for the impure breath being warm always rises to mix with the entering fresh air, and so remains to be in part breathed again. In France, for many hospitals, prisons, and large halls of assembly, this mode of descending ventilation, by departing currents at the floor drawn towards a heated shaft is adopted. In some the pure air enters below already heated, and in some it is heated in the room by contact with surfaces of what are called water stoves, containing circulating hot water. It is impossible after a little time that any person in such places can be breathing air perfectly pure, for unless the whole mass of air in the room be forced downwards to escape at the floor with greater speed than the hot breath is rising through the general mass, the breath must ascend and be diffused in the mass, and must soon descend again, although diluted, to enter more or less the chests of all persons present. In the old English House of Commons pure air, drawn from a high tower, and moderately warmed, was admitted through many apertures in the floor, and the impure foul air was drawn away through openings above to a lofty heated ventilating shaft. This plan, while under the direction of Dr. Reid, was found for years to answer very well. In the English House of Lords steam-engines of 20-horse power are used to impel air along channels among pipes heated by containing steam, and then into the great hall of the members. The impure air is by the entering pure air forced out of the chamber, chiefly through openings at the top towards a ventilating shaft or chimney. This system to act well requires constant skilled attendance, and in its first esta blishment is very costly. The plans adopted in Paris for warming and ventilating certain large buildings by Messrs. Leon Duvoir Le Blanc, Rend Duvoir, Grouvelle, Thomas et Laurent, and others, in explanation of which there were models and drawings in the Exposition, are also examples of the systems above described. In those in which the heated shaft is used there is only the feeble and unsteady chimney force, which is too liable to failure. Da. Arnott ON Warming and Venti- lating. in France. House of Commons. House of Lords. Paris. 314 Reports on the Paris Exhibition , Dr. arnott Mr. Leon Duvoir Le Blanc heats all the rooms of a Warming building by circulation of hot water from a single boiler "SST pieced in the basement. The water is forced up from that to a high reservoir by the weight of the descending currents, Duvoir. n from which reservoir tubes pass to every room, carrying the hot water to vessels there called water stoves (poeles d'eau), from which, when cooled, it descends to be re-heated. The body of a water-stove is pierced by many passages or tubes open at both ends, through which passages the fresh air is caused to enter the room, and when warmed by the contact rises towards the ceiling. The heaviest, because coldest air of the room subsides to near the floor, and there, in pro- portion as fresh air enters, passes away by the ventilating openings. This system has the advantages of saving fuel as above described, and of causing uniform distribution of warmth, but it has the disadvantages of the impurity left, owing to the low exit of the air, and of the feeble and unsteady propelling power. 3i. Ren6 In the plan of M. Bene Duvoir, established at TEcole Poly technique and elsewhere, hot water circulates from the boiler in larger tubes placed in channels formed in the walls and floors, along which also the fresh air moves towards the rooms. In other respects there is much resemblance to the plan of M. Duvoir Le Blanc. It is some advantage that there cannot be 3varming of the rooms without ventilation, because warmth can be carried in only by the fresh air. Then the air in rising through warm channels becomes warm columns, aiding the action of the cheminde d’appel or shaft. vrfi? rou * ^1- Grouvelle's system has also the shaft and central boiler 3vith water stoves, but the water in the stoves is heated not always directly in the boiler, but by steam rising from the boiler to the stoves, or to distinct partial 3vater circulations. There are cocks as in all the other arrangements spoken of for regulating the distribution of heat according to the need. Taurent and Messrs. Thomas and Laurent, as exhibited at the hospital Lariboisiere, use steam engines of 20-horse power to force the air by fan-wheels through the building. The fresh air is heated by the steam of the engines, after that has done its work in them. The injection of the fresh air drives the used air out of the wards by openings chiefly in the side walls, some of them being halfway up, some lower down. The expense of the first establishment of such apparatus is very great. Desidera- The evident desideratum, then, for the effectual ventilation of large buildings is a simple, and therefore, cheap mechanical Dr. Neil Arnott on Warming and Ventilating. 315 power, which can either force or draw air as desired, and which De * Abnoti? shall work with unfailing regularity according to requisite and Warming clearly defined measure. It should take the place of the latino. expensive and unsightly shafts, and of the steam engines above described, or of steam-jets, — working uniformly through the nights as well as the days, and avoiding the necessity for fires, and for the watching of skilled atten- dants. Such an air-moving apparatus, it is believed, exists in the New venti- ventilating pump devised by Dr. Arnott, of the body of latingpurai *' which there was a model in the Paris Exhibition. The convenient mode of working one, however large, is not by a steam engine, but by the ordinary supply of water to the house, delivered at first into a cistern placed high in the house, and made to move the pump as it gradually descends to lower levels for the domestic uses. By an easy arrangement every pint of water which descends 20 yards is caused to force 240 cubic feet of pure air into the house, through branching channels of distribution if desired, and the pump works by night as by day with the regularity of a clock, and stops only if the daily supply of water from the water company should fail. The following extract from a Minute of the General Board of Health, dated October 4, 1850, relates to a trial of the apparatus made, while one intended for the new hos* pital at York was yet in the manufactory of the contractors, Messrs. Bailey, 272, Holborn, London. “ The Board, accompanied by Mr. Austen, Dr. Suther- Minute of land, Mr. Bammell, having inspected the new engine and Heaftiu d 01 apparatus for the ventilation of the York Hospital, and having consulted their officers, were of opinion that the ma- chine and arrangements were of a highly important character, as going far to solve the question of cheap and efficient ventilation. In this case the cost of the ventilation of a building to accommodate 1,000 persons would probably not exceed one shilling per day. Considering the importance, in a sanitary point of view, of an apparatus capable at so small a cost of regulating day and night, without superintendence, the quantity of air drawn in and out of dwelling and sleeping rooms, the Board deems it desirable to communicate with the directors of the York hospital, and to obtain from them the results of its practical working.” After the apparatus had been in use at York for two Hospital at years, the committee of management of the hospital reported iork ’ to the Board of Health that the performance “ was highly satisfactory.” 316 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dk. Arxott ox ARMIXG A>'D TEXTI- EATIXG. Heat trans- ferrer. Of the heat-transferrer mentioned in the beginning of this Report as one of the new things devised by Or. Arnott, by which hot foul air in passing away from any enclosed place is caused to give its heat to fresh air entering, no model was placed in the Exhibition, but the subject was brought forward, at a meeting of the Institute of France by a distinguished member, on his presenting to the Library a copy of the Treatise on the smokeless fire 3 &c., and it excited a lively interest. It is hoped that the Commission named by the President of the Board of Health to examine some of the new devices referred to above will soon have to make a Report. I have, &c. N. Arnott. 317 Capt. FowJce on Naval Constructions. On Naval Constructions. — By Francis Fowke, Captain Koyal Engineers. To the Bight Hon. the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Board of Trade, &c. My Lord, capt. The Sections of the XI Ilth Class, in which are contained n a °valCow- the objects connected with Naval Art, are numbered and stbuctioss. designated as follows : — Section I. — Principal Elements of Naval Constructive French Materials; and of the Art of Navigation. ciassifica- Designs and models of the fittings of workshops, build- ing yards, building slips, &c. Tools used in ship-building ; apparatus of all kinds for the preparation of the raw material Wrought timber of all kinds, metals, tar, oakum, &c. Cordage of all kinds. Pigging and sails. Masts and yards of all kinds of a single piece, and built. Anchors, pullies, capstans, pumps, and other special apparatus. Detached pieces of steamers, such as paddles, screws, &c. Special fittings for ships, such as hammocks, kitchen utensils of all sorts. Illustrations of processes for sheathing and caulking at sea. Flags and signals. Things appertaining to the art of navigation, instruments, charts, &c. (except where treated of in Class VIII.) Section II. — Apparatus for Swimming, Safety , Exploring, Ac. Swimming app aratus. Safety-boats and apparatus. Insubmersible boats of all kinds. Diving bells and submarine apparatus (except when in Class XIV.) Section III. — Designs and Models of the various Systems of Construction of Vessels employed on Rivers, Canals , and Lakes. Floating trains and other special constructions, rafts, & c. Skiffs, canoes, and row-boats generally. Boats of transport on rivers and canals for travellers and merchandise. Systems of towing. Steamers. 318 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. fowtSow Section IV. — Designs and Models of Systems of Naval Construction in Vessels employed in Commerce and Sea Fishing. Sea-going vessels or boats with oars. Sailing vessels of all sizes for passengers or merchandise. Steamers for passengers or freight, tugs. Vessels with auxiliary steam power. Steamers for both river and steam navigation. Sea-going yachts. Fishing boats with their fittings. Section V. — Designs and Models of Systems of Construc- tion in Vessels employed for Warlike Purposes. Sailing vessels of all ranks and kinds. Steamers, both paddle and screw, of all ranks and kinds. Gun-boats, blockships, fireships, submarine boats, &c. Apparatus of various kinds, used specially in navies. Kitchens, distilling apparatus, &c. This section completes the list of articles relating to naval matters ; the remaining sections of this class being devoted to the enumeration of military objects, which part of the subject has already been dealt with in the first volume of these reports. Of the numerous objects comprehended under the various heads just mentioned, a great part can only be lightly touched upon in speaking of nautical affairs, as many of them belong to this class only in special instances, and have teen dealt with in their more general character by the juries of the various classes to which they individually belong ; such objects can, therefore, only enter into the pre- sent report in their bearing upon naval art and architecture, and without reference to their abstract and individual merits. Under this head may be classed many of the tools and materials mentioned in the opening classes, the philoso- phical instruments and chests, also marine steam-engines and machinery of every kind, now become so important a branch of nautical matters, which are, of course, more pro- perly contained in Class IV., but which it will be necessary to notice in following out the objects of this report, one oi which is to consider how far the representation of this branch of industry in the Paris Exhibition may be taken as an evidence of the progress of the several nations since the period of the Great Exhibition ot 1851, and to trace, as far as is conformable to the limits of so short a paper, in what direction that progress has been principally developed. Naval Con- structions. Capt. FowJce on Naval Constructions. 319 In the opening subdivisions of Section I., the French Capt M inister de la Marine exhibits a collection of apparatus and machines in use in the naval establishments of France, some structioks. of which are novel and interesting, such as a small machine Dockyard for making trenails, in which they are pressed through a machmer y- sort of die, and submitted to a considerable pressure after having been cut into shape ; a machine for twisting or xather braiding signal haulyards which does the same work as that in use at the dockyard at Plymouth, but in a totally different manner, having a motion more automatic and less machine-like, the bobbins being moved over each other in much the same manner as if done by hand. Two large models, also forming part of the contribution of the Minister Models of de la Marine, are for the purpose of illustrating and ex- the^uim.” plaining the mode recently adopted for launching the line of battle ship Ulm, the river Charente, on the bank of which she was constructed, not being of sufficient width to admit of her being launched in the ordinary manner, M. Sabatier, the naval engineer, devised a method in which, by attaching cables which should break in succession on receiving the full strain, the vessel would be turned suffi- ciently quickly to enable her to be brought up without touching the opposite bank, and which is said to have answered perfectly. A trenail cutting-machine is exhibited in the Canadian Canadmn department, which, although of an inexpensive construction machine, like all their wood working machinery, is remarkable simple, and seems calculated to do its work well ; it also applies pressure to the trenail as well as merely cutting it. An American, a Mr. Blanchard, who is also the inventor Blanchard’s of a self-acting lathe for turning irregular forms, has a very ing° d bend ‘ remarkable apparatus for bending ships’ knees, and breast hooks and timbers of all sizes from straight timber, and thus avoiding the necessity of searching for natural knees and hooks where wood is employed for these purposes. The inventor goes on the principle that when a piece of wood is bent by ordinary means the grain or fibre on the inside of the curve remains pretty nearly in its normal state, thus obliging the fibre on the outer part of the curve to stretch •or elongate, until, if the operation be continued, its powers of cohesion are overcome, and a fracture beginning at the outside or extrados of the curve is the consequence ; from this he argues that if the wood be bent without allowing the outer part of the curve to lengthen it can be made to take any curve however sharp or angular, and this he effects by compressing the wood in the direction of its length while Capt. "Fowke on Naval Con- structions. Normand’s saw-mills. 320 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . it is undergoing the operation of bending, by which means the inner part of the fibre becomes compressed and shortened, while the outer remains of its original length. Several specimens of bent timber accompany the working model of the apparatus, one of which is a ship’s knee four- teen inches square bent nearly to a right angle; the timber, it should be remarked, is submitted to the action of steam in the ordinary manner before being put into the machine. A saw worked by steam power, invented by M. Normand, a shipbuilder, of Havre, seems a valuable adjunct to a naval workshop, and a decided improvement on the saw mill at present in use. It is for the purpose of cutting timbers, not only of any curve, but also such as have a curvature in two planes, or are what is technically termed in winding; it will also saw two sides of a timber at once, and which can be made parallel, converging or diverging at pleasure ; this part of the apparatus can also be made self- acting, so as to increase or decrease a timber in a given regular proportion from end to end. The machine consists of two reciprocating saws set in the same frame and working perpendicularly, only differing from the common up and down saw of a saw mill in being moveable on a vertical pivot at top and bottom, so that either or both are capable of being diverted in a very slight degree from their original position to the right or left. The timber to be cut is placed on four transverse horizontal rollers, moveable at will in the same plane in such a manner as that the lines of their axes, instead of remaining parallel, shall on being produced always meet in one point, this point being on one side or other of the machine, and approaching it or retiring as the rollers recede from or return to their original position, viz , that of being parallel to each other and at right angles to the cut of the saw. The baulk to be cut being carried forward on these rollers, and receiving its direction from them, will move in an arc of a circle, of which the point of meeting of their axes produced in the centre, and as the workman in charge of the machine holds a sort of tiller by which he can change the length of radius at pleasure, he has the power of making the piece of timber follow any curve, and in fact is enabled to steer it through the machine. The power of making a cut in torsion is obtained by having the entire framework supporting the rollers moveable on a longitudinal horizontal axis, and a simple arrangement with a ratchet wdieel makes this motion regularly con- tinuous and self-acting. In the motion first described, the imaginary centre of the arc in which the timber travels being Capt, Fowhe on Naval Constructions. 321 always abreast of the saw obviates the necessity of altering ^ capt. the latter from its position, as it is always cutting at right nTvalCon- angles to a radius which in direction is common to every STR UCTI 0MS « arc which the baulk can be made to describe ; in the case of the two saws being made to gradually approach or retire from each other, so as to give converging or diverging cuts, a slight cant inwards or outwards, as the case may be, is * given them to facilitate their working. The inventor of Norma ™E3 this machine has also a reciprocating saw for straight work, the motion of which, instead of being straight up and down as in a saw mill, is made to resemble that of a saw worked by manual labour in a pit ; the advantage is said to be that whereas in an ordinary saw mill, where the teeth follow in exactly the same course, a great deal of the power is expended in merely pulverizing the sawdust, in this saw on the contrary, from the saw traversing an arc instead of a straight line, each tooth cuts at a different part of the wood ; the saw is also made to retire on the up-stroke, which is a further economy of power. Among the novelties in what may be called dockyard Machine for machinery is a sewing machine adapted for sailmaking, to sevvingsails * which purpose it has been applied in America, the entire suit of sails for the great sailing ship, the Great Kepublic, having been made by machinery in ten days. There are many exhibitors of cordage, but as no trials Exhibitors were made of the strength of the different ropes and other cordage, they can merely be judged of from the evenness and finish which they displayed, without reference to their qualities of endurance. The French Minister of Marine ex- Minister of poses a hawser for a vessel of the first class, and other cordage. Manne - One of the most important exhibitors of this manufacture is the house of Merlie, Lefevre, and Co., of Havre, to whom the Meriieand world is indebted for many useful machines in their par- ticular trade. All their cordage is made by machinery, and their establishment is capable of turning out 3,800 to 4,000 lbs. weight of ropey arns a-day, and during the past year, independently of their commercial sales of upwards of 600 tons, furnished the French Government with 500 tons for the use of the navy. One of the ropes in the Exhibition of this firm is made in a peculiar manner, the strands being formed of ropeyarn, and each covered with tliree-tliread twine ; it appearing that on opening a rope that has been used the yarns on the exterior of the strands are found to have borne the principal part of the strain, while those in the interior are comparatively untouched. Messrs. Merlie have conceived the idea of forming the exterior envelope of Y 322 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Flachon’s rope of wire and hemp. Capt. each strand of three-thread twine, which, being possessed of xOWKE 05 • • ' ; O 1 Naval Cox- greater elasticity than the ordinary ropeyarn, stretches to a sxfiucTio>s. cer t a i n extent, and allows the latter to bear its proper pro- portion of strain ; and it is said that this theory has been borne out by actual trial. Another advantage in this rope is said to be that the twine being harder, acts as a kind of serving, and prevents the rope being chafed. M. Flachon, of Condrieu, manufactures a peculiar kind of rope, which consists of iron wire covered with hemp, the advantages of which, however, appear doubtful, as it is heavier than ordinary rope, and from its want of flexibility does not seem at all adapted for marine purposes ; besides which, the strain on the wire and hemp must necessarily be unequal, particularly when employed in situations where they are subject to various degrees of moisture, and the deterioration of the latter from chafing would probably be very great. The Exhibition was rich in small contrivances of many sorts connected with shipping ; and, perhaps, no one subject in this class had so many varieties as that of logs and sounding machines of different kinds. And first may be placed a little apparatus that claims to be capable of acting in both of these capacities, viz., the log-sounder of Captain Pecoul, of Marseilles. It consists of a hollow pyramid of copper, having an equilateral triangle for its base, and three convex isoscele triangles for sides ; this forms a small buoy capable of supporting a weight of 6 lbs. At the apex of the pyramid is fixed a small pulley, through which the log- line passes, having the lead attached to its end ; a circular spring on the pulle}' permits the line to run out as long as it is drawn by the weight of the lead, and stops it on the latter touching the bottom, the buoy then lying down on one side. The advantage of this instrument is, that soundings can be taken without heaving to or stopping the ship's way, as on the buoy and lead being thrown overboard, the former remains stationary on the water, and the latter runs out the line through the pulley till it comes in contact with the bottom, when it is stopped by the spring above mentioned, and on being hauled on board, the mark on the lead line shows the soundings in fathoms ; in the operation of hauling on board the buoy coming in horizontally, the line forms a very acute angle at the spring, thus rendering it im- possible for the line to slip. The instrument can also be used as a log for measuring the distance run ; in this case the lead is stopped from going to the bottom by inserting a small toggle between the strands of the line, Captain Pecoul’s sounding log. Capt. Fowke on Naval Constructions. 323 and a cork attached to the line at about 2 feet 6 inches from Fo ^f E T - ON the pulley holds the pin or faucet, which is connected with naval coir- the two other angles of one of the sides of the buoy by STRU fM 0NS * small pieces of line in the same way as in the ordinary log, and the operation of heaving in also exactly the same. M. Lecoentre exhibits a sounding lead in which a small Lecocutre’s screw is turned by the passage of the lead through the water, and the depth registered on a dial attached. M. Montrignier Monnet has a log on something of the Monnet’s principle of Massey's patent log, in which each revolution of a small copper screw indicates an advance of one metre ; it is attached to the end of a long rod, and on being plunged into the water, the other end being held in the hand, a slight motion is communicated through the rod at each revolution of the screw, thus enabling the observer to count the number of metres run in a minute or any other given time, and consequently to calculate the speed of the ships. An instrument invented by M. Dromet, and to which he Dromet’s has given the name of velocimetre, is also for the purpose velocimetre * of measuring the speed of vessels. It consists of a tube a foot or eighteen inches in length, composed of two truncated cones united at their smaller ends ; at the intersection of the cones a small tube rises, in which is produced an exhaus- tion, which increases as the speed of the ship, and this acting on a vacuum guage records on a dial the velocity acquired. This apparatus is said to succeed well on board several vessels and yachts in which it is fitted. A curious little diving bell is shown among the French , Sn ?, a11 divin e nautical instruments ; instead of being constructed like the ordinary bell to accommodate one or more men, it is merely large enough to contain the head of a man, who is thus sup- plied with air while working under water, a seat being slung from it on which the workman sits. The object of the inventor is to provide ships with a simple and cheap appa- ratus, by which a man can be sent down at any time to examine the bottom while at sea, and even to execute trifling repairs. The mode of supplying the diver with air is in- genious, and curious from its very simplicity ; instead of pumping air through a hose, as in the more finished and perfect apparatus, it is sent down by another little bell, or even a bucket reversed, which the diver empties as it were into his headpiece. There is a good representation of the diving apparatus, Jjjvmg now so well known under the name of diving dress. Eng- land sends three, exhibited by Messrs. Tylor, Heinke, and 324 Reports on ■ the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowice on Naval Con- structions. Hemke’s apparatus. American apparatus. Cabriol’s apparatus. Ernoux’s apparatus. Payerne’s submarine boat. Siebe ; two, viz., those of M. Cabriol and M. Ernoux, are French, and one is among the india-rubber goods contributed by the United States. Between these it is extremely diffi- cult to discover any important difference, and the only advantages claimed by the various proprietors are either goodness of workmanship, lowness of price, or improvements in detail, the main principles of all being precisely alike. Mr. Heinke’s apparatus differs from the others in having a valve, by means of which the diver is able to cause the air to pass from his helmet into the india-rubber part of the dress, and by inflating it is thus given the power of rising at pleasure to the surface, without waiting to be hauled up. In this apparatus the diver is also able to shut the valve by which the vitiated air escapes, and in the case of a glass being accidentally broken, or in fact of any leak taking place, a considerable rush of air can thus be forced through the aperture, and the water by this means prevented from entering. This has already been the means of saving more than one life. In all the English dresses a small quantity of air is enclosed in the india-rubber part of the dress for the purpose of relieving the limbs of the diver from the pressure of the water when working at great depths, but in the dresses exhibited by the French makers this does not appear to be the case, the principal study of the manufac- turers of which seems to have been rather to produce their apparatus at as low a price as possible than to introduce any improvements. Of the American dress no opinion can be given, as no description was sent along with it, and it was not brought forward at the trials which were made of the different apparatus. In one of the French dresses a pressure gauge is attached to the air-pump for the purpose of indicating the pressure of air on the diver, and conse- quently the depth to which he has attained. In case of any accident happening to the pipe that supplies him with air this would probably give timely warning, and in that case must be looked upon as a valuable addition. The same maker, M. Cabriol, also provides the helmet with a small cock opposite the mouth, so that the diver can be supplied with atmospheric air directly on emerging from the water, which might be useful in cases of his being seized with sudden illness or fits of any kind. In the apparatus of M Ernoux no air-pump is necessary, as the diver is supplied with air by means of an ordinary ships fire-engine, which of course makes a considerable reduction in the cost of the apparatus. Among the diving apparatus may be noticed a submarine Capt. Fowke on Naval Constructions. 325 boat invented by Dr. Payerne. A sectional model of it is f 0 ^ke T on exhibited among the French naval models, which shows the Naval Cow- internal arrangements. It differs from the diving or sub- — marine boat formerly constructed by the same person, in being propelled by a screw moved by a steam-engine, the fuel being mixed with some substance, such as nitrate of potassium or nitrate of soda, so as to be rendered indepen- dent of the atmosphere for its supply of oxygen, and the furnace being entirely isolated from the rest of the vessel. The idea is ingenious, and the construction appears simple, but as it is not stated that any actual experiments have been made, it is difficult to pronounce upon the merits of the apparatus. Dr. Payerne is the inventor of a submarine boat that is now used with success at Cherbourg. It was at first constructed with a length of 30 feet, for four work- men, and was used at Brest, in 1847 , in removing a hard rock in front of one of the building slips at a depth of 40 feet below the surface. In 1849 the same boat was employed in the Seine in the destruction of the old “ Pont au Diable/ at Paris. In 1853, being in use at Cherbourg, it was cut in two, and increased to 49 feet in length, so as to enable it to hold twelve more workmen, and it is now constantly at work at that place, the amount of labour performed being the removal, on an average, of 40 cubic feet of granite rock per day. M. Delvigne, a French officer, the same who is the ^ty a 6 \ inventor of a rifle that bears his name, exhibits an apparatus ratus. which is a modification, and would seem also an improve- ment on Captain Manby's mortar for effecting a communi- cation between the shore and a vessel in distress, or between two ships at sea in bad weather. The principal point of difference is, that the line to be conveyed by the projectile instead of being coiled down beside the mortar, and drawn out by the ball, is wound on a reel in the projectile itself, which is thus made of an elongated form, and consequently of a greater weight than a round shell of the same diameter. The end of the line which it is desired to retain is fastened to or near the mortar, and the line unwinds itself from the reel during the flight of the projectile ; the advantage of this arrangement is that the shot is relieved from the impediment to its flight, of the resistance offered by uncoiling and drawing through the air the whole length of line, and also that as its velocit}^ diminished, the weight is also decreased at the same time, until at last nothing is left but the envelope or shell, which being of wood will float on the water and buoy the end of the line in the case of its not- 326 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Fowke on exactly reaching the vessel for which it was intended, and is naval Con- also less likely to occasion any damage in striking either a — * ship or objects on shore. This apparatus is so simple in its application as to be easily understood and managed even by unskilled persons, and it can be used not only in cases of shipwreck, but also to carry despatches from one ship to another when the weather is too bad for them to com- municate by other means, to take out a tow line at sea, or to afford aid to a man fallen overboard. M. Tremblay, a captain of marine artillery in the French Tremblays service, is also the inventor of a somewhat similar apparatus, ratus! appa ’ but more powerful than that of M. Delvigne ; it consists of an iron grapnel having its flukes covered by a piece of wood, and with a chain of some yards in length attached to its ring, to the chain is attached the line which it is proposed to carry, which is rolled in a box as in the apparatus of Captain Manby ; the projectile force in this case is a six-pounder or twelve-pounder Congreve rocket. The range of the prejectile in the two systems is pretty nearly the same, namely, from 300 to 400 metres, that is, 327 to 436 English yards ; but the apparatus of M. Tremblay has the advantage in being- able to carry out at once a line of half an inch in diameter, whereas the line carried by that of M. Delvigne is not more than half that size ; his grapnel also is better adapted for holding than the reel employed by the latter gentleman. A third exhibitor of apparatus for a similar purpose is a Pourcher’s M. Casson Pourcher, who makes use of a small mortar almost ratus yappa ' identical with that of Captain Manby, now so well known in England. Anchors. Several anchors are exhibited, some of them differing in form from the common one ; one of the best appears to be Trotman’s that of Mr. Trotman, which has the flukes moveable on a pivot at the crown of the anchor in the same way as in Porter's anchor, on which it claims to be an improvement ; it possesses many advantages, such as convenience of stowage, a non-liability to being fouled or to prick a ship s bottom in shallow water, and from its peculiar form, the fluke not in action assists in strengthening the shank. In the experi- mental trials which were instituted by the Admiralty, and carried out at Sheerness in i852, with a view of ascertaining the merits of the many rival anchors exhibited in the Exhibition in 1851, and brought forward about that time, of eight anchors, including the Admiralty pattern, which were submitted to many and severe proofs, those of Mr. Sdfo?. 8 Trotman and Mr. Rodger, which will be hereafter described, appear to stand first in order of superiority ; their strength Ca'pt. FowJce on Naval Constructions. 327 and holding powers being represented by the numbers Fo ^f' OK 1*28 and 1*26, the Admiralty having been adopted as the ^aval con- unit of comparison, and such has been the effect of this STEU TfI ONS - verdict upon the maritime public, that since that period Trotmaffs anchor has been supplied to more than six thousand vessels of all sizes, and it is stated that for an equal strain the weight of the anchor can be reduced more than a fifth by the adoption of this form. An anchor, also with moveable flukes, said to be an im- provement on that last mentioned, is exhibited by Messrs. Bloomer and Co., West Bromwich, near Birmingham. The anchor er s peculiar feature in this anchor is, that the necessity for welding the different parts together is obviated. The arms are made in two separate pieces or plates, which are secured to the shank by a bolt at the crown. The palm and toggle or hone are constructed in one solid piece, the latter being passed through between the plates of the arms and secured to them ; the point of the palm and the two pointed ends of the plates are then welded together at one heat. The shank is of one piece, and is inserted between the plates of the arms, instead of the latter being inserted between two welded jaws of the shank ; thus only two welds are neces- sary in the construction of this anchor instead of six, which are required in the common anchor. As this anchor was not in existence at the time of the experiments mentioned above, we must wait for some renewal of them, or at least some practical trial before venturing to pronounce on its capabilities as compared with the anchors already tested. An anchor with flukes also moveable on a pivot at the Martini’s crown is exhibited by a Frenchman, a M. Martini, but in anchor ' this, instead of the flukes moving alternately to and from the shank, they both move together to one side or the other, and both bite the ground at the same time ; in some trials that have been made at Marseilles, it is said to have answered well, and it has the advantage of not requiring any stock, and consequently of being easier to stow than a common anchor ; the novelty of the invention is very doubtful, and indeed it is said to have been brought forward and tried entirely without success in this country about 35 years ago. In the open space behind the principal building, two Frenchnavai large anchors, side by side, presented very remarkable anchor, differences of shape and design ; the one was the anchor at present in use in the French Imperial navy, and differing little, if at all, in general form from that which has been in general use for years for ships both of war and commerce, 328 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Rodger’s anchor. Fowoox namely, with large flat flukes and round shank and crown. Natal cox- The other is the invention of Mr. Rodger, Lieut. R.N., ' and differs from the ordinary type in having the flukes ex- tremely small and thick, and the shank and crown rec- tangular in section, instead of round or oval, the longest side of the rectangle being in the direction of the greatest strain. Mr. Rodger contends that from the flukes of his anchor O being small and pointed they enter much deeper into the ground, and consequently give a much greater holding power. The advocates of the old system say, on the other hand, that their flukes, although not biting so deeply as those of Mr. Rodger, yet by their greater breadth offer in- creased resistance, and that in loose soil or mud the small flukes would be almost useless. The experiments made by the Admiralty have, however, as stated above, invariably given Mr. Rodger's a high place among the anchors tested. A sixth anchor is exhibited by a Mr. Wight, of Sunderland. Screw Under the same head as anchors may be noticed the screw Saunders moorings of Messrs. Saunders and Mitchell, which have andMitcheii. attracted great attention among the various foreign nautical visitors to the Exhibition. The mooring consists of a single turn of a screw, with a broad flat flange or thread of two or more feet in projection, and having a ring made fast to the axis of the screw, to which is attached the cable. The mooring itself being screwed into the ground they have a much greater holding power than an anchor, but are obviously only applicable to the case of permanent harbour or other moorings, and cannot be brought into competition with anchors for ordinary employment by shipping. A curious description of chain cable is exhibited by a Sisco’s chain M. Sisco, who, instead of welding the links in the ordinary manner, makes each separate link of a length of rolled hoop iron, wound round and round till it attains the required thickness. It is then plunged into melting brass to braze together the different laminse of which it is composed, and to fill up the interstices unavoidably left between the folds of hoop iron. It is stated that in experiments made both at the Royal Dockyard at Woolwich and at the French Imperial Dockyard of Guerigny, the strength of these links proved to be enormous, so great, indeed, that it was judged prudent to suspend the experiments through a fear of acci- dent to the hydraulic proving apparatus itself. The objec- tions to its use are, that from the union of brass and iron it is probable that in salt water the latter would suffer so materially from galvanic action as to be entirely destroyed cables. Gapt. Fowke on Naval Constructions. 329 in a very short time ; that the links, from the form of their f 0 ^ p e t ' 0N section, which is, from the method of manufacture, necessarily Auctions" rectangular instead of round, are certain to cut one another — when under heavy strain ; and a third objection lies in the very much increased cost of a chain of this descripion. A fourth objection may be stated, which was elicited in the Exhibition itself ; it is the ease with which defective work- manship may be introduced into this description of chain without a possibility of detection, except by actual trial. At the time when the experiments were being carried on in the Exhibition upon the strength of specimens of w r ood from British Colonies, a link of this chain was brought, w r ith a statement that it had broken the Woolwich hydraulic press, and with a request that it might be tried upon the one then being used ; in other words, that permission might be given to break that one also. This was declined, as the machine, belonging to Mr. Dunn of Manchester, and witli great kindness placed at the disposal of the British Commis- sion, although a very beautiful one, was not intended for testing strains such as the “ chain Sisco,” was said to be able to bear. At the same time an offer was made to try a somewhat smaller link, of apparently equal workmanship, which formed part of the Exhibition, of M. Sisco, who, how- ever, refused to allow such trial, on the ground that these small links were merely made for exhibition, and that their workmanship was not of such a character as to enable them to stand any great strain ; thus furnishing, as it was thought at the time, a powerful objection to the system advocated. Good specimens of chain cable were sent by Messrs. Edge English and Son, Coalport, and by Messrs. Smith and Hawkes, 0 f chaui cab es * Birmingham, and it is much to be regretted that no trial was made of the comparative strengths of the chain cables contributed by different manufacturers, without which any attempt to pronounce upon their comparative merits must be largely influenced by the known character of the houses exhibiting them, and any opportunity that might thus be afforded for the acquirement of additional knowledge by such means thus allowed to pass unimproved. Almost the only French maker of chain cables, M. David, ^renc: cables of Havre, and who is also the only exhibitor from that country, shows, besides chains, several inventions or im- provements in nautical machinery, which appear deserving of notice. The first of these he calls a “ lunette d'escargot.” It is for the purpose of preventing the turns of a rope from mounting up to the top of the barrel of the cap- stan, and in consequence necessitating the rope to be stop- 330 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke ox Xavae Cox- §TRUCTIOXS. David’s steering wheel. Barbotin’s capstan. Saxeby’s stopper. Gray’s anchor- dropper and scuttles. Gray’s ship’s pump. pered while they are being driven down again, and the means by which this is accomplished is simply by a ring of iron, which is put on the barrel of the capstan, fitting quite loosely, so as to turn freely on the latter. One side, or rather one point, in the circumference of this circle rests on a shoulder at the bottom of the barrel, while another dia- metrically opposite is kept slightly tilted up by a small roller on this shoulder, and by the inclination of this guid- ing ring the rope going on the barrel is made to follow a course somewhat like the thread of a screw, and instead of mounting at each turn a space equal to its own diameter, the turns are kept constantly at one part of the barrel. M. David has applied the same principle to the winding of the tiller ropes or chains on the barrel of the steering wheel, and exhibits the steering apparatus thus constructed, for which he claims this important advantage, namely, that both the ropes or chains being constantly and evenly stretched, there is no slack to be taken up, and consequently no lost time in changing the motion of the wheel from one direction to another. A capstan, much in use and greatly esteemed in the French naval service, is that invented by Captain Barbotin, of the Imperial navy, the peculiarity of which consists in its having a part of its barrel sunk so as exactly to fit each link of the cable, which can thus be brought in with- out being obliged to employ a messenger, as at present. A very simple and apparently effective stopper, a kind of small break, is shown by its inventor, Mr. Saxeby, which, from its extreme simplicity, seems to bid fair to take the place of the one now so much employed, invented by Captain Legoff, of the French navy. Mr. Gray, Limehouse, the exhibitor of Sir William S. Harris' lightning-conductors, has also a variety of small ob- jects appertaining to the fitting of ships. One of these is a method of securing an anchor at the cathead, so that it can be let go by simply pulling a trigger inside the bulwarks, something in the way that the life buoy is let go on board a man-of-war. He also shows some neat methods of secur- ing scuttles, and some improvements in the fitting of deck lights, so as to open if required, and at the same time to be perfectly water-tight, small matters apparently, but which will hardly be underrated by anyone wdio has made a voyage with a defective scuttle opening into his berth, par- ticularly in bad weather. Another of Mr. Gray’s inventions appears in the shape of a ship's pump, to which he has given the name of spherical, from the barrel, if it may be so called, Capt. Fowlce on Naval Constructions. 331 of the pump being in the form of a sphere instead of cvlin- yowS'os drical. This sphere is divided into two equal parts by a naval Con- i »/ STRUCTIONS vertical partition, leaving a small space at the centre for the — reception of the piston, which is a circular disc placed hori- zontally across the centre of the sphere. This piston oscillating on its diameter in the plane of the partition above mentioned makes alternate up and down strokes as it were in the two hemispheres, so that it is in point of fact a peculiar form of double pump. The action of pumping is rotary, and performed by a winch. The chief merit of the pump would appear to consist in its neat, compact form, and the very small space occupied by it both when at rest and when being worked. It may be mentioned that Mr. Gray exhibited a steam-engine of 12-horse power on the same principle, which worked satisfactorily during the whole period of the Exhibition. Among the nautical objects placed on the trophy of the British mercantile marine were some models to illustrate a very neat method of shipping and unshipping a boat’s rudder, which is said to have been applied and approved of in some of the coastguard boats, and the inventor proposes to extend the principle to ships’ rudders, which he hopes thus to render capable of being more easily repaired in case of accident. His plan is to make the rudder slide in grooves formed in the sternpost of the vessel, so as that it can be unshipped by lifting it and removing it from the groove. It does not appear that any application of it has been made on a large scale, and it would seem to be extremely difficult to strengthen the grooves sufficiently to resist the action of the sea. A sternpost and skeleton of a rudder for a screw steamer, being a fine forging of wrought-iron, are sent from the works Oockeriii; of Mr. Coekerill, at Serai ng, in Belgium, and show a very gium. Be1 ’ curious arrangement, the object of which is difficult to conjecture, the screw is placed abaft the rudder, which is necessarily cut in two to admit of the passage of the shaft, for which purpose the rudder post has an eye in the centre through which the shaft works, and which is made suffi- ciently large to admit of the play of the rudder ; the effect of such an arrangement would seem to be to weaken the rudder, render it difficult to be unshipped for repairs and deprive it of the advantage which it may gain from the more rapid action of the water in its passage from the screw. A nicely constructed model in the Dutch department Dutch shows a method of substituting iron for wood in the masts mast. w iron of a ship ; the model in question is that of a wrought-iron 332 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Naval Con- structions, Russel’s apparatus for lowering boats. Clifford’s apparatus for lowering boats. Berthon’s life-boat. tubular mast, being the mainmast of a 1,000 ton ship, in external form it is precisely the same as a wooden mast, and is said to be much stronger and lighter, the full sized mast of which this is a model only weighing five tons, it is formed of iron plates rivetted together, but as no description or section accompanied the model, its internal structure cannot be stated. Several means are exhibited of lowering ships' boats, among which two seem especially deserving of notice, one by a Mr. G. F. Russel and the other by Mr. Clifford, in the former plan the boat rests her whole weight upon two keel cranes ; the act of lowering immediately disengages her from them without hoisting the boat, and at the same time projects the boat several extra feet from the ship's side, and as both the pendents, after passing over the heads of the cranes, lead to the same barrel of the winch, both ends of the boat must necessarily be lowered simultaneously, and when near the water, one man in the boat can instantly dis- engage her fore and aft by a lever under the centre thwart, which releases a clip at either end of the boat that holds the hook of the tackle. The winch for lowering and raising the boat is placed flush with the stanchions inside the bulwarks, these occupying no space on deck ; it is fitted with a break, so that one man can lower a boatload of people, or by a lanyard to the break a man in the boat can lower it, however heavy, and regulate its descent without anyone remaining on deck. In Mr. Clifford’s boat the tackle falls are led to a winch under the centre thwart of the boat herself, and by releasing a break and permitting this to revolve, the boat is lowered evenly and gently by a hand in the boat itself. A beautiful ship's life-boat is the invention of the Rev. Mr. Berthon, of Fareham, Hants, a model of it was placed in exhibition, and a full-sized boat was afterwards brought over from England, and made the subject of some very severe trials, as to stability and strength, on the Seine, in the presence of H.I.H. the Prince Napoleon and the Members of the Jury, in all of which her performance was most satis- factory. The boat is the form of a whale-boat, that is, sharp both bow and stern, and is constructed with longitudinal timbers instead of transverse, the gunwales being the upper- most pair of these timbers, and the keel the lowest ; these timbers are moveable on pivots at the upper part of the stem and stern, so as to be capable of being folded down on either side of the keel, the planking, if it may so be called, is formed of two skins of waterproof canvass stretched over Capt. Fowhe on Naval Constructions. 383 these timbers, one inside and the other outside, thus forming ^ Capt. air-cells between the timbers when the boat is stretched out ; na\™Oon- the bottom boards and thwarts are hinged in the middle, STRU ^ ONS - so as to fold with the boat, and the oars are fastened to the latter, so as to be always ready for use. The boat when folded up occupies only a few inches in breadth, and is stowed close to the ship’s side outside the bulwarks, covered by a cloth of painted canvass, and attached to a pair of light davits so constructed that she can be lowered in a few seconds, and the weight of the boat being thrown on the spanners attached to the gunwales, she is opened into her boat-like form by the mere action of lowering. This boat is not more heavy or costly than an ordinary wooden boat, and as a ship might carry six or seven in the space now occupied by one ordinary ship’s boat of the same size, would appear to be peculiarly adapted for emigrant ships, &c., where space is valuable and plenty of good boat accommodation indispen- able. A. portable boat is exhibited in the American section American on a different principle to that of Mr. Bert lion. The form 0 f llfe * boat ' the boat is flat-bottomed, square at each end, and with flat sides sloping outwards. The sides and ends are hinged on to the bottom, and the joint kept water-tight with india- rubber cloth, and when not in use they can be folded down on the bottom so as to form one flat package. The angles between the sides and ends being also connected with india- rubber cloth, are fastened together at the angles by a small hook, so as to form an ugly shaped punt, certainly quite unfit for any purposes, either of a ship’s boat or life-boat, and only capable of being used in perfectly smooth water, and propelled at a very slow rate. Another form of portable boat is shown among the French French naval models, the material of which seems novel in its appli- boat? ble cation, it is made of a rectangular flat piece of wire gauze (toile metallique), which is made into a shape somewhat resembling a canoe by being simply doubled up in the middle, the ends being fastened to iron laths which fold in half and form the bow and stern posts. This boat was tried on the Seine, but although simple and ingenious, does not appear likely to be of any practical utility. An india-rubber portable boat was exhibited in the Edmiston’s English section by Mr. Edmiston, and a similar one in the boat^ mbber American part of the Exhibition, both of which are without rigid framework, and are simply dependant upon the infla- tion of the india-rubber bags, of which their sides are composed, for their form and rigidity, a fact which appears to present a serious objection to their employment, as a boat Capt. POWKE OX Naval Cox - Steuctioxs. Thompson’s life buoys. Canadian safety paddle-box. Burch’s life- boat. 334 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. on this principle requires to be kept not merely water- proof, but what is infinitely more difficult, air-tight; a leak, however small, instead of being merely an inconve- nience to be overcome by bailing, is destructive to the boat, and further, a leak above water is of as much conse • quence as one below ; in one of the india-rubber portable boats an attempt has been made to remedy this evil by introducing a light folding wooden framework, which appears a decided improvement upon the plan of trusting entirely to inflated bags. The Americans show in the same collection with this two long cigar-shaped india-rubber air-vessels, constructed for the purpose of being lashed to the gunwales of a common ship’s boat, with a view of making her more difficult to capsize, and of giving her sufficient powers of flotation to support her crew in case of her getting wholly or partially filled with water, in fact, to give a means of extemporizing a kind of life-boat in case of emergency out of an ordinary boat; these air-vessels, are of course, liable in some degree to the inconvenience men- tioned in speaking of the last named boat, but as only sup- plementary flotation is required of them, and they are not depended on for rigidity, the evil becomes much less than in the former case. Another American, a Mr. Thompson, has an ingenious method of converting the deck seats for a passenger vessel into life-buoys. He makes the seats a kind of ottoman, which, by their form, are capable of embracing a person’s body under the arms, and the seat and legs being full of air, give sufficient power of flotation for one person. In the Canadian collection is a model showing how the outside part of the great paddleboxes of the river and lake steamers employed in America can be instantly detached from tiie vessel in the case of accident, and so constructed as to form large rafts capable of sustaining each a great number of persons. They are onty fastened to the rest of the paddle- boxes by two bolts, which, on being withdrawn, allow them to fall off into the water, their detachment being facilitated in case of the vessel sinking by the outward pressure of the air contained under the paddleboxes. Perhaps the most wholesale way of providing life-boat accommodation for ships is that proposed by Mr. Burch, of Macclesfield, the inventor of a form of screw propeller, here- after to be described, and shown by him in a model of a first- class steamer ; this is no less than to construct the poop of the ship as a separate vessel, capable of being detached and launched from the ship’s deck at a moment’s notice, but Capt. Fowke on Naval Constructions. 335 which is stated to be as firmlysecured to the rest of the ship at all other times as if built as a permanent poop. The mizen- mast of the parent vessel is stepped in the poop, so as to form a mast for it when detached, and it is likewise furnished with a rudder and bowsprit, and has the appearance of a cutter-rigged vessel. The idea is ingenious, and prettily carried out ; but the difficulty of securing the separate poop to the main vessel would appear to be so great as to render its practical application of very doubtful success. Cork life-belts and buoys are contributed by Mr. Smith, Fish Street Hill, London ; and also by a M. Crignies, of Amiens ; and the same articles in india-rubber by almost all the exhibitors of that class of goods. Shore or coast life-boats, which formed such a large item in the Exhibition of 1851, owing to the competition for the prize so munificently offered by the Duke of Northumberland, had but few representatives in the Exhibition of 1855, the Royal National Life-boat Institution and one or two private individuals being the only contributors from England. From Belgium there is a boat constructed of iron, and said to be for the purposes of either a fishing or a life-boat. It has an air vessel at each end, all along each side, and the spaces under the thwarts form also additional air-cells ; in fact, the interior space of the boat seems unnecessarily diminished for the purpose of creating superfluous buoyancy, while there is no provision for enabling the boat to right herself if upset. It may be added, that nothing can be more unsightly and more unlike a serviceable sea-going boat in form, and her whole appearance seems to warrant the idea that she would be most unfit for either of the purposes for which she is said to be designed. A curious novelty in the construction of this boat is that she is fitted all round the gunwales with fenders made like elliptic carriage-springs. A full-sized life-boat, invented by M. Moud, of Havre, is shown in the garden behind the Palais de ITndustrie. It is of wood, thirty feet long, six feet beam, and four feet deep ; it has a large air-vessel at each end, but without having the air-vessels so much elevated by the sheer of the boat as in Beechy’s and Peaks life-boats. Instead of having air- vessels or compartments along both sides or under a false bottom, she is constructed with an air-vessel immediately below the gunwale on one side only, which is said to have the effect of making her right very rapidly when upset. The boat in question, in some trials which were carried on at Havre, is said to have righted instantly with three men and a weight of 300 kilogrammes (660 lbs.) on board ; but as she Capt. Fowke on Naval Con- structions. Smith’s life- belts. Coast life- boats. Belgian iron life-boat. Moue’s life- boat. Reports on the Paris Exhibition . capt. was not among the boats experimented upon in the Seine at naval Cox- the time of the Exhibition, no further particulars can be structions. given of her performances. Ag Screw pro- pellers. Sollier’s screw. Mangin’s screw. might be anticipated, there are a good many com- petitors for the best form of screw- propeller ; some professing to have improved upon the one in common use as regards its propulsive effect, and others exhibiting alterations in the method of withdrawing or feathering it when not in use. To judge from the models exhibited, each claiming for itself some peculiar advantage, there would appear to be con- siderable difference of opinion on the best and most effective form of screw, as we find some so widely differing from others in appearance, that it is difficult to suppose they can be intended for the same purpose. Thus we find six-armed, four-armed, three and two-armed screws, screws with straight and curved, long and short, broad and narrow, fixed and moveable arms, several forms and dimensions of centre or bosses from which the arms project, and various contrivances for getting rid of the propeller when the vessel is under canvass alone. In a propeller invented by a M. Sollier, a marine engineer in the French service, he starts with the axiom that a screw with four arms is that which up to the present time lias given the best effect in propelling, and devotes his attention to the means of overcoming a very serious objection to such a form, particularly for ships of war, viz., the difficulty of withdrawing the screw from the water, owing to the im- possibility of providing a well of sufficient dimensions for its reception ; this lie proposes to effect by the employment of a four-bladed propeller which is composed of two separate two-bladed ones set on the same axis at right-angles to each other, and so disposed that by means of internal mechanism they can be brought at pleasure, the one pair of arms in front of the others, forming as it were a two bladed screw, and capable of being hoisted up a well of nearly the same size. This system of propeller is fitted on board the “ Austerlitz,” a ship of one hundred guns in the Imperial Navy, and is said to have worked satisfactorily during the two summers that she has been employed in the Baltic. It is, however, subject to the grave objection of being com- plicated in its mechanical arrangement, which, always to be avoided, is increased tenfold when applied to any machinery working under water, and consequently extremely difficult of access for the purposes of adjustment or repairs. Another form of propeller, partially adopted by the Im- perial navy, is that invented by a M. Mangin, also a marine Capt. Fowhe on Naval Constructions. 337 engineer in that service, and which one might fancy had Po ^Soir been suggested by that last described, as it consists also of naval cox- a combination of two two-bladed screws set on the same — * axis, but instead of being moveable thereon, they are fixed in the position that M. Sollier adopts for enabling his pro- peller to be lifted into the well. The two screws, cast in one piece, are placed in the example shown (which is in- tended for the “ Imperial/' a ninety-gun ship) at twenty inches apart, the one before the other, so that they have but one projection on a vertical plane, at right angles to the vessel's keel ; each separate blade is, of course, considerably less in width (apparently about one-lialf narrower) than that of a two-bladed screw of similar diameter, from which it fol- lows that a well of one-half the width is required for its re- ception when elevated, an important point in a ship of the line, where it is desirable to leave as much space as possible for the stern chasers. M. Mangin's system was first tried in 1853, in the steam sloop “ Marceau,” of 120-horse power, and was found to have rather the advantage over the two-bladed screw in its traction from a fixed point. In propelling the ship it gave, with the same number of revolutions of the engine, identical results with the ordinary screw, both as to quickness and slip, but with a trifling increase in the power employed, which being so small as only to affect the third place of decimals of the co-efticient of useful effect, was supposed to have been occasioned by the greater friction of the new propeller, it being of cast-iron while the two-bladed one against which it was tried, was of polished gun-metal. One remarkable and unexpected result was observed on this trial, viz., that with M. Mangin's propeller there was an almost total absence of all tremulous motion. The system of M. Mangin was applied to the “ Phlegeton” corvette of 400-horse power, and so satisfactory has been its performance in the Baltic and Black Sea, that the present example is destined, as before stated, for a line of battle ship. Perhaps the most important advantage resulting from the employment of this propeller is, that from the blades barely exceeding the stern-post in width (in the “ Phlegdton" the projection on each side is only five inches), the vessel can be put under canvass without lifting, or in any way altering, the position of the screw, except merely to place it in a vertical position. A propeller is exhibited by Mr. John Bourne, of Greenock, Holm’s pro- and also by the inventor, M. Holm, to which he has pcller * given the name of heliocoidal propeller, the blades of which are curved at the ends, so as to present a concave z Capt. Fowke ox Xaval Cox- STRUCTIOXS. Burch’s'pro- peller. Allen’s pro- peller. 338 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. surface on the afterside, which is said to have the effect of preventing the centrifugal motion given by the revolution of the screw, and to change its direction into one parallel to the axis. The system has been applied in two instances in Sweden, and has also been employed in the case of the “ A’lma” transport, and in four other vessels, by Mr. Bourne, it is said with good results. In one of these in the Exhibi- tion, the blades are shown curved also in a contrary direc- tion, for the purpose of going astern as well as ahead ; but as it is seldom that great speed is a matter of consequence in such a case, this would appear a complication of rather doubtful advantage. Two propellers exhibited, one by Mr. Burch, of Maccles- field, the other by Mr. Allen, seem to have arrived in different ways almost at the same form, the object in both is to get rid of the dead circle, or that part of the imaginary disc formed by the revolution of the screw, in which little or no propulsive effort being exerted, its power is expended in merely beating or churning the water, and consequently detracts from the speed of the vessel. In Griffith’s propeller this is sought to be counteracted by filling up the dead circle solid, in the form of a sphere ; and Mr. Burch and Mr. Allen follow out the same principle, only that with them the run of the vessel is made to project in a kind of cylindrical form, so as to cover this centre part of the propeller, by them made disc-shaped instead of spherical ; and the taper or curve of this projecting part of the vessel is carried out to a point, so as to give it a clean run ; and it is in the manner of effecting this latter object that is con- tained the principal difference between the two propellers, Mr. Burch bringing the screw further forward, making the run in the dead wood of the vessel, while Mr. Allen places his propeller abaft the sternpost, and produces a similar form by a prolongation of its centre boss. Of the two, that of Mr. Burch appears to be the most practicable ; and as he has since actually applied it to a small vessel of his own construction, it is to be hoped that some account will be given of the results of this enterprising experiment. The propeller is inserted in a space left for the purpose in the dead wood, as in the ordinary screw, but considerably further forward, the cylindrical projection before mentioned being also cut through in a transverse direction to receive the disc or boss which fills up the dead circle of the propeller. The blades or vanes, six in number, project from the circum- ference of this disc, and are so constructed that they can be entirely drawn into it when the screw is not in use. In 339 Gapt. FowJce on Naval Constructions. order to prevent the friction and loss of power which would otherwise take place from the rapid motion of the disc in the thin films of water contained between it and the cylin- drical part of the run, a small tube, connected with this space, is led out above the water line of the vessel, and the air thus admitted takes the place of the water, which is driven out by centrifugal force. A model of the screw of the steam transport “ Simla” was exhibited by Messrs. Tod and Macgregor, of Glasgow. It is three-bladed, and made of cast-iron, and is attached to a pair of 25-horse pow'er engines, being an exact model of those of the vessel above named. They are of the kind denomi- nated steeple engines, which form has long been used on the Clyde in paddle steamers, and which is here modified to suit the altered method of propulsion. In these the cylinders are vertical, and set fore and aft over the keel, each having four piston rods, between which is placed the crank shaft, close to the cylinder covers ; the motion is communicated through gearing, the screw making three revolutions foi each one made by the crank shaft. Among the marine propellers, one by an English exhi- bitor, Mr. De Bergue, bears the stamp of originality, but as it does not appear that any actual application, or oven experiment, has been made, it is not possible to pronounce on its merits. Although it so far resembles the screw pro- peller as that it acts obliquely on the water instead of directly, as is the case with the paddle, yet in its actual application it resembles more the latter propeller, being situated in boxes or chambers on either side of the ship, and the power being derived from paddle-engines. The propeller consists of a long flat pallet of wood or other material, the length of which is about five times its breadth, lying hori- zontally in a square tube or chamber of nearly the same length and breadth as itself, parallel to the vessel's keel. To understand the action of the pallet, let it be supposed to be in such a position as to form a diagonal of the box or chamber, its foremost end touching the top, and its after- most the bottom of the chamber. If the after end be now raised to the top of the chamber, keeping the fore end in its present position (the pallet turning on it, as it were), a wedge-shaped portion of water will be forced out behind, and at the same time there will be a tendency to draw in the water fpom the front to the space left by this wedge, bounded by the pallet. The front end being now in turn brought to the bottom, leaving the aftermost at the top, an oblique action will take place on the water in the chamber, z 2 Capt. Fowke on Naval Con- STKUCTIONS. Tod and Macgregor’s model of the “ Simla’s ” screw and engines. De Bergue’s propeller. 340 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Naval Con- structions. Corbett’s multiplying gear. Paddle wheels. Models of ships. nearly similar to tliat exercised by the blade of the screw propeller ; and on the after end being also brought down, the wedge-like action first described will again take place. It would appear then that there are two distinct propulsive actions on the water in each stroke, which may be said to bear respectively the same relation to the screw propeller as the wedge and inclined plane bear to its namesake among mechanical powers, where, as is well known, their relationship is very intimate. Mr. Be Bergue proposes to place his propeller either on each side the ship, or in a trunk in the middle ; and there are instances in which it would probably supersede the screw with advantage, — as on canals or shallow rivers, where the latter is with difficulty applied ; it would also, perhaps, be free from the objection of getting fouled by ropes, &c., to which the screw is in some measure liable, and which has, in some instances, led to other means of propulsion being adopted, as, for example, in the floating fire-engine now in use by the London Fire Brigade, where this inconvenience is remedied, at a great expense of power, by substituting for the screw propeller the direct action of a stream of water, propelled by a centrifugal pump in the vessel's hold. In connexion with the screw propeller may be mentioned a pretty means of multiplying motion exhibited by a Mr. Reginald Corbett, which he proposes to make use of for transmitting the power of the engine to the screw, without being obliged to have recourse to gearing ; in the specimen shown the velocity is doubled, the driving shaft has a flat disc of metal on its end, with three slots or grooves on its face reaching entirely across it, forming six equi-distant radii ; three friction rollers at the extremities of the same number of equi-distant arms on the end of the shaft of transmission work in these slots, acting in a similar manner to the teeth in wheel and pinion work, the apparatus being, in point of fact, a three-toothed pinion working into a six- toothed wheel. The growing ascendancy of the screw over the paddle, as a means of marine locomotion, was exemplified by a remark- able absence of anything novel connected with, and, in fact, almost of any example of the ordinary paddle wheel ; some revivals of long abandoned schemes, indeed, appeared under this head in the French part of the Exhibition, and a small model of a feathering paddle in the Austrian section of the Annexe, but as regards anything either novel, suggestive, or practical, the paddle w^as wholly without representation. Two models of vessels on a large scale which were deemed Capt. Foivlce on Naval Constructions. 341 worthy of a place in the great nave of the Exhibition attracted particular attention, one was a sectional model of an Australian passenger sailing ship, the “ James Baines/' of Liverpool, exhibited by the firm of that name, and having all the stowage and accommodation shown in the greatest detail, and the other was a completely rigged model of one of the large passenger steamers belonging to the great French Company of the Messageries Imperiales ; and as a model, far surpassing anything of the kind in the Exhibition ; not only was the minutest detail given, on deck, in the rigging, and on the exterior of the hull of the ship, but she was also made to draw apart amidships and draw asunder, so as to show a beautiful and complete working model of her engines and machinery, which during the time of the Exhibition was moved by a train of clockwork. The Company who exhibited this work of art, for such it might truly be said to be, occupies a position very different from any of the great steam companies of England or the United States, for they are not only shipowners and carriers, but also shipbuilders and engine and boiler makers on a very large scale. Unlike the English and American Companies, which can depend upon the resources and competition of private establishments, both for construction and extensive repairs, the French Company, from the absence of such establishments in France, is obliged to depend entirely on its own resources for all its requirements, and lias to organize for this purpose two complete dockyards at Mar- seilles and at Ciotat, which are of such extent as to be capable of building, constructing machinery for, keeping in repair, and fitting out in every respect the entire fleet engaged in the Mediterranean French postal service. This service was handed over by the French Government to the Company in 1851, together with 16 old steamers propelled by an aggregate of 2,980 horse-power, and the Company now possesses (1855) a fleet of 46 vessels of, in all, 10,100 horse-power, without reckoning several chartered vessels employed in their service ; the number of sailors in their pay, which in 185 1 was 626, had increased in 1855 to 2,292 ; all the engineers are French, and almost the whole of them have been promoted from among the apprentices at the Company's works at Ciotat. The number of civil passen- gers has increased in two years from 27,000 to 43,000, and the merchandise carried has doubled in the same time, being now 18,000 tons ; in addition to this the Messageries Imperiales have transported, from the commencement of the war up to June 1855, 130,000 men and 19,000 tons of Capt. FowKE ON Naval Con- structions. Model of the “ James Baines.” French mail steamer. French Com- pany of the Messageries Imperiales. 342 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke ox Natal Cox- STEUCTIOXS. Scott Rus- sell’s great ship. Models of steamers hy Napier. warlike material and stores to Africa and to the East. The establishment of Ciotat, purchased in 1851 for 25,0001., is, in 1855, valued at 80,000£., and it has produced in that time five new vessels without counting four others in pro- gress of construction ; the number of artizans employed is about 1,600, and it is gratifying to learn that the Company have spared neither trouble nor expense in providing for the comforts and wants of their workmen, and that model lodging-houses, gratuitous medical aid, and the means of education, both for children and adults, are provided on the most liberal scale and on the most approved systems, after a careful inquiry in Belgium, England, and France ; the Company are now constructing a branch dockyard and dry dock at Constantinople to meet the demands of their in- creasing traffic in the East. Among the models of vessels and systems of naval con- struction, the first in size, importance, and also for novelty of principle, is certainly the monster ship now being built by Mr. Scott Bussell for the Eastern Steam Navigation Com- pany. The model is accompanied by photographic draw- ings of parts of the vessel, showing the details of the bulk- heads, and also the progress made in building. There are also shown actual specimens of the double bottom of boiler- plate, which is one of the peculiarities of the vessel's construc- tion. This enormous ship is divided by strong iron bulkheads into ten air and water-tight compartments, and the entire hull is formed of two skins of iron plate, at a distance apart of about three feet, and connected together and strengthened by small partitions, forming the space between them into small cells ; this arrangement, with the transverse bulkheads, and two longitudinal partitions running the whole length of the ship, and reaching from her bottom to the upper deck, is substituted for the ordinary construction with keel and timbers. The ship is to be propelled by both screw and paddles, with engines of a collective power of 2,500 horses ; her length will be 680 feet, and her burthen in tons, 22,500. In addition to the model of the “big ship," Mr. Scott Bussell exhibits a number of others, all more or less pos- sessing the peculiar form of bow to which he has given the name of the wave line, among which are the models of his celebrated steamer the “'Wave Queen," and of the steam gun-boats built by him for the Prussian service, and which have since been purchased by the English Government. Collections of beautiful models are also exhibited by Mr. Bober t Napier, of Glasgow, the constructor of the “ Persia," upposed to be the fastest sea-going steamer afloat ; by Mr. Gapt. Fowke on Naval Constructions. 343 Mare, of Blackwall, and by Mr. Samuda, among which may gapt-. be mentioned those of the now far-famed “ Himalaya/' the navI^con- ill-fated “ Prince/' as w r ell as the “ Golden Fleece," the structionb “ Croecus," the ‘"Emeu," and many others whose names have Mare’s become familiar from their being associated with many acts 11 e s * of the late war. One of the models, which excited especial interest, was that of the Russian frigate “Vladimir," which issued from the yard of Mr. Mare, and alone, of all the Russian navy, gained herself a reputation in the war, and terminated her short career beneath the waters of the harbour of Sebastopol. The collection of models of sailing vessels sent by the local committee of Sunderland, although Sunderland beautiful as models, and exhibited in a trophy of much pre- moclels ' tension, does not appear to aim at the illustration of any novelty of form or construction, but is merely a specimen of the class of vessels usually constructed at that port. An exception must, however, be made in favour of Mr. Hedley’s “ Napoleon," of which a skeleton model shows the peculiar method of construction adopted by this builder, which con- sists principally in having the bow timbers or frames inclining forward, and those abaft the midship section similarly in- clined towards the stern, the midship frame alone being vertical. Canada is the only one of the British colonies that sends Canadian, any models of vessels. Mr. Lee, of Quebec, the constructer models ‘ of the famous sailing clippers, “ Marco Polo" and “ Shooting Star," exhibiting models of this class of vessels. A good many of the French shipbuilders are exhibitors French in this section, the principal of whom appears to be M. Arman ships. s ° of Bordeaux, who sends two models to illustrate his novel and very beautiful mode of a mixed iron and wood framing for stmetion. ships. His method of construction is to reduce the scantling of the timbers, and to strengthen them by internal diagonal braces alternately of wood and iron, reaching from the kelson to the deck-beams, and bolted to the timbers. These, as well as the stanchions, knees, and keelson, are of rolled iron, and the strength of the hull is still further increased by introduction of four or more longitudinal strings, also of rolled iron, rivetted to the iron diagonal braces, the spaces between them being left open for the convenience of inspect- ing and painting the framing. The keel, timbers, planking, and decks are of wood, and the planking is fastened to the timbers by bolts and trenails, as in ordinary wooden constructions. This system is said to have the advantage of reducing the weight of the hull very much below that of a vessel built of wood, and at the same time giving it all the su Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fow ke ox Navax Cox- STKUCTIOXS. Details of M. Arman’s Mixed “Wood and Iron Construction. Transverse Section. Capt. FowJce on Naval Constructions . 345 strength and rigidity of iron, without its accompanying de- capt. fects. It enables vessels navigating tropical seas to be pro- ^aval E Con- tected with copper, and it seems to overcome the objections STRUCTIoys - hitherto deemed insurmountable against employing iron for the construction of ships of war, that of the damage done to the external plates of iron ships by being struck by shot. M. Arman has succeeded in reducing the weight of the hull to thirty per cent, of the total displacement. He has con- structed on tliis principle since 1852, the period of his in- vention, thirty-three vessels, representing a tonnage of 25,869 tons, and a capital of more than half a million sterling, five of which are steamers ; and he accompanies his models with numerous reports and testimonials of the extraordinary strength, tightness, and other good qualifica- tions of the vessels of his construction. M. Guibert, of Bordeaux, also exhibits a mixed wood and Guibert’s ' construe- iron construction, in which the framing is entirely of wrought tion. iron, the planking alone being of wood. Messrs. Yaudezande and Segariz of Dunkerque show Models from o i -Uunkeroue models of clipper ships, and smaller vessels are represented and Havre, by M. Cardon of Honfleur. Both of these are builders in wood ; the only one of the French builders who seems to enter to any extent into the construction of iron vessels being M. Nillus, of Havre, also an exhibitor. From the United States dockyards we have models of some of the sailing vessels of the navy, including the models. “ Delaware " and “ North Carolina/' each of 90 guns ; two 44-gun frigates, the “ Savannah v and “ Potomac/' the corvette “Albany" and the 10 -gun brig “ American/’ none of them apparently among the latest constructions, while their more recently built war steamers and the merchant navy are left entirely unrepresented. Mr. Maskell, a member of the bar in one of the southern Maskeirs states of the Union, has a model of a sailing corvette of very sliding keel, peculiar form, capable of giving great capacity, and it is said &c ' also great speed with a very light draught of water, the vessel in question being 180 feet long with a draught of only 7 feet, for the purpose of making the vessel more Weatherly. She is furnished with a sliding keel, also the invention of Mr. Maskell, which when let down will give her a draught of 9 feet ; it is called by the inventor a toggle keel, and consists of galvanised iron jointed together in three lengths ; the centre one of which rises and falls parallel to the keel, while the two end ones being suspended to pivots in the keel passing through slots at their extremities, serve to 346 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. capt. connect the main piece with the standing keel ; the apparatus raised or lowered by means of rods passing up through stbuctioks. the vessels centre to the level of the deck, and worked by rack and pinion, and the sliding keel when raised is con- tained in a groove formed for the purpose in the main keel. The model of this corvette is thought by nautical men to possess some valuable points, and might possibly be sugges- tive of something useful in cases where it might be desirable to combine heavy armament with extremely light draught of water, as in the case of the late operations in the Baltic ; the sliding keel seems liable to the objections against all such apparatus, viz., the almost certainty of being injured in case of the vessel touching ground, and the difficulty of repair even in a dry dock. The only other countries contributing under this head are Austria, Holland, and Greece ; the former being repre- sented by Messrs. Brazzoduro of Trieste, who send several very pretty models of clippers. Greek: sship- From Greece there is a handsome rigged model of a fri- gate, by M. Kiriakon, of the island of Spezzia, the only exhibitor among the Greek shipbuilders, who are said to build ships at a lower price than those of any other part of the world. Since the separation of Greece from the Turkish rule, the increase of her commercial marine has been most remarkable ; thus, in 1821, under the dominion of Turkey, Greece possessed but 440 vessels ; in 1834, after her libera- tion, she had already 2,900 ; and at present the number of vessels has increased to 4,200, with an aggregate tonnage of 425,000 tons, and manned by 27,500 sailors. &ts hsun ’ The Netherlands Minister of Marine sends a model of a line of battle ship, with a large wooden float or camel attached at each side, for the purpose of floating her over shallows ; also a model of the mortar vessel in use in the Dutch service, with the mortar bed on a turntable amid- ships and magazine underneath. J udging from the appear- ance of the models, the Dutch gunboats do not seem con- structed for very rapid locomotion, — models of both a first class and second class gunboat are shown ; they are both of a very clumsy build ; the first carries one gun forward and two aft, on ordinary ship carriages, and a mortar amidships ; the second class is similar, but without the mortar ; the bulwarks of both vessels seem inconveniently high ; they are sloop rigged, very flat in the floor, and fitted with lee-boards. There is also exhibited a model of a rowing gunboat, pulling twenty-two oars, and having two Other foreign models. Gapt. Foiuhe on Naval Constructions . 347 masts rigged with sprit-sails ; she carries one gun forward, ^ Capt. on a ship carriage, and a carronade aft, on a slide traversing na°val E Cox. on a front pivot. ^ . steuctioks. Models of a Texel pilot sloop, and of a pilot-boat with sprit-sails and oars, used at the mouth of the Meuse, com- plete the collection. M. Eickmers of Bremen exhibits a model of the sailing Model from ship “ Ida Ziegler/' of 1,200 tons, of which it is stated that Biemen> her length is 220 feet, breadth 40 feet, and that she was built in 110 days. This, with a model by M. Kierkegaard, of Gottenburg, completes the exhibition of models of vessels intended for the purposes of maritime navigation. In the section referring to vessels constructed for river Hudson navigation, a model of one of the far-famed Hudson river steamer, steamers has attracted much attention from its remarkable dif- ference from all other nautical models ; it is a model of a class of steamers running from New York to Albany, some of them measuring as much as from 350 to 400 feet in length, by 30 to 36 feet in breadth, and from their great length draw- ing not more than 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches water. They are all paddle steamers, the light draught not permitting the employment of the screw, and the diameter and breadth of these paddle wheels is very much greater than any that are used on this side of the Atlantic, in some cases reaching as high as 45 feet in diameter, with 15 or 16 feet length of float-board ; but a very small part of the accommodation of these vessels is contained in the hull properly so called, the principal part being in a sort of two-story house, as it were, built on deck ; the actual hull is generally devoted to a great dining saloon, surrounded by three tiers of berths, and the bar and steward's offices, being nearly clear from end to end; the deck over this stretches out very far beyond the ship in width, the bulwarks generally running in line with the outside of the paddle boxes ; on this deck, at the after part, is built a large sleeping and sitting cabin devoted to ladies only ; at the bow is an open space for baggage, &c. ; the boilers, and furnaces with their accompanying funnels, are placed clear of the ship out on the sponsons abaft the paddle boxes. The single engine is in a small engine-room on this deck, along the sides are the various offices for issuing tickets, and for carrying on the business of the ship, the kitchens, &c., and above this is the great saloon deck, the roof of which extends from bow to stern, a part is left open at the sides for some 50 feet at each end of the ship, and fitted up with every convenience of chairs and sofas, and the remaining part forms an immense saloon uninterrupted from end to 348 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Naval Con- steuctions, Danube steamer. Rhone steamer. end, save by two small cases in whicli move the piston rod and connecting rod of the engine ; this saloon is lighted • from the roof, and is flanked on either side for its whole length by a row of state cabins, for the use of those who choose to pay a trifling addition to their fare for this conve- nience. The deck over this is simply a wooden roof, and is not used in any way as a deck ; at the front part of it is the wheel house, a small box for the steersman, and above all rises the gigantic beam of the engine, which is thus placed to occupy as little as possible of the valuable space below. The construction of these boats must strike every one who has seen them as extremely clever, the hull is made of the lightest possible materials, and is stiffened and enabled to bear the weight of its machinery without hogging by two great wooden trusses, somewhat resembling queen post roof trusses, reaching nearly from end to end of the ship, and above the upper deck ; and this principle of suspension is further carried out by having six or more stout masts or poles from which iron tension rods diverge to diffe- rent parts of the framing of the vessel; the fuel burnt by these steamers is wood, the draught of the fires is increased by fans worked by a donkey engine ; the pressure is about 30 lbs. to the square inch, and the speed realised as much as 20 to 22 miles an hour. It should be remembered that these boats being under admirable legislation, and employing steam at no greater a pressure than 30 lbs., are not to be confounded with the Missisippi boats, which being apparently subject to no laws for the safety of life, and working up to a pressure of 140 lbs. on the inch, are the constant subjects of accidents of the most fearful kind. In the same category as the Hudson steamers may be placed those employed on the Danube, a beautifully con- structed model of one of which occupied a prominent position in the nave of the Exhibition, it is called the Frantz Joseph, and is the property of the Danube Steam Company ; her dimensions fall far short of the Transatlantic steamers, being 250 feet in length by 30 broad, and with a depth of four feet ; these steamers are built of iron, the engines of the one in question are oscillating, of 240 horse- power by Messrs. Rennie, she will carry 60 tons cargo, and makes the distance from Vienna to Galatz, upwards of 1,000 miles, in four days, returning against the stream in seven, which gives a speed of 10 miles with and 6 against the current, a speed far below that of the American boats. Among the French machinery in the Annexe, a drawing of one of the steamboats employed in the Rhone navigation Gapt. FowJce on Naval Constructions . 349 was exhibited by M. Schneider, of Creusot, in which, as far capt. as could be judged by the drawing, the ratio of the length xaval E con- to the breadth appears greater than in either the American STBUCTI03ys « or Danubian river steamers, the length being about 250 feet, and the breadth only 16 feet, with a horse-power of 500. The speed of these vessels is said to be very great, but the exact rate is not mentioned. England does not send any models or designs of vessels Thames for fluvial navigation, her geographical position making stcamers - ocean navigation the dominant branch of the science in this country, the almost only river boats being small steamers that ply on the Thames, in which there is not much to boast of either for ingenuity or beauty, they being rather seagoing- steamers reduced in size than belonging to a distinct genus of vessel adapted to their peculiar requirements as in the case of the American above-mentioned ; as an instance of this, it may be noticed that the cabin of a sea-going steamer is retained in these boats, although in their case utterly useless, by which means the deck load of passengers is so elevated as to render the vessel dangerous in case of a crowd ; and, secondly, for this, the actual carrying part of the vessel, no shelter of any kind is provided, either from sun or rain, although so desirable in our changeable climate, and this for no other reason that can be thought of than because a roof would not be a proper appendage to a sea-going steamer. Whereas there is little doubt that were the useless and rarely visited cabins done away with, the deck lowered some three feet, and a light galvanised iron or wooden roof or awning thrown over the whole vessel, they would be in- creased in popularity, particularly in bad weather ; they would no longer be the subjects of vexatious legislative in- terference on the subject of overcrowding, and the cost would be in no way increased. In all, even the smallest American river and ferry steamers, the boilers and furnaces are placed on the sponsons and the beam of the engine aloft, and this might also be adopted with advantage in our river boats, as it has the merit of keeping the body of the boat clear for passengers, permits of the deck being lowered from stem to stern, and keeps the varying weight in the centre, the only weight placed beyond the body of the vessel being balancing and constant ones ; indeed, in some of the Hudson ferry boats the boiler is on one sponson and the engine on the other, thus keeping the boat herself entirely clear of machinery. A model of a small steamer is shown among the French naval models, which is also intended for river navigation; 350 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. she has been built for the purpose of completing the railway communication across the Rhine at Hombert, and is so sTRPCTioys. constructed as to carry a whole train across on rails laid on the deck ; no particulars are given, however, of her size, power, or performance. Emperor’s In the garden behind the Palais de lTndustrie were two small yachts, said to be intended for the Emperor, but whether ordered by him or sent with a hope of His Majesty purchasing them did not appear ; one was a screw steamer of from 25 to 30 tons, built by Guibert of Nantes, with wooden planking over light angle iron timbers; her engines and boilers are right aft, and the centre is thereby left clear for the saloon or cabin ; she is rigged as a fore-and-aft schooner, her masts can be lowered in the partners to pass under the bridges on the Seine, and she Las no funnel, the mainmast being hollow and made to carry off the products of combustion. Alongside is a small sailing yacht of very light draught of water, and with an iron sliding keel in the form of a fan, she is also fitted with air-tight lockers all round, so as to render her sufficiently buoyant to support those on board in case of accident. This may be said to conclude the collection of models relating to inland navigation, for of the other subdivision of this part of the subject, namely, boats suited for canal naviga- tion, there is absolutely no representative in the Exhibition, to be accounted for, probably, by this mode of communication having been to such a great extent superseded by that of railway, that it has lost, in a great measure, its interest with the public, and also with inventors and improvers. I have the honour, &c. Francis Fowke, Captain, Royal Engineers. * If. Leon Arnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 351 On Ceramic Manufactures. — By M. Leon Arnoux. To the Right Hon. Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Board of Trade, &c. &c. My Lord, Knowing the important place which Ceramic Manu- factures held in the Exhibition of 1851, the impulse which had been given to them, and the reputation which some of the British productions then obtained, the Exhibition in Paris, where all nations had agreed to meet, was a great attraction to all interested in this subject. The interval between these two events was only four years, a period relatively very limited for giving stability to the progress already achieved and for making it known : still, with a substance which lends itself to the modifications of form and colour so easily as the basis of pottery, the amateur and the artist would always be able to find a field for the most interesting investigations. Thanks to the efforts made on every side, and to the ready response given to the invita- tion of the Emperor of the French, the artist and the workman have both been equally gratified. We have some experience, however, of what takes place in these Exhibitions, and never give full vent to our admira- tion. With the desire of obtaining the favourable judgment of the multitude, second as well as first class manufacturers easily succeed in misleading public opinion, by getting up their productions in a clever manner ; some try to attract attention by exaggerating the dimensions of an article which is usually made of a smaller size ; others, with more intelligence, endeavour to conceal the real nature of a coarse material under an original or pleasing form. Some I know, who practise a deception by the display of products ornamented or manufactured by other hands than their own ; in short, there are others, and they are the most numerous, who, on such an occasion, think it fair to deviate from their usual custom, and to call for the temporary services of an eminent artist. This year especially, far more than in preceding Exhibitions, every one understood so fully how great was the importance of the trial in which he was going to take a part, that on all sides were to be found, to some extent, signs of these special efforts which do not fairly represent a manufacture reduced to its normal condition; but it is well to notice them, because even an isolated effort M. Arnoux on Ceramic Manufac- tures. Special efforts made for an Ex- hibition. 352 Reports on the Pans Exhibition . M. Ae:> orx almost invariably leaves behind it in the garden of industry Ceea'uic some stray root, which, after having derived nourishment ^tSes. 0 ' an( i strength unobserved, may at a later period produce a “ — vigorous tree. It is, therefore, only by a conscientious examination of the ensemble and of the details, that a true opinion can be formed on a branch of industry which presents itself in so many different aspects, and the progress verified by seeing it conspicuously shown in the greater number of an exhibitor’s wmrks. The quality of the materials used may then be compared with that of those already known, and an opinion formed of the ability with which the manufacturer has made use of the resources which art places at his disposal. Then would be the moment to discover whether, among the vast number of productions, there be not one which, however small, might not be considered as the budding promise of a new variety of ceramic art. ^biefrom ar " Ceramic manufactures may be considered from two dif- indiistrr. ferent points of view, ah industrial and an artistic ; but neither can ever completely sever itself from the other. The experience of the past teaches us that however skilfully the potter may combine the materials with which nature provides him, it is only the possession of real artistic talent that will ensure his reputation. Putting aside all the examples furnished by earlier ages, we may quote Luca della Robbia, Palissy, and Wedgwood, as types which united in themselves a happy combination of these qualities. A detailed examination of the different branches of the art which forms the subject of this report will enable us to consider the intrinsic qualities for which each is remark- able. There is an action at work, assuming every day a more decided character, which is inciting the manufacturer to give more correct forms to the materials with which he works, and to seek the aid of artists of real talent, who until now have been unable to make industrial art their study, because the public has been content with rude imita- tions of the masterpieces formerly produced. The favour which has been recently shown to the potter’s art, and which has induced many persons to make it their study, has had much to do with brinsdno; about this result. Twentv years ago the question of art was not mooted beyond the walls of the Royal Manufactories, and artists of a very inferior class only were employed in private establish- ments. Now, on the contrary, thanks to the impulse given by the Exhibition of 1851, artists of the highest order, and especially sculptors, are co-operating with the manufacturers, who are thus enabled to produce very perfect specimens. M. Leon Arnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 353 This beneficial assistance which art and industry render to m.aenoux one another is now too well established not to endure ; we ceramic have only one thing left to desire, and that is that painting M ££™ c * should take a more active part in all future improvements. — We have always found painters, sculptors, and architects ready to second the step made in advance, because they all understand how important a part is reserved for ceramic art in general decoration. They only want, in general, to be summarily initiated in the processes of the manufacture, and in the requirements of the material employed. With this view, a course of lectures on Ceramic art in the metropolis would, perhaps, remove all difficulties from the path -which they seem so anxious to follow. The productions of the XVIIIth Class occupied a large Great seats space in the Universal Exhibition, on account of the number manurS- C as well as the variety of the specimens shown. This is the ture> more remarkable, as it is only within the last sixty years that Ceramic art, as applied to industry, has developed itself to any great extent, and as yet only half of this prolific century has passed away. There are at this present time only three countries of which we were able to make a minute ex- amination, where pottery is produced as a branch of industry. England is well known to be the seat of the largest manu- facture, France follows closely at her heels, while Germany, once far in advance of both, with the productions of Dresden and Berlin, is now lagging considerably in the rear. With the exception of China, which is too distant to have anv influence upon our markets, and whose productions, besides, are declining in importance, no other portions of the globe offer more than the merest indications of a manufacture which, from the inferiority of the specimens shown, cannot hope for a future. It was therefore for England and France to contend for the prize of excellence, — France armed with the Manufactory of Sevres and her fancy porcelain, England with her earthenware, her Parian, her porcelaine tendre , her paving tiles, and the results of the experiments which she has under- taken with so much spirit. In short, on one side w as to be found an intimate knowledge of form and ornament, and on the other, a correct appreciation of the real wants of the masses, and an artistic feeling in rapid development. It was impossible that the struggle should be otherwise than animated ; and if, after examination, the Jury awarded equal praise to both countries, their favourable judgment is due to a small body of our manufacturers, who, wdtli Mr. Minton at their head, spared no exertions steadily to hold up on high the industrial flag of Great Britain. A A M. Aenoux on CEEAillC Manufac- tures. Terra cotta. Mosaics, &c. Stoneware. 354 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. As regards Terra Cotta, the most unpretending branch of the art of pottery, although so useful whenever there is a a lack of building stone, the largest contributions were from the continent. But we can hardly give the name of Terra Cotta to the compositions of M. Graillon, of Dieppe, who has thrown the charm of truthfulness into his groups of beggars and sailors. The substance used has, in this instance, only served to interpret the idea of the artist, and is of no intrinsic value. Materials admirably adapted for interior and exterior decoration are to be found in the altars and fountains in artificial stone by M. de Bay, of Paris, in the vases and statues of Messrs. Feilner and Co., of Berlin, and in the beautiful Romanesque portico of Messrs. Virebent Brothers, of Toulouse. Messrs. Villeroi and Bock are less happy with their im- mense flower-stand, the material of which seems too coarse to play so important a part in the interior decoration of our habitations. For this purpose the vases of Mr. Follet, on account of their good taste and moderate dimensions, are more appropriate. All these specimens exhibit evidence of the most careful execution, an essential condition in this class of productions ; the forms adopted also prove that they have been selected from the best sources. If England contributed no specimens of Terra Cotta, she could proudly display her Mosaics and Encaustic Tiles, which have already been used in the decoration of several of our public buildings, and which are becoming daily more popular. On the continent the attempts to produce these pavements have not been very successful. In the Exhibition were to be found the imitation mosaics and the enamelled tiles in the Moresque style, with which Messrs. Minton & Co. have so well seconded Mr. Owen Jones in his reproduction of the Alhambra at Sydenham. The superiority of these tiles, due to the durability of the material, the precision of the mechanical process, and the good taste of the designs, is so universally acknowledged that it is unnecessary to make any further mention of them. Stoneware, which was revived with so much eclat some years ago by M. Ziegler, has degenerated to such an extent, since that eminent artist let the manufacture fall into igno- rant hands, that it hardly obtained any attention. The sober colour of this substance is, however, well calculated to pro- duce good effects ; as a proof of which may be mentioned the estimation in which we hold Flemish ware, as well as, notwithstanding its coarseness, that made in England in the time of the Tudors. M. Leon Arnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 355 On the other hand, the ware with opaque enamel, commonly M - A ^ oux called Majolica, the production of which had ceased in conse- ^ceramic quence of the negligent manner in which the manufacture tubes. was carried on, awoke up to new life in the Exhibition of Ma j^LL 1851, and was further developed in that of 1855. This revival was too warmly greeted for the work to be again discon- tinued ; and Messrs. Minton & Co., and M. Giovanni Freppa, of Florence, deserve all the credit of the undertaking. Putting aside porcelain, there was no pottery in the Exhi- bition, which could compare with this Majolica, as regards originality of design, as well as good effect. Although the process of this manufacture is well known, partaking as it doe^ of the nature of those of the Arabians, of Bernard Palissy, and of Luca della Robbia, it required a careful combination of those processes, on the part of Mr. Minton, to produce the vases which surprised the public all the more, because it was quite unprepared for the sight. The coarse quality of the material used has, at least, the advantage of lending itself to the caprice of the artist, and its inferiority disappears under the coating of transparent or opaque enamel, the colours of which can be modified in tone, to the extent that may be required in order to obtain perfect harmony. This style, as lately produced, requires the combination of the talent of the enameller, with that of the ordinary potter. One only fault could be found with the specimens, and that was, that they were, in general, of too decided a colour, while any man of taste would have preferred tones of a more sober hue, and a less perfect glazing. But we must here make allowance for the demands of the market, and, con- sidering the progress made in this respect since the Exhibition of 1851, we may safely expect that the cause of this objec- tion will soon cease to exist. In a series of large works is to be observed the care Messrs. Min- with which Mr. Minton has designed his models, and the ton anu Co * efforts he is making to give to modern productions that stamp of originality which once belonged solely to ancient art. Among the most remarkable, we would mention a cistern with a blue ground, supported by Cupids ; a large ewer and dish for ornamental purposes, richer than most of those which we derive from the period of the Renaissance ; a wine cooler with handles representing satyrs, which by the beauty of its enamelling was worthy to be compared with the finest por- celain ; and, lastly, a second large cistern modelled by Baron Marochetti. Most of these specimens deserve to rank as chef-d' oeuvres of sculpture applied to industry, and do much honour to M. J eannest, to whom the execution of them had - been entrusted. A a 2 356 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. M.Abnoux ox Ceramic Manufac- tures. M. Freppa. Another series of works, in which the same manufacturer has more especially devoted his exertions to reproduce the specimens of the Italian school of the 16th century, show that ancient art possessed no secrets which he has not dis- covered. We may mention his Italian vase with a white ground, ornamented with grotesque figures ; and a set of large dishes, of which the most remarkable was that after Baptista Franco, a work which is now in the possession of Her Majesty. In order to excel in this style, for which he possesses an enamel admirably suited to the adaptation of the colours, Mr. Minton is only in want of artists, who, by great er prac- tice in this kind of painting, shall have acquired great facility of execution, which is a condition essentially necessary for their perfect success. Accustomed as we are to see the old Italian Majolicas, the painting on which resembles rather the expression of the most unaffected ideas than a studied work, a Majolica produced with too much care loses the greater part of its charm. In these productions Mr. Minton had but one important competitor, a native of Italy, the country which has had the double glory of having been the seat of the Etrus- can manufacture, and, 2,000 years later, of presenting to the world these beautiful majolicas. This rival was M. Giovanni Freppa, of Florence, who is intimately acquainted with the trade in works of art, which lie has long carried on, and who, having had the good fortune to study the famous manuscript of Picolo Passo, is conversant with all that is known on the subject of the Italian manufactures as transmitted to us by Passeri, Massa, and Fontanari. He made his experiments at Doccia, near Florence, in the manufactory of the Marquis of Ginori, and it took him no less than six years to produce, with the co-operation of a skilful chemist, such Majolicas as he exhibited. Thanks to the cheapness of labour, and the proverbial facility of becoming familiar with the fine arts in that country, M. Freppa has been able to produce, at a low price, works which are highly prized in the best collections. Among his finest specimens we prefer his egg-shaped vases, ornamented with paintings after the frescoes of Andre del Sarto, the bowl with three lobes, within w r hich is represented the Judgment of Paris, being after Julio Bomano. There is, however, one objection which we could make to M. Freppa, and that is, that in seeking strictly to reproduce the ancient majolica, he has exaggerated rather than modified the faults of his models, which tends to give a hard appearance to his productions. But M. Freppa is one of that band of potters who cultivate the ceramic art on account of the pleasure which they derive M. Leon Arnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 357 from the study, and in such hands we can only expect pro- m.Ajnoux gressive improvements. M. Devers, of Paris, who is known ceramic as a skilful enameller upon lava and metal, exerted himself M £ure£ C * to produce some large works in the style of Luca della Robbia : only one fault could be found with his great picture for mural decoration, namely, the disagreeable effect produced by the lines where the plates are necessarily joined in order to connect the subject. If M. Devers had, on the contrary, confined his plates to the exterior circumference of his figures, and filled his centre with a small mosaic, this objection would not have occurred, and at the same time the effect of the figures would have been improved. Before leaving this part of the subject, we must allude to Nevers^ the attempts made by M. Ristori, to rescue the Faience of Nevers from the oblivion to which it had been consigned. M. Ristori is an able artist, educated at the French academy at Rome, and deserves praise for having devoted much time to the painting of the beautiful plates which he exhibited. He has treated them in the style peculiar to the beginning of the 17th century, and has had the good sense to use a sober blue, which, relieved by a few touches of yellow, produces a very pleasing effect. With refined outlines, and firm and compact colouring, M. Ristori’s plates are rather works of art than marketable objects, and vastly superior to any Nevers Faience we have seen. One of the characteristic features of the Exhibition was Paiissyware. the number of attempts to produce picturesque specimens of pottery by means of glazes coloured in the mass. The solution of the problem^of colouring reliefs is so difficult, that it is not surprising that with limited resources these attempts should not all have been successful. But the start has been made, and it is probable that this art will soon be greatly developed. The expression of this hope is not meant to imply that we wish to revive the manufacture of articles which cannot be used, such as Palissy’s dishes covered with reptiles ; but that by recovering the technical means, it may be possible to give to articles of daily use a picturesque form, and great harmony of colour. In order to preserve their character, the potter must apply himself, not so much to the exact reproduction of the animate and inanimate objects which nature furnishes, (a course which would be satisfactory to the naturalist only,) as to their selection and mode of grouping, so as to obtain the happiest contrast of form and colour. These experiments have been chiefly carried on near Paris, and England would have remained unrepresented among the eight or ten exhibitors from that neighbourhood, had not 358 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. m.arnottx Mr. Minton contributed a considerable number of pieces in Ceramic this style. The French exhibitor who approached nearest to M ture£ C " the immortal master of the art was M. Avisseau, of Tours, whose dishes covered with reptiles were very successful. And yet, is not this servile reproduction a mistake on the part of the manufacturer ? When the greatest part of one’s life has been spent in the study of these ingenious processes, it seems but reasonable to make use of them in order to establish one’s own individuality The exhibitors of Paris were only anxious to produce effects with their coloured glazes, and with the accidental blending of the colours as they ran one into the other. As their pallet is but poorly supplied, these specimens had a monotonous appearance, and so carelessly had the models been selected, that at most they were only fit for cottage decoration. We must, however, in justice to M. Barbiset, of Paris, raise him a step above the greater number of his colleagues. None of the specimens above mentioned, however, could serve as the basis of a manufacture sufficiently large to become an extensive branch of commerce. A moment's considera- tion of the subject would lead us to point to earthenware as the kind of pottery which is actually produced in larger quantities than all others, and it is in Great Britain that the most important seat of this manufacture is to be found. Earthen- England was represented in Paris by twenty-three exhi- porcelain, bitors of earthenware and porcelain, among whom the names of Wedgwood, Minton, Copeland, Ridgway, Mayer, &c., are familiar to the public. The display they made was, as a whole, such as to be long remembered by our allies, who have been for so many years accustomed to the brittleness, the small dimensions, and the neglected ornamentation of their own earthenware, that they were perfectly charmed with our specimens of stronger substance and larger size, and with the good taste of our printing and enamelling. High duties The public was by no means surprised that the manufac- tions. turer was obliged to demand such a price as would remune- rate him for the efforts he had made to attain excellence of quality and perfect finish, and that this price should be con- siderably larger than that of the French earthenware. The British exhibitors received, in consequence, maTiy pressing orders, which, however, in the present state of the laws which regulate the French Customs, they were necessarily obliged to decline. W e regret to have to say, with reference to this matter, that the alterations of the tariff, which have been talked about since 1851, have not yet been realized, and that our Faience is still absolutely prohibited. Perhaps an in- quiry into this subject, undertaken simultaneously by both M. Leon Arnonx on Ceramic Manufactures. 359 Governments, would have the desirable result of determining m.Arxoux whether the removal of this prohibition, or the levying of an Ceramic amount of duty ad valorem would not prove more advan- M ture^ C " tageous than the course now pursued. A greater interest attaches itself to the question of the modification of the tariff from the fact that it has never been properly studied in France ; and even when the French Government instituted an inquiry into the subject in 1835, they were absolutely destitute of information with regard to what was taking place on this side of the channel. In opposition to the conse- quences with which the French manufactories were threatened by any such modifications, the treaty of 1786 was held up as a warning ; but like many bugbears, it grew more alarming the further we moved away from it. This treaty had, in truth, but an ephemeral existence, and did not affect either the pipeclay or the porcelain manufactures, for the very simple reason that neither of them had, at that time, been established. Possibly it might have injured the manufac- tories of that common kind of pottery known by the name of Delft, which alone were then in existence ; but did the almost immediate suppression of the treaty prevent their dis- appearing one after another ? Assuredly not ; for after having outlived the treaty, these establishments ceased to exist, in consequence of the inferior quality of their productions : and a similar fate awaits any manufacture which does not keep pace with the progress of civilization. The French pipeclay manufactures, which supplanted those which we have just men- tioned, will in their turn have to give way to hard porcelain, whether the tariff be altered or not. It would be easy to show that the absolute prohibition Their effect which was imposed with the view of protecting and develop- duction P o?" ing the French earthenware manufacture has been fatal, rather inF?aSS? re than favourable, to its production. In fact, although the prohibition appears to afford protection to extensive interests, it only serves as a buckler to a very small number of manu- factories. In the inquiry made in 1835, it appears that ten houses were mentioned, of which only half could be considered of any importance, from the amount of their capital or the number of their workmen. In the Exhibition of 1855, only five of these manufactories were represented, namely, those of Creil and Montereau, of Sarreguemines, of Bordeaux, of Gien, and of Grigny. The others did not think fit to send specimens of their products, and we know that within the last twenty years no manufac- tory of any importance has been established. The exportation of earthenware from France, notwithstanding the notable increase of her mercantile navy, is quite insignificant. Are S60 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. M. Arkoux OK Ceramic Manufac- tures. Erroneous impressions entertained. we to conclude from this that the F rench potteries will have no future? It will be sufficient to state in reply, that at the very time that the manufactories of earthenware were beino; established, the originators of the hard porclain were making their first experiments, and that they have met with such success that they now have no less than 122 ovens in 80 manufactories, with an annual production of 1,000,000/., giving occupation to 15,000 or 16,000 workmen, and employ- ing a capital of 1,100,000/. Such is the way that a branch of industry developes itself when once it takes root in the land. As early as the year 1835, the French porcelain makers declared that they regarded the modifications which might be made in the customs , tariff with indifference, and, as a proof that they were in earnest, they went to the United States, and even came to England, to pit their productions against those of our own land. Oirthe contrary, the French manufacturers of earthenware are only able to use clays of an inferior quality, which, besides, are not to be found in any large quantities ; and in addition to this, the low price of common articles in porcelain has very much reduced the number of objects to be produced. To any one who, like myself, has examined all the late French Exhibitions, and especially that of 1844, it is evident that the earthenware of the present day is inferior, rather than equal to the manufacture of that time. The Exhibition will have contributed in no slight degree to disperse the darkness which appears to those who are in- terested in the matter, to have been intentionally made to envelop it. Generally speaking, the most false ideas were entertained on one side of the Channel respecting what took place on the other. Thus, many of our manufacturers believed that their productions were cheaper than those of the French, and that if the prohibitory law were removed a great outlet would be made for our cream-colour ware, and that the good old days of the willow pattern would return. In like manner an opinion prevailed in France that English pottery could be sold at such fabulously low prices that its cheapness alone would cause it to be greatly sought after. The truth, how- ever, lay neither on this side nor on that. The time when inferior earthenware could be sold in France has long passed away, and articles of equal quality are as cheap there as in England. At the present day there is only room for the introduction of beautiful specimens of Faience carefully printed and enamelled : of this ware there was only to be found among the French contributions, one bad imitation, and that was sent from the manufactory at Montereau. M. Leon Arnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 361 The French are not yet aware that in consequence of the m.Aenoux rise in the price of all our raw materials, of coal, and of wages ceeamic in general, the market value of our productions has increased in a considerable degree, and that while in F ranee wages and — prices have been much reduced, in England the reverse has been the case. How has it then happened that, under circum- stances so favourable to the export of French productions, these manufactures have not been developed, when in England the amount of business done has been so sensibly augmented? It is because British manufacturers do not relax their efforts to improve their productions, although they have to sustain an unlimited amount of competition, which doubtless acts as a great stimulus ; and because, as was stated twenty years ago by Mr. Clemen t-Desormes, “ the same process which ruins one manufacturer enriches another who is more careful in the employment of it. 5 ’ In order to establish the superiority of the British earthen- ware, we have only to mention one more fact, which forcibly depicts the real state of the case. Not one of the visitors who were disappointed of being able to purchase these beau- tiful works, thought fit to transfer his orders to a French manufacturer. The prohibitory laws are therefore profit- able to none ; and, judging by facts after the experience of half a century, they are powerless to assist those whose interests it is their mission to protect. With a view to obtain an exact appreciation of the impor- Duties tance of the Customs’ dues on such heavy goods as earthen- othercoun- ware, we have but to examine into what takes place in Bel- tries ' gium, Prussia, and Austria, which admit British productions on the payment of the duty. In Belgium, where the duty on our printed earthenware seems moderate, being only 25 francs on 100 kilogrammes, a dozen plates are charged with Is. 8 d., and in Prussia, where the rate is 20 thalers on the same weight, the duty is no less than 4s., or 100 per cent, on the value. British porcelain, which is lighter, but which is charged higher, pays a duty of no less than 5s. in Belgium, 11s. 3 d. in Prussia, and 12s. 5d. in Austria. These figures, which all apply to a dozen plates, are very significant, and deserve to find a place here, in order to show what obstacles are opposed to the introduction of our productions on the con- tinent. That it is desirable to modify the greater number of these Conse- tariffs is proved by the experience of the last two years, quences ‘ which shows that the prosperity of the trade depends too exclusively on the state of the American market, which alone, in ordinary times, absorbs half the exports. The financial crises which have been of late so frequent in the 362 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ON Ceramic Manufac- tures. Production in Great Britain. m.Ajinoux United States, have given a heavy blow to a great number of our manufactories. After the United States, the countries which import the largest quantities of our productions are those which are the farthest from us; and, by a strange anomaly, the states which are nearest to our own shores, those with which it is especially our interest to increase our commerce, are the very ones which close their doors to us with most obstinacy. The whole of the European states hardly receive altogether the fifth part of our exports. In spite of all these circumstances, so unfavourable to the free exportation of British earthenware, the power of production is so great that our exports have been almost tripled within the last 15 years. Their value, which in 1840 was 573,000 1., rose to 1,122,000/. in 1851, and to 1,338,000 in 1853;* showing an increase of 216,000/. in two years. It is true that the value of the exports shows a decrease in 1854, and has even diminished to 1,019,000/. in 1855 ; but the crisis in the United States, and the war, suffice to account for the change. The actual production under normal circumstances, however, cannot be valued at less than 2,500,000/. If it be considered that this branch of industry finds in its own soil immense quantities of all the raw materials which it requires, and that it is thus preserved from catastrophes which may occur to such of our manufactures as depend on nations for a supply of materials, it must that it would be sound policy to encourage so valuable a source of national wealth by creating further outlets for its exportation. Although the manufactories of earthenware are numerous on the continent, there appears to be only one great centre of production out of France which is deserving of notice. I allude to the group of manufactories at Luxembourg, in Holland; at Keramis, in Belgium; at Yaudrevange, at Man- heim, and Metlach, in Prussia ; and at Sarreguemines, on the French frontier. These establishments, which have united their interests so as to form a sort of joint stock company, under the names of Villeroi and Boch, and of Boch Brothers, have obtained possession of almost all the German markets, a task rendered easy by their topographical position, which is most favourable for the exportation of their products. To compete with them, the duties only permit the importation of the least deserving of British productions, namely, the cream-colour ware, such as was manufactured 80 years ago ; and which is only admitted because, from foreign be acknowledged Production on the con- tinent. being lighter, it The number of pieces exported in 1853, amounted to 100,000,000. M. Leon Arnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 363 has less duty to pay. All who are well acquainted with the m.Arnoux trade know that British earthenware would be preferred on ceramic account of its strength, which is much greater than that of M tures^ C * the manufactures of wdiich we have just been speaking. The biscuit porcelain, which has been used for statuettes, Biscuit has for the last few years been in very great request. In porcelain - England we have the Parian, which is daily getting more popular, notwithstanding its high price. In consequence of the initiative taken by M. Gilles, a skilful manufacturer of Paris, France exhibited a large quantity of white and coloured biscuit. Works of a large size have been produced by this manufacturer, and among others a stag and a reclining figure, which, as manufactures, had unquestionable merit, and had been cast from good models. Messrs. Dubois and Jouhannaud have made great efforts to leave the old track into which the majority of the Limoges manufacturers appear, every day to desire to penetrate further. With the aid of M. Constant, one of the most skilful of French modellers, and now fore- man at M. Barbedienne’s establishment, they exhibited as the most remarkable portion of their contributions, a large ewer, in the Louis Quatorze style, which recalled to mind similar works engraved by Lepautre. This work was very successful, although a rather more careful execution would have been desirable. The German manufacturers sent, as they did in 1851, a large number of statuettes, but there was the same cold and bluish tone about them, and the same appearance of hardness to which we have several times alluded. The usual objection to all these biscuit figures is, that on leaving the mould they are not mounted and repaired by sufficiently clever workmen ; and that, in addition to the lines where the different parts are joined remaining visible, the features and extremities are almost always retouched in a lamentable manner. Such as they are, there is an immense distance between these biscuits of hard porcelain and those which were manufactured at Sevres,' from 1770 to 1790, and which, instead of having a blue tint, were of a beautiful milk white ; while, in consideration of their perfect execution, the want of transparency of the material was overlooked. We do not hesitate to say that in the production of sta- tuettes in biscuit, British manufacturers leave all their com- petitors far behind. This manufacture, which had been attended with so many advantages with regard to the pro- gress of art in the Potteries, was highly appreciated at Paris, and created much envy among our foreign competitors. Messrs. Minton and Copeland stand at the head of the producers of this style of work, which they have originated; and the improvements they have effected, as respects execu- 364 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. M. Arnoux ox Ceramic Manufac- tures. Jasper. RoyalManu- factory of Saxony. Royal Manu- factory of Berlin. tion, dimension, and the beauty of the models, have surpassed the most sanguine expectations. The finest specimen of biscuit in the Palais de PIndustrie seems to me to have been the bust of the Empress, which was modelled by the Count de Nieuwerkerke, and executed at Messrs. Minton’s establishment ; and the superiority of the material which we use over that employed in France was clearly shown by the comparison of the two large busts of the Emperor, one of which was produced by Messrs. Minton and the other by M. Gilles. It is satisfactory to observe that in their works in Parian, our manufacturers no longer confine themselves to reproductions from the antique, or to well-known pieces of sculpture, but on the contrary choose original subjects for their works. From among a vast number we would select for special mention Mr. Copeland’s group of Ino and Bacchus, after Foley, Mr. Minton’s large wine cooler by Jeannest, his Highlanders, his group of Cain and Abel, and above all his charming statue of Lady Constance Grosvenor. As far as regards beauty of form and admirable execution, it seems difficult to make any fur- ther progress. Mr. Wedgwood’s contributions consisted chiefly of his vases with a blue ground, ornamented with white reliefs, better known under the name of Jasper. It is always a source of pleasure to amateurs to see these beautiful works produced by the co-operation of two such men as W edgwood and Flaxman. Mr. Wedgwood maintains his position at the head of this industry, and is celebrated for precision and clearness in what is commonly called potting. He has pre- served all the good traditions, but we should be glad to see so celebrated a manufacturer impressed with the truth of the old adage “ Noblesse oblige )” and attempt the production of new kinds of pottery. The Royal Manufactory of Saxony, which had been the birthplace of the hard porcelain at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and which had been always so highly esteemed on account of the beauty of its productions, did not think proper to send any contributions to the Exhibition of 1855. We are unwilling to draw an unfavourable in- ference from this fact, but we would recommend amateurs to value more than ever the specimens of the old manufacture, for it is much to be feared that, deprived of the royal grant, this establishment will never be able to regain the level which it once attained. The Royal Manufactory of Berlin, whose star was not quite so brilliant, has better sustained its reputation ; it may be said that it has made a sensible pro- gress since 1851. The display it made in Paris would even M. Leon Araoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 365 be quite satisfactory if the want of a little more freedom and spirit were not felt in its paintings. This cold lifelessness, which for centuries has been one of the characteristics of German art, must not prevent our doing justice to the taste which has been displayed in the ornamentation of the large vases, and to the pureness of their design. It is in France, as we have already said, that is to be found the largest number of manufactories of hard porcelain, which have become so thoroughly acclimatized that the Ger- man producers now copy the French forms and designs. A considerable number of exhibitors contributed to this section. The greater portion of the French manufactories are grouped around the Department of Haute Vienne, from whence they derive their raw material. The recent discovery of large quan- tities of kaolin in the Department of Allier, in close proximity to some coal fields, will increase the production, and will change the locality of the chief seat of this industry. In doing full justice to the material used by the French and Germans, we must acknowledge that in articles of daily use, the question of form is completely sacrificed, and with two exceptions, it is only the manufacturers in the neighbour- hood of Paris who know how to show the beauty of the material to advantage, by giving it an elegant shape. The greatest advance, as regards execution as well as beauty of material, was attained by M. J. Pouyat, of Limoges. This manufacturer, who possesses vast quarries of kaolin, and who is at the head of well-organized manufactories, has increased the whiteness and transparency of his porcelain, which re- 'sembles even if it does not surpass, that formerly produced by M. Hast, and which was regarded as the type of good porcelain. M. Alluaud, with quite as good materials, has too much neglected the question of form, to obtain for his porcelain the attention it deserved. That which most contributed to the success of the manu- facture of hard porcelain at Paris was its falling into the hands of such skilful decorators as Messrs. Boyer, La- hoche, Jacober, Bihouet Lerozey, and others, who purchase their white porcelain from the Paris warehouses, and cover them with great taste, either with rich or light ornament. In England there exists no such special branch of industry, a circumstance which is most favourable to French manufac- turers. As respects most of the porcelain which is to be found in the market, the style in which it is ornamented is very inferior, the effect being produced by the violent contrast of the colours. The cause of this, it is said, is the marvellously cheap rate at which these works are produced. For this M Arnoux ON Ceramic Manufac- tures. Hard porcelain. 3C6 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. M. Aekotj x OK Ceramic Manufac- tures, Compati- tion. Imperial Manufac- tory of Sevres. same reason a new style of gilding came into vogue, some- what similar to that employed at Meissen, and which con- sists in the use of gold in such a state of thinness that a very small quantity is sufficient to cover a surface relatively very large. This gold has great brilliancy, but we believe it to be of doubtful durability, and if there is anything at which we ought to rejoice, it is that although English manufacturers had many opportunities of purchasing this process, they wisely rejected that which could only be an encouragement to bad taste. The spirit of competition, much developed at the present time, which prompts so many French and German manu- facturers to secure a market for their goods by means of successive abatements of the selling price, does not seem very promising for the future. There are, in fact, two very opposite modes of entering into competition. The one consists of living for the present and sacrificing the future, the prin- ciple of which is the reduction of the price, a course which in- fallibly leads to doubtful profits and low wages, and may be the source of serious political difficulties ; the other is based upon the improvement of the quality, which is the true mode of establishing a good reputation, and securing for the future a more stable patronage, thereby contributing as much to the welfare of the manufacturer as to that of the workman. It is true that the continental manufactories, having but few outlets for their productions, and existing by their local con- sumption, have been to some extent compelled to seek after cheapness ; but it is time that they should halt in the course they have adopted, if they would avoid the serious conse- quences which must befall them if they continue to persist in the system. It is therefore quite expedient that to counteract this ten- dency, there should be an establishment, such as that at Sevres, devoted to the manufacture of the finest kinds of porcelain, and having for its mission the maintenance of its productions in the highest regions of art. The eager ad- miration of all visitors bore testimony to the incontestable influence which this manufactory has exercised over the public taste. The Imperial Manufactory of Sevres has not confined its productions to works in hard and soft porcelain, which have until now been sufficient to establish its reputation ; enamels on metal are being produced there in considerable numbers, and specimens of Terra Cotta and Faience are held up as examples of what can be done with these materials. In order to render the manufactory independent of the aid of any M. Leon Arnoux On Ceramic Manufactures. 367 branch of industry carried on beyond its walls, bronze works M.Arnoux have been established for the mounting and decoration of ceramic large pieces of porcelain. In this addition to the manufac- M tures AC * tory, we recognise that untiring spirit of intelligent investi- gation which leaves so little repose to the learned director, M. Regnault. Seeing that progress might be made every- where, M. Regnault has sought to realize improvements on all sides at once, and the variety and excellence of his contributions show that he has almost invariably been successful. We must also add that with the liberal support of the civil list of the Emperor, and the interest which the Minister of State takes in the manufactory, M. Regnault has been able to avail himself of the experience of the skilful assistants who have been long attached to the establishment, and as regards the question of art, he has had the co-opera- tion of such designers as Messrs. Dieterle and Jules Peyre; such sculptors as Messrs. Klagmann and J. F eucherie ; such figure painters as Messrs. Grerome and Fragonard: such flower painters as Messrs. Scliilt, Lablee, and Fontaine ; such a landscape painter as Jules Andre ; and such enamellers as Messrs. A poll and Meyer. It is since 1848 that the greatest progress has been made Progress at Sevres, and this is in a great measure due to the ad- made ' mission of the artists who have just been enumerated. They have applied to the porcelain a lighter, more elegant, and, in a word, more ornamental style of painting than that pre- viously adopted, which consisted, for the most part, in the reproduction of known paintings, or gave too mucji impor- tance to floral decoration. There is one fact worthy of remark, and most honourable is it to the French character, that all the artists and workmen of the Manufactory take the greatest interest in the success of their productions, and quite unselfish does this interest appear to be, when it is considered that the remuneration which they receive gene- rally falls short of that to which their talent entitles them ; but they think it sufficient compensation to receive credit for having contributed to the completion of these works of art. Although we are warm admirers of the Sevres manufac- tures, we do not go so far as to approve unreservedly of every- thing that has been produced. In the first place, as regards the ormoulu mountings, admitting the beauty of the sculpture and carving, the metal generally holds too prominent a place ; this is the opinion of those who acknowledge that it is necessary, and much more is it that of those who think, and perhaps with good reason, that it would be far better not to 368 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . M.Arnoux ox Ceramic Manufac- tures. Celadon green vases. Revival of. the porce- laine tsndre. employ metal at all. In some of the forms, too much pretension to originality has led to a result of which the taste is question- able. Take, as an example, the vases illustrating the four seasons, in which a long neck, conical in form, fits badly on to the body of the vase. By way of compensation, the painting on these vases may be counted among the best for its light- ness and good taste. In the great vase made in commcmora- tion of the London Exhibition, and which was offered to Her Majesty by the Emperor of the French, the way in which the body is fixed to the stand appears open to objection. The bronze transversal ornaments, representing crowns of laurel, are too large, and besides, the vase being in biscuit, and covered with paintings of a very dull hue, leaves the public in doubt as to the quality of the material used. Sevres seems chiefly to excel in its vases of celadon green. The idea was taken from the Chinese celadon green vases, ordinarily covered with coarse and grotesque reliefs. Between these vases and those exhibited by the Sevres manufactory, there is so great a distance that it is hardly possible to remember their origin. The pate used for the reliefs is perfectly white, and the artist has exhibited much skill in the mode in which he has availed himself of its transparency in the graduation of the lights. The finest of the celadon green vases was, perhaps, that which arrived the ast, designed a la Louis XVI., of which the frieze round the middle left white, was painted in chiaro ’ scuro in purple. A band of children dancing in a circle are running round the vase, until they disappear into a vault which opens wide to receive them, and which is just indicated on the principal front. The tone of this frieze contrasts very happily with the celadon green hue which is the dominant colour of the whole work. Several other of these vases would, perhaps, have been improved by being thus partially relieved by a border of a more decided colour than the ground. The dark blue productions of Sevres are too celebrated for it to be necessary to make any allusion to them here. A description of the 200 vases of different forms which were exhibited, would far exceed in length the limits of this report. But we cannot pass over in silence the success with which the production of porcelaine tendre has been resumed, a manufacture which, during the second half of the last century, shed such lustre upon the establishment. M. Ebelmen, before he died, had already commenced prepara- tions for this revival ; M. Begnault has accomplished them, and although certain portions of the work denote a little uncertainty in the processes, the victory is virtually won. M. Leon Arnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 36 9 Sevres has had the good sense to use its ancient moulds, the m.Akxoux forms of which, though often fantastical, have much firmness CE] £f MIC and are very ornamental. The colour of the ground is not, Manufac- perliaps, always as rich as that in the old specimens, and we — ' saw some plates with a pink ground, in each of which the tone varied in intensity ; but we are aware that these faults can only be overcome after long experience, and that it is only within the last four or five years that this manufacture has been resumed at Sevres. This leads us naturally to consider how the British porce- laine tendre figured at the Exhibition. Here was to be found the reverse of what occurs at Sevres, British namely, industry taking precedence of art, and we may say tendre™ 6 without fear of contradiction, that it is only in England that a wealthy man and a man of taste can obtain what is suitable for the use and adornment of his table. This manu- facture has, therefore, become eminently British, and though a man would go to Sevres to purchase a pair of artistically decorated vases, it is in England only that he could procure really beautiful dinner and tea services. In this respect, therefore, the trade belongs to us, and with the exception of the manufactory of M. De Bettignies at St. Amans-les-Eaux, whose productions, unless when entirely covered with paint- ings, are comparatively speaking of a coarse nature, we do not find any establishment on the continent which can be compared with those of Messrs. Copeland, Bose, or Minton. The workman knows full well that it is far more difficult to make plates and dishes of a uniform shape, than vases. This brings to my recollection the answer which M. Brongniart used to make to those porcelain manufacturers who boasted of the perfection of their productions, ee send me a good oval dish,” and many of them were in consequence unable to send anything at all. Certain very particular amateurs bring an objection against Objection. British porcelain, and say that as it has phosphate of lime for its basis, instead of being entirely composed of pate frittee , it has no claim to be called pate tendre. This objection appears to be nearly groundless. The chief beauty of the pate tendre consists in the complete amalgamation of the colours with the glaze, and also in its capability of receiving certain tints which cannot be applied to any other kind of porcelain, such as turquoise blue, emerald green, and the rose du Barry. If our porcelain combines these qualities in the highest degree, if its whiteness and transparency have been increased by the employment of phosphate of lime, who has any reason to complain? Our productions possess all the advantages of the old porcelain, and have in addition several M. ARyoux oy Ceramic MaXUEAC- TURES. Messrs. Copeland and Rose. Mr. Minton. School for Artists. S ,*0 Repcrts on the Paris Exhibition. accessory ones ; we shall, therefore, do wisely to uphold this manufacture, since it brings us nearer to perfection. Mr. Copeland and Mr. Rose, of Coalport, exhibited some very remarkable productions; the Worcester imitations of the enamels of Limoges, most beautifully executed, were much admired, while Mr. Minton distinguished himself by the great progress which he has made in this branch of manufac- ture. As Mr. Minton has obtained these magnificent results by his own unaided efforts, and at his own pecuniary risk, many persons do not hesitate to award as much credit to them as to the manufactures of Sevres, which have required the co-operation of a large number of talented men, as well as of unlimited State funds. It was a piece of good fortune to Mr. Minton that both he and the Imperial Manufactory should exhibit at the same time vases of the old Sevres design, because the advantage was, in some instances, on his side, as his coloured grounds are quite pure, and his gilding brilliant and substantial. What would not British exhibitors have done, had they received the aid of painters as skilful as those employed at Sevres ? As, however, the exhibitors in this line have made such progress, and are so eager to advance yet further, the absence of a manufactory in England carried on at the expense of the Crown need not be regretted. Sevres admirably fulfils its mission, which is to produce works of art of the highest class, and in this respect it holds an exceptional position which cannot be attained by any of our manufacturers. As for us, who have reached a culminating point in the scale of progress, it is unfitting that we should forsake the industrial element, in order to rush into the domain reserved exclusively for the fine arts. What concerns us is to take advantage of the resources which art places at our disposal, to form a special class of decorators or painters on porcelain, whose influence may happily be brought to bear upon our productions. The establishment of a good school for porcelain painting is not an easy task. To be a good artist, it is not sufficient to have acquired by long practice the knowledge of the technical processes ; it is necessary to know how to compose, or, in other words, to make the subject selected subordinate to the form of the vase, and the accessories subordinate to the principal subject. He must find the means of realizing his ideal in the design of his composition, in the choice of colours, and in the proper balancing of the masses ; and above all, he must have that lightness and firmness of touch with- out which it is impossible to obtain the approbation of the true connoisseur. It is the indispensable union of these M. Leon A rnoux on Ceramic Manufactures. 371 qualities which renders the good porcelain painter a rara avis , in the pursuit of which many of our manufacturers have already wearied themselves to no purpose. If such a school cannot be immediately established, we have everything that is required to compass an improvement which, although more unpretending, is still very important. We should give to our workmen and artists such an educa- tion as would render them specially fit for the branch of industry which they follow, without obliging them to mount every step of the ladder which those who devote themselves entirely to the culture of the fine arts have to climb. The time which workmen are able to give, after their labours in the manufactory are over, to the cultivation of their intel- lectual faculties is too short for them not to be disheartened, when the advantages which they may derive therefrom can only be shown to them in a very remote future. That which contributed more than anything else to establish the superiority of our predecessors in art work, was that each period had its style, and each workman his speciality, in which he made rapid improvements, without having the pretension, like the workmen of the present day, of knowing everything, or rather of copying everything. A perfect artistic education given to all, without the exercise of a proper discretion, would, besides, be objectionable, as it would deprive our manufacturers of them best workmen who would be swallowed up in that already too numerous class of indigent artists. This complete artistic education should only be given to very select men, and in almost every case it is only in the metropolis that they can obtain the resources and the advice of which they are in want, in order that their progress be not checked. In conclusion, after having measured our strength with that of our competitors, we believe that, as regards commerce, we are at the head of the Ceramic Manufacture, that our title to the claim is grounded upon considerable mineralogical wealth, with an intelligent labouring population to work it, and that we may look with confidence to the future of an industry which has, in half a century, given birth to two such names as Minton and Wedgwood. In comparing the Paris with the London Exhibition, we have pointed out a more marked progress as regards art than has taken place in any other class ; that progress is due to the energetic efforts of our principal producers, to the very decided influence of our provincial Art schools, to that of our manufacture of Parian, and lastly to the favourable impulse given by the two Exhibitions. We have seen that B b 2 M. Arnoux on Ceramic Manufac- tures. Conclusion. 372 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. M. Arxoux ON Ceramic Manufac- tures. as regards earthenware, Parian, and porcelaine tendre , to the manufacture of which the greatest amount of care has been given, we have no serious rivals, and if the Exhibition is to remain without result, and we are not permitted to send our productions to those who so frankly admired them, it will still be good policy to continue to improve their quality, already so superior, until the day when our exchanges with the continent are carried on under a more liberal system, I have, &c. (Signed) Leon Arnoux. M. Bontemps on Glass. 373 On Glass. — By G. Bontemps, Glass Manufacturer, Chevalier m. bon- cle la Legion d’Honneur. T glass* To the Bight Honourable the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Board of Trade, &c. My Lord, I. If the prizes which were awarded after the termi- Awards of nation of the French Exhibition, were to be taken as a test thc Jury ‘ in deciding on the present state of the manufacture of glass, it might be supposed that in respect of this branch of industry, England only holds the fourth rank. France obtained the only two great medals of honour which were awarded ; of the six medals of honour, France obtained three, Germany two, and Belgium one, whilst to England were adjudged only silver medals, or medals of the first class as they were called, but which lost much of their value since the juries did not act in accordance with the Imperial decree, which laid down the principle that the gold medal was only to be awarded to products of unrivalled merit. Of these silver medals England only received three, whilst France obtained eleven, Germany seven, and Belgium three. We omit all mention of the medals called second class, since amongst the products to which silver medals were awarded, some may be considered so ordinary as to give one but a poor idea of those which received bronze medals. We are thus naturally led to inquire whether English glass is really of an inferior kind ; Or whether, for some reason which can be explained, it did not meet with due appreciation. The jurors for Class XVIII., which, according to the French classification, included glass and pottery, were, no doubt, highly scientific men ; some of them were perfectly conver- sant with the ceramic art, but it must be admitted that they were incompetent judges as regards glass. It is the cus- tom in such cases for the jurors to call in the aid of practical men upon whose judgment they can rely, provided always that their communications are not of a confidential nature, which might give rise to a suspicion of partiality. But on this point, even, the correctness of the decisions with regard to glass manufactures in general may be called in ques- tion, and we must add that the British exhibitors did not obtain from the English jurors for Class XVIII. that sup- port which they were entitled to expect. Mr. J. Hartley, 374 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. m. Bon- w ho was a most fit representative of the glass trade, retired glass, after a few preliminary meetings ; and it cannot be denied ’ that the English jurors in general did not possess that spirited national feeling which animated the French jurors in 1851, and prompted them to advocate the claims of the French exhibitors in the sub- committees and before the Council of Chairmen. Assuredly the English jurors in Paris did not do their utmost to call the attention of their colleagues to the special qualities of the several sorts of glass exhibited by the English manufacturers ; and we may venture to add that those manufacturers did not appear to be very desirous of being fully represented at the French Exhibition; whilst nearly all the glass works in France sent innumerable specimens of their productions, and from every part of Germany, and more particularly from Bohemia, were contributed the most beautiful works in coloured crystal, which were grouped and displayed in a most tasteful manner. England sent only a few samples of her glass manufac- Engiandnot tures, and even that seems to have been done most unwil- seated. lingly. The splendid productions from Pellatt’s flint glass works were sought for in vain ; Messrs. Osier (after urgent solicitations from a high quarter) could only be persuaded to send one of those chef d 3 oeuvres which they manufacture with so much skill and taste. A few samples of flint glass were exhibited by Mr. Copeland and by Messrs. Bose and Danieli, but although their brilliancy and whiteness were unrivalled, it was quite evident that they held but a secondary place in the beautiful display of porcelain and china which was made by those exhibitors. Independently of Messrs. Osier’s contribution, the Birmingham district, where the manufacture of glass gives occupation to so great a number of persons, was only represented by a few speci- mens sent by Messrs. Lloyd and Summerfield, the merit of which could not be discovered in a dark gallery and under obscured windows. Great Britain produces very large quantities of plate glass, but not a single sample was sent to the French Exhi- bition. It might be asked whether the manufacturers were induced to abstain from exhibiting by a consciousness of their inferiority. We can by no means admit this suppo- sition, more especially as we remark that the most important glass works in Belgium, particularly the St. Marie d’Gignies plate-glass works, which enjoy a high reputation, also declined to exhibit. We are inclined to attribute their absence to another cause. Many manufacturers, and espe- cially those of the highest class, object to take part in any M. Bontemps on Glass. C75 exhibition at which prizes are awarded, as being in many ^pg ^ cases calculated to mislead the public, and injure a legiti- Glass. mate and highly established reputation. They know by experience that a manufacturer of uncontested superiority will often receive an inferior award, whilst a first-class medal is granted to a competitor, whose productions are not so much valued by the trade, but who may have exhibited exceptional works, which he would be unable to supply on the usual terms. We admit that in some cases the Exhi- bition of 1855 seems to have justified that opinion, and we feel convinced that a universal exhibition will only acquire the. real character of a true display of the industry of all nations, when it is positively determined to make no dis- tinctive awards, but to constitute the public the sole judge. Although we have stated that British glass was not pro- perly represented, we maintain that it certainly deserved more than the few inferior prizes which it received. Your Lordship will doubtless excuse these few prefatory Scope of this remarks respecting the results of the Exhibition of 1855. ~ tp01 * We have thought it important to make this protest, especial^ as many of those who will read this report may not have been able to visit Paris last year. It is not our intention to revise the decisions of the jury for Class XVII J., but to examine all the different kinds of glass that were exhibited, in order to ascertain the present state of the manufacture, the progress which has been made, and especially that which it is desirable to realize. In order to proceed methodically, we will examine in succession all the sections contained in Class XVIII. The subdivisions adopted by the French Imperial Commission, with reference to glass, were as follows : — 1. General processes of glass manufacture, and raw ma- terials. 2. Window and plate glass. 3 . Bottle and common table glass. 4. Flint glass. 5. Ornamental glass of various kinds ; glass for optical instruments, enamels, &c. As we intend giving a short notice of the history and progress of each kind of glass manufacture, it will be pre* ferable to take these subjects in their chronological order; as for the raw materials they will naturally be considered with the different kinds of glass for which they are usedr II. Glass, which is at the present time so useful, not to say absolutely necessary, was originally a rare article of 376 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . teaipsox ornament and luxury. History and antique monuments Glass, bear testimony to the skill with which the art of glass- making was practised in the remote ages, and which even now cannot fail to excite our admiration. It is unnecessary here to institute an inquiry into the origin of glass, or refer to Pliny’s fable, which does not deserve the least credit ; we would recommend those who desire to investigate the his- O tory of glass, to read the authors who have written on the subject, and especially the highly interesting work of Mr. A. Pellatt, M.P., on the curiosities of glass making. Outline of We will state, once for all, that the specimens of glass the history f rom Syria, Egypt, and ancient Italy are chiefly articles of luxury; namely, .embossed or moulded reticulated vases, glass mosaics, millefiori, imitation pearls, &c. The greater part of these, as, for instance, the well known Portland or Barberini vase in the British Museum, are positive chef

ox- glass one. This desire has been fulfilled. The disc of glass." crown glass of 29 inches has been exhibited in Paris, and from the scrutiny to which it has already been submitted, it seems to be quite on a par with the earlier production. Notwithstanding that the name of Messrs. Chance does not appear, under the head of optical glass, amongst those who have been deemed worthy of receiving medals (we will not seek to explain the reason of this omission), we are certain that before long substantial justice will be done to these works, the difficulties of which, when they are of such enor- mous size, and when the results to be attained are of such importance, render their production, so to speak, a scientific event. Several French manufacturers exhibited optical glass, Foreign amongst others M. Maes of Clichy, whose glass, boro- tmvs! a< silicate of zinc, had already appeared at the Exhibition of 1851. Great expectations were entertained from the use of this glass for optical purposes, but the desired results do not seem to have been realized. It is conceded by philosophers and opticians, that the glass which would best facilitate achromatism, would be a flint glass possessing a smaller refractive power and a larger dispersive index, and a crown glass having, on the contrary, a greater refractive power and a less dispersive index. In a word, it would be desirable that the refractive powers should be equal, as nearly as possible, whilst the dispersive index should differ as much as possible. The substitution of zinc for lead, which produces the boro-silicate of zinc of M. Maes, of a density of only 2 65, does in fact realize the first-named result, the refractive index being only 1 5*2 instead of 1*6.2, which is that of the ordinary flint glass generally used for telescopes ; but as at the same time the dispersive index is only about equivalent to that of ordinary crown glass, it follows that this boro- silicate of zinc can only be employed as crown glass. It possesses therefore no advantage over the latter, and accord- ing to the opinion of a learned philosopher of Munich, Mr. Steinheil, this boro-silicate of zinc agrees less advantageously with flint glass than the ordinary crown glass, silicate of potash and lime. Finally M. Daguet, of Soleure in Switzerland, sent to the Exhibition of 1855 two discs of flint and tw o of crown odass o of fifteen inches and nine inches, for which he received as a reward a medal of honour of the second class. We must suppose that this award was made in consequence of the 404 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. M. Box- temps ox Glass. Conclusion. high reputation of the manufacturer, a reputation, "which we are most willing to admit, is fully deserved. These discs exhibited by M. Daguet not having been polished on their large faces were not examined with much attention ; and we cannot, at the same time, refrain from remarking that from the two discs of twenty-nine inches of Messrs. Chance,, several discs of flint and crown glass of similar dimensions; to those of M. Daguet, and of perfect purity, might have been produced. VII. Such are the remarks suggested to us by the Exhi- bition of 1855, accompanied by the regret that the glass manufacturers of Great Britain should not have made a larger display of the marvels of their industry. This Exhibition does not show any remarkable improve- ment in the general manufacture of glass as compared with that of 1851. If improvements have been effected, which is likely enough, they may, doubtless, be traced in sundry details of the means of production ; and, in order to under- stand them, it is necessary to visit the manufactories. If we were asked what are the improvements which we consider desiderata , especially for the English manufacturer, we should answer as follows: — 1st. Flint Glass. — We think that, as far as the substance is concerned, English flint glass cannot- be surpassed for brilliancy and whiteness ; but we are of opinion that the elegance and purity of the forms could be still improved, and that the cutting and engraving have been entrusted to work- men of very indifferent taste, and devoid of any artistic notions. 2nd. Coloured Crystals. — -Here all the tints seem to have been easily obtained ; but the arrangement and contrast of colours, and the cutting, are questions of art requiring better solutions than they have received hitherto. 3rd. Sheet Glass. — Endeavours should be made to manu- facture, at prices approximating as much as possible to tho&e of the present day, window glass of a whiteness equal to that of the finest plate glass, and with a surface as perfect as that of fine crown glass. 4tli. Plate Glass. — In this branch of manufacture the greatest efforts should be made, in order to attain the purity and whiteness of the French glass, to produce plates quite free from sweating, and to obtain also much smoother surfaces, which would be parallel, and would bear the highest polish. Lastly, as regards Optical Glass. — The desideratum would be to find two kinds of glass having the widest M. Bontemps on Glass. 405 possible difference between the indices of dispersion, and the closest approximation bet ween those of refraction. The glass to be of a white and quite translucid substance, free from striae, and not subject to atmospheric influence. In conclusion, let us observe that our criticisms have been dictated by strict impartiality. We know how to acknowledge superiority where it is really to be found Our national amour propre does not induce us to refuse our homage to the superior productions of another country ; but at the same time, we feel that the kind reception which we have met with in England, and the just admiration which we entertain for so many of her works, must not be allowed to blind our eyes to certain imperfections, which it behoves the English manufacturer to remedy. We are aware that criticisms are seldom well received; yet we feel conscious that, by pointing out these imperfec- tions, we are giving better evidence of our gratitude than we should by merely bestowing commonplace expressions of praise on products which are generally admired. I have the honour, &c. G. Bontemps. M. Bow- temps ow Glass. REPORTS ON THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION; PART III. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty. LONDON: PRINTED BY GEORGE E. EYRE AND WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, PRINTERS TO THE QLEEN’s MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY. FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE. 1856. . CONTENTS of PART III. PAGE On Vegetable Products obtained without Cultivation, by Sir W. Hooker, F.R.S. 1 On Indian and Colonial Products, useful as Food and for Manufactures, by J. Forbes Royle, M.D., F.R.S., &c. - 181 On Civil Construction, by Captain Fowke, R.E. - - - 231 On the present State of Design as applied to Manufactures, by Richard Redgrave, R.A. ------ 313 On the Public Cost of the British Portion of the Paris Universal Exhi- bition, and on the Reductions in the French Tariff, by Henry Cole, C.B. 411 mute ITJU'O TUGH ! [W aa ,;iatuo t -:XOJ ajtf/.Ta.):! < a() .1 JGJ£‘i •V? : •l .v*c*A'l . : ■- : ■ : .1/ \ -i rJ * '• ' ! • • ahj/j.v : ' - ! ; < *- ' ’ • ; ' ,t f : .. ' . - ‘ • M iMr- " REPORTS. On Vegetable Products, obtained without Culti- vation. — B y Sir William Hooker, F.R. S., Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. To the Right Hon. the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, &c. Royal Gardens , Kew , My Lord, 7th April 1856. The following is my “ Report on the Vegetable cc Products, obtained without Culture, and contained chiefly “ in the 6th Section of Class II. in the Paris Universal “ Exhibition of 1855, viewed with special reference to “ the position which the United Kingdom there holds, as “ compared with Foreign Countries, and to the progress, if any, which has been made since 1851 — Such being the title of that Report, which your Lordship, as President of the Board of Trade, requested me to undertake. Your Lordship further suggested that I should attend chiefly to Raw Materials, and to their application or uses in Commerce, in the Arts , in Medicine, Domestic Economy, &c. ; while anything bearing upon the chemical or analytical pro- perties of such objects should be reported on by some other individual. In my capacity as Juror of the Class in question, it was my duty and pleasure to make copious notes on the various collections exhibited : without so doing no one could feel competent to the task now imposed. Even then the difficulties were innumerable ; for, with the exception of the Algerine collection, and some others hereafter to be specified, the majority of the objects had little or no classification, many being entirely unnamed and unnumbered, and often without a catalogue or any competent person in attendance who could furnish the necessary information. In numerous instances where names were affixed, the nomenclature was incorrect ; in others the catalogues were not forthcoming till the very close of the Exhibition, or they were private ones, difficult of access, and full of errors; while (most puzzling of all) in some cases, the catalogues bore no refer- 3 ' B Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Subjects, reported on Difficulties arising from the collec- tions them- selves ; often no cata- logues, &c. 2 Sir W. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. Difficulties presented by the regu- lations of the Exhibi- tion. Reports on the Paris Exhibition. ence to the present arrangement and numbering of the objects, but to their previous position in some Museum of the locality whence they were derived. Not a few valuable collections of our section were rendered wholly useless by the absence of arrangement, as well as of names and iiffor- mation ; others, and I am proud to say especially those exhibited by the United Kingdom, were remarkable for their excellence in these respects. So far, as regards individual collections ; but, further and well nigh insurmountable difficulties arose from the system of classification required by the regulations of the Universal Exhibition. These are explained in the Volume entitled c( System of Classification, as adopted by the Imperial Com- mission , preceded by an Alphabetical List of the Products of Agriculture , Industry , and the Arts , intended for the use of Exhibitors , Committees and Juries .” It proceeds thus : — 1. To settle the general order in which the products are to be arranged in the buildings of the Exhibition ; 2. To present, in a logical method, to the different classes of the Grand International Jury, the several articles sub- mitted to their examination ; 3. To indicate beforehand to each Exhibitor the place which his products are to occupy ; 4. Finally, to guide the French and Foreign Committees, charged with preliminary operations, in the properest mode of forwarding the products, for having them immediately arranged at their fitting places. The Editor, however, goes on to remark that “ a general “ classification of all products is too arduous to be easily “ performed, unless there exists a long practice in such te things ; and that it requires profounder study than the “ occupations of the majority of persons who are called upon to apply it will permit. Many articles, too, being of a “ complex nature, are referable to several different classes ; “ while a certain number may occasion hesitation, or at best te involve researches and considerable loss of time/' The compilers, too, of the catalogues of the works exhibited in the British Section of the Exhibition, complain of the difficulty which attends classification ; and I have had occasion, in publishing some remarks on the Vegetable Pro- ducts , obtained without Culture , exhibited in the East Indian and Algerine collections of the Paris Exhibition , to say “ the objects thus named comprise what are usually termed l( raw materials (matieres brutes) ; yet are they generally * c combined with a certain though indefinable amount of “ manipulation. When a greater degree of mechanical or “ artistic skill is bestowed upon them, they merge into other Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. 3 “ classes, in the shape, for example, of Dye-Stuffs , Caoutchoucs , Hoommos- &c - they use them for thatching houses, &c. Twine and a wiry small rope is made of them, and the fine down from the base of the leaves is employed to staunch bleeding wounds. The best umbrellas and broad bats are composed of Talipot leaves , the produce of two or three species of Corypha, especially C. umbraculifera. The unfurled leaf, as stated by Knox, will cover 15 to 20 persons, while it is so compact and light that when folded together it is no thicker than a man’s arm. The Caryota urens is also applied to many uses in India ; its fibres, called Kittul , are as strong as wire, and the woolly bases of the leaves are sometimes employed for tinder and caulking ships. But no substance of the kind can rival, for tenacity, the Gomuto fibre, which is brought from India Gomuto to the western world, under the name of vegetable bristles. re * It resembles black horse-hair, and it resists wet, to an astonishing degree, thus being peculiarly adapted for ships’ cables and cordage. It is the produce of the Arenga saccha- rifera. Each well-grown tree of this kind throws off about six leaves a year, which collectedly furnish 4 \ lbs. of Gomuto fibre, sometimes rather more. The fibres may also be removed withoutinjury to the stem : they occasionally measure a yard in length. Three Russian hemp cables have been known to break under a strain which was resisted by a rope made of these fibres, a fact attested by one of the most celebrated ship- builders in Calcutta. The Cocoa-nut tree is too generally prized to require Cocoa nut much remark ; but we must not overlook the importance of its fibre, as affording Coir , which is chiefly obtained from the husky covering of the nuts, though it may be stripped form the trunk when young in large pieces of natural network, which are available for coarse clothing, for mats and screens, brushes and brooms. In some places Coir is the established standard of barter (as cowries are in Africa) : its value does not vary ; and when it is made up in lengths of a fixed mea- sure and weight, it is used to purchase rice, tobacco, salt, & c. The sea-side nuts yield most fibre; three of them will pro- duce a pound of Coir , while ten from the interior give no more in weight, though the Coir will be finer. JFor stuffing mat- trasses this substance is considered better in India than hair. Sail-cloth, oakum, and much of the coarse cloth in universal use, called Gunny, are made of it ; and Coir cables are coming into esteem in Europe, for their strength and elasticity, and are even replacing chain cables for large ships. 8 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hoomox The var * ous ar ticles (matting, cordage, net-work, brushes, vegetable &c.), made by Treloar and Wildey, London, are derived from Products. W L] C L envelopes the cocoa-nut. Bonnets and hats of India^&c. a light cinnamon colour have been also fabricated by the same ingenious individuals. Dr. Boyle is of opinion that the Go- muto Fibre might advantageously be combined with Coir. Some idea of the importance of the Cocoa-nut Palm may be derived from the fact, that in the year 1850 Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay respectively imported from other parts of India and from foreign countries Coir and Coir rope to the value of (Calcutta) 8,8007., (Madras) 7,0007., and (Bombay) 14,4007. And the above statement does not include imports by land ; it applies only to those by sea. Other Palms might easily be added to this list ; but, as a general statement, we may draw attention to the fact, that the Palms which yield fibre in abundance would, doubtless, in the cellular matter which comes to be wasted when their fibre is extricated, present a valuable substance, of more or less importance, and in greater or less quantity, for the purpose of manufacturing that desideratum, paper. They generally, too, inhabit the sea- coast or banks of river, thus facilitating the means of trans- portation. Urania speciosa (not a Palm) yields a fibre from which a cloth, not unlike Holland, is manufactured. Flax. riax. The useful products of this plant ( Linum usitatissimum ) consist of its Seeds and Fibre. In the latter respect Indian cultivation, probably owing to the climate, is less successful than that of Europe, the fibre being comparatively small in quantity and weak in quality, while the oil is more abundant and richer than European Lintseed oil. It is possible, however, that while Flax may not answer as a textile, the stalks, which are allowed to decay in India, would afford material for the paper-maker. Jute, 8fc. Jute, &c. The Jute of India (Corchorus), and the genera Grewia and Triumfetta, both belonging to Tiliacea?, are remarkable for their tenacious bark. The Lime (Tilia Europea), affords the well-known Russian mats, ropes, and platted shoes, and Bast. These articles are supplied in India by the allied trees Grewia oppositifolia and G. didyma , their inner bark being applicable to the same uses, as well as for making rope, sewing-thread, bowstrings, and nets. As substitutes for Russian Bast, these Indian productions are eminently worthy of encouragement. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India, Sfc. 9 Though the name Jute is now familiar, only 15 years have Sirav. o 7 j v Hooker on elapsed since the article was first introduced to our country. It vegetable is the produce of Corchorus olitorius, and C. capsularis, which — are potherbs, the leaves being eaten, and are much grown IyDIA > &c - both in Bengal and China for the sake of the fibre. The system of culture now pursued is capable of great improve- ment, and the quality of the Jute would improve accordingly. Most of the Gunny -bags in which Sugar is exported from India are made of it ; the same bags are also sent to America for the purpose of packing cotton. Much of the clothing of the poorer classes in India is made from Jute. A loom is seen in almost every house, and the coarse cloth called Megili , which the women weave, is said to be far stronger than cotton. Another kind is called Chatee ; it is intended for bedding and packing-cloths. But the chief use to which Jute is applied is the manufacture of Rice and Sugar bags, com- monly called Gunny-Bags , and known by that name all over the world. Young and old alike find employment in making these articles; women and children spin and weave the Jute at home, so do husbandmen, carriers, &c., at their spare moments. The long-stapled J ute is exported ; it is only the short and ordinary portions which are used in the country for cloth. The beautiful straight white stems serve for fences and enclosures, and are as valuable as the fibrous portion. Jute, Gunny- Cloth, and Gunny -Bags, were exported from Calcutta in the year 1850 to the value of more than 300,000Z., North America being the principal customer. The waste ends of the stems have been tried in the manu- facture of spirits, and are said to produce a beverage much resembling Corn Whiskey. Silk- Cotton Tree. This tree (Bombax) produces a very abundant silky sub- stance in its pods, but it is not strong or long in the staple, and is therefore most useful for stuffing pillows and for wadding. Sterculia guttata is one of the same family, and its bark abounds in very tenacious white fibres, which the natives of Malabar manufacture into cloth, the poorer people contenting themselves with garments made of the bark itself, with no further preparation than washing it. Sterculia villosa yields the Oadal rope of Assam, which is very strong and durable. (The same is used for sacks in Madras.) Indian-Hemp. This name is frequently applied to the Fibre called Sunn, the produce of Crotalaria juncea. From this substance the Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. India, &c. Mallows, &c. their fibres. 10 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Gunny-Bags of Madras (of which 60,000 were exported from Madras in 1850), are made, and not from Jute, as those of Bengal are. The sacred thread of the Bajpoots was impera- tively woven of Sunn. No fibre is so extensively grown in India ; and its mode of cultivation and the processes it under- goes are most jealously guarded by the natives, who refuse to admit of any innovation on the practice of their forefathers. An advantage has hence indirectly arisen; for, while they prefer imprisonment to the adoption of European processes in the preparation of the Sunn , they take increased pains in the performance of their own mode of rearing and manufacturing it. Cables and Topsails are made of Sunn , which have been tested in England and proved of good quality. The Crota- laria juncea is cultivated with slight differences in all the three Presidencies ; the produce is equally good wherever like pains is taken with it, and the opinion is generally gaining ground that Sunn is likely to become a valued article of import in the English market. Another species of Crotalaria. (C. tenuifolia, Boxb.) — (a variety of C . juncea of most authors), yields a fibre called Jubbulpore Hemp , which first attracted attention in the Exhi- bition of 1851, and was then pronounced by competent judges to afford an excellent substitute for Bussian Hemp, which it excelled in strength. The same is the case with Dhunkee , the fibre of Sesbania aculeata ; a rope of it was found to bear a greater strain than one of Hemp, but it has the disadvantage of shrinking extremely when wetted, and is therefore unsuitable for ships’ cordage. The Maloo Climber (Bauhinia racemosa) ascends to the tops of the loftiest trees, often destroying them in its close embrace : its bark is immensely strong and much used by the natives for ropes, though not exported. In the valley of the Jumna Biver the suspension bridges are made of these ropes. The B. scandens has the same properties, and is similarly used. Mallows; Malvacece. This Natural Family includes the Mallows and many allied plants, all abounding in mucilage and affording fibre for cordage in their barks. The cultivated Cotton-plant and many valuable plants belong to it. Among them is the Deccanee Hemp or Paut, the produce of Hibiscus cannabinus , of which the bark is replete with strong and tolerably soft fibres, useful for ropes, sacking, and canvas, but it is of inferior tenacity to the Jute. Hibiscus esculentus , H. Abel- moschus , and H. Sabdariffa. all have fibrous stems more or less silky and strong, and like H. strictus , they produce eatable Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , fyc. 11 seeds. The bark of H. tiliaceus (the Bola of the Bengalees) is sucked in times of scarcity, being mucilaginous and nourish- ing. Several other species have the same properties, so have three kinds of Sid a, especially S. tilicefolia , which has been raised for the purpose of experiments at the Horticultural Society’s Garden at Chiswick from Indian seeds, and which yielded a strong, pliable, and silky fibre, which in China is preferred to Hemp for cordage. A line only half an inch thick, made of it, was found to sustain, after exposure to wet and sun for ten days, a weight of 400 pounds. To pass on to other tribes of plants, the stringy bark of Careya arborea (one of the Myrtle family) is used near the Himalayas as a slow match for the match-lock guns of the natives. The Cucumber and Melon tribe, which are much cultivated for food, abound in fibres of great length. So, with the edible Jerusalem Artichoke and Safflower (belonging to Composite), that portion which is wasted, as the stems, would offer a valuable material for the paper-maker. A plant, allied to the Periwinkle, is an extensive perennial climber in the Khasya Mountains, and while its green shoots contain a property which is poisonous to fish, whence the name is derived ( Nerium piscidium), the fibres are equally destructive to the finny tribes from their adaptability for nets. Two species of Marsdenia yield a fibre used for bowstrings, which are said to last, when in constant use and exposed to weather, for five years; and ropes made from them are pro- portionably durable. Two kinds of Leptadenia are also valuable; the late Dr. Stocks saw well-ropes manufactured from them in Scinde. These plants belong to the Dogbanes ( Apocynece ). Another plant of the Family Asclepiadece , which is probably the most valuable of them all, is the Calotropis' gigantea, which affords the Mudar or Yercum Fibre, so called respec- tively in Northern and Southern India. Its milky juice and root -bark have highly medicinal properties : the former resembles Caoutchouc or Gutta Percha. Mixed with one- fifth of cotton, the Mudar or Yercum can be spun and woven into a durable cloth, which takes a dye and bears washing. The price is from 30/. to 40/. a ton, according to its quality. As the tree which produces it grows wild, and requires neither culture nor watering, this fibre is procurable at very little expense. In fineness, the Mudar or Yercum equals Flax ; in tenacity it rivals, nay, rather excels Hemp. It bears double the weight of Coir -rope and one-half more than Cotton cordage. The silky substance contained within the seed-pods is too short to be spun by itself, but is useful for Sib W. Hookek on Vegetable Pkoducts. India, &c. Various fibres, use- ful for rope, paper, &c. 12 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W . Hooker ok Vegetable Products. India, &c. stuffing pillows, &c., and for making paper. (Calotropis pro- cera, Br., the XJk of Scinde, apparently yields an equally valuable fibre.) From a species of Daphne (D. cannabina) paper is pre- pared throughout the Himalayas, of which a huge sheet was exhibited, in 1851, by Col. Sykes, which attracted consider- able attention. All this tribe are remarkable for their fibrous bark. Conspicuous among them is the Lace-bark Tree (D. Lagetta) of the West Indies. The tenacity of Mezereon shoots (D. Mezereon)is well known in this country. The Nepal paper is made by beating to pulp the boiled bark of Daphne cannabina, mixing it with water, and taking it up in sieves and frames. The sheet of paper, when dry, is folded, and sometimes rubbed smooth and polished with a conch-shell, when it presents a fine surface, and receives impressions from engravings better than any English paper. Dr. Campbell, of Darjiling, pronounces the Daphne-paper made by the Bhoteas to be nearly as strong and durable as leather, and eminently valuable for official records. Many ancient Nepalese books are written on it. It is easily pro- curable in many parts of India, but has the disadvantage of burning like tinder. In the Garrow hills the natives use for their sole gar- ment small cloths made roughly from various barks, chiefly of Celtis orientalis, a tree allied to our elms; sometimes , the natural bark, peeled off thin, satisfies them, and serves for a rug by day and a blanket by night. Hemp is a species of XJrticacece , and called Bhang in India, where it is more grown for its intoxicating properties, which reside in the leaves and young shoots, than for the fibre, which alone recommends it to European cultivation. It is allied to the hop, resembling it in the bitter prin- ciple which combines with the narcotic. Grain-sacks and strong ropes for crossing rivers are made from hemp, in several parts of India. Two crops of it can be raised in one season, and the Himalayan hemp is of even better quality than that from St. Petersburg. It therefore seems not too much to expect that, as India supplies Europe with the cheapest of vegetable fibres, in Jute , so she will also send us the strongest and best in Himalayan Hemp. Of the same natural Family as Hemp is the genus XJrtica , or Nettle , of which numerous species (some now ranged under the generic name of Boehmeria) afford a highly valuable fibre, known and esteemed in Europe. Lines, cordage, and cloth are made of Urtica (Boehmeria) nivea; and it is now ascertained, beyond a doubt, that the exquisite fabric, called China-grass cloth , is manufactured from this plant. For Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , &fc. 13 many years after this article had reached the European market, its origin was involved in obscurity. When the fibre of U. nivea was first imported, nearly half a century ago, it was coarse; its price was only 12 1 . per ton, and ropes and sail- cloth were the sole articles made of it ; but even then the E. India Company was informed that, with proper manipula- tion, it might be converted into a thread capable of producing the finest lace. Latterly the fibre has fetched so high a price as 120 1. a ton ; and three of the most eminent English manu- facturers exhibited samples of the produce, in beautiful China- grass cloth, white and coloured, at the Exhibition of 1851, and received prize medals. The Rheea of Assam, which is a fibre, procured from Urtica tenacissima } seems identical in properties and value with that of U. nivea. It is much to be desired that the Assamese should turn their attention to its culture, as well as to collect- ing; the Wild Rheea , which grows in immense abundance at the foot of their hills, and is well adapted for the coarse kinds of cordage. There are many other Indian species of Urtica (or Boehmeria) to which the English names of Neilgherry Nettle, Himalayan Nettle, &c. are applied, and which are probably as good, though not so extensively known, as the two first named. The native appellations are comparatively immaterial, as they seem to differ in every Tribe of the Peninsula. The value of the Breadfruit Tree (Artocarpus incisa), whether for food or raiment, and of the Pager Mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), for the latter purpose exclusively, is too widely known to require much remark. Both are used for these purposes in India, as well as in the Islands of the South Seas ; but the availability of them (especially the Broussonetia) for paper has not yet been fully tested. There seems, however, no doubt that this tree and its allies the Mulberries (Morns alba and nigra) will yet be extensively employed by the manufacturers of paper. The waste shoots, which it is usual to remove from the trees, in order to en- courage the growth of young leaves for the silkworms, would afford a large and gratuitous supply. The thin bark, which lies between the wood and the outer rind, has been made into paper in India. Dr. Royle goes on to say, in pursuing the subject of material for Paper, that “ India affords abundance of cheap and good material for this purpose, even in its common “ weeds, and in the refuse of plants used for other purposes. “ So that our textile manufactures from the Vegetable “ Kingdom need not be confined to Flax and Cotton, when “ India offers its spontaneous and excellent fibres; while with Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. India, &c. Sib. W. Hookee on Vegetable fboducts. India, &c. 14 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . “ regard to cordage for ships and nets, track -ropes, &c., an “ equally profuse and excellent supply is secured from the “ same country. The softest Flax is excelled in fineness, and “ the strongest Russian Hemp in tenacity, by the China “ Grass (so called) and the Himalayan Hemp/' * * I cannot close this catalogue of the vegetable fibres of our British posses- sions in India, admirably as they have been illustrated by Dr. Royle, without reference to an excellent Report recently drawn up by Dr. Hunter on the fibrous substances which were shown in the Madras Exhibition of 1855. I owe the Report to the kindness of Dr. Cleghorn, Professor of Botany in that Presi- dency. It is in consequence of the impulse given to commerce, manufactures, art, and science by our Exhibition of 1851, that a museum has been formed at Madras. His Excellency, the Governor, and some of the ablest and most enlightened gentlemen there have shown a deep interest in the undertaking ; so that while the East India Company’s vast collections were being inspected by the Imperial Jury in Paris, the Madras Jury was engaged in a like occupation, on a collection of the products of their Presidency. And though I cannot conscientiously introduce any information arising from the Madras Report, as part and parcel of the Paris Exhibition, yet it were unjust to the East India Com- pany, and still more to the Great Exhibition of 1851, which is the mainspring of it all, if I passed it over in entire silence. These few observations are therefore offered in the shape of a note. Dr. Hunter, the able reporter, says, “ It is impossible to state how far the cultivation of fibrous plants might be carried, and what would be the demand for them in this Presidency, if they were properly prepared for the market ; but there is no doubt that the usual careless and slovenly manner in which they are sent out has greatly affected their sale in Europe. This is clearly shown by a comparison of the samples of one or two common fibres exhibited by twenty or more different parties. In almost every instance the relative softness and clean- ness of the fibre have been a good criterion of its strength, or the reverse. The valuable experiments as tried by the Principal Commissary of Ordnance, and the . Military Board, have proved this fact.” Pursuing the same arrangement as is adopted by Dr. Royle, the Palms come first, and the Cocoa nut is again pronounced the most valuable because of its fibre, Coir. The quality greatly depends on the mode of preparation. Upwards of 3,500 cwts. of it were exported in 1854. In the Arsenal of Madras the coir is extensively used. A prize has been offered in Madras for the best coloured mats in cocoa-nut fibre. Of the fibre of the Agave or American Aloe, called Pita, 3,600 cwts. were exported from the western coast in the same year, proving how extensively this plant, not indigenous, but introduced from the New World, has already diffused itself in India. The fibre is strong, but liable to be injured by wet. Excellent samples of the Pine Apple fibre (Bromelia Ananas) were exhibited, white, silky, and pliant, offering a good substitute for flax. Screw-Pine (Pandanus odoratissimus) was pronounced to be a better material for paper than for cordage. Its aerial roots are used as brushes by white- washers. Neat table-mats are exhibited from Kimedy, and some teazing brushes, made from the roots of a grass, Cliepooroo Valeloo, which would command a ready sale if they could be brought prominently into notice; but the botanical names of the plants which furnish the above articles have not been ascertained, and more inquiry is desirable into this department of raw produce. On Plantain Fibre the remarks are copious and important. Six kinds or varieties of the plant are noticed, yielding fibre of very different quality, a cir- cumstance not sufficiently considered. The plant has a tendency to become stiff, brittle, and discoloured by steeping in the green state, and experiments prove that the strength of the fibre is in proportion to its cleanness. Well-made Line, String, and Rope were exhibited, and a Second Class Medal adjudged for the cleanest and largest bundle of the fibre. Very valuable information on this Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India, Sfc. 15 2. Woods. My remarks on the icoods of the Hon. E. India Company will be brief. Though numerous and correctly named, they were not brought prominently into view, perhaps for want of space ; and both my personal observation, and a manuscript catalogue, obligingly placed by Dr. Hoyle in my hands, will justify my saying, that the collection is very inadequately represented in the tf Catalogue of the Paris Universal Exhi- cc bition, in French and English,” published by authority. fibre, which is reckoned the most abundant and perhaps the best in India, is given in liiis Report under the hbad of “ Cultivation and Preparation of Fibres;” but while it is much too long for insertion entire, it is too important for curtail- ment. Of the fibres resembling flax in appearance and other qualities, one of the most promising in the Madras Presidency seems to be the Yercum (Calotropis gigantea) called Mudar in Northern India, and already described by Dr. Royle. The com mon and the Indian hemp, which are both the same species (Cannabis saliva), is said to degenerate in Southern India, and only to succeed in the North-west Province, at an elevation of 3—7,000 feet above the sea. Good examples of white fibre from Ixora corylifolia are exhibited, made into excellent ropes. A large and interesting class of fibrous substances, not hitherto noticed as they deserve to be, are the unprepared Barits of Trees, many of which yield a strong and ready substitute for rope, while from the quantity of Tannin they contain they resist moisture and retain their tenacity for a long time. With a little care and the employment of simple machinery, admirable cordage, baskets, and mats might be procured, serviceable alike for agricultural and commercial pur- poses. One of the most useful of these barks is derived from Bauhinia diphvlla; to which may be added other species of the same genus, together with the Ban- yan (Ficus Indica), the Peepool ( F. religiosa), F. racemosa, F. opposita, and other Figs; also several kinds of Acacia (the Stringy Barks of the Australians), Wrightia tinctoria, &c. A considerable space is devoted to the cultivation and cleaning of Fibrous Plants, as regards the cutting and cleaning, beating, crushing, &c. of Palms, their leaves and leaf-stalks, Screw- Pines, Liliaceous Plants, Flax, and its sub- stiiufes, Plantain fibre, &c., already noticed. Excellent hints are given, and fome particular machinery is recommended as the most efficient. Dr. Hunter’s concluding observations are, “ Hemp, Jute, and Sunn promise to be the most remunerative of all Indian fibres. They are easily grown, and thrive in all parts of the Presidency. Though not, perhaps, so strong as flax, they are well suited for cordage, coarse cloth, &c. The demand for them is steady, and would probably increase with their improved quality. They could be cleaned, economically, by the usual flax machinery; but the natives must be instructed to use such machines, and liberal encouragement should be held out to cultivators and cleaners of the fibres. Other promising plants, as Hibiscus and its allies, also Ficus, Bauhinia, Grewia, Wrightia, should be subjected to experiment. “ Tt were important, too, to determine whether tanning or tarring best pre- serves cordage, and whether some of the numerous Resins and Gum -elastics of Southern India would not advantageously replace Tar. “ It should be borne in mind that it were far better for India to turn her fibrous subsiances to account in profitable manufactures, than to let other nations reap the benefits of her fertile soil and abundant vegetation.” The List given of Indian Plants yielding Fibre is 43; and Dr. Hunter quotes the common and the botanical name, and adds a brief note on the special use of each. Sib. W. Hookeb on Vegetable Peoducts. India, &c. Woods ; interior to the collec- tion exhi- bited in 1851. 16 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. India, &c. There alone do I find any printed record of the several British Colonies; and no more than eight woods are enumerated under the head of India : my own list extends to 37, and I had trusted to render it complete by the help of a more perfect catalogue. Whatever the actual amount may be, the infe- riority of this collection, as compared with the Indian collec- tion of the 1851 Exhibition, warrants its receiving but slight notice. On the former occasion, the report of the jury of 1851 contained an alphabetical arrangement of Asiatic (chiefly Indian) woods, a table of the specific weight per cubic foot, with some remarks upon each, occupying five large and closely printed pages ; and these were followed by no less than 18 more such pages, devoted to woods, mostly from the East India Company’s possessions, arranged according to countries, viz., from Nepal (223 kinds), from Gwalpara, Calcutta, Seram- pore, Northern Circars, Orissa, Cudeppa, Travancore, Hin- dostan, Palam-Cottah, Paullghaut, Tinnevelly, Coimbatore, Cannara, Malabar, Rohilcund, Tavoy, Amherst, Tenasserim, Martaban, Arrakan, Chittagong, Mirzapore, Moulmein (mainly Teak), Singapore. Prince of Wales 5 Island, Borneo, &c. Such a series of IVoods , ably reported on by Mr. Solly,* might well deter Dr. Boyle from removing these bulky objects to Paris, where, too, there might be reason to apprehend that the space allowed for his other collections was too limited. I therefore shall merely observe, that among the East Indian woods exhibited in Paris were noble samples of Indian Teak and Deodar , of Sissoo (Dalbergia), of Saul (Sliorea robusta), and Toona (Cedrela Toona), which latter is one of * Besides the Reports of the Jury of the Exhibition in 1851, Dr. Cleghorn has, in his Report on the extensive collection of the Timbers and ornamental Woods of the Madras Exhibition (previously noticed), given a classified List, with valuable remarks on the uses, &c. of‘ 155 kinds? grown in that Presidency. He has added much important information with reference to procuring specimens for investigation, recommending that these (unless well known) should be accom- panied with portions of the tree in flower or fruit, or both, so that the correct name may be determined. He shows the value of timber to Madras by stating the fact that Madras imports firewood, by sea alone, to the amount of 1 ‘2,000 tons annually, and that the five following costly woods are exportedjrom the Presidency, in price as follows : — Sandal-wood (Santalum album), value 13,794/. ; Red-ioood (Soymida febrifuga), nearly 6,000/. ; Sappan-wood ( Causal pinia Sappan}, 1,530/.; Ebony (Diospyros melanoxylon), 4861. ; and Teak (Tectona grandis), to the amount of upwards of ‘22,000/. The Jury further append a List of 17 woods, authorized to be used as Rail- way Sleepers, and now under trial on the Madras Line. They are : 1, Teak; 2, Saul, Sliorea robusta ; 3, Dalbergia Sissoo ; 4, Pterocarpus Indica ; 5, Zizyphus gh.brata ; 6, Terminalia alata ; 7, T. glabra; 8, Bauhinia diphylla ; 9, Ptero- carpus Marsupium ; 10, Terminalia Chebula', 11, Soymida febrifuga ; 12, Acacia odoratissima ; 1 3, Prosopis spicigera ; 1 4, Inga Zeylanica ; 1 5, Acacia speciosa ; 16, Artocarpus integrifolia ; 17, Bassia Ion" if alia ; 18, Acacia Arabica. Also four, of which the scientific names are unknown; viz., 19, Neene-Marum; 20, Setn Marpm ; 21, Coombadree ; 22, Kaloovoya Marum. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , Sfc. 17 the most generally useful of Indian Timbers. There were large specimens of Rhododendron arboreum, a huge log of Sandal-wood , and one of Satin-wood ( Chloroxylon Swietenia). These are, assuredly, among the most useful, and their interest is increased tenfold by the fact, that in the adjoining building ( le grand Palais) were deposited various exquisite pieces of furniture and elaborately sculptured work made from these very Trees, particularly of Ebony and of Dalbergia latifolia ; also exquisitely cut boxes of Sandal-wood ; and what was still more curious, many carved articles, consisting of buildings, figures, and even landscapes, made of the soft, white, pith- like interior stems of the Shola (JEchynomene paludosa), some of which were upon a very large scale, and attracted general attention from the ivory-like colour of the material and the facility with which it yields to the knife. 3. Tanning Substances. Kino (Pterocarpus Marsupium), from Malabar. Too well known to require description. Butea Kino (Butea frondosa), from India. -An astringent exudation, used for dyeing red. Do., extract of, from Cochin. Palachy , extract (Butea superba), from Cochin. Asacum , extract (Terminalia tomentosa). Mochrus (Bombax Malabarica), from the Calcutta Botanic Garden. Subanjuna (Moringa pterygosperma), from X. W. India. Gall-Nuts (Quercus infectoria). Cultivated in the Calcutta Botanic Garden. Galls of Tamarisk (Tamarix Indica). Western India. Galls of Kakrasinghee (Rhus semialata), from the Hima- laya. Saul (Shorea robusta). Gambir , or Malay Kino (Uncaria Gambir), Malacca. Do., purified. Mangrove bark (Rhizophora Mangle). Do., purified. Pomegranate rind (Punica Granatum). Turwar (Cassia auriculata), from Mysore. Dr. Cleghorn reports this to be the best of native astringents for tanning leather. Cassia Fistula . India. Less used than the former, but adapted for tanning coarse hides. Divi-divi (pods of Ca3salpinia coriaria), cultivated, being introduced from South America. Plantations are thriving in the Madras Presidency. Three thousand tons are annually imported to England, chiefly from South America. Sir W. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. Ixdia, &C-. Tanning substances. 18 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. India, &c. Dye-Stuffs, &c. ; no novelty since 1851. Gall Nuts of Ficus infectoria. Myrobalans. The dried fruit of Terminalia Belerica and another species, which have lately become of such conse- quence that imports to England amount to 2,000 tons yearly. From Madras alone 4,150 cwts. (value 8501.) were exported in 1853. Euphorbia. Several species. Catechu (Acacia Catechu). The bark of this, and of several other species of Acacia, as A. Arabica, A. Farnesiana, &c., is employed for tanning leather. Catechu is divided into two kinds, the White and the Brown : the extract of it is often called Kut, or Cutch, and Terra Japonica . Calotropis gigantca . Phyllanthus Emblica (or Emblica officinalis). To the galls (fruits ?) of this plant the name of Emblic-Myrobalans is, not very correctly, given. Zizyphus species. Diospyros glutinosa. The fruit is used for tanning, under the name of Gaub. The ashes of Musa Sapientum, Justicia Adhatoda , Chenopodium , and Arum , are all employed in tanning, on account of the carbonate of soda they contain. Dr. Cleghorn, in his Report on the Tanning Substances in the Madras Exhibition of 1855, enumerates only ten kinds : most of them are noticed by Dr. Royle, and the collection appears to be of small value. He observes, that the manu- facture of Leather in that Presidency is by no means so thriving as it might be, considering the abundance of materials, a circumstance which he attributes to the very low rank of the artisans (Chucklees, or Chumar wallahs). Yet the art of making leather is well understood by the European Tanners at Pondicherry, Hoonsa, Guntoor, Bangalore, and Madras, the article being little inferior to that which is prepared in Europe. Of all the Indian Tannins, Dr. Cleghorn prefers the Divi- Divi , the Catechu , and the Cassia auriculata , considering them almost equal to Oak-bark. 4. Dye-Stuffs and Colours. In this department we see but little novelty. The Col- lections in the 1851 Exhibition were very considerable, and the subject was fully discussed in the Report on Dye-stuffs by Mr. Solly. The articles which I observed, are these : Indigo (so called), three kinds, the produce of Indigofera tinctoria (which is cultivated in all parts of India), of a species of Ruellia, found in Assam, and of Wrightia tinctoria. To the latter the name of Pala Indigo is given. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India, Sfc. 19 Annotto and Racou (Bixa Orellana). Western India. Madder (Rubia tinctoria and cord i folia). From Assam. Munjeet (Rubia Munjista). Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius). Cultivated. Turmeric (Curcuma longa). Cultivated. Nyctanthes Arbor tristis. A 'll Powder (Morinda citrifolia and M. tinctoria.) Central India. Also Mangkuda (M. umbellata). Malacca. Cedrela Toona. Tamarix dioica and T. Indica. Punica Granatum. Sappanwood (Cassalpinia Sappan). From Madras. Terminalia Saja. T. Belerica . From Madras. Emblica officinalis. Oldenlandia umbellata. Berber is Lycium (from the Himalaya). Symplocos racemosa (from do.) Various Lichens. From the Himalaya, and from Scinde.* Many of the above substances are, it is to be observed, equally available for ianning. In the absence of any instructive catalogue (the great deficiency in the collection) which might indicate the progress that has been made in "the Company s Territories m this important branch of commerce, 1 am happy to be aWe to cue some valuable remarks from Dr. Cleghorn. He considers that the methods of dyeing practised in India are generally tedious and complicated ; vet the natives have long known how to give beautiful and permanent colours to their cotton goods. I he country supplies all the raw material for producing a variety of hues ; but where chemistry is unknown, we cannot look for the pro- gress which the application of that science has imparted to the art of dyeimr lhe process is as rude now as it was a£es ago, and any improvement or novelty in colour has been rather due to a happy accident, or an elaborate painstaking experiment, than to skilful combination upon understood principle*. Yet the nroi? , tT ; f ° r ’ under a11 ^advantages, the colours produced by Indian dyeing are most brilliant, and a striking proof of their superiority ,s drawn from the fact that cloths used to be sent hither from Man- “ ri S Vi’ and returned to England to be sold under the name of thfn , Cloths of Commerce.” The natives of this part of India dye little else modifier 011 ’ a,1 | d V 1 th . e> ’ lmpart durab,e Reds » Slacks, Blues, and their fugitive 15 5 bU t ,e,r dCeP greenS ’ ? ellows ’ and olhtr hues appear to be very Hie great diversity of dyeing substances used in India, including metals cTurse 5 ’ rr erS ; R r% Bar f ks > Leaves, Lichens, Insects, necessitaTes, of stances as Wool “sdk °l mana S erne nt, and eminently so when Animal Sub- \ and Leather, are subjected to the treatment as well as - / a . e : Chem,str y has enabled the European dyer to avail himself of colour- ng substances once deemed of no value, as the Indian Munjeet, Chayroot, Lon- some I™* 0 ' ar !’ 68 C ° mprised in the Madras Collection, together wifh some little known substances, as Puphj Chuckay (origin unknown but which Sr o71r K and , Bdlary) ’ <■ -d extract of “ ha, I cheap ^ ^ " Wlh a •** - they are generally to * r f S .‘ i , n three kinds are exhibited, but as this dye is , P ? tS ’, ri h familiar to ev "y one, I Shall not quote Ur. Lleghorn s long and valuable dissertation on it. C 2 Silt W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. India, &e. 20 Sir W. Hooker ox A r EGETABLE Products. Ixdia, &c. Oils; col- lection even better than in 1851. Reports on the Paris Exhibition. 5. Oils. The collection of Oils of different kinds. Oil-seeds, &c. which was exhibited by the East India Company in 1851 was very considerable, and it obtained honourable notice from the Jury. It is much augmented now, and the subject is, happily, attracting great attention in the different Presiden- cies. Dr. Hunter, of Madras, is announced as having furnished a vast number of samples. By good fortune, the Report of Lieut. H. P. Ilawkes, on the oil-seeds of the corresponding collection at the Madras Exhibition, furnishes much new and valuable information. Red Sanders-wood (Pierocarpus santalinus) is the produce of a large tree -which grows on the l’ulicat and other mountains. It was exported m 18o4 to the amount of nearly 50,000 cwts., value 6,000Z. Sappan-wood (Caesalpinia Sappan), from Goa. It gives a red but not a fast Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), from Cuddapah, &c. 'Ilns plant yields from its dried florets a very beautiful colour, which, without any mordant, gives to silk and cotton various shades of rose, scarlet, &c., but is not available for woollen substances. The plant is called Coosum. , Turmeric (Curcuma longa), from Trichinopoly, Goa, &c. Used for dyeing a yellow but not permanent colour. It enters into curries, and is applied by native females to their faces. . _ o a 11 Chayroot (Oldenlandia umbellata), from Tanjore, 1 ravancore, &c. A small biennial weed. The colouring matter resides solely in the bark of the root : it is prized for imparting a vivid red similar to Murijeet, and the celebrated red Turbans of Madura are coloured by its means. Exclusion from light, as stowage in the hold of a ship, is thought to injure Chayroot. Morinda Bark (Morinda tinctoria, citrifolia, and umbellata). From Eastern and Southern India and the Circars. All these species give a fine red dye, fixed with alum, and are worthy of the dyer's attention. ... Aliakoo (Memeeylon tinctorium). A small tree, from the Carnatic: its leaves impart a yellow dye. ...... Annotto ( Bixa Orellana). Too well kltown to require description here. Pulas (the flowers of Butea frondosa), from Madras and Mysore. Dye red. Curia Rung (llottlera tinctoria), from Mysore. The stellate pubescence (resinous coating ?) of the capsule of this large tree imparts a bright orange colour to silk ; and experiments instituted by Professor Anderson, of Glasgow, show the substance to deserve a fair trial in Europe; it contains 70-80 per cent. of colouring matter. . Pupil Chuckay, from Bellary and Mysore. The bark of the roots give a yellow dye, but the plant whence they are derived has not been ascertained. ' Mvrobalans Gall Nuts (Terminalia Chebula, Belerica, and citrina). Oval fruits, which according to the mordant used, impart a yellow, brown, or black colour, and as they contain much Tannin, are useful also to the Tanner. Though but recently known out of India, already England imports 2,000 tons annually. Ratinara, a Lichen, which dyes black : its value remains to be tested : from equisetifilia, cultivated at Pondicherry; a new discovery. The bark gives a reddish-brown colour, deepening to black, and is likely to be >a itfc l and Cochineal , though precious dyes, can hardly come under the head of vegetable productions. The East India Company has endeavoured to encourage theerowthof cochineal, even offering 2000 Z. for the satisfactory introduction of the true Mexican cochineal insect, but hitherto without success. Dr. Cleghorn closes his Report with an Appendix describing the various processes of dyeing cloth, as practised by Bola Chctty at Madras. The expeu- rnents have reference to the various substances enumerated above. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India, Sfc. 21 I proceed to give a List of the objects noted in the Paris Exhibition. They include, — Cocos nucifera. Linum usitatissimum. Sesamum orientale. Iticinus communis. Cannabis sativa. Prunus Armeniaca. Amygdalus communis. Papaver somniferum. Nicotiana Tabacum. Curcurbita Pepo, and Melopepo. Cucumis sativus, and others. Arachis hypogssa. Jatropha urens. Verbesina sativa. Helianthus annuus, peren- nis, and tubcrosus. Bassia latifolia, longifolia and butyracea. Carthamus tinctorius. Moringa pterygosperma (Ben-nut.) Sinapis dichotoma, juncea glauca, raeemosa, and rugosa. Calophyllum inophyllum. Pongamia glabra. Yateria Indica. Prinsepi » utilis. Kambaila oleifera. Papaver somniferum. Guizotia oleifera. Buchanania latifolia. Vernonia anihelmintica. Cuminum Cvminum. Croton Tiglium. Dipterocarpus (Wood oil.) Terminalia Catappa. Liquidambar Aitingia (Liquid Storax.) Sison Ammi (Bishop’s weed.) Benthamia, or Almond oil. Melia Azedarach (Mar- gOSil.) _ Allium Schoenoprasum and sativum. Jatropha. Argemon e Mexicana- As the Report of Lieutenant Hawkes, above mentioned, is equally applicable to the series sent by the East India Company to the Paris Exhibition, it is my duty to introduce some extracts from it in this place. The importance of the Indian oils (excluding the essential oils, or Attars) is shown by the reporter, in a Table, exhibiting the gross quantity of vegetable oils and oil-seeds exported from the Madras territories alone to the United Kingdom, foreign and home ports, for the year 1847-8 to 1852-3 inclusive. The first and last only are cited : — Sir W. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. Ixdia, &(*. 22 Reports on the Pans Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. India, &c. Exports of Oils. 1847-8. 1852- 3. Names. Quantity. Value {Rupees). Quantity. Value ( Rupees). Cocoa-nuts, dry - „ Oil - Gingeley S^ed „ Oil - Lamp-oil Seeds - „ Oil Ground Nuts ” . 0U Margosa Oil Pinnacotay Oil - „ Seeds Cassia Oil - Sandal- wood Oil - Cotton-seed Faenugreek - Mustard-seed Castor- Oil - „ Seeds - Lint- Seed - „ Oil Fennel- Seed 74,061 Cwt. 567.801 Galls. 17,518 Qrs. 19,520 Galls. 1,876 Qrs. 26,379 Galls. 939 Cwt. 1,587 Galls. 3,871 Galls. 508 Cwt. 794 Galls. 39 Cwt. 2,458 Cwt. 301 Cwt. 5,328 Cwt. I 2,90,393 1,26,476 1,60,134 1 4,766 13,736 12,637 6,315 1,240 2,116 1,353 2,121 25,619 2,57 1 1,079 11,009 1,51,528 Cwt. 1,457,741 Galls. 2,51,613 Cwt. 72,607 Galls. 1 73,21 5 Cwt. 1 51,084 Galls. 57,207 Galls. 3,1 1 1 Galls. 860 Cwt. 30 Cwt. 96 Cwt. 80,090 Cwt. 1,45! Cwt. 16,075 Cwt. 8,059 Galls. 2,764 Cwt. 1,106 Cwt. 5,30,928 3,18,655 5,31,864 43,608 54,228 20,927 23.603 1,701 1,167 1,701 50,037 7,613 5,322 34,048 7,818 4,247 3,275 These exports are sent to the following countries : -United Kino-dora, America, Arabia, Persian Gulf, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, China, France, Maldives, Mauritius, New South Wales, Pegu, Sumatra, the West Indies, and to Bengal, Bombay, Councan, Cutch, Goa, Guzerat, bcinde, Malacca, Travancore. ,, „ . One hundred and fifteen vegetable Fixed Oils are known to be produced throughout the Madras Presidency and Burmah; 105 of them are greasy and solid oils ; ten are " °f°)f the first kind, Cocoa-nut, Castor, Ground-nut, Gino-eley, or Sesamum, and its variety. Rape, Mustard, and "Lint seed, form considerable articles of foreign trade; the first three being exported in the shape of oil, the last two as oil-seed, and Gingeley both as an oil and oil-seed. _ In addition to these, the following are largely consumed m India : Lamp (Ricinus,) Ramtill, Koorung, Pinnecotay, Illoo- poo Ponerg or Doopada, Margosaor Neem, Physic-nut, Bru- madundoo, Safflower, and Poppy. Of the remainder some are medicinal. Some are prepared only m localities where the plants producing them happen to abound wild. Their prices vary considerably, even in different towns in the same district. In estimating the its other products worth of an oil-yielding plant or tree, should he i >nsidered. Lintseed, foi Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , §*c. 23 instance, produces, besides oil, the hardly less valuable Flax. Hemp yields a fibre and an intoxicating resin ; Piney , a resin ; the Gamboge-tree affords an important pigment ; Safflower , a dye ; Pinnecotay, a soft inferior gum ; Poonga , a good timber ; Mahoiva , a spirit, distilled from its flowers, &c. &c. ; while in the case of the Poppy , the oil is of secondary worth to the more prized opium.* * It would appear that Lieut. Hawke himself exhibits a very extensive and interesting collection of oleaginous specimens in a state of great purity, accom- panied by the seeds which yield them. No cost or trouble has been spared to render this collection a complete illustration of the Southern Indian Oils, its value being enhanced by the careful preparation of the substances, to the exclu- sion of all impurities in the process of extraction. They are as follows : — 1. Castor- Oil. ( Ilicinus communis), of two kinds, the small and the large- seeded variety, the former being the most valuable, and yielding the medicinal oil, the large-seeded kind affording the oil which is employed for lamps. The average produce of oil, from 1,400 lbs. of seeds, is much the same in the Cal- cutta and Madras Presidencies, namely, nearly 500 lbs of oil, of three qualities, two-thirds of this amount being the best. The two inferior qualities make good soap, but the expense and the smell are b, t h objectionable. The average export of medicinal castor-oil for four years has been (from Madras only) nearly 12,000 gallons annually. 2. The second kind of castor-oil , from the large seeds, is extracted by heat, both a roasting and boiling process being employed, by which the colour of the oil is injured and an empyreumatic odor is imparted. It is chiefly used for lamps, and the average export from Madras is 26,000 gallons a year. 3. /#oopooo?7(Bassia longifolia). This semi -solid oil noticed by Mr. Wilson, in the foot note to page 18, as Bassia butter,) is expressed from the seeds of a tree very common in Southern India. Though much used by the natives, who extract 30 per cent, of bright yellow oil from the seeds, it is seldom sold ; candles and soap are made from it, but it is chiefly used as a substitute for butter in the native cookery, and for burning in their lamps. 4. Cocoa-nut oil (Cocos nucifera). Of this well-known oil the enormous average of 900,000 gallons has been annually exported from Madras during the last few years. The much largest proportion goes to Great Britain and France • the rest to Arabia, Mauritius, &c. The prices vary from 40 1. to 501. a ton, that called the Cochin oil fetchingthe higher sum. In Europe candles, soap, and the lubricating of machinery ; in India cookery, lamps, medicine, and anointing the person ; all are uses for which cocoa-nut oil is available. 5. Bryonia oil is burnt in lamps in parts of India where the plant abounds, but it is not extensively procurable. 6. Ground-nut oil (Arachis hypogasa) is a very valuable product. The plant is much cultivated throughout India : the poorer people eat the nut ; and the oil, which fetches in London 47Z. 10s. per ton in 1855, has been exported to the amountof 100,000 gallons a year. The demand, however, is fluctuating, some- times not much exceeding half that quantity. Mr. Wilson (see the note p. 18,) testifies to the value of this oil. 7. Poppy oil (Papaver somniferum) is extracted from the seed wherever the poppy is grown for opium, and is sold at the rate of 40Z. per ton. 8. Mustard oil. (Sinapis) Five or six species are cultivated throughout India for their valuable oil, which is much esteemed in the country for cookery, for medicine, and for anointing the person, but it is not at all exported. The seeds, however, are shipped, and to the amount of, (in 1848,) 5,000 cwts., rising to 16.000 cwts. in 1853. 9. Ginyeley or Sesamum oil (Sesamum orientale) is even more used by the natives of India than cocoa-nut oil, and is second to none other in commercial value. The seed as w'ellas the oil is largely exported : of the former upwards of 250.000 cwts., and of the oil 72,000 gallons, were exported in the year 1848 from Sib W. Hookee on Vegetable Peoducts. India, &c. 24 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Lieutenant Hawke here introduces what he justly pro- nounces to be an excellent epitome of those particular India, Sec . Madras. The United Kingdom and Fiance were the chief recipients. The oil is chiefly used in India for cooking and for anointing the person ; in England it is made into soap, and consumed in table lamps, being better suited to the latter purpose than cocoa-nut oil, because of the lower temperature at which it congeals. Its present value ^ 1 8.^5) in this country is -47/. 10s. per ton. The black-seeded Sesamum (a variety) affords a larger per-centage of oil than the red-seeded kind ; but their produce is alike in quality. Sesamum seed has latterly been exported to France, and the present price is consequently double what it was three years ago. 10. Ramtill art (from Guizotia oleifera and Verbesina sativa) is a sweet-tasted edible oil, plentiful in the Mysore, &c., and used for the same purposes as the Sesamum oil (Gingeley), but is not considered quite so good. 11. Murgoosa or Neern oil( Azadirachta Indica and Melia A zadarach), a valuable oil, is much employed by native practitioners, administered both internally and ex- ternally ; it is produced by the seeds of the above-mentioned trees, which are common throughout the Presidency. It is sold in the bazaars, for burning, under the name of Bitter oil, and is exported, though not constantly, to Ceylon. 12. Lintseed oil. (Linum usitatissimum) is too well known to need description. The generally received opinion that Lintseed oil from India is inferior to the English raised article is due to its careless preparation. The quality is as good, and the quantity larger, when the same process is pursued in India as at home. 13. Hemp-seed oil (Cannabis sativa). Not generally used in India, though the plant is much cultivated. 14. Ben oil (Moringa pterygosperma). Valuable, because it does not soon turn rancid, and it might be procured in large quantities, as the tree is common throughout India; but though the flowers, foliage, and fruit are eaten by the natives, and the rasped root is used by Europeans as horse-radish, the oil is seldom extracted, and does not now form an article of export, except for watchmakers, who use none else. 15. Portia-nut oil (Thespesia populnea). A deep red coloured and thickish oil is extracted from the seeds of this tree, which is abundant throughout the Presidency, and is valued for its beautiful flowers, useful wood, and rapid growth. Its juice is serviceable in cutaneous complaints, and the oil has probably the same medicinal properties. 16. Brumadundob or Coorookoo oil ( Argemone Mexicana). A pale yellow clear oil, sometimes consumed in lamps by the natives, but doubtless available for more important uses. The plant was originally brought from Mexico in ballast, and it now flourishes luxuriantly throughout India. 17. Safflower oil ( Carthamus tinctorius). The seeds of this well-known dyeing plant yield a light yellow clear oil, used for culinary and other purposes. 18. Pinnecotay or Poonseed oil (Calophyllum inophyllum). A dark green strong-scented oil is procured from the seeds : it is mainly used for medical purposes 1 9. Soap-nut oil ( Sapindus emarginatus). A semi-solid oil, valued as medicine by the natives, but too costly to be generally employed. 20. Poonga or Kurunj oil (Dalbergia arborea). Chiefly used for adulterating lamp oil. 21. Croton oil ( Croton Tiglium). A well-known medicine. 22. Cashew-nut oil (Anacardium occidentale). Equal, if not superior, as an edible, to olive or almond oi*l, and procured from the nut of this tree. 24. Cashew- Apple oil (A. occidentale). A powerful vesicatory, extracted from the pericarp of the same fruit. 25. Belgaum II allnut oil (Aleurites triloba). The facility with which the oil is separable from the Lumbang nut, as this is often called, is noticed by IVJr. Wilson as a recommendation. The fruit is also abundantly produced, and the nut yields a very large per-centage of oil. In the islands of the Pacific and elsewhere, it is Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , Sfc. 25 qualities whereon the commercial value of an oil depends, in the form of a letter, or printed circular, from G. F. Wil- son, Esq. (alias Price and Co., and there can be no better customary to thread the nuts on a thin strip of Bamboo, when they will burn like a candle. 26. Poorana oil (Sarcostigma Kleinii), said to be useful in the treatment of rheumatism. 27. Pinetf or Doopada oil (Vateria Indica). This highly valuable tree yields not merely oil, but a resin nearly equal to Copal, and an excellent timber. The oil is perfectly solid, even in hot countries, and is extracted by roasting and grind- ing, and boiling the seeds; it is chiefly used for lamps, but is also suitable for soap and candle-making. 28. Wild Almond oil (Terminalia Catappa). Little known. 29. Neeradi-mootoo oil or Nebrada Mootoo, a valuable oil, known under many names, and largely entering into native prescriptions. It may, probably, be found of service in the arts. 30 & 31. Glaucous-leaved Physic-nut, the produce of Jatropha glauca, and the oil extracted from the angular-leaved Physic nut (Curcas purgans), are used both medicinally and for lamps by the natives, but are little known beyond the districts where they are procured. 32. Malkunuunee oil (Celastrus paniculata). The seeds of this shrub yield a deep scarlet medicinal oil by expression, and a black one (oleum nigrum). Sec No. 53. 33. Fennel- floiccr o?7(Nigellasativa). A dark and fragrant oil is extracted from the black aromatic seeds of this plant. 34. Cheerotijee oil (Buchanania latifolia). The natives eat the kernels of this tree to make them fat; and they (rarely) extract the straw-coloured sweet and clear oil which abounds in the nut. 35 & 36. Cucumber-seed and Melon-seed oils, and (37 ) pumpkin-seed oil. Edible and clear. 38. Nnlmeg-b utter (Myristica moschata). An oil is obtainable by expression from the nutmeg, and retains the peculiar smell of that spice. 39. Gamboge-butter (Garcinia pictorum). This name is given to the solid oil which is contained in the seeds of the Gamboge tree, a species of Garcinia closely allied to that which produces the Cocum Butter. The oil is procurable in moderate quantities, by pounding and boiling the seed; it does not possess the drastic qualities of the Gamboge resin, but is valued as an antiscorbutic ingre- dient in food. 40. Marking-nut oil (Semecarpus Anacardium). The acrid and vesicating oil, which is contained between the laminae of the pericarp of the Marking-nut, is used as a preventative against the attack of white ants, and by native practitioners as a remedy in iheumatic and leprous affections. 41. Bonduc-nul oil (Guilandina Bonduc), considered useful in palsy and con- vulsions. 42. Mahou'a oil (Bassialatifolia). Different samples of this so-called oil would seem to be derived from a different tree or trees, some being solid and others quite fluid. •43. Stercidia oil (Sterculia foetida). This semi-solid oil appears to contain a large quantity of Stearine ; but may not be obtainable in sufficient quantities to deserve attention in a commercial view. •44. Moodooga Oil (Butea frondosa). Procured in small quantity and used medicinally. 45. Mimusops Oil (Mimusops Elengi). Medicinal, and obtainable in tolerably large quantities. 46. Nux Vomica Oil (Stryclmos Nux Vomica). Empyreumatic, and used medicinally. 47. Wild Cumin-seed Oil ( Vernonia anthelmintica). Nothing known respecting the specimens of this oil. 48. Garlic Oil (Allium sativum). Medicinal. 49 & 50. Oils from Iiadish Seed and Cabbage seed. Sin W. Hooker os Vegetable Products. India, &c. 26 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir w. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. India, &c. authority) addressed to Sir William Hooker, which is here transferred to a note.* .51 & 52. Cardamoms and Colocynth seed oils. Well known. 53. Oleum nigrum (Celastrus paniculata). An empyreumatic oil, obtained by the destructive distillation of the seeds. ( See No. 32.) In summing up the qualities of the above-mentioned oils, it may be said that the best seem to he the Poppy, Bruma'lundoo, Karunj, Belgaum Wallnut (also called Lumbang Nut), Poorana, Neeradi-mootoo, and Physic-nut Oils, and the Gamboge Butter. The following List of other Fixed Oils completes the produce of the Madras Presidency : — Sunflow’er Oil. Gutta Percha Seed Oil. Thorny Trichilia. Saul Seed Oil. Cyperus Oil. Eugenia Oil. Cotton-seed Oil. Dammer Tree Oil. Thorn-apple Oil (empyreumatic.) Kikuel or Salvadora Persica Oil. Coccuin Butter. Coccus Indicus Oil. Faenugreek Oil. Limbolee, or Bergera Koenigii Oil, Condamunnee Oil. Balanites ^Egyptiaca Oil. Adenanthera Pavonina Seed Oil. Hyoscyamus Oil. Except the Cotton-seed and Sunflower (and Coceum.) Oils, most of the oils in the foregoing List are only procurable in very small quantities, and are chiefly used for medicine. * “ Every oil or grease, whether solid or liquid (unless it be poisonous and acrid like croton-oil, or viscid and gummy like castor-oil, or drying like lint- seed oil, must be worth, in London, at least 30/. per ton. Among greases, solid at above 60 degrees of Fahrenheit, the higher the melting-point the greater (other things being equal] is their value; for example, the Vegetable Tallow of Borneo, melting at about 90° Fahrenheit, is worth at least 51. a ton more than the cocoa-nut oil of Ceylon, which melts at 70°. The soap duty being taken off' may soon much change the relative value of greases; but at present liquid oils, as that of the Ground Nut (Arachis hypogaea) are worth more than soft solid oils, like the Bassia butter of India, because they require less manufacturing to fit them for use ; the liquid oils, after a simple treatment in a cheap apparatus, being ready for burning in lamps ; w hile the soft solid oils, which are neither hard enough for candles nor fluid enough for lamps, require to go through a press before they are saleable, except for soap- making. Greases may possess particular advantages, as being little acted upon by the air, and therefore not easily turning rancid. But these good qualities can only be ascertained by experiments, which had perhaps better be left to practical chemists like ourselves. We have been experimenting upon oils with a view to medicine, in which it seems likely they may take an important place. Already one Vegetable Oil has proved to be nearly as efficacious as cod-liver oil, with the advantage of being less unpalateable and cheaper. This new useful oil would suggest the desirableness of collecting oils in small quantities, even if they do not fulfil the conditions which I have already mentioned. Again, the value of the oil must somewhat depend (especially when found in remote spots) on the way in which it is held in the matrix ; for instance, the oil of the Lumbang Nut (Aleurites triloba) is separable with much less labour and simple machinery than cocoa-nut oil, which demands a strong pressure to extract it from the dried kernel. Waxes are worth more than greases, because of their very high melting points. Their relative value depends upon colour, transparency, and freedom from resinous matter. Resin may be easily detected by kindling a small por- tion of the wax ; the more smoke escapes the greater is the proportion of resin and the less valuable is the wax. The palest and most transparent wax is the best. No Tree wax is so valuable as the beautiful Insect Wax from China. A simple way of trying an Oil-Nut is to crush it with a stone, and then squeeze it between the finger and thumb. If it contains any considerable quan- Sir William. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , Sfc. 27 Sib W. Wood Oils. Hookeb ox Vegetable Mostly obtained from Chittagong, Arracan,and the Straits, Pe< ^ ctb * and in general procured by tapping certain Dipterocarpous lKDIA » &c - and other Trees and applying heat to the incision. The oil Wood Oils, which flows out has the nature of a Balsam and a Volatile Oil, and when used as a varnish the oil evaporates, and deposits a durable coat of resin. TV ood-oils are chiefly employed as natural varnishes, or as a substitute for Tar, or to preserve timber from the white ants. They are said to form an useful ingredient in Litho- graphic Inks. It is to be regretted, that owing to distance and our im- perfect knowledge of the countries whence they come, these oils cannot be traced with certainty to their botanical sources; and their names are therefore vaguely applied, and generally are only indicative of the localities whence we receive them. Though differing in colour and consistency, and ob- tained from widely different plants, all have the peculiar balsamic odour of the Dipterocarpece . The principal are as follows : — Teak Wood Oil , so called, is opaque and dull ash-coloured, and is mainly used for wood-work, either as a simple varnish or combined with resin. Wood-oil , from Pegu , is a very clear and fluid natural varnish. Deodar or Shemanuthee oil is the produce of Erythroxylum areolatum : it is eropyreumatic and medicinal. Wood-oil from Chittagong. Little different from the Teak and Pegu wood oils. tity of grease, enough will be pressed out to judge of its colour, hardness, and sweetness. If the nut tastes oily, but does not give out oil under the above treatment, it is well to dry the kernel before squeezing it; and in the case of nuts containing a grease which is solid at a high temperature, like that of Myristica sebifera, it is desirable to heat the nut and to proceed as follows : — Get, if possible, a stearic candle, burn it down a little till it has formed a cavity, then blow out the candle, and place a small quantity of the material to be tested in the hollow ; relight the candle, and after a moment’s burning the candle material with which the wick was saturated will be consumed, and the new sub- stance from the cavity takes its place, and becomes the mateiial which supplies the wick till it is exhausted, and can thus be judged. Or a piece of string dipt in the oil or melted grease makes a very tolerable wick. Or, simpler still, the nut itself, if very full of oil, may be lighted at one end, and it will at least show whether it gives out smoke and what is the colour of the light. Some of the Resins ought to be available for manufacturing candles, though their tendency to cause smoke has hitherto confined their use to the commonest kind of candles. As resins differ, however, in this respect, we may hope that some may yet be found adapted for candles. The points connected will) new greases, &c-, on which we chiefly desire in- formation are these: — manner of growth, expense of collecting, means of transport, and the probable quantity to be obtained. Small samples of the grease, if manufactured, should be sent, and specimen of the fruit, with both its husk and hard shell (where they exist.)” 28 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SlK w. Hooker on Vegetable Products. India, &c. VolatileOils. Wood-oil from Moulmein and Singapore. Mr. Haubury, (Pharmaceutical Journal, Jan. 1856,) states that a Wood-oil is now extensively imported into London from Moulmein, and sold under the name of Balsam Capivi. Wood-oil from Rangoon. Of peculiar appearance, white, and almost solid, but with the same resinous odour as the other Wood oils. Wood-oil from China. A valuable product, being the prin- cipal ingredient of which the well-known China Lacquer is made. It is used at Singapore for painting the beams of the native houses, but it does not bear much exposure to the sun. Sissoo IVood-oil (Dalbergia Sissoo). Empyreumatic and medicinal. Wood-oil from Tinnevelly. Resembling Tar, chiefly used by native medical practitioners. Camphor Wood-oil (Dryobalanops Camphora). Exten- sively used at Singapore as a substitute for Turpentine. A very interesting specimen of Wood oil closes the set. It comes from Malacca, where it is the unprepared product of a very large and common Dipterocarpous Tree, which, if not too soon tapped, attains an immense girth. The wood is reddish-brown, with a smell like an English Fir ; the leaves are alternate, pinnated, and exstipuled, the fruit a one- seeded drupe ; the seed angular and inverse. Volatile Oils * and Aromatic Substances. Under this head, Dr. Royle’s collection enumerates : Various Bottles of Essences, not particularized; Melaleuca Cajeputi ; Andropogon Calamus-aromaticus ; Rosa sp ; Jasminum sp. ; Pandanus odoratissimus ; Nyctanthcs Arbor-tristis ; Santalum album. (The last four, it must be observed, are usually called Attars or Essential Oils in India, and are fatty oils impregnated with some of the Volatile oils of the Plant.) * Lieut. Hawke, in his Report on the Oils of the Madras Exhibition, 18 55 , observes that, of vegetable substances producing volatile Oils, there is an im- mense variety in India ; but, with the exception of the Oils of Cassia and Cinna- mon, Roosa (as the perfume extracted from the sweet smelling Grass, Andropogon Calamus aromaticus, is called in India, Vitivert is its name among British Perfumers), and Rose Attar, few are of commercial importance, or are prepared in any quantity. Scented Oils, erroneously termed Volatile, and obtained by repeated distillation of fragrant hetbs over and into a receiver containing fixed Oil, to which the aroma is imparted, are prepared to some extent, but chiefly for native use. Sandal-wood Oil, and the numerous attars employed in native perfumery, are included in the above class of articles. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , 8fC. 29 6. Gums and Eesins. These may conveniently be divided into two series, viz., Simple Gums, and Eesins and Gum-Kesins (including Yarnishes). Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Ikdia, &c. Gums. Simple Gums, (Or such natural exudations as air, but are easily dissolved by Gum Babool (Acacia Arabica). Gum Gattee^K. Arabica). Gum Kuteera (Cochlo- spermuin Gossypium). Gum Kechur (Vachellia Farnesiana). Gum Margosa (Azadi- rachta Indica). Gum Bailee (Sterculia urens) and Sterculia ra~ mosa. solidify by exposure to the water.) Gum of Feronia Elephan- tum. Soap nuts (Sapindus de- terge ns.) Gamboge from Siam (Gar- cinire sp.). Gamboge from Mysore (G. pictorum). Katteemundoo (Euphorbia Kattimandu.)* Resins and Gum-resins, (^Such exudations as are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol.) Under this head, comes an extensive Catalogue; among them, are : — Shorea robusta. “ Sarcocolla Vatica Tumbagaia. Cedrus Deodara. * Dr. Cleghorn, the able reporter on the Gums and Resins of the Madras Exhibition, says that the only true Gum which in that Presidency enters largely into commerce is the Gum Arabic or Babool Gum ; but he notices more or less particularly the following: — Wood-apple Gum, obtained from Feronia Elephantum, useful especially for making Ink. Keehur Gum, produced by Vachellia Farnesiana (a variety of Gum Arabic). Dirisnna Gum, the abundant exudation of Acacia Sirissa. Very like the foregoing. Kut or Kheir Gum, a watery extract from Acacia Catechu. Sent from Canara in cakes or balls covered with Paddy husk. Cashew Gum (Anacardium occidentale). Transparent, and a good preser- vative against insects. Moringa Gum (Moringa pterygosperma). An abundant exudation ; allied to Gum Tragacanth. Booraga Gum (Bombax Malabaricum). Very pure. Gambir < Uncaria Garnbir). In cubical cakes. Butea Gum (Butea frondosa). Astringent; and procurable in large quan- tities. Vulta Thamary Gum. Origin not positively known. The gum is pure, and of a light crimson colour, and has been used for taking impressions of leaves, coins, &c. 30 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. India, &c. Vateria Indica (Pin ay). Dipterocarpus (Dhoona). Canariurn strictum and C. glabrum. Embryopieris ylutinifera. Terminalia angusti folia. Boswellia Jloribunda and B. thurifera. Balsamodendron Myrrha and B. commiphora. Balsamodendron Mukul , B. Gileadcnse, and B. Agallocha. Ailanihus Malabarica. Pistacia Terebinthus and P. Lentiscus. Pinus longifolia. Coccus iacciferus (pro- duced by several plants.) Assafcetida or Narthex Assafoetida. Galbanum officinale. Butea frondosa. Styrax Benzoin and S. officinale. Dorema Ammoniacum. Garcinia pictorum , and other species. Euphorbia Antiquorum. Dragon's blood , or Dra- caena Draco. Aloe Soccotrina. Buchanania latifolia. Andersonia sp. (Dhas Gum). Odina Wodiei. Diospyros tomentosa.* * The following are extracted from Dr. Cleghorn’s notes, in continuation of his List of Resins and Gum-resins: — Doopada Resin (Vateria Indica). It constitutes the Piriey varnish, and is much used for incense. Dikamali Resin (Gardenia lucida). Useful in Hospitals and in Farriery, from its powerful aroma. Assafoetida (Narthex Assafcetida). Well known (from the Persian Gulf). Bdellium (Amyris Commiphora). Both solid Gum and Balsamic fluid are produced by this tree. Gamboge. (Garcinia pictorum). From Malacca (the best), in pipes; from Mysore in lumps ; in tears from Labuan ; the produce, probably, of Garcinia Cochi n-chinensis. Coorg Resin (the tree unknown) is green, semi-transparent, hard, and promises to he useful Rababooden Resin (from a Dipterocarpous tree): fragrant. Mutty Pal (Ailanthus Malabaricus), a resinous exudation, used for incense. Lac, a substance produced by the punctures of Insects on various trees, as Vatica laccifera, Croton lacciferum, Erythrina Indica, &c., also on Schleichera trijuga, which last is the best. Lac is a colouring resin, abundant in the South Indian Jungles, but it is not of much importance in commerce. Gum Elastics. — Among this Class of Gums, Dr. Cleghorn directs attention to some interesting novelties, premising that the rapid failure of the Gutta Percha from the Indian Archipelago, and the increasing adulteration of India- rubber and Caoutchouc, alike give importance to any new Gum Elastic which may promise to supersede them, and he proceeds to enumerate the little known kinds which were exhibited at Madras; namely, Panchonihee, which is the product of a large Saponaceous forest-tree from Trevandram, and which much resembles Gutta Percha both in appearance and qualities. A second Gum Elastic of a similar kind, from the Neilgherries, where the trees abound. A third, called Cattimundoo Gum, which is used, when freshly exuded, as a vesicant, and also as a cement for fastening knife-handles, &c. Two cwts. have been sent to London for experiments. Euphorbia Tirucalli yields a Gum much like the Cattimundoo Gum. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — India , Sfc. 31 7. Medicinal Substances. Under the head of medicinal substances in common use in India, we find a long catalogue ; and as there appears to be nothing new, or peculiarly worthy of remark, among them, and as indeed, most of them are either cultivated or im- ported, I shall confine myself to the bare list. I presume it must be owing to some strange oversight, that these sub- stances are entirely omitted in the “ Catalogue ” of the British Section of the Exhibition : many of them, however, which come under the head of Medicines, have been already noticed under other vegetable products. Styrax Benzoin . — acidum Benzoin. Cocculus cordifolius. Berberis Lycium. Celastrus nutans. Helicteres Is or a. Bombax Malabaricum. Acorus Calamus. Zingiber Cassumunar. Gardenia sp. Hracocephalum Roylea- num. Randia dumetorum. Cochlospermum Gossy- pium. Xanthoxylum Budrunga. Wrightia antidysenterica. Agathotes Chirayta. Ipomcea Turpethum , and I ccerulea. Rheum Emodi. Aueklandia Costus-verus. Croton Tiglium. Piper longum. Aloe 'of India.) Asparagus adscendens. Strychnos Nux Vomica. Guilandina Bonduc. Garcinia pictorum (Indian Gamboge). Anamirta Cocculus. Papaver somniferum. Sinapis glauca. Coptis Teeta. ZEgle Marmelos. Xanthoxylum hostile. Balsamodendron Myrrha , B. Mukul , and B. Com- miphora. Tamarindus Indica. Cassia Fistula. Pterocarpus Marsupium. Cydonia vulgaris. Melaleuca Cajeputi. Punica Granatum. Narthex Assafcetida. Dorema Ammoniacum . Cuminum Cyminum. Nauclea Garnbir. Anacyclus Pyrethrum. Cucumis Pseudo- Colocyn- thus. Soymida febrifuga. Plumbago Zeylanica. Calotropis giganteo.. Hemidesmus Indicus. E. neriifolia produces a similar substance. Cryptostegia grandiflora. This strong and handsome climbing plant abounds on the Eastern coast of India, and its milky juice contains caoutchouc, which is of excellent quality, and may be an article of importance if it can be obtained in sufficient quantity. A remarkably fine specimen of Sheet India rubber, weighing about 2 lbs. closes the List of Gums, &c. exhibited at Madras. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. India, &c. Medicinal substances (little worthy of remark). 32 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Sir W . Hooker ok Vegetable Products. India, &e. Algeria. Algerian Collection ; highly im- portant. Aconitum ferox. Quercus infectoria. Cannabis sativa (Ganja.) Cassia officinalis. Acacia Catechu. Ricinus communis. Hymenodictyon utile. Tylophora vomitoria. Hedycliium spicatum. Taxus baccata. Datura alba. Barruigtonia acutangula. Justicia paniculata. Clitoria Ternatea. Melia Azadirachta. Cordia Myxa. Embelia robusta. Strychnos Potatorum. Adiantum lunulatam. Pterospermum acerifolium. Semecarpus Anacarclium. Picrorhiza Kurrooa. Cubeba officinalis .* 8. Spices, Pulses, and Cerealia. The above are so entirely the results of cultivation, so cosmopolitan, in fact, that I deem it better to omit them altogether. Besides the Grand Medaille d’Honneur awarded to the East India Company a Grand Medaille dTIonneur was awarded to Dr. Koyle for his services in this and other classes of the Exhibition as co-operator, and to Mrs. Koyle for her zealous and useful exertions as co-operator in Class II. Honorary mention to Mr. W. E. Underwood, for fibres of various plants. XX— ALGERIA. (Minister of War, Direction of Algerian affairs.) The second collection which I propose to consider, is from Algeria. It ranks among the very first in the Paris Exhibition, whether as regards the extent and variety of its Vegetable Productions, or the amount of scientific knowledge which has been brought to bear on its arrangement and * Dr. Cleghorn, in his Report on the Chemical and Pharmaceutical Pro- cesses and Products generally of the Madras Exhibition, is very brief on the subject of the Medical Substances, but says that Southern India abounds with simple, energetic, and appropriate remedies adapted for treating Tropical Diseases. He and his brother Jurors are of opinion that “ many indigenous drugs, besides the country medicines, might be brought into use and improved by Pharmaceutical operations.” The few additional ones that are noticed appear to be of trifling value till their properties are more perfectly tested ; and comparatively few medical Vegetable products are exported exclusively as such from the Madras Territories. The following List is given for 1854: — Quantity. Value. Catechu - 1,369 cwts. 6,984 rupees. Kino - : - - - - Country Sarsaparlla (Hemidesmus 66 „ 1,031 „ Indicus) - 269 „ 1,699 Senna ------ 404 „ 2,817 Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Algeria . 33 elucidation. Algeria possesses, too, this peculiar claim, that while continental India has been inhabited by Europeans vegetable for centuries, and its productions were, to a certain extent, Pe ^^ cts known by the intelligent natives before the white man set Al&eria » foot on its shores, the country now under special review is a possession new to the more civilized and intellectual portion of mankind, and an acquaintance with its resources has sud- denly opened on our view. No fuller proof of this fact can be adduced than the simple circumstance that the majestic Cedar, that most conspicuous and unmistakeable denizen of y e „ etatior the forest, was not known, till about 20 years ago, to grow in only re- 1 ' 1 Algeria. .... . & The territory of Algeria occupies in Northern Africa an area of 700 miles from east to west, and is of very indefinite extent from north to south, for it gradually merges into the domain of the free mountain tribes, its southern limits being traversed by ranges of the Atlas mountains. The whole is divided into three provinces, — Algiers, Oran, and Constantine. A great portion of the country is of striking natural fertility ; yet the indolence of the people, the oppression of the native governments, the absence of roads and of all means of internal communication, caused three -fourths of the land to remain uncultivated till it was subjugated by the French in 1830. Now, Europe is astonished at the extent of the products here shown, and at the resources of the colony as thereby proved. chma?e S The arrangement of the collection is worthy of its contents. The ground floor of the Annexe exhibits chiefly the raw pro- ducts ; and one is surprised to see assembled, from a country of such comparatively small extent, the plants and fruits of the tropics and of temperate climates, and all of the finest kinds. Oranges, lemons, citrons, cedrats, dates, cherimolias, bananas, arachis, &c., are mingled with almonds, chestnuts, figs, sweet acorns (from the Quercus Ballota), pomegra- nates, olives, grapes, apples, &c. ; and the finest maize, rice, sorghum, millet, along with wheat, barley, oats, and rye that would do honour to the best arable district in the north of France or in England. Yams, batatas, eddoes (Caladium esculentum), are ranged by the side of potatos as good as our Sister Isle could boast, and cottons are mingled with hemp and flax. Vast collections of useful woods, in their rough state and manufactured, and fibres in every stage of prepa- ration, from the plant itself to those rich fabrics which attract public attention in the glazed cases of the gallery above. Such are some of the Algerian V egetable Productions. It must not, however, be supposed, that a collection of interest ex- such size and value was suddenly and exclusively prepared subjectf the for the Paris Exhibition ; the French Government had already 3. D Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Algeria. in Paris, &c. ; The cata- logue well done. Algerian Fibres, 34 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. established a permanent Algerian museum, and fixed it in Paris. It was originally, as is stated in the Preface to the Catalogue, “ but a humble collection of specimens deposited (i in a department of the War Office, for the instruction of “ the employes there, and of some few curious visitors. After “ the London Exhibition, which brought to light and proved, “ at home and abroad, the native wealth of Algeria, this col- “ lection was located and re-arranged in a private house in “ the Rue de Bourgogne. From that day, when it was opened “ to the public, it gradually increased in popularity; and being cc rapidly augmented by private donations, and by those of the c: Algerian Government, it quickly overflowed its too narrow « limits. Marshal Le Vaillant, Minister of War, was anxious “ to obtain for this museum of agriculture and industry a « position, worthy of its present valuable contents and of the ce rising Colony’s next to unbounded resources; and now, ce deposited in the halls devoted to the Algerian Exhibition, K0I>uc:rs - firmness in two years from the time of shooting, are service' Algeria - able for hop-poles and supports for vines and climbing plants, while the weakest are useful for trellises, &c. France imported, during 1853, Bamboos and strong Reeds to the value of 104,000 francs from various countries. Beautiful samples of Bamboo, naturalized in Algeria, are exhibited, together with a remarkable shoot, of only six months growth, cut in four lengths. 2. Plants with textile fibres . Rushes (Jones). These are probably some species of Textile Juncus, but from an epithet which follows, it would seem Plants - that reeds (roseaux) are included. Rushes (les joncs) are sufficiently common in Algeria to give a name to some of the rivers ; the natives use them for various kinds of platting, and have done so from ancient times, for the baskets and mats of Algiers, in which perhaps were combined the Alfa, or Haifa, (see what follows.) and parts of the Palms (mentioned before), were known as articles of export during the middle ages. France imported Rushes and European Reeds in 1853, worth nearly 5,000 francs. Haifa or Alfa. These are the Moorish names for certain Grasses, possessing very strong and tenacious fibres, such as Lygeum Spartum, Stipa tenacissima, S. gigantea, and S. barbata, all growing profusely in Algeria, alike in shade and sun, on rock and sand. Few plants are so valuable, as affording materials for innumerable fabrics and articles of industry. Baskets, matting, hats, shoes, bags, admirable ropes, and many other things are made of the fibres. The whole coast-line of Oran is fertile in Alfa. European inven- tion has discovered in the waste part of the leaves a material for paper-stuff; the substance is deprived of its resinous matter, crushed and bleached, and then presents a kind of paste, which may be made of different degrees of fineness, and which, mixed with rags, gives consistency to the pulp and acquires the needful softness for paper-stuff. France imported in 1853 the rough stems of Spartum to the value of 206,000 francs. His ( Festuca patula , or Arundo festucoides, Desf.) is a very common Algerian grass, and used like the Alfa, for platting and for ropes, as well as to feed cattle. The basket-work made of Alfa, and exhibited, was in great variety, and very beautiful, both in texture and ma- 38 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Algeria. Vegetable Horse-hair from Dwarf Palm : its use, and price. nipulation, and so eagerly purchased by visitors that all the articles (and they were marked at very moderate prices) were quickly cleared off. Dwarf Palm (Chamterops humilis, L.) Besides the well-known textile properties of this Palm, a very impor- tant discovery in connexion with it has been made and patented by Messrs. Averseng and Co., of Toulouse, under the name of “ African or Vegetable Horse- hair.” The profusion with which the Dwarf or Fan Palm (called Palmetto in Spain and Italy) grows in Northern Africa, its comparative worthlessness, and hitherto the extreme difficulty of extirpating it, are all so many additional advantages to the ingenious patentee. It has long proved, by the depth, the strength, and the inextricable network of its roots, the plague and scourge of Algerian cultivators. The cost of clearing a “ hectare ” (2-L acres) of land which is covered with the Dwarf Palm, amounts to three or four hundred francs, and this outlay is but very slenderly reimbursed by the worth of the roots and wood for fuel and for charcoal. Large rewards have been offered for its extirpation; though the natives persist in making the material for their tents of its foliage and stems, mixed with camel’s hair and wool, and applying it generally to the same purposes as the Alfa and the Dis. It must be confessed that the fibre of the Dwarf Palm is rather the best of the three. It also serves for spinning fine thread, which is of long staple and very strong. But the recent invention of Vegetable Wool, or African Horse-hair, pro- mises to render the Dwarf Palm subservient to far more useful purposes than any hitherto discovered. The objec- tions to wool and horsehair for mattrasses and stuffing for seats, &c. have long been felt. The Agave, the Zostera, have been tried, the latter with peculiar success, as substi- tutes, But the fibre of the palm possesses many and peculiar advantages; it is scentless, durable, supple, yet not too elastic ; it may be carded twice or thrice without splitting, and with hardly any waste or dust. It is already advantageously employed for stuffing carriages, & c. ; and it is undeniably much to be preferred to the mixture of horse-hair and “ fob ” (technically so termed) which uphol- sterers and carriage-builders now use for padding the cheaper kinds of vehicles. Messrs. Averseng sell their Patent Vegetable Hair or Wool at half the price of hog’s bristles, and 75 per cent, cheaper than horse-hair, over which it has the additional recommenda- tion of not being liable to the attacks of the moth. A great number of coach-makers, upholsterers, and tailors bear testimony to its value; and its increasing sale proves that it is beginning to be known and appreciated. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Algeria. 39 Twisted fibres and the carded foliage were exhibited in Sirw. numerous specimens, also an extensive suite of samples of vegetable the different products of the Dwarf Palm leaves, including PR0DirCT3 - Vegetable Horse-hair , black, and of the natural colour. Algeri Banana (Musa Paradisiaca, L.) Paper, made from .he Ban^7 fibres of the otherwise useless fruit-stalk of the Banana, dSca^T 1 * which used to be thrown away when the fruit was culled, Jj£ lku8ef promises to be of good quality. The following testimony in its favour is given by MM. Peligot and Chevreul, in the name of the Academy of Sciences. The waste in the Banana is eleven per cent ; whereas that upon rags is from twenty-five to thirty-three per cent, and sometimes even more. The paper, manufactured from the former in our presence, is of undeniably good quality, and takes ink well. It is not so white as might be if the chlorate had been longer (than three hours) used. It seems undeniable that excellent paper may be made from the fibre of Banana ; and all depends upon the price at which it will be sold. Abaca (Musa textilis). I am glad to find that this Paper and plant, which was formerly scarcely known beyond Manilla, Tusa is now introduced into Algeria. Its fibre is believed to be textilis - the famous Manilla Hemp, which the United States certainly import to an enormous amount, and make of it their cordage and paper. They also manufacture an admirable stout paper from the old and refuse ropes and cables, which far excels the “ brown paper ” of our own country in quality, and is of the same colour. The exquisite and well-known Manilla scarfs are made, according to many travellers, from the beautiful fibre of this same Musa textilis. Other writers allege that they are manufactured of Pine-apple fibre ; and it must be confessed that doubt still exists as to which, or what, plant affords this delicate substance. There is good reason to hope that the Algerian colonists will decide this point by testing the produce of the Abaca , which, at present only exists in the Central Nursery, or Experimental Ground, where such trees and plants as promise to be useful in the colony are carefully reared for diffusion. Our own Navy uses Manilla Hemp for manufacturing ropes. The little we know witn certainty as to the plant which yields this hemp is from dried specimens, which appear to be the original or wild Banana, of which the fruit is not eatable, but which bears seed, and the fibre of which is far more valuable than that of the cultivated Banana or Plantain. Agave (Agave Americana, L.), is happily here designated by its correct name, whereas it passes in most colonies for an Aloe, or American Aloe, different though it is from the true Aloes, which are exclusively natives of the Old World. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Algeria. Several tex- tile plants. 40 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. From the leaves a thread is obtained in Algeria, it is silky and strong, and well adapted for whip-lashes, string, nets, &c., and for all the purposes to which the Alfa and Spartum are applied. Like the Dwarf Palm it affords an excellent paper-stuff, and its pithy stein is preferable to cork for the insect boxes used by naturalists. Three other species of Agave are under cultivation at Algiers, for experiments ; A. fcetida, A. ferox, and A. yuccse- folia. The fibres of all are exhibited. Yucca, or Adam's Needle, seems cpiite naturalized in Algeria. A colonist has extracted a beautiful white satiny thread from its leaves, which he considers stronger than Hemp, yet lighter and capable of finer subdivision. According to this grower’s calculation, each stem of the Yucca bears 250 leaves at least, which multiplied by 4,300, the number of stems that a hectare (2J acres) of land produces on an average, gives a growth of upwards of a million of leaves; their fibre is worth, at a round sum, 2,700 francs. He ( has patented his mode of extracting the fibre. White Nettle (Urtica or Boelimeria nivea). A well-known Chinese fibre, of immense value and importance to that country. The fibre is reckoned the very best for calicos and muslins, and is used all over India ; but Hooker ok acres). vegetable Products. Canton of Constantine. Evergreen and Cork Oak , Pine , . — Ash , Elm, Brushwood, Aleppo " — 1 ' r • rt HI. Pro- Pine, Jumper. vinceofCon- „ Batna. The same, with the addition of Tama - stantine * risk and Cedar, and no Cork Oak. „ Setif. Evergreen Oak, Lentisk, and Juniper. „ Beni-Salali. Cork Oak, White Poplar, Elm, Ash, Willow , Tamarisk. „ Edough. Cork Oak , Ash, Chestnut , Lentisk, Myrtle, Phillyrea, Olive, Arbutus, Sfc. „ Guelma. The same, but no Chestnut, Myrtle, Arbutus, or Willow. „ La Calle. Cork Oak, Elm, Willow, Ash, Poplar, Aspen, Alder, Tamarisk , Evergreen Oak. „ Philippeville. The same, with Olive. „ Bouge. Cork Oak, Elm, Ash, Olive, and Carob . „ Jemmapes. Sum Total. Province of Algiers „ Oran „ Constantine Evergreen , and Ash. Cork Oak, Elm, 208,606 hectares 269,764 „ (521,515 acres) (674,410 „ ) 630,657 Total - 1,109,027 (1,576,642 2,772,567 ) The colony has imported hitherto, till its own forests shall be brought into use, wood, to the amount, in 1854, of 1,295,000 francs. But in 1855 the exportation of fire- wood to supply the army of the East began. France imported, in 1853, including all descriptions of common wood, and the produce of wood (as Cork and Charcoal) to the value of nearly 70 millions of francs; and in foreign and ornamental wood to the value of nearly eight millions of francs. Application of Timber. The greater part of the wooded districts is under the J^Susc inspection of the Office of Woods, and is becoming the object &c. of attention and experiment. The colonists obtain all they require for the purposes of building and burning ; and there can exist no doubt either of the ship-building skill, or of the large supply of timber adapted to that use, when it is considered that Algeria furnished for three centuries a large 44 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Algeria. Special uses of different kinds. piratical navy. A few forests have been ceded to private individuals, exclusive of those consisting of Cork Oak, which will be mentioned elsewhere. The allotted forests are as follows : — In the Province of Algiers, the forest of Soumata, con- sisting of 90 hectares (225 acres), valuable for its Olive-Trees and Lentisks. In the Province of Constantine, M. Barbaroux has acquired the right to take, during 20 years, 7,000 cubic metres of wood (247,240 cubic feet) from the forest of Belizma. At Cap de Fer, the Society of the Alelik is entitled to fuel for 40 years to supply its furnaces. In 1855, a naval engineer was allowed to fell some wood in certain parts of Algiers and Constantine for shipbuilding. Some temporary permits have been granted; among them that which promises the most valuable results is the grant of Thuya wood, in the Canton of Orleansville, to M. Lambert de Roissy, cabinet-maker in Paris. Finally, each province is to have an Inspector, who will superintend the labours of re-planting, grafting, & c., as may be needful. Products of the Forests . Almond Tree. Wild in the woods. Arbutus , or Strawberry Tree. The wood is hard, and marked towards the root with pink and white veins, like an agate or onyx ; it will be valuable for cabinet-work, if the ' colour and beautiful veining are preserved by varnish. Hawthorn. A handsome, close-grained, and heavy wood. Alder Wood, white and brittle, of a reddish-yellow uni- form hue. Heath (Erica arborea). A beautiful hard -wood, pecu- liarly fit for making toys. Carob Tree. The Arabs make utensils of its wood. Cedar. Algeria, Mount Lebanon, and* the Himalaya are the three native places of this valuable tree. Two forests in the Province of Algiers consist almost entirely of it ; and it is the principal tree in several forests in the Province of Con- stantine. Individuals attain a height of 18-20 metres (60 feet), and a circumference of 5 or 6 (60 feet). The Cedar excels the Fir trees of Lorraine and Norway in dimensions, and equals them in strength. The fine grain, agreeable odour, and handsome colour of the wood are well known, add to which, that it is worked with great facility. * Here, and probably quite correctly, the cedar of Mount J^ebanon, the first and best known (Cedrus Libani), that of Himalaya, the Deodar (Cedrus Deo- dara), and that of Algeria, Atlas , (Ccdrusargentea) are all considered mere forms of one and the same species. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Algeria. 45 Cherry. The young shoots are used for the stems of tobacco-pipes. Chestnut. Very common, and often growing to a circum- ference of 4-6 metres (12-18 feet). Cork Oak. Abundant throughout Algeria, and valuable for its bark. Evergreen Oak. Most of the Brushwood consists of this tree. Zeen Oak (Quercus Mirbeckii). In vast quantities in the Province of Constantine : the wood is hard and heavy, and peculiarly fit for ship-building. Oak with edible Acorns (Quercus Ballota). A hard- wooded Tree, growing on the ridges of Mount Atlas. The acorn is as sweet as a nut, and serves for food to man and beast. Citron. Allied to the orange-tree. A hard wood, useful for small articles. Cypress. An evergreen, resinous tree. Cytisus. The wood is handsome, hard, and heavy : the heart is chestnut-coloured, and the newer layers are pale and whitish. Maple. A heavy wood. Ash. Two kinds grow in Algeria: wood useful for carts and wheels. Fig-tree. The wood is white and soft. Prickly Fig (Opuntia vulgaris ?). Already mentioned under the head of Fibres. Juniper. The wood is commonly called Pencil-Cedar, from the chief use to which it is applied : it may also be employed for the keys of Pianofortes. Holly. A hard wood, and superior, both in fine grain and in dimensions, to the holly which grows in France. Jujube , or Zizyphus Lotus. It grows everywhere, both wild and cultivated: the wood is hard. The fruit is sup- posed to have been the food of the Lotophagi. Oleander. This lovely tree skirts all the streams in Algeria ; its wood is close-grained, and hard, though beauti- fully and delicately shaded. Laurel , or Victor's Bay. The wood is coarse-gained, pale, and brittle. Lentisk (Pistacia Lentiscus). A wood likely to be valuable in ornamental cabinet-work, on account of its handsome deep brown colour and fine pores. It would combine and contrast advantageously with Olive and Thuya wood. Ivy. It attains a great size in Algeria : the wood is white and soft. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Proructs. Algeria. 46 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir AY. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Algeria. Thuja (tlio Citron wood of the ancients), its beauty, &c. Celtis australis. The wood is hard. Mulberry (the White). A tree which succeeds admirably in Algeria, and is very valuable for its leaves, which afford the most acceptable food to the Silk-worm. The common Mulberry Tree has long been naturalized in the colony. Myrtle. A fine close-grained hard and solid wood, eminently adapted for Turnery, as it is easily cut and does not warp. Alaternus. Hard and heavy, though coarse-grained wood; the heart is of a deep red brown colour, and the alburnum a delicate lemon yellow. JVallnut. Too well known to need description. Olive. One of the most characteristic Trees of Algeria, chiefly grown for its fruit and its oil, but also valuable as a wood, being beautifully clouded and veined; and attaining such dimensions as qualify it for chairs, sofas, &c. It is easily worked, though strong, and is equally useful to the joiner, cabinet-maker, inlayer, and turner. Orange Tree. Wood and fruit alike prized. Elm. Very common, and attaining a great size. Date Palm. Cultivated for the fruit. The wood, which is worked with difficulty, by reason of its entangled fibres, is very hard and solid, and believed to be indestructible. Poplar , the white. Wood white, soft, and coarse-grained. Phillyrea. Very common: the wood is hard, heavy, and close-grained. Firs (Pinus Halepensis, maritima and Pinea). The first grows in large forests, the second in groves, and the third, much rarer, is only seen in solitary groups. Plane. The Oriental Plane is wild in Algeria, and attains a great size : the wood is hard. Black Thorn (Prunus spinosa). A fine, hard, heavy, and close-grained wood. Castor Oil Shrub (Ricinus communis). A light and soft wood. The seed is oily. (See Oils.) Willoio. A prettily grained, tender, brittle, and bright- tinted wood. Service Tree. The wood is hard and useful : the fruit is eaten, and called Sorbs. Shumac. The bark is useful for tanning and dyeing : the wood is not valuable. Tamarisk. Resinous. Terebinth (Pistacia Ter ebin thus). The wood is close- grained, hard, and resinous. Thuja (Thuya articulata; Callitris quadrivalvis. Vent.). The most valuable wood known for cabinet-work, and which, though only recently appreciated in our times, was highly prized Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Algeria. 47 by the ancients. According to Pliny, it was called Citrus , or H( ®J^ r, 0N Citron ivood, and tables made of it were vended at fabulous vegetable prices, in some instances at a million of sestercia, or 350,000 Pl;0DUCTS - francs (or 12,000/. !) The root was the most esteemed part: Algeria. it was generally used for veneering, though cups of Thuja (or citron) were among the possessions of the Emperor Corn- modus. The exquisite beauty of the wood accounts (so to speak) for this mania. None is so rich in spots, veins, and satiny streaks ; it takes a perfect polish ; the hues are warm, soft, and bright, passing from fiery red to a delicate pink ; while, unlike mahogany and rosewood, these colours are not darkened by exposure to air and light, but remain perfectly unchange- able. The Parisian cabinet-makers unanimously prefer the wood of the Thuja to all others. It must be remembered that in Algeria other woods of similar appearance are sometimes also called Thuja. Cork , which is the well-known Bark of Quercus Suher, is excellence one of the most abundant and valuable of Algerian produc- in Algeria), tions. The Cork Oak figures largely in the enumeration already given of the forests in this colony, and the nature of the country is peculiarly favourable to the development of its precious bark, for Algeria unites an uniformly high tempera- ture with profuse nightly dews, and the dry, warm, open hill- sides are covered with a sufficiency of light soil ; under these circumstances Cork becomes finer in substance, more elastic, less porous, and freer from earthy particles than even in Spain, where the best European Cork is found. If the Cork Oaks in Algeria ever yield an inferior bark, it will be because many of the trees are stunted from the attacks of cattle, or damaged by the periodical conflagrations, injured, in fact, by the want of that regular attention which is indispensable for the produce of a good article. Besides the manufacture of bottle-stoppers, which demand the best quality of cork, the bark serves for bee-hives, buoys, floats for nets, buckets, household articles, covering to trees which would suffer from exposure to the sun, and for soles of shoes, &c. In Kabyle it is used to tile the houses. The charcoal of cork is a valuable colouring substance, and known to painters under the name of Spanish Black. On an average the Cork Oaks of Algeria are ready for the first barking when they are seven or eight years old ; the pro- cess is performed about the middle of June, and the stripping is carried up to about two metres (6J feet) from the ground. In eight years the operation may generally be repeated, and the bark stripped off nearly one-fifth higher than at first, but it must not be removed for above a metre (3| feet) space below the main branching of the trunk ; thus the quantity is 48 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sib w. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Algeria. Dye-Stuffs and Tan- nins ; from wild plants. doubled at the fourth or fifth stripping, and must never be carried further. There are strict regulations on the subject. Each tree in full bearing is estimated to yield from six to eight francs’ worth of cork at a stripping. In 1853 the consumption of cork in France amounted to the sum of 150,000 francs in rough cork, in rasped cork 56,000 francs, and in manufactured cork nearly 500,000 ; making a total of rather upwards of 700,000 francs value. 3. Dye-Stuffs and Tannins. The principal Dyes derived from plants which grow wild in Algeria are the following: — Safflower, the produce of Carthamus tinctorius. It imparts a fine red colour to silk and wool, it is used for painting, and it also forms, when mixed with finely pulverized talc, a cosmetic which is used by the native women. From Algeria, and elsewhere, France imported safflower in 1853 to the value of 330,000 francs. Madder (Rubia tinctorum) is a common weed in the North of Africa; but the quality of the African dye is proved by experiment to be inferior to that which is grown at Vaucluse, though the article has been exported from Tunis to a large amount for nearly 2,000 years. Possibly careful culture will yet be found to have great effect in improving the Algerian Madder. In 1853, France imported it to the value of nearly 750,000 francs. Henna , made from the foliage of Lawsonia inermis, is ex- tensively known as a cosmetic both for man and beast : the fingers and toes of the native females, and the tails and manes of horses, being tinged red with it. Chemical admixtures cause the Henna to impart a brown, orange, and almost black dye. Attempts are being made at Algiers to cultivate Eu- patorium tinctorum and Polygonum tinctorum, both formerly used for giving a blue dye, but now quite superseded in Europe by Indigo. Gall-nuts , from the Evergreen Oak, are abundant, and serve to dye black. France had a consumption of this article in 1853 to the value of between 600,000 and 700,000 francs, and Algeria could well supply it all. The dyeing Lichens , Orchil, &c., are abundant in Algeria. Saffron is cultivated. Woad is plentiful, wild. The Sliumacs (Rhus pentaphyllum and R. coriarium) are used by the natives to dye the Leather commonly called Morocco, and it is therefore desirable to encourage their growth. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Algeria . 49 Tannins are afforded by the Bark of many Algerian trees, especially Oaks, but Fir, Willow, Chestnut, Elm, Alder, and Pomegranate are all more or less available for the purpose. Other less valuable Dye-stuffs are used in Algeria: the pods of the Carob-tree give a yellow colour; so do the bark, root, and wood of the Barberry and Daphne. Ash dyes olive-green, the Wallnut a fawn-brown, the Elder yields varied hues of green, yellow, and brown ; the berries of the Phytolacca and Mulberry afford red ; while among herbaceous plants the yellow tints are chiefly imparted by Centaury, Chervil, Geranium, Lucerne, and Orchis ; the green by Anemone, Iris, and Fenugreek; red by Carrot and Vipe- rina ( ? ) ; black by a Lycopodium, and a clear blue by an Eu- phorbia. In short, the secondary or less valuable Dye-stuffs are afforded by 15 arborescent and 21 herbaceous plants, 36 in all. 4. Esculent and Farinaceous Roots and Tubers. Though the common Potato and Batatas are the principal roots which are eaten in Algeria, and though experiments are now making to acclimatize the Colocasia, Caladium , and Yam , yet the country produces some native eatable roots. These are the Phelipaea lutea and P. violacea, two remark- able root parasites; their bulbs, called Dertous , are sliced, dried in the sun, and ground to a powder, which serves to eke out the flour of the different Cerealia in times of scarcity. Among the wretchedly poor inhabitants of the Sahara, it is collected and stored up, and with Dates, a little Maize, and ground Locusts, it furnishes their chief food. The Tar sous, supposed to be Cynomoriumcoccineum, is prepared and used in the same way ; and so is the tuber of Bunium Bulbocastanum, which the French Soldiers, as well as the natives, consider highly palatable. Another article of food is derived from the almond like knots, or suckers, which grow from the roots of Cyperus esculentus. They have an agreeable flavour, and are used in the preparation of a much esteemed orgeat ; an oil is also extracted from them. The plant is raised from these knots or tubercles, which are dropped into shallow holes in the earth. 5. Fruits, Seeds, and Roots for Distillation. Of these, Algeria produces many in a wild state. Alcohol and Liqueurs for the table are successfully extracted from the Arbutus, Carob-tree, Figs, Cactus or Prickly-pear, Aniseed Asphodel, and (of course) the Grape. 3. e SlR W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Algeria. Esculent roots, &c., not nume- rous. 50 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sin w. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Algeria. Oil, &c. 6. Oil-Plants, Seeds. In producing these Algeria is peculiarly rich. Some are crown solely for the production of oil, others are hitherto only the subjects of experiment. Fixed or fatty oils are as ° First in abundance and importance comes the Olive. This tree grows naturally in Algeria, and acquires enormous dimensions. Most parts of the colony are adorned with it, whether in magnificent groves, small groups or fine solitary stems rising from amid the dense brushwood. The climate, with its immunity from frost, is so eminently favourable to it, that neither the attacks of cattle, the axe of the Arab nor the periodical fires, can destroy it. Algeria may fairly be called the Land of the Olive. At the close of 1854, the number of Oil Mills conducted in the European manner were reckoned at 50, and the total produce of oil at 11,000,000 litres (44,745 hogsheads), 8,000,000 of which were consumed in the country, ana t e rest exported, mainly to France. .. , . Amoncf the other native and less important oil-beanng plants, may he mentioned the Lentisk (Pistacia Lentiscus), the oil of which is employed for greasing machinery and tor burning; an oil is also extracted from a Settle (Urtica ferox). 7. Volatile and Essential Oils. The sunny and dry climate of Algeria is favourable for developing the perfume of different plants. Among these productions, indigenous to the soil, are Jasmine Fennel, Mint, Parsley, Mignonette, Rose, Thyme, Violet, R ^ e “^’ T* an Iris which yields a favourite perfume, called by the Arabs Atar el Thar. 8. Peculiar Vegetable Juices. Vegetable Honey is a name applied to several kinds of syrupy juices, more or less liquid, which are : secreted by certain Algerian plants, especially the Date Palm and the Common Cactus or Prickly Pear. The former yields a juice which flows from ^ severe branches- it is called Lagmi or Palm Honey. This fluid hears some resemblance to sherbet, and is much esteemed by the people, who draw it off night and morning for several days^ but the tree will only hear this treatment for two years and perishes if it be oftener repeated. Vl^W^m-o ean^ fermentation into a heady beverage, to which the Emopeans add brandy. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Algeria. 51 The Honey of the Prickly Pear is of two kinds, one is a syrup, the other is as thick as honey ; both are saccharine, and said to possess all the qualities of common Honey. Vegetable Soap, again, is a name given by the Arabs ( Azeram in their language) to the juice of the Ephedra fragilis, which the native women use in washing and bleaching their garments. The plant grows in the open sands and forms thick bushes. Cattle are fond of its stems. 9. Medicinal Plants. Algeria produces many Medicinal Plants, among which the Pyrethrum and Sarsaparilla constitute articles of regular traffic with Europe. The principal ones which are of repute, and are either native to the soil or are now being subjected to experiments for their improvement, are as follows: — Acacia Nilotica, which yields Gum-Arabic. Aristolochia rotunda , called Boustum ; its root is a stomachic. Armen is the native name of an hitherto undetermined plant, much esteemed by the Arabs, who use plasters of it to cure headaches, while in the veterinary practice its powder is applied to wounds and sores in horses. Arum Arisarum (Bonkoka), a specific against stone and gravel. Cyclamen Europeum. The root is a drastic purgative. Dracaena Draco (Dragon’s Blood). The resinous sap of the tree is an opiate and astringent. Thapsia Garganica (Drias), very common in Algeria, is one of the chief remedies used by the natives, who deem it a specific against pains of all sorts, whether of the digestive organs, limbs, or head, and who consider every part of the plant, root, stalk, and leaf to be equally effectual. The plant is a deadly poison to camels. Fennel is a fumigatory in Arabic practice. Gentian a febri- fuge, and Globularia fruticosa a purgative. The Tree Mallow has the emollient qualities of its congeners ; and Henna , though chiefly valued as a cosmetic (see above), is also used against numerous ailments, bruises, wounds, ulcers, swellings, toothache, &c. Henbane, taken internally, is a narcotic, its foliage applied outwardly is of a composing nature. Lavander, of which three species grow in Algeria, possesses in its flower-heads stimulating and restorative properties, and is much prized in veterinary practice. The powder of Orobanche Mauritania is astringent, and used in diarrhoea; the leaves of the Prickly Pear ( Opuntia ), fora cooling application in cases of Gout. Rue, Squills, and Rhubarb are also esteemed, and Earth-Nuts are deemed E 2 Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Algeria. Medicinal plants : native, and under trial of cultiva- tion. 52 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. hooker ’on carm ^ na ^i ve * Among the more remarkable exotic medicinal Vegetable Plants of recent introduct ion, the Mikania Guaco holds a Products, j-^gp reputation, as elsewhere, with truth or not, for the cure Algeria. 0 f snake-bites ; and Quinine or Peruvian Barli is also prized. 10. Gums. Resfns^not The chief of these are the Mesteba and the Aourouar. The many, Lek former is indigenous to Northern Africa, and is vended in thefi? c the markets of the Sahara; the Aourouar is also sold there, hut it comes from the interior of Africa, and is all sent to England along with another and less white Gum, which is brought by the caravans from Timbuctoo, and which flows from a Tree called Toleuhl. 11. Resins. The principal resins from the Algerian forests are Pitch and Turpentine , from the Fir ; Aik or Lek (whence our word Lac), which is so profusely afforded by the Terebinth Tree, that it is dangerous to sleep under the Tree ; the Lek is given to colts as a purgative ; Bekrour, which is obtained from a tree of the Sahara of the same name, and used for incense ; Sandarac, which flows spontaneously from Thuja articulata, and is employed in making varnish and pounce ; and Mastic , derived from Pistacia Lcntiscus, and which derives its name from its common use as a masticatory ; it has the reputation of whitening the teeth and sweetening the breath ; it also enters into the composition of varnish. A Bronze Medal was awarded by this Class to M. flardy of the Pepiniere Centrale du Gouvernement at Algiers, for his extensive contributions of Vegetable Products; and to M. Dubouchage for Cork; and to M. Royer for Woods; and to M. Simounet for various Vegetable Products; and to M. Testut for the same. Jamaica. Ill— JAMAICA. (Agent at Paris — M. Fremont.) Jamaica col- Although this Island is but of small extent, being 150 Kreat merit, miles by 55 broad, and containing only about four millions of its 6 Govern- 0 acres, yet the collection of its vegetable Products must not Sodetytf be passed over in silence. Taken in conjunction with the Arts - carefully compiled catalogue of articles exhibited in Kingston, Jamaica, in February 1855, by the Jamaica Society of Arts, and forwarded to the Paris Universal Exhibition of the same year, and also with the Transactions of the Jamaica Society of Arts, commenced only in December 1854, and Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products — Jamaica . 53 forming a volume in 4to. closely printed, together with the continuous monthly numbers ; bearing in mind, too, the un- prosperous state of the country, there is no collection in the Paris Exhibition which is so highly creditable to the indi- viduals who have formed it, and none which shows so fully and satisfactorily the position which this Section, at least, of” the United Kingdom holds, as compared with foreign countries, in the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855, nor one which demonstrates so plainly the progress which has been made by us since 1851, as the one now under review. The Jamaica Society of Arts had its origin under the Government of Sir Charles Grey. Owing to various untoward circumstances, it was soon almost extinct; but, £f as the Great Exhibition in London of 1851, under “ the patronage of Prince Albert, became the means of “ awakening and diffusing new life into some almost defunct cc Art- Societies of Britain, which had been in existence for ee nearly a century, so has the Paris Exhibition roused into ie activity the Society of Arts of Jamaica/’ Sir Henry Barkly, the Governor, convoked a meeting of the Society in Spanish Town on the 30th August 1854, and he communicated the wishes of the Duke of Newcastle regarding the transmission to the French Capital of such articles as should illustrate the industrial and other resources of the colony. The very first number of the Society’s Transactions evinced the zeal with which the undertaking was commenced. c< If/’ say they, u for the Great Exhibition in 1851, a box of Arrow-root from “ Montserrat, a solitary Fish-pot made by a black labourer in “ St. Kitts, a specimen of Seaside Grapes from Barbados, a “ box of Indian Meal or Maize from British Guiana, a few “ Physic-Nuts from Demerara, Cashew and Prickly Pear from C( the Bahamas, Starch and Cocoa-nut Oil from Trinidad, Orna - ££ mental Woods , numbering 225 specimens, from Cuba, and a ft small piece of Fossil-wood from Antigua; if these were gladly “ admitted to the Great Exhibition, and much curiosity excited “ concerning them, why should not Jamaica, which abounds in cc every one of these articles, and thousands more, equally ce valuable and equally objects of curiosity and interest, why “ should not Jamaica do justice to herself and take the high “ place assigned her by Providence in the productive industry te of the world? We grieve to remember, that while depart- 6 ‘ ments were allotted in the Exhibitionof 1851 to each one of “ the British Islands, some of these Islands did not avail them- “ selves of the proffered privilege. Plence the anomalous “ announcement which presented itself in the vacant space, £f St. Domingo , no return ,’ 6 Granada, no return ,’ while “ Jamaica was not named in the Index as an Exponant at all. SirW. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Jamaica. 54 j Reports on the Paris Exhibition. hotkebok Let us n0 ^ perpetuate our disgrace, but endeavour by a jSwct? Cf combined movement to render justice to the land wherein Jamu v “ our 1°I cas t* Were we to send no more than some speci- — ' “ mens of the beautiful Furniture manufactured in the “ island, and so to prove the advance we have made in civili- cc zation and the comforts and decorations of our dwellings, “ this would be something, and would serve to show that u we do not live like savages in mere huts and log-houses. “ Jamaica owes a debt of gratitude to Sir Henry Barkly, and those gentlemen of the Society of Arts, who at much “ expense of time and labour are endeavouring to retrieve i • i .I i f- i Hooker ON m question, constitutes the inner layers or the Bark or the vegetable Daphne Lagetto (or Lagetta lintearia) ; it is of most delicate pR0 ^_ CTS - texture, and without any artificial preparation, resembles jAMAICA - fine lace. The small branches, or the innermost layers of the larger and main-stem, afford the finest quality. The tree is 20-30 feet high, quite peculiar to Jamaica, and only found in certain districts there. Similar articles are contributed made of various fibrous sub- stances, as Cocoa-nut and Papaw Barks , Pinguin and Plantain fibre , Palmetto and India-rubber Fibre , &c. ; variously combined with one another, and often ornamented with different seeds, &c., as Job's tears , Mimosa seeds, Soap berries , and Crab's eyes (Abrus precatorius). In one instance, a small box, composed of Lace bark , India-rubber plant , Pin- guin fibre and Plantain fibre , is lined with the spathas of the young shoots of the Bamboo , a substance which is now wasted in enormous quantities, yet seems capable of being con- verted into excellent paper. A very fine plaited fan is made from the common Palmetto , and Brushes and Hats of Guinea Grass (Fanicum jumentorum), which yields a most valuable fodder for horses, its culms sometimes mea- suring eleven feet from root to tip. The down of Clematis dioica, trimmed with moss, affords the quaint material for a lady’s fancy collar, not made, however, we presume, to be worn. Ropes , Mats , Fishing-lines , Halters, and Crochet-work are made of Banana fibre, of the root of the Mangrove tree , the bark of the Mahoe (Hibiscus), Trumpet-tree (Cecropia), Adam's Needle (Yucca), and Mimosa ; bonnets and card-racks, &c., from the sheath of the Maize or Indian corn , The hats made of Fan Palm , are in imitation of the famous Panama hats. 3. Hoots. These are mostly cultivated ; I must except, however, Roots those of the Mangrove (Hhizophora Mangle), which are valu- cultivate able for tanning nets and fishing-lines ; those of the Celan- dine or Parrot weed (Bocconia frutescens), useful in affec- tions of the eyes both of man and beast ; also the valu- able Cassava (Jatropha Manihot), which affords various articles of food ( Tapioca , Cassareep , Starch , Cakes , and Bread being made of it) ; Smilax Sarsaparilla (the Jamaica kind, considered, I believe, to be native), the Negro Yam (Dios- corea sativa), the tubers of which, when sliced and dried in the sun, furnish an excellent and nutritious meal, convertible into bread, cakes, or puddings, and which has the advantage 3. F 66 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Jamaica. Miscella- neous pro- ducts, as sugar, coffee, — not pro- perly falling into this Re- port; a few only being from wild plants. of keeping for years ; the Affo Yam (D. aculeata), and the White Yam (D. alata), all good for food, and the White Coco or Eddoe (a variety of Colocasia esculenta). 4. Miscellaneous Products. This head includes general vegetable productions, for example, Sugar and Cane, Coffee, Rum, Pimento, &c.. Starch, Peas and Beans, Flour, & c., Medicinal ingredients, &c., Oils, Gums, & c. Consequently, the majority of the articles being cultivated and manufactured, they do not come under the inspection of my class. They are numerous and interesting. I proceed briefly to notice a few, viz. Eugenia Pimenta (or Allspice), and its foliage, the latter being used, dried, for tea. Bilimbi is the fruit of Averrhoa Bilimbi ; it yields an intense acid. Cashaw-seeds and seed-pods (Prosopis juliflora), in various states, for experiment ; they afford a highly nutritive food for horses, but if eaten off the ground in wet weather, the effect of the rapidly germinating seed is to swell so rapidly and enormously as to burst the poor animal’s body and cause death in a few hours ; the only hope of relief is by prompt treatment with Alkalies ; the seeds should be carefully picked and kiln-dried, they would then cause a great saving of corn. Antidote Cacoon (Feuillea scandens) is a popular remedy in many complaints ; the nuts are so full of oil, or fat, that when skewered on a piece of stick, they blaze like a lighted torch. Annotto (Bixa Orellana) is chiefly used in Jamaica to colour soups and curries ; it affords the so-called Aurora dye, (and is employed in Europe for staining butter and cheese.) Sand-box is the name given to the seed-vessels of Hura crepitans, which are occasionally applied to that purpose, as they have natural perforations at the top ; but it is necessary to bind them with strong twine, or they burst in dry weather with great force and noise, owing to the elasticity of their valves. Seeds of Desmanthus virgatus are much used for bracelets, ornamental baskets, &c. ; they are of a rich glossy brown colour. Ben or Bhen seeds are from Moringa pterygosperma; from them the oil so called is procured (al- ready mentioned at p. 37) ; the decorticated seeds (likewise exhibited), as well as the young pods, are eaten in curries in the East Indies, and much relished by the coolies ; the wood is said to yield a dye. A bag of the nuts of Aleurites triloba , affording the best artists' oil. Soap-berries are the fruit of Sapindus Saponaria , well known for its detergent qualities, used also for poisoning fish ; Indian Shot, the seeds of Canna Indica s from the tuberous roots of which, and from the other species of Canna the esteemed farina called Tous les Mois is Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Jamaica. 67 made. Cocoa-nibs, the seeds of the Chocolate Tree (Theobroma H( foJ E Y‘ ON Cacao.) Leaves of the Bread-nut (Brosimum Alicastrum) ; vegetable thebranches afford an excellent fodder for horses. Avocado PE0 _^f TS - Pear (Persea gratissima) ; a delicious fruit, whether eaten jAMAICA - with sugar and wine, or cooked as a vegetable. The seeds contain so much tannin, that a cloth stretched over one of them and pricked through with a pin, becomes marked as indelibly as by Permanent Ink ; the fruit in decoction yields a quantity of fatty oil. The Achras Sapota, of which the fruit is called Neesberry, yields abundantly a milky substance like Gutta Percha ; the fruit is delicious, superior in flavour to Medlars ; the seeds are said to be a valuable diuretic in cases of strangury, and the bark has been employed as a substitute for Cinchona. The Sioeet Sop and Sour Sop , from both of which a Starch is manufactured, are species of Anona. Of Pulse there is a considerable variety ; the Pigeon Pea is the seed of Cajanus bicolor, and is much used when green as a vegetable, and in a dried state for soups ; several species of Dolichos and Phaseolus are palatable. There can be no doubt that the climate of Jamaica is very favour- able to the growth of Beans and Peas, and that an ample return would be yielded by their culture. Starch is exhi- bited from the Zamia, Cassava (Jatropha), and from Ipomasa Horsfall ; the latter plant, which produces a beautiful many-coloured Convolvulaceous flower, has an enormous tuberous root, affording as much as from 20 to 50 lbs. of starch, w T hich deserves to be carefully analysed ; the root of an allied species yields the Medicinal Jalap. The Mango (Mangifera) likewise affords pure starch in considerable quantity, and a spirituous liquor may be extracted from it. Plantain Meal (from Musa Paradisiaca) is of a highly nutri- tious quality, and easily obtained by grating the sliced pieces of the plantain, after drying them in the sun. (The value of this plant, for fibre, has been already noticed, p. 37.) Other kinds of Meal, from Maize , Coco, Bread fruit, Pumpkin, Sweet Potato, Guinea Corn, Yam, &c., are exhibited; that from Hibiscus esculentus, commonly called Ochro Powder, is highly esteemed ; it adds a glutinous richness to soups and stews. The Congo Pea Meal (a species of Cajanus) is also much used. Arrow-root, prepared from the tubers of Maranta arun- toTcsV dinacea, is too extensively known, and the West Indian it. Arrow-root is too universally acknowledged to be the best, to require further notice. One point may, however, be men- tioned : it is customary in Jamaica to test its purity by the simple way of dropping a pinch of it in a tumbler of water and stirring it quickly ; if the powder subsides almost imme- diately, leaving the water clear, the arrowroot is good; but if F 2 68 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hooker on wa ^ er remains milky, the powder is adulterated. Cassareep, vegetable used to flavour sauces, is made from Cassava (Jatropha products, by boiling down the poisonous water in which the root has been washed ; the deleterious principle is Prussic acid. Jamaica, The native practice of poulticing sores with the fresh grated root of Cassava is of doubtful utility ; it has Tobacco, &c. been known to prove highly injurious. Of Snuff, Tobacco , and Cigars , I need not speak : they are exhibited in great variety and profusion. Ginger , whether preserved or dried, or in essence, is an important article of export, Gouania Domingensis, called Chew Stick, affords an excellent denti- frice, and Hogberry bark (the botanical name unknown) a valuable astringent. Castor Oil , Cocoa-nut Oil, and Oil of pepper (Capsicum cerasiforme) are among the principal oils ; the latter, in the state of essential oil, is so powerful, that one drop suffices to flavour a whole tureen of soup. The Artists' Oil, from the nuts of Aleurites triloba, and the Ben or Bhen Oil from the seeds of Moringa pterygosperma, have been already noticed ; the latter is particularly valuable for lubricating the delicate machinery of clocks and watches, as it neither corrodes nor Gums ; some medicinal. Gums are chiefly from the Cedar (Cedrela odorata), the Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), and the Hog Gum (Moro- nobsea coccinea): the two latter possess medicinal qualities; the Gum Birch (Burseragummifera), and Logwood (Haunatoxylon Campechianiun). The Aloe perfoliata affords an extract, said to be preferable as a purgative to the Barbados Aloe (A. socotrina.) Preserves, Pickles, and Liqueurs complete the series ; the former are chiefly from Guavas, Pine Apple, Papaw, Limes, Oranges, Tamarinds, and Ginger ; the pickles are Cucum- bers and Capsicums, and Pepper ; the liqueurs from Prune bark, &c. In this Class a Silver Medal was awarded to Messrs. W. Berry, Ellys, and Crestwidge, and to the Society of Arts, Jamaica, and to Mr. N. Wilson; and a Bronze Medal to Mr. Edwd. Chitty. IV.— BRITISH GUIANA. (Special Commissioner: W. H. (since Sir Wm.) Holmes, Esq. This collection occupies, in the Annexe , a space adjacent lectfon’vaiu- to that of Jamaica, to which it is a worthy pendant, not only catalogue 118 as regards the collection itself, but the Catalogue. The useful. latter is executed with great care, and does credit to the com- piler, whose name does not appear, displaying consider- 'British Guiana. British Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — British Guiana . 69 able research, and an amount of scientific knowledge which „ ST’ would not have been found m any or our colonies a few years Vegetable ago. It is entitled a “ Catalogue of Contributions trans- — “ mitted from British Guiana to the Paris Universal Exhi- SuiSS ff bition, 1855, 8vo., printed for the Guiana Executive Committee, at George Town, Demerara.” It is accom- panied by an excellent Sketch Map of British Guiana, 1840, and a Map of the settled districts of British Guiana, 1846, (both by Sir B. Schomburgk), and a Meteorological Dia- gram of daily Means for ten years, by P. Sanders. Forty closely printed pages are devoted to a brief History of British Guiana, especially in relation to its commercial interests. Of these, 13 (Section A.) relate to Saccharine Products and articles, among which are fully discussed what- ever relates to Sugar, its cultivation and preparation, Bum, Bice, Coffee, the various Starches or Farinaceous substances derived from the Sweet and Bitter Cassava, Common Yams, Buck and Guinea Yams and A rrow-root, Zamia, Sweet Potato, Tous les Mois, Plantain, and Banana. Section B. discusses Fibrous substances; the fibres of Plantain and Banana and of the Manilla Hemp (Musa textilis) and Cotton. Section C. is devoted to Chemical and Pharmaceutical subjects. Sec- tion D. to Woods for building and other purposes ; Section E. to Indian manufactures and miscellaneous articles ; and Section F. to Natural History, chiefly Zoology. The rest of the work is occupied by a List of the objects exhibited, and remarks upon them, arranged according to the above Sections. Hence it will be seen that the British Guiana Collection abounds in Vegetable Products, and is peculiarly rich in raw materials. It is my duty to limit myself, as much as possible, to native, or uncultivated, or only partially cultivated articles ; and my observations will be the briefer, as many of these are (as might be expected) found equally in Jamaica, and have been therefore already discussed. SECTION A. Saccharine Products and Articles of Food. This head comprises but few objects belonging to Class II. British We may mention Arrow-root from Maranta arundinacea, L. fiXSont Cassava, The sweet (said here to be J anipha Loefflingii) • the R ro . ducts of root sliced and dried is good food. Banana , the unripe fruit of Musa Sapientum, is also eaten sliced and dried. Plantain (Musa Paradisiaca). The meal made from its unripe fruit is called Conquin Tay. 70 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SirW HOOKEB OH Vegetable Products. British Guiaka. Fibres : those of Plantain stem, and others. Cassava , the inspissated juice of the Bitter Cassava, has already been noticed under the products of Jamaica. In Guiana it forms the basis of the well-known Pepper-pot, and has a valuable antiseptic property of preserving meats from decay. Tannia, or Yellow Hog Meal, is made from the root of a Caladium (Colocasia sp. ?) Ochro is the name given to the dried capsules of Hibiscus esculentus L. In the colony it is customary to put the young capsules of this plant into soups, as they have a highly nutritious quality ; and it is suggested that the following mode of preparation would render them available at all seasons, and would allow of their exportation to great dis- tances. The Ochro-pods, or small green capsules, should be chosen from the top of the stem and before any woody matter has formed in them ; they should be cut across, severed from the hard calyx, spread in the sun, and turned over till dry, when they may be closely packed in casks or tight cases : an oven will serve as well as exposure to the sun. Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) thrives so well in Guiana, that a single vine (or plant) yielded to the exhibitor a crop of 10 lbs. weight in one season. Starches are contributed in a considerable series, viz. : Siceet and Bitter Cassava. Common, Guinea , and Buck Yams. Arrowroot. Tannia. (Colocassia). Sweet Potato or Batatas. Plantain. In this last case it is the unripe fruit, and not the roots, which afford the starch. SECTION B. Fibrous Substances. Plantain Stem (from which the fibre is obtained) is highly prized by coopers in the raw state. Of the Plantain Fibre numerous fine samples are exhibited; they are pre- pared in various ways, and dressed by steeping or otherwise. Some are procured by splitting the stem into pieces, and scraping it with a blunt cutlass. Others are severed and cleaned at one operation by the machine of Messrs. Burke and Burns, of Montserrat. Plantain rope is manufactured from the fibres of the fruit stem, and twisted by hand ; it is coarse and brown. Plantain stem, undressed and made into rope, obtained a, prize at the Georgetown Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — British Guiana. 71 Banana rope is made from the fruit stem of Musa Sapi- Ho s J r J on entum, also from that of the Dwarf Banana (Musa Sinensis?) vegetable Musa textilis : its dried leaves, from Georgetown. This PR °^f TS plant affords the Manilla Hemp: growing plants of it, probably the first ever introduced to the New World, were — carried to Guiana from Manilla by D. Shier, Esq. Silk grass, or Corawa, is the fibre of a species of Bromelia. It is much less abundant than Plantain fibre, but of better quality, and is so strong that the Indians prepare it for Bowstrings, Nets, Fishing-lines, and Cordage. N.B. It is a matter of regret that the scientific appellation of such a useful plant should be thus unknown, which would not be the case if the exhibitors had sent flowering specimens of the plant itself for verification in Europe. Ten other samples are exhibited under the same name, and equally with no means of determining the exact species. Aloe Fibre (said to be derived from Agave vivipara), very good. Ochro the Wild or “ Jumby ” (a species of Urena ?) Mahoo (or Mahoe ). Said to be the fibre of Thespesia po- pulnea or Hibiscus elatus. L. Fibre undressed. These names need confirmation, or rather correction, two genera being here assigned to one object. This obscurity is the more to be regretted, as to nine different articles the name of Mahoe is given ; but, of which of the two above-named plants is Mahoe the product? The Bark (Article 39,) which is coarse and brown, was used for the envelope of cigars. “ The fibre of Mahoe is very strong, and employed for making coffee-bags.” Ita Palm (Mauritia flexuosa, L.) The fibre is stated to be excellent and the plant is extremely common in the Swamps The Indians prepare a beautiful cordage from it, of which they weave their hammocks. Oohu Tree . Rope is made from the bark. No name or further notice of properties. Kinwa. Rope is made from the bark. No name or further notice of properties. Cucurit, or Koquerit Palm (Maximiliana regia, Martins). From the flower-sheath a rope is manufactured. This orna- mental Palm is to be found in large numbers in almost all parts of Guiana, growing as well in the high as in the low lands. “From the ashes of the burnt midrib of the leaf “ the Accawai Indians obtain a substitute for salt.” Nibble. A bush -rope, with which the leaves of the Troolie Palm (Manicaria saccifera), used as thatch, are secured. Silk-cotton, the Comaca of the Indians, is the soft, short, copious silky fibre which surrounds the seeds within the pods of Bombax Ceiba. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. British Guiana. Chemical articles (not all correctly named) : Oils, Poisons, Gum -resins, 72 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SECTION C. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Articles and Products. (Many of them, especially the Tanning Substances , require to be tested, and the names of the plants which yield them to be carefully ascertained.) Crab-oil , obtained from the. seeds of Xylocarpus Carapa (Carapa Guianensis Aubl.) is much burnt in lamps, and also esteemed for the hair. The tree is called Crab-wood in the Colony (a corruption, doubtless, of Carapa ). Laurel oil is considered to be produced by Oreodaphne opifera, Nees. It is extensively used by the natives in affections of the joints, and has proved to be an admirable solvent of India-rubber. Balsam of Copaiva., from the Berbice River. Many different Trees in the Colony are supposed to yield this Balsam, but they are not yet botanically determined. Vinegar is obtained by throwing ripe Bananas (the fruit of Musa Sapientum) into baskets, which are supported on open barrels. The juice drains into the latter, where it quickly ferments and becomes acid, without any addition of water. Birambi is the fruit of Averrhoa Bi limbi, L. It makes an excellent pickle and a delicious preserve. Hya-Hya-tree , otherwise called Cow-tree ( Tab ern?emon tana utilis), affords a thick and sweet milky fluid, which contains caoutchouc. A decoction of its bark is used by the Indians in the cure of a malignant ulceration of the rectum, peculiar to those people. The disease is called by them Carabisi. Ducali-tree (its botanical name unknown), which grows on the Berbice river, yields a medicinal milk, of a similar nature to that of the Hya-hya. Curawatti , a juice used as ink, from the Berbice ; its origin not ascertained. Wallaba Gum (Eperua falcata) is said to be useful in fresh cuts and wounds. Wourali or Ourali Poison. This famous poison, from the Pomeroon River, consists chiefly, according to Schomburgk, of the Strychnos toxifera. Ooroobo Poison (alleged to be obtained from a plant resembling the Tannia or Colocasia or Caladium) is far more deadly than the Wourali, causing death by a single inhalation. The Indians treacherously employ it to accomplish their revenge, often during their feasts and dances. Gum-resin of the Simeri tree (Hymensea Courbaril) is ob- tained by digging near the roots, where the substance may be found in pieces, a foot long ; or it exudes in masses when the Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products . — British Guiana . 73 tree is tapped. It is the Gum Animi of Guiana (not of commerce,) and is used in the Colony, where it is very abundant, as Gum Copal. Gum-resin of Comma , from the Hyawa or Incense tree (Icica heptaphylla) is highly flagrant, and suitable for pas- tilles. Gum-Karman , or Buck-wax , is the inspissated juice of the Mani-tree (here said to be), a species of Amyris, or Icica. It is employed by the Indians to preserve their nets and cordage, as we should use pitch. Gum Curakai, or Kurukai , mixed with Annotto. The Indians paint their faces with it. The Annotto is the viscous pulp surrounding the seeds of Bixa Orellana. Turmeric , the roots of Curcuma longa. No country yields such good Turmeric as Guiana. Greenheart, also Sipiri , or Bibiru tree (Nectandra Rodiaei.) Its seeds are a tonic and febrifuge. In times of scarcity the Indians grate these seeds, and eat them, mixed with decayed Wallaba (the wood of Eperua falcata.) The bark, too, affords the well-known alkaloid called Bibirine , which is a febrifuge. Sulphate of Bibirine is exhibited. Guinea-pepper or Grains of Paradise , the seeds of Amomum Melegueta, are much superior to those imported from Africa. Physic Nuts (Jatropha Curcas, L.) are emetic and purgative, and much used by the blacks. Cow-Itch , the pods of Mucuna pruriens, are a well-known Vermifuge. Pink-root (Spigelia Anthelmintica), the fresh leaves and stems of this species are a more energetic and certain vermifuge than those of the common Pink-root (S. Marilandica, L.) From eight to ten leaves, carefully separated from the injurious seeds, washed and boiled in as many ounces of water, afford a certain cure for worms, when followed by a dose of castor-oil. Lemon Grass (Andropogon Schoenanthus, L.) is a specific for the low fevers of Guiana : its hot infusion affords a fra- grant and grateful sudorific. Liquorice (so called) is the Abrus precatorius : the seeds are known under the name of Crab's Eyes : a decoction of the foliage is taken for Influenza. Toyo (Justicia pectoralis). An infusion and syrup of this fragrant plant is strongly recommended as a cure for chronic coughs. Bociarie is the stem of an unknown plant, which abounds in the interior of the Colony, and is a favourite remedy among the Indians for pectoral complaints : it is exceedingly bitter, and a good stomachic. Simaruba bark (Simaruba officinalis), a well-known anti- dysenteric. SlR w. Hooker on Vegetable Products. British Guiana. Medicinal barks, &c. 74 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . h At Lloyd’s it is now ranked, along with the Mora ( Mora excelsa) as one of the eight first-class woods for ship-building. The Black variety is even more durable, and takes a higher polish; the only main difference is in colour, and the Black Greenheart is very rare, and does not attain quite so great a size as the Yellow. The seeds and bark are noted under Section C. Mora (Mora excelsa) has already been mentioned (see and Mora, Section C.) for its eatable seeds and valuable bark ; also, in “mSao?* conjunction with the Greenheart, as a most important timber for ship-building, and recognized as such at Greenock and in Lloyd’s List of Woods. The tree towers above all others in the forests of Guiana, attaining to 100 to 150 feet, often unbranched for half that height. The wood is tough, close, and so hard to rive that it can hardly be splintered by cannon-ball, and would thus be invaluable for men-of-war. It is very abundant on the banks of the Parima river, whence the facilities of transport are great (an important circumstance when estimating the value of timber), and also grows along most of the rivers in the Coast region. The Mora has an advantage over Oak, in not being liable to dry-rot. Schomburgk writes, that often, when navigating the Parima, he saw on a distant point hillocks of verdure, which he supposed to be groups of trees, but found, on a nearer approach, to be only a single Mora, 130 to 1 50 feet in height, and forming a perfect forest of vegetation. Indeed, taking the valuable timber, the medicinal bark and seeds, and the facilities of transport all into consideration, no Guiana tree is of such importance as the Mora. (The British Government is now directing its attention to the utility of the Mora Trees of Trinidad, which have lately been brought into notice by Mr. Purdie, the Colonial Bota- nist there.) Crab-wood (Xyloearpus Carapa, or Carapa Guianensis). A plentiful tree, affording timber 50 feet long and 15 inches square, which is light, takes a good polish, and makes excel- lent furniture, &c. It is used, too, for masts, spars, and shingles. The seeds yield Crab-oil (see Section C.), and the bark is useful for Tanning (both the oil and bark are noticed in their places), so that the tree is among the most valuable in the colony. 78 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SirW. Warracoori or White Cedar (Icica altissima) is abundant Hooker ok .. 1 ^ . / vegetable m low grounds, and yields a light, aromatic, and easily ojocts. wr0U gjj^. w00 d, well fitted for Oars, Paddles, Canoes, and “ inside work of houses. The bark is used in decoction for — the Indian malady called caribisi, already mentioned. A red variety of this tree, called Red Cedar , Carana , &c. grows nearly 100 feet high, with a diameter of four or five feet, and is preferred by the Indians to all other timber for their canoes, as it is easily worked, and not liable to split. One of Schomburgk’s canoes, hollowed out of a single trunk of Red Cedar , measured 42 feet long by 5 J feet wide ; and though not new when he bought it, and used by him for four years in salt water and fresh, as well as being hauled over land and cataracts, it was perfectly sound at the end of the Expedition. Maniballi or Candlewood (Icica sp. or Amyris) is a straight- growing tree, affording hard, close timber, and the wax called Karman or Curi-mani ( see Section C.), with which the Indians fasten their hooks and arrows, &c. Bourra-courra or Paira , more commonly known as Letter- icood and Snake-ivood (Piratinera Guianensis or Brosimum Aubletii). A tree, very scarce near the coast, but plentiful upon the rivers Rupununi, Essequibo, and Corentyne, places distant from the settled districts of the colony, and whither the wood is brought at much cost and difficulty. It is sold by weight, and fetches 8 d. per lb., being very beautifully marked and spotted with small black streaks, which give rise to its name. The ground colour is red ; the heart wood is the variegated part, and it takes a fine polish. The use of it is limited to veneering picture-frames and small pieces of furniture; it is formed into bows by the Indians, more for ornament than service, and the colonists make walking-sticks of it. Simeri or Locust-tree (Hymenaea Courbaril). A tree of frequent occurrence in Guiana, which often attains to 60 or 80 feet unbranched, and has a diameter of 8 or 9 feet. The wood is esteemed for furniture, being close-grained, of a rich brown, and beautifully streaked, capable of a fine polish. Its non-liability to split or warp recommends it for machinery, and it is used in England for steam-engines. The negroes eat the farinaceous saccharine pulp of the seeds, and make canoes of the Bark. Its resin ( Gum Animi of the Colony) noticed in Section C. Dali or Dari (Yirola sebifera) grows to a large and ma- jestic tree on the river-banks : the wood is light, and splits freely, and the oil from the seeds is alleged to make candles equal to wax. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — British Guiana. 79 Itikiburi or Corkwood (Drepanocarpus lunatus ?) Abund- ho S okeY'on ant near rivers and creeks ; the wood serves for floats in v^getabie fishing, and the fresh bark imparts to uncoloured Rum the hue of Brandy. Simaruba (Simaruba amara) grows on hillsides to 50 feet high, with a wood like White Pine, light and easily worked, and well adapted to inside fittings. Burueh, Bully, or Bullet Tree (Mimusops sp.) Abund- ant in Berbice, very large, and abounding in a milky juice, which exudes from the trunk, branches, and foliage. The wood is dark brown, variegated with white : it is solid and durable, much used for house-framing, and prized, as the weather does not affect it, for the shafts, arms, &c. of wind- mills. It squares from 20 to 30 inches, and may be obtained from 30 to 60 feet long, the whole tree measuring sometimes above 100 feet; but it has the disadvantage of being attacked by worms if exposed to salt or brackish water. Its bark, in decoction, is efficacious in curing an internal disease called Quata, which affects the Indians in the dry season. Its fruit is the size of a coffee-bean and very delicious. A Tree named Ducaria resembles the Bullet-tree in appearance and properties. Itaballi (Voehysia Guianensis), 30-40 feet high, and 3-4 feet in diameter. The wood is perishable if exposed to Aveather, but being soft is much used by the Indians for their corials, also for oars, inside work, &c. The flowers are of a beautiful yellow, highly fragrant, and very ornamental. Coopa ( Clusia insignis). A parasite, growing over the tops of the loftiest trees, whence it sends its roots, sometimes half a foot thick, to the ground. The wood is hard and dark brown, and the floAver white, beautifully marked with blush and primrose. The fruit looks like a Spanish Onion, and is a powerful irritant to the skin ; the seeds are the favourite food of the Powi-bird (fir ex Alector), and impart a strong garlic flavour to its flesh. Mariwayana or Purplelieart (Copaifera pubiflora and C. bracteata). There are several varieties of this rather scarce Tree, which all possess great strength and elasticity, and are peculiarly adapted, for this reason, for the carriages of cannon and mortars. The Purpleheart and Black Green * heart were the only woods which were found sufficiently strong for this purpose at the siege of Fort Bourbon, in the Island of Martinique. For the shafts of Avindmills, for turnery, &c., it is valuable, and the fine colour is equal to Rosewood. Its Bark is prized by the Indians for making canoes, which will carry 20 or 25 persons in smooth water. For one of these canoes, see Section E. British Guiana. 80 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SlR w. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. British Guiaka. Wadaduri or Monkey-pot (Lecythis grandiflora). A toll, straight tree, of close, hard-grained, handsome wood, adapted for furniture. Yari-Yari or Yellow Lancewood (Duguetia Quitarensis). This tree is slender, but its wood is remarkably tough and elastic, and in great repute for gig-shafts; the small branches serve for fishing-rods and whip-handles, and the Indians tip their arrows with the wood. The Black Lancev:ood } a variety, is quite as good. Ita Palm (Mauritia flexuosa). The loftiest of the Guiana Palms, sometimes 100 feet high: its fibre is valuable, and serves many purposes, shields are woven of it; and an in- toxicating drink, quaffed by the natives in their dances, is made from its fruit. Cucurit or KoqueritPalm ( Maximiliana regia'). A plentiful tree, about 40 feet high, bearing an excellent fruit, of which the hard seeds yield a fine clear oil by bruising and boiling. If the seeds are kept they are almost invariably found to harbour a large larva, which ultimately perforates the flinty shell, and emerges through a circular opening. The undeveloped foliage constitutes a delicious cabbage, -which is sometimes eaten in pickle. Hya-Hya or Milk Tree ( Taberncemontana ntilis ) is a light, soft wood: its milky juice is already mentioned in Section C. Wourali or Ourari (Strychnos toxifera. See Section C.) A hard, close-grained, cedar-brown wood. Yaruri , Massara , or Paddle-wood (Aspidosperma excel- sum). The trunk, which rises to 50 feet before it branches, and is 5 or 6 feet thick, is singularly fluted and buttressed, like a Gothic pillar of many clustered columns. Of these projections the Indians make paddles and axe-handles, the wood combining hardness and strength with lightness and elasticity. It would probably be found useful for the floats of paddle-wheel steamers. Acuyuri (Astrocaryum aculeatum). A palm, of which the lofty trunk is covered with long prickles; the woody part is hard, takes a good polish, and is used for cabinet- work, &c. The fruit, about the size of an egg, contains a large seed, covered with a pulp which affords a bright yel- low eatable oil. Tonka Bean or Cuamara (Dipteryx odorata). Not plentiful : the wood is so tough and durable that it is said to have been tested, and found to bear 100 lbs. more weight on the inch than any other Guiana timber, and it is therefore peculiarly adapted for shafts, mill-wheels, and other uses requiring resistance to great pressure. The seed is the well-known Tonka Bean, used to scent snuff. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products, — British Guiana. 81 Haiaicaballi (Omphalobium Lamberti). Zebra-wood , highly prized by cabinet-makers for its great beauty, is procured from the heart of this tree, which, though very large, seldom squares more than 10 or 12 inches. Logwood (Haematoxylon Campechianum) is too well known to require remark. A variety called Blood-wood grows also in Guiana. Cartan , from the Demerara river, is a very rare wood, and of a beautiful rich orange colour. It is conjectured to be the produce of a tree described by Schomburgk, and probably Centrolobium robustum of Martius. The height, 80 to 100 feet, the beautiful red colour of the wood, and the facility with which it is worked, promise to render it of great importance for cabinet-makers. Schomburgk used it, when in Pirara, for temporary tables ; and a bridge across the river was constructed of its large planks. The leaves are impari-pinnate, the flowers papilionaceous, and the fruit a samara, with a prickly capsule, the wing being four or five inches long. ItikibourrabaUi or Tiger to ood is Machterium Schom- burgkii. Its rich brown spotted wood, like a leopard’s skin, is very beautiful. Souari (Caryocar tomentosum). A durable timber, very like Mora, of large size, and equally adapted for ship-building. Camara or Accawai Nutmeg (Acrodiclidium Camara). Trunk GO feet high and 8 to 10 feet in girth. The timber is aromatic and bitter, and resists insects. Lana (Genipa Americana). Very lofty, and with a trunk which squares from 14 to 18 inches: valuable for its close- ness and strength. Courida (Avicennia nitida). A tree of surprisingly rapid growth. The wood is durable under ground, but perishable when exposed to the air. The preceding list contains all the Woods in the Guiana Collection, of which the botanical names are given. The rest only bear the native appellations, under which it is probable that more than one kind is often confounded with another, affording of course no correct clue to the trees which produce the specimens, especially as the different tribes of natives often have entirely different names for the same wood. Kaieeriballi and Bahuradda. Excellent woods for beams and rafters, &c. Danya, Bannia, or Ebony , from Berbice. A large fluted tree, often faulty at the heart : the wood is black, heavy, and strong. Used for veneering and ornamental work, and by the Indians for war-clubs. 3. G Sir W. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. British Guiaxa. 82 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SirW. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. British Guiaka. C abac alii. A tall and straight tree, 40 to 50 feet long, and squaring from a foot to 18 inches. The wood is heavy, close-grained, and almost equal to the Siruaballi (Nectandra) for boat-building, being equally secured by its bitter prin- ciple from worms ; it requires, however, to be fastened with copper nails. Kisselala. A heavy, hard wood : the scraped bark is a good styptic. Houbaballi. A light brown beautifully marked wood, Avhich takes a fine polish, and is well adapted for furniture and cabinet work. Marsiballi. A plentiful tree, of which the wood is durable when not exposed to weather, and therefore suited for beams and inside work. Huraliee. Hard and close-grained wood. The fruit is like an olive, dark purple. Suradani. Much used for canoes, for wheels, &c. ; but its rich brown hue would recommend it for furniture. The tree is large and plentiful. Adabadani. A light, open-grained wood, used for house spars : the fresh bark quickly causes vesication. Sarabadani. A dark purple, hard, and close-grained wood, used for furniture. Cucuritballi. The tree grows 20-40 feet high, and its hard durable wood makes excellent rafters. Ducali. A tree less noted for its wood than its milky gum, which has medicinal properties. Kurakai. An enormous and abundant tree, which yields a resin like that of the Hyawa (Section C.) The wood is proof against dry-rot, light, odorous, and much used for corials. Crababalli. Wood hard, but little used: a decoction of its bark is an emetic. Putli. One of the commonest Guiana trees, and easily distinguishable by its beautiful lilac flowers; the wood is soft, and of little value. Hitchia. Very large and lofty: wood used for spars and rafters. Turanira. Abundant, and so large, that planks of it, 40 feet long, will square more than two feet : the wood is hard, even- grained, and has all the good qualities of the Bullet-tree, except that it will not bear exposure to weather. The fruit is delicious. Determa. Admirable for masts and spars, and for boat- building if copper nails are used. Insects will not touch it. Cynthia or Wild Allspice. A tall and slender tree, with close-grained wood, like Box : the berries are used as a con- diment. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — British Guiana. 83 Cacarua. Wood hard and compact, fruit delicious. Curahuru. A tall, straight, and plentiful tree, valuable for all purposes requiring durability and resistance to strain. The Indians make canoes of it. Tooroo Palm , 60 or 70 feet high : the woody outside is used for inlaid work, walking-sticks, &c, ; and a drink like chocolate is prepared from the fruit. Awara Palm. A small tree, 20 or 30 feet high, the trunk and leaves are covered with formidable prickles, which the Indians use for pins ; they also make a favourite drink from the ripe fruit, and carve handsome rings and bracelets of its hard and very black nut. Arumata. A hard, strong wood, adapted for planking vessels ; the heart is pretty, and might serve for furniture. Ducaliballi. A large but not plentiful tree, of which the deep red, close-grained wood is even compacter than Ma- hogany, and in great repute for turning and for cabinet- work. It is like and perhaps identical with the Brazilian Beef-wood. Another tree, called Bastard Ducaliballi , re- sembles it, but is inferior. A variety is called Blood-wood. Coivassa or Wild Mammee is a hard, close, rich brown, and prettily waved wood. Assepoca is a rare fawn coloured wood, exceedingly hard and compact. Moraballi. V ery plentiful : the wood is hard and durable, and makes good beams and boards for building. The Indians use the young saplings, when beaten out so as to sepa- rate the fibre, for torches. Warri. The Indians prize this rare, close, and rather handsome wood for canoes. JVamara or Brown Ebony. A hard, cross-grained wood, not liable to split, and therefore peculiarly adapted for ship- building: it is one of the handsomest of Guiana woods, being dark brown and beautifully streaked. Its hardness and weight recommend it to the Indians for their war-clubs. Hucouya or Ironwood grows 50 feet high and 6 feet in diameter : its reddish, dark, and uncommonly hard wood is easily damaged by wet. Bisi. A gigantic tree, of durable wood, used by the Indians for canoes. Siruba. A tree only found in the interior, of great size, and prized for ship building. Anapaima. Very large, and a close-grained wood. Tataba. A very large tree : the wood is hard and tough, and used for mill-timbers, gun-carriages, and purposes re- quiring strength. Washiba or Bow-wood Strong, durable, and elastic; the Indians make bows of it. G 2 Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. British Guiana. 84 Reports on the J’aris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. British Guiana. Indian and miscella- neous arti- cles, as hammocks, blow-pipes, &c. Waranana or Wild Orange. A large tree, growing on river banks : the wood is used for oars and staves. Hackia, also called Lignum Vitee. Wood hard and valu- able : used for furniture. Coutaballi. A durable wood when protected from weather. Saha or Bastard Purpleheart. Used for furniture. SECTION E. Indian (Native) Manufactures and Miscellaneous Articles. Of these I can notice only such as serve to illustrate the uses of Vegetable Products. The Model of a Buck-house , or Native dwelling, exhibits the various implements and utensils of the Arawak Indians : another is a Model of an Indian Establishment of the Caribi Tribe. Other articles in this Section are the implements and objects themselves. Pa gala, Pegali , or Pagalio. These are baskets, one within another, or a nest of them, made bv the Arawak Indians from the Iturite, a jointed reed. They are of beautiful workman- ship and. design. One of the patterns is considered identical with the Meander pattern on Greek and Etruscan vases, which is seen also in Egyptian and Assyrian ornamentation. Hammocks, of the fibre of the Ita Palm (Mauiitia flexuosa), already mentioned under Sections B. and D. Woodskin Shirt, made of the inner bark of the Cumaka- balli by the Maiangono’ Indians. Fishing-met of Silk-grass J^Bromelia?). Noticed under Section B. Suriana or Hammock- Case, made of the Moucourou, a jointless reed. Sieves and Cigar-cases , Boies and Arrows and War-clubs , made by the Indians. The materials unknown. Blow-pipe, with Quiver and Arrows. The former consists of an outer and inn§r tube ; the former ornamented with Pegali work, the latter made of a single internode of Arun- dinaria Schomburgkii ; these internodes are sometimes 16 feet long. The arrow is inserted into the tube, and sent flying by a sudden expiration. The Indians use different arrows for hunting, for shooting fish, birds, &c. A com- plete set consists of nearly 50 kinds. Macquari Whips, made of Silk-grass and the fibre of the Ita Palm. The Arawak Indians use them at their funeral dances, and ply one another’s legs with them till severe gashes and blood folio w r ; this is done as a test how they can bear pain. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products .« — British Guiana. 85 Mude-sticks, used to produce fire by rubbing them to- Sibw. gether : the wood is unknown. vegetable Caps, of the spatha which encloses the unexpanded flowers Pll0 ^f TS - of the Troolie Palm (Manicaria saccifera) ; they are made §55?” by soaking the spathe in water, and pulling and stretching — it to the desired shape. Winna or Cigar-wrappers, made of the Manicote Palm (Areca Manicot, Lodd. ? — an Areca oleracea ?). Woodsldn or Adada . , an Indian Canoe, made of the bark of the Purpleheart (Section D.), chiefly used for navigating small streams, though the natives sometimes shoot the rapids safely in these craft (literally barks, and fragile ones too). Fishing-rods of Yellow Lancewood (Section B.) and Indian Torches of Moral alii (Section D.), Boivls of Greenheart, Bracelets and Necklaces, of different seeds, &c., &c. Broom, made from the midrib of the leaflets of Cocoa-nut , and a Scrubbing -brush, horn a section of the nut itself, its fibrous covering serving as the brush, a handle being affixed to the end of the nut. No hair or whalebone brush acts better in accustomed hands. Matapi, or Cassava Squeezer , of the Moucourou reed; it is used by the natives for expressing the juice from the grated Cassava. SECTION F. Natural History. Under this comprehensive title all in our department migh properly fall ; but the term is rather intended to include odds and ends, whatever does not rank in the previous Sections. Little of interest in our Class is found here ; and that little consists of well known objects. The Parasitic plant from Canje Creek, which is known by the Indians as Saka-hair, and which grows in immense quantities on lofty trees, and is used by the natives to stuff pillows and mattrasses, is Tillandsia usneoides. In this Class a Medaille d’Honneur was awarded to the Colony of British Guiana, and Honourable Mention to Mr. 'T. B. Duggin. V.-CEYLON. Ceylon. (Special Commissioner: Capt. H. L. Layakd.) The Catalogue of this collection (extending to 32 pages) is ^yion coi- arranged under two primary heads, viz., A. Raw Materials; considerable and B. Manufactured Produce. Each is divided into bStks^vai- the Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral Kingdoms. From the it a wouia an 86 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Ceylon. have been, if the cata- logue were more care- fully made out. first, I shall select the objects which deserve notice. The collection, as a whole, is considerable ; and a great number of the Vegetable products which it contained have been transferred, by gift or by purchase, to the Museum of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Many of the manufactured articles, especially of wood, are very beautiful. “ The Cingalese col- lection was formed partly from private contributions, and was partly paid for with funds voted by the Legislative Council.’’ The Catalogue is drawn up by Nietner; and it is justly observed by the Committee, that “it (the catalogue) will afford the agent in Paris an assistance that is almost indispensable, and will remain a useful record of the result of local efforts to promote the Imperial Commission, and, it may be added, a testimony to the resources of the Island.” The Woods and Fibres are numerous, the former especially so; and their relative weights or specific gravity, their proper- ties and uses, together with remarks on their durability, are carefully noted and highly important : the samples of wood are, however, small, and the nomenclature is, I fear, frequently defective. It is a great pity that the services of the able Superintendent of the Botanic Garden of Peradenia were not called into requisition. All the Woods, indeed, are labelled with their native Cingalese names; and if these were accurate, and if the several names can be regarded as indicative of generic and specific differences, there are no fewer than 348 distinct kinds of timber ; but, that such is not the case, is evident, from two circumstances : — one is the repetition that occurs, as for instance, Mr. Mendis’ specimen of Calm Milile , No. 10, is named Vitex trifoliata, and his No. 54, labelled Meean Milile, is also called Vitex trifoliata ; the second reason is that the woods or timbers are in two groups, the first 96 are collected by Mr. Mendis, Modliar, the rest, 250 in number, by Mr. C. P. Layard ; yet no single individual of the latter corresponds in name with any one in Mr. Mendis* list. As proofs of inaccurate nomenclature; No. 1 , Alvho, is called Jambolana Calyptranthes. There is no such plant. Then comes Aponogeton crispum ; but Aponogeton, far from being a tree, is a genus of small aquatic Herbaceous Plants. Choecarpus (for Eloeocarpus ?) pungens, Illicebrum latrum, Rhas dissipium, and numerous similar errors, occur ; when the only really serviceable names are attempted to be given. The comparatively few that are accurately cited are common, as may be expected, to the adjacent country of India. Those most likely to be new convey no information to an European. Glad might we be to know the tree produc- ing the Caluvere or Ebony , of which so much cabinet-work is Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Ceylon . 87 made ; or the Calamander wood, a scarce and beautiful wood, the most valuable for ornamental purposes in Ceylon, and peculiar, it is believed, to that Island. The latter has been stated to be Diospyros hirsuta ; but the catalogue affords no information on the subject. There cannot, however, be a doubt that Ceylon produces many woods equal in value to the Calamander .* A. Raw Materials. Timbers. Alubo (Eugenia, sp.) ; building houses - Aludel (Artocarpus pubescens) ; boats and buildings. The fruit (which is allied to the bread-fruit) is boiled and eaten - Andere (Vachellia Farnesiana); cross- bars of fishing boats, &c. - Arremene or Sumatra Cassia (Cassia Ti- morensis) ; furniture and buildings Bairiye (?) ; buildings - Batte dornbe (Eugenia, sp.); house build- ing Bely gobel (Paritium tiliaceum) ; palan- queens and hackeries Burute. Satinwood (Chloroxylon Swie- tenia) ; oil-presses, wheels, bridges, building and furniture — a beautiful wood - Cadol or Leafy Mangrove (Rhizo- phora) ; grows chiefly at the mouths of rivers: wood used for building, and the bark to dye leather, nets, sails, &c. - Caha Milile (Vitex trifoliata) ; water casks, boats, wheels, &c. Calu Keale (Butea frondosa); house building - Weight per Average cubic foot, durability, lbs. Years. 49 20 51 35-70 71 15 57 50 57 10-30 45 20 38 20 55 10-80 65 40 56 15-80 38 30 * I suffer the above strictures to stand, because the Catalogue still remains in the defective state above described. Happily, however, Mr. Thwaites, the Superintendent of the Botanic Garden, to whom I have already alluded, has voluntarily come forward, and, while this Report is in the press, has corrected Mr. Mendis’ List of Woods ; and as Mr. Mendis has liberally presented a beautiful set of Cingalese Woods to the Museum of the Royal Gardens, Kew, with these amended names, I gladly adopt Mr, Thwaites’ nomenclature, and acknowledge the scientific service he has thereby rendered. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Ceylon. Timbers : their weight and dura- bility. 88 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SIR W. Weight per Average Hooker ox cubic foot. durability. Vegetable Products. Ceylox. Calu Mediriye, Calamander-wood (Dios- pyros hirsuta); scarce and beautiful; lbs. Years. the most ornamental wood in Ceylon Calu Vere (Diospyros); Ebony wood ; 57 80 fine and black, used for furniture - Cocatiye (Gambogia Gutta) ; house 71 80 building - Cottamba or Almond (Terminalia 56 30 Catappa); housebuilding; fruit eaten Cos or Jack (Artocarpus integrifolia) timber much used for boats, build- ings, & c. ; fruit, weighing 5-50lbs., 38 30 eaten - Daminne (Grewia tiliaefoli a) gun- 42 25-80 stocks, &c. - Daanga (Spathodea longifolia) ; buoys 44 40 for nets - - - 23 — Davette (Carallia Zeylanica) ; roofing - Davol Kuroendoo (Litssea Zeylanica; ; 42 25 house building - Del (Artocarpus pubescens) see Alndel. Diye parre (Wormia triquetra) ; house 39 20 building - - - - Dige ratembela (Jonesia Asoca); house 44 20 building - Dombe (Calophyllum Inophyllum) ; 58 25 masts and cross-trees of boats, &c. - 40 5-10 f Doon (?) ; building - jE7fez>?'ye(Murraya paniculata); handles 29 50 of hammers, rafters, &c. Gal Mendoon (Vateria, sp.) ; bridges and buildings ; the best wood for under 61 10-70 ground purposes - Gal Morre (Amanoa, sp.) ; house- building ; the best fire-wood for kilns ; the berries are eaten by the 57 15-60 natives - Gode-parre (Wormia retusa) ; roofs of 65 30 houses - Gooru Keene (Calophyllum Calaba); 51 60 poles for carts, &c. - Hal (Vateria Indica) ; packing-cases, 44 25 coffins, &c. - - Hal Mendora (same as Gal Mendoon, — probably misspelt). 26 10 Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products.- — Ceylon. 89 Hal Milile (Berrya Ammomilla) ; casks, carts, and houses ; the best wood for making oil-casks in Ceylon - Hedde Woke (Chsetocarpus purgans); house building - Ilelembe (Nauclea parvifolia) ; house building - Hirrikaddol (Rhizophora, sp.) ; house building ; bark yields a dye Tlorre (Dipterocarpus, sp.) ; roofs Ihdanhick (?) ; buildings Ilunukirille (Grewia paniculata) ; build- mgs Kadoembeiriye or Bastard Ebony (Diospyros, sp.) ; furniture - Kakatte (Careya arborea) ; axles for bul- lock waggons, &c. - Kebelle (Scepa, sp.) ; house building - Kette Kale (Bridelia spinosa) ; house- building - O Kittoel (Caryota urens) ; wood used for window bars; the flowers yield the sweet and cooling drink called Toddy ; it is also converted into Jaggery - Kiripelle , or Indian Fig Tree ( — ?) ; furniture, and for building - Kiriioalla (Echites lanceolata) ; orna- mental cabinet-work and inlaying - Koang , the Ceylon Oak (Schleichera trijuga); wooden anchors and oil- presses ; the berries are eaten by the natives - Lawoloo (Sideroxylon sp.) ; building ; the berries are eatable Lunu Middle , or Bead Tree (Melia composita) ; for building, &c. Madetiye (Adenanthera Pavonina) ; building ; the red seed is roasted and eaten - - - - Mahadan (Eugenia sp.) ; wheels, &e.; berries eatable - Mai burute (Chloroxylon Swietenial See Burute above. Weight per Average cubic foot. durability lbs. Years. 48 10-80 58 50 42 40 49 35 45 15 39 50 44 25 45 40 38 10-20 40 20 42 25-50 71 30-90 30 20-30 35 30 49 5-10 39 10 15 8-20 56 30 36 20 Sib. W. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. Ceylon. 90 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Ceylok. Weight per Average cubic foot. durability € Mee (Bassia longifolia) ; keels of boats, bridges, &c. ; the nut yields a medi- cinial oil ; the genus is the same as affords the vegetable butter of Africa - lbs. Years. 61 25-80 Meean Milile (Yitex trifoliata) ; see Caha Milile. Melle (Olax Zeylanica) ; house-building 64 40 Moone Mai (Mimusops Elengi) ; house- building and furniture 61 50 Morre , or Eye ball (?) ; building pur- poses, excellent firewood; the ripe berries are eaten 62 25 Murute (Lagerstrcemia Reginas) ; water- casks and buildings - 42 30-40 Naw, or Ironwood (Mesua Nagaha) ; bridges, &c. - 72 10-60 Nebede (Xanthoxylon Roxburghi- anum) ; buildings - 51 20 Nelly (Emblica officinalis) ; wheels, &c. for wells, as the wood is said to purify the water ; berries are made into sweetmeats, and also used medi- cinally - 49 30 Nendoon (Dalbergia lanceolaria) ; buildings and furniture 56 60-80 Nerreloo (Elaeodendron) ; house-build- ing ’ - 56 40 Otte, (Croton); house-building, ordi- 36 10 nary Paloo (Mimusops hexandra.); oil-presses, bridges, &c. ; ripe berries are eaten - 68 10-70 Pamburoo (Limonia Missionis) ; build- ings; the wood, when variegated, is beautiful, and prized for cabinet- work - 48 40 Patta Del (Artocarpus, sp.) ; boats, buildings ; fruit used for food. See Abudel and Del 34 30 Patkeale (Bridelia retusa) ; common buildings - 42 40 Petan (Bauhinia tomentosa) ; boxes, walking-sticks, &c. - 57 Pehimbiye (Pteridophyllum decipiens) ; buildings - 68 50 Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Ceylon. 91 Penebarroo , (Eugenia Mooniana) ; rafters ; the branches of this tree make the most durable of all fences Pol, Cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera) ; build- ings, boxes, furniture. The fruit furnishes almost all the principal food used in a tropical country, milk, curry, oil, &c. : — the flower-stalk yields toddy, of which vinegar, arrack, and jaggery are manufactured; the husk gives coir for ropes and mats, — Weight per Average cubic foot, durability, lbs. Years. 61 50-90 in short every part is useful Puioak , Areca-nut (Areca Catechu) , furniture ; the nuts are chewed with 70 20-50 Betel leaves, tobacco, and chunam - Ramenei Delle (Wendlandia bicuspi- 57 60 data) ; buildings and fences Rook attenne ( Alstonia scholaris) ; cof- 48 20 fins - 26 Samedera. (Samedera Indica) ; buoys - Sappoo (Michelia Champaca) ; car- 26 60 riages, palankeens, &c. Sappoo Milile ( Vitex trifoliataY Vide ante. Siyembela , Tamarind Tree (Tama- rindus Indica) ; oil-presses, furniture, 42 20-50 &c. ; the fruit is well known Sooriya (Thespesia populnea) ; excel- lent for gun-stocks, hackeries, &c.. 80 80 and for blocks and buildings Sooriya Mara (Acacia, sp.); buildings 49 20-40 and furniture - 42 20-30 Suvande (Kayea, sp.) ; buildings Tal , Palmyra, Reepers (Borassus fla- belliformis) ; the native “ ola books * 9 are made of the leaves and toddy from the flowers, also jaggery which used medicinally and for hardening 56 30 mortar - Tarrene (Stylocoryne Webera) ; roofs. 65 80 boats, &c. Teak of Ceylon (Tectona grandis) ; 57 30 bridges and buildings Teak of Cochin (Tectona grandis) ; carts, bridges, and to make arrack 55 15-60 Sm W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Ceylon. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Ceylok. Pibrous substances : chiefly iden- tical with those of India. 92 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Weight per Average cubic foot, durability, lbs. Years. 44 15-90 42 15-90 26 30 45 20 5.. 80 36 — 36 15 39 10 62 60 35 40 As Mr. Layard’s collection of woods has the native names only, and obviously contains many repetitions, I pass it wholly over. Fibrous Substances. — Barks and Piths. Nearly all the fibres in the Cingalese collection have al- ready been enumerated and commented upon in the East Indian collection ; and those that are not in this predicament are unaccompanied by any remark, except the two follow- ing : Gnidia eriocephaia, (a plant allied to the Mezereon) yields a strong, flexible, silky fibre adapted to the manufacture of paper ; and its boiled bark makes an abundant jelly. Speci- mens of pulp and paper are exhibited, accompanying specimens of the inner bark. Antiaris saccidora, from the bark of which tree very strong and elastic sacks are made by the natives of Ouvah. The trees chosen for the purpose measure about a foot in diameter. The felled trunks are cut into lengths, and the bark is well beaten with a stone or club till the parenchymatous part comes off, leaving only the inner bark attached to the wood, which is casks, as the wood gives a fine colour and flavour to the liquor Teak of Moulmein (Tectona grandis) ; same purposes as the preceding Telcmboo (Sterculia foetida) ; buildings Timberry (Diospyros Embryopteris) : buildings ; the juice of the fruit is rubbed on fishing-lines to harden and preserve them Ukbeiriye (Camilla sp.) ; buildings Velenye (Pterospermum suberifolium), poles of bullock-carts, and gun-stocks Waiboamboo (Symplocos laurinus) ; house-building - Waldombe (Calophyllum Inophyllum). See Dombe Walukeene (Calophyllum, sp.) ; masts of boats - Weawarene (Cratseva religiosa) ; build- ings and pestles - Welipiyanna (Tetracrypta cinnamo- moicles, Gard. et Champ.) ; house- building - Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Ceylon . 93 then easily drawn out by the hand. The bark thus obtained is fibrous and tough, resembling a woven fabric : it is sewn at one end into a sack, which is filled with sand, and dried in the sun. Gums and Resins. Mr. Layard’s collection of Gums amounts to 23, and almost all are accompanied with their generic and specific appella- tions; but the substances themselves are mostly of Indian origin, and the catalogue contains no remarks, except in re- ference to the Gamboge (Gambogia Gutta), viz., that it is not common and appears to be confined to the Badulla district, as is the Gum Kino (Pterocarpus Marsupium); and that other trees, of the same tribe, yield a gum which much resembles Gamboge in appearance. % Oils and Drugs. Mr. Layard sends samples of 31 Oils , with native and scientific names, and brief notice of their uses, and Mr. T. A. Pieris 30 Cingalese Medicinal Oils , with native names and properties (real or imaginary), and 12 samples of Essential oils , together with Medicines used in native practice, with their names (Cingalese and botanical), and a brief notice of their uses. Among Miscellaneous articles we may notice some remark- able specimens of Rattans (slender climbing palms), especially 2 of Calamus verus from Mr. Layard, one measuring 270 feet, the other 230 feet in length (these have been pre- sented to the Museum of Kew); beautiful furniture, carved boxes , & c., of native woods, such as Calamander s Ebony , Tamarind , &c., and various fruits modelled in wax ; Cocoa- nuts and their products ; agricultural implements of various kinds, & c. &c. In this Class a Silver Medal was awarded to the Ceylon Executive Committee, and a Bronze Medal to Mr. Layard. VI.— NEW SOUTH WALES. (Special Commissioners: Edw. Deas Thomson ; W. (now Sir William' Macakthuu ; and M. II. Mouses, Esqs. Secretary of the Committee, Mr. F BousriEi.n. Agents, Messrs. Desgkano and Son. The natural and industrial products of New South Wales, if we take into view the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdom, are among the most remarkable and important in the Great Exhibition at Paris. In the departments more immediately connected with our Class II, the collection in Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Ceylon. Gums, resins, and drugs ; of small value. N. S.Wales New South Wales col- lection : highly im- portant; 94 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hookee'ojt question is peculiarly interesting, and especially for native Vk™ e wo °ds. It reflects great credit on the several gentlemen who v s wIle acte ^ as Commissioners in forming it, as well as on the ’ — ’ Colony itself, for the liberal way in which they met the ance chiefly heavy expenses which it involved The Legislature of the w. e Maca?. Colony, at the recommendation, of the Governor-General, tions' 8 * exer " appropriated out of the Colonial Revenue 6,000Z., besides a sum of 5,000/. lent for the purchase of gold ; the Commis- sioners undertaking that all specimens should be sold in Paris or London at the close of the Exhibition, and the pro- ceeds be paid to the colonial agent to the credit of the colony. Wm. Macarthur, Esq., (since Sir Wm. Macarthur), was mainly entrusted with the Commission department in Paris : a more fortunate choice could not have been made. He was him- self assiduous in forming the nobl<* collection of woods ; he is familiar with the aspect and qualities of the respective trees ; and his botanical knowledge has enabled him to attach the scientific as well as popular names to many of the speci- mens. The samples are generally about four feet long, by one foot or more wide, smoothed on one side and part of the smooth surface polished; thus exhibiting both the outside and inside in the natural and the worked state. Sir William Macarthur also brought well-dried specimens illustrative of the trees which yield these woods, bearing corresponding numbers : and he presented one set to the Jardin des Plantes, another to the British Museum, and another to the Museum of the Royal Gardens, Kew ; thus being enabled, when in Paris, to solve some doubtful points, by reference to the opinions of M. Decaisne and Mr. Robt. Brown. Perhaps there has never been transmitted from any colony at any one time so large a collection of woods new to commerce, and promising to prove useful for timber and for various economi- cal purposes, particularly for carpentering, cabinet-work, and inlaying, accompanied, too, with notes upon the uses, and all, or nearly all, scientifically named. Hitherto, most of them have only been used for firewood in the colony. Now that the attention of merchants, artizans, and men of science has been called to them, there is every reason to believe that the merits of many will be duly appreciated, and that their ex- port to Europe will augment the resources of a colony situated almost at our antipodes. The printed names and the rather copiously written re- marks attached to each specimen, together with an excellent private catalogue which was freely laid before the jury, and the further assistance of Sir William Macarthur’s personal attendance and remarks, have greatly facilitated my investi- JSir W> Hooker on Vegetable Products. — N. S. Wales. 95 gation of this collection. That portion which Sir Wm. M. was chiefly instrumental in forming, comes from the Southern district of New South Wales, and mainly from the environs of Sydney and from the Illawarra. The vegetation of the latter country is very peculiar, approaching a tropical cha- racter. Though only six months were allowed for collecting these woods, they amount to 300 species, including many of botanical and economical interest. Of the latter, “ 22 are excellent hard woods, of very great durability; 12 are suit- able for turning or other manufacturing purposes ; while 16 are highly beautiful and adapted to cabinet and ornamental work. One specimen affords a fine yellow colour for dyeing. Sir Wm. Macarthur’s intimate acquaintance with these woods and with their localities justifies him in considering them to belong to three different kinds of woodland country, which he divides into classes A, B, and C, and he prefixes one of these letters to the name of the tree, so as to designate the nature of the district where it is found. Class A. — Trees confined to more or less open forests with little or no underwood : their trunks are more or less naked, great height being a more conspicuous feature with them than diameter ; branches thinly clothed with persistent, dry, dull-coloured, thick, leathery leaves, abounding in essential oils, and, in their decomposition, adding but little vege- table matter to the soil. The largest of these trees in- habit rather poor soils, and they are frequently unsound at heart. Class B. — Barren Scrub, either wholly covered with low, shrubby vegetation, without trees, or with stunted trees, seldom or never producing serviceable timber. The same dry vegetation prevails as under the last Class : and the bush-fires, which sweep over these barren scrubs every four or five years at least, prevent the majority of the species from attaining large dimensions. Here most of the beautiful flowering shrubs of the colony grow; and the soil is always rocky, stony, or sandy. Class C. — Rich Brush, or Cedar Brush, rarely of great continuous extent, but often alternating at short intervals with Class A, and existing only at moderate distances from the sea, or, at all events, eastward of the great dividing range. Here a rich soil often results from the disintegration of the peculiar rocks ; and it usually follows the course of streams. The cedar brushes are found in the greatest per- fection at Illawarra: the trees are very lofty, slender, and clothed with beautiful, thick, bright green foliage, and often graced with noble climbers (bush-ropes), which attain the topmost branches, and frequently throw themselves from Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. N.S.Wales. Forest- country of three kinds ; 96 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. N.S.Wales. the forest- country described, &c. ; Most remark- able trees noticed. tree to tree. Shrubs are few in these brushes. Four tree- ferns and two palms grow at Illawarra. The summer heats are less scorching and the temperature is more equable in the cedar brushes than in less. wooded parts ; and the bush- fires rarely, if ever, reach their tangled recesses, which present great difficulties to the investigator. For the sake of the Cedar ( Cedrela Australis, a tree very nearly allied to the celebrated Toona , Cedrela Toona of Eastern India), and hitherto for that alone, the sawyers have explored almost every nook of the forest whence the tree in question could, if felled and cut, be got out. It is remarkable how few of the trees in this region are seen in flower and fruit, which makes it extremely difficult to determine their names, and they grow so closely packed and intermingled that a half-mile track will sometimes show upwards of 60 kinds. Very gro- tesque are their forms ;* the trunks are rarely cylindrical but picturesquely irregular, and loaded aloft with huge masses of mosses, ferns, and orchids, the latter exhaling a delicious fragrance. The timber of this Class, of which almost every brush possesses some peculiar kinds, differs remarkably in its fine grain and general beauty from that of Class A. It is gene- rally sound »at heart, but not to be compared for durability, especially if exposed to damp, to the coarse and almost im- perishable woods of Class A. Sir Wm. Macarthur begs that it may be remembered that the short time in which these woods were collected pre- cluded the possibility of seasoning them well: also, that many kinds had not arrived. Among the 245 woods of the Southern districts, I can only notice some of the more remarkable, which promise to be useful as timber,! or which are curious in their structure and therefore interesting to the botanist. Following Sir Wm. Macarthur ’s catalogue, the first mark indicates the class to which each tree belongs ; 2, its botanical name ; 3, its name * Among the most striking are the Giant Kittles (Urtica Gigas), trees of noble proportions, often forty feet round at four feet from the ground, and 150 feet high. Their trunks rise in a series of buttresses, and attain 120 feet before giving off a single branch. The Giant Figs , of which there are five kinds in the Brushes (Ficus macrophylla, and other species), are still more huge, the girth having been found to measure eighty-six feet. It is almost impossible to convey by description any idea cf the wild and grand character of these singular trees, whose stems resemble fluted columns, supported by enormous buttresses, extending to a great circumference at the base, and by roots which rise above ground in ridges like walls, among which a hundred persons might be easily concealed. f This collection afforded samples for the valuable “ Series of Experiments on the Strength and Resistance of Various Woods the results of which are given in the first part of the Report on the Paris Universal Exhibition, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty. 1856, p. 4J J. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — N S. Wales. 97 among the aborigines (often of great importance to the colonists, by reason of the tact with which these natives dis- tinguish and name their trees) ; 4, the local name (of the colonists); 5, the diameter; and 6, the height. With great propriety Sir Win. Macarthur gives first the scientific name. C. Polyosma Cunninghami (Yerralla). A small tree, likely to be useful for cabinet-work. C. Brachy chiton accrifolium (Couramyn — Flame Tree of the colonists). Wood prettily veined, but soft; fibrous bark used by the natives for nets and fishing-lines. Flowers red and beautiful. C. Eupomatia Iciurina (Balwarra). Wood yellowish-brown and prettily veined, but soft, C. Stenocarpus salignus (Meleyn — Beef- wood and Silky Oak of the colonists). A beautiful wood, which takes a high polish, and is adapted for veneering and cabinet-work. C. Cryptocarya (Oorawang — Laurel). A noble tree, 70-120 ft. high, wood of no great value. C. Trochocarpa laurina (Beranduna — Beech). A pretty, small tree, with close-grained ornamental wood. C. Piper, sp. (Mao-Warang — Pepper-vine). A magnificen woody climber, 150-180 ft. long. Interesting to a botanis but the wood is worthless. C. Doryphora Sassafras (Caking — Sassafras, or Saxafrax) A beautiful tree, with highly fragrant foliage, and a bark which contains a tonic bitter ; the wood is soft and Aveak. C. Acmena , sp. (Galang-arra — Brush-cherry). W ood close- grained and hard ; fruit handsome and sub-acid. C. Cargillia Australis (Booreerra — Black-plum). Wood fit for turnery. C. Icacinece , sp. (Ngneureen nanan — White Maple). Magnificent tree, 100-150 ft. high ; bole of a triangular form, Avood close-grained, tough, adapted to joiner’s Avork and turn- ing ; it has a bitter principle. C. Pittosporum undulaturn (Wallandun-dyrren). Wood hard and Avhite, suited for veneers and turnery ; it may perhaps prove a substitute for Box in Avood engraving. C. Elceodendron Australe (Courai-uo). Slender tree ; its Avood close-grained, fit for turnery and cabinet-AVork. C. Aphanopetalum sp. (Tdjeunen — White Myrtle and Blue Ash). A noble tree, 80 to 120 feet high, with close- grained, easily Avorked, and probably valuable wood. C. Podocarpus spinulosus (Dyrren-dyrren — Pine, White Pine). A beautiful straight-growing tree, 70 to 120 feet high ; Avood close, easily worked, sometimes very handsome ; 3 H Sir AV. Hooker on A^egetable Products. N.S.AVales. Its timbers, their vari- ous quali- ties, &c. 98 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . SirW. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. N. S. Wales. it would probably be adapted for making the sounding-boards of musical instruments. C. Ceratopetalum apetalum (Boola — Light-wood, Leather- jacket, Coach-wood). A beautiful tree, 3-4 feet in diameter, 80-130 feet high ; its wood is soft and fine-grained, agreeably fragrant, and much in request for coach-building, but not durable when exposed to damp. C. Tristania nerii folia (Ooramilly— Water Gum). 100-130 feet high ; wood close-grained and elastic, prized for boats. C. Sapindacece , sp. ? (Dawawah — Maiden’s Blush). A beau- tiful, umbrageous, small tree, named from the pink hue of its fine-grained soft wood; the largest specimen was 14 feet in circumference. C. Epicar purus (Marrulang — Rough Fig). A small elegant tree, with milky sap, and hard-grained firm wood, likely to serve for turnery, &c. C. Achras Australis (Jerrawawa — Brush Apple, Wild Plum). The thick milky sap tastes like fresh cream; the wood is close-grained and prettily marked ; the abundant large purple fruit is coarse and flavorless. C. Pomaderris , sp. (Murr-rung — Red Ash, Coopers’ wood). Wood excellent, close-grained, good for turnery, &c. C. Cupania. Australis (Burrenedura — Tamarind Tree). Resembling the tree whence it derives its name among the colonists in its magnificent pinnated foliage and large racemes of acid fruit, — used for preserves. The wood is white, close-grained, and firm. C. Acmena , sp, (Kangaloon — Myrtle, White Myrtle). Wood extremely hard and heavy, prized by the Aborigines for their clubs, boomerangs, and spear-points ; it requires careful seasoning. C. Acacia sp. (Marrai-uo — Sallow). Wood prized for axe -helves, combining strength and t oughness, beautiful in grain and color, and likely to be valued for cabinet-work, &c. C. Hibiscus lieterophyllus (Dtharang-gang — Coryjong). A small tree, with beautiful flowers, soft and spongy wood, and bark which the natives use for fishing-lines and nets. C. Exocarpus cupressiformis (Ko-ieyatt — Cherry). Wood close grained and good for turnery, but liable to split. C. Aster (Eurybia) argophyllus (Musk Aster). A low, branching tree, said to form exclusively the vast dense thickets between Gipps Land and Western Port. The leaves and young shoots smell like musk ; the heart-wood is dark and handsome. This tree, 15-30 feet high, is the well- known Australian Musk-plant of our greenhouses, where it appears as a small shrub. C. Myrtus tnnerms (Dthalandoon). This, again, is but a Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — N. S. Wales. 99 n.s.Wales. very small shrub under cultivation in Europe, while it attains j^^eYon in New South Wales a diameter of 2 feet and a height of vegetable 70. The wood is hard and close-grained, but the larger trees K0DU are rarely sound. C. Callistemon salignum (Boodjoong — Broad -leaved Tea- Tree). Wood hard and close-grained, but like the other species of Callistemon and Melaleuca, apt to split in drying, compensated by being nearly imperishable under ground. C. and A. Melaleuca styphelioides (Naambarr — Prickly- leaved Tea-tree). Wood like the last. The outer bark of these two trees, as in other species of the genus, peels off in innumerable thin soft membranous layers or plates, which have been recommended as useful in paper- making. Sir Wm. Macarthur possesses a natural specimen (layer) which has been successfully printed upon. In color and texture it resembles a very delicate slice of cork, being soft and velvety. Beautiful layers of the bark of Melaleuca uncinata are also in the collection. C. Mertensia , sp. (Ba-ou-oon — Cockspur Thorn). A large thorny shrub, with dark yellow heart-wood, used to dye yellows and browns. C. and A. Corypha Australis (Dtharowal — Cabbage Palm). A very lofty palm, 120 feet high, and abounding along the sea-coast from 38° S. to the Tropics. Its unexpanded fronds, after being immersed in boiling water and dried, serve to make hats, of which a specimen is in the collection. C. Urtica Giyas (Goo-mao-ma — Nettle-tree). Already mentioned in foot-note, p. 65. The leaves are often 12 to 15 inches across ; their sting is very formidable. The wood is too soft and spongy to be of any value for timber ; when dry it is used as a slow-match. C. Duboisia myoporoides (Ngmoo — Corkwood). A small tree, with corky bark, and white, close, soft, but firm wood, which is excellent for wood-carving, and pretty for inlay- ing, &c. A. Eucalyptus , 2 sp. (Iron-Bark). First-rate, durable timber. A specimen is exhibited which was cut more than 55 years ago. These trees are also called Gum-Trees by the colonists and have many other local names, but it has been found impossible to determine accurately their scientific appellations. Most of them are of considerable thickness, and from 50 to 200 feet high ; and their Avood is remarkably hard and durable, useful for ship-building, wheelwright's work, &c. A. Angophora , sp. (Apple Tree). The wood, when free from gum veins, is excellent for wheels, &c. A. Syncarpia , sp.(Booreea — Turpentine Tree). The huge trunks of this myrtaceous tree are 35 feet round and 200 feet H 2 100 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Silt w • Hooker on Vegetable Products. N.S.Wales. high ; the timber is durable under ground, but apt to split when exposed to the air. A. Melaleuca , 3 sp. (Tea-Trees.— The timber is of the same quality as the preceding ( Syncarpia ). C. Ficus, sp. The largest tree of the Cedar brushes, but with indifferent wood. A. Persoonia linearis (Naamburra — Jibong). Tree small, with close and prettily marked woods. A, B r achy chiton populneoides. (Courymyn.) A small tree, of which the roots contain much mucilage, and are eaten by the aborigines, who use the bark for nets, &c. A. Acacia falcata (Wee-tjellan — Lignum Vitae). Wood close and ornamental ; the bark contains much tannin and is used by the natives to poison fish. A. Angophora, sp. (Boonda — Apple Tree of Camden). A beautiful tree, its wood, when free from gum veins, is valuable for wheelwright’s work and for boards. A. Tristania laurina ? (Water-Gum of the Nepean river). A remarkably small tree, of which the wood is peculiarly hard and bony, and valuable ; it requires careful seasoning. C. Tristania , sp. (Water-Gum). Wood prized for its toughness and strength, and used for the knees and ribs of boats, &c. A. Casuarina sober osa (Dahl- wall — Forest Oak, Beech, and Shingle Oak). Small, and chiefly used for shingles, but probably valuable for cabinet-work, being handsome. A. Eucalyptus, 3 sp. (Woolly Gum-Tree, Swamp Mahogany, and Rough-leaved Iron-Bark). Trees of but moderate value as timber, but of such quick growth, that one tree which, when planted in 1829, was not thicker than a quill, had attained to 70 feet long when felled in 1854. A. Acacia, sp. {Myall of the colonists). A graceful tree, one of several species called Myall ; all have rich dark- coloured wood which smells like violets. Monotoca alhens (Beech). A large shrub of many stems, the wood is used by carpenters for handies to their tools. B. Xylomelum pyriforme (Merridgee-couroo — Wooden Pear). A small tree, yielding a dark, prettily marked, but coarse-grained wood, which affords handsome veneers. C. Cedrela Australis (Polai — Cedar). Tree from 80 to 1 20 feet, sometimes 10 feet in diameter. The most valuable wood in the colony, and exclusively used by the colonists for joinery and cabinet-work ; for fifty years it has been exten- sively exported. C. Vitex? sp. (Beech, White Beech). A noble tree, 140 feet high, its wood much prized for the decks of coasting ships, of bright silvery grain, and said to have the rare merit Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — N. S. Wales. 101 of not shrinking and splitting, as the timbers of this colony Sir w. generally uo. vegetable C. Alsopkila , 2 sp. From the curious stems of these tree- PE0 ^f TS - ferns very pretty vases are carved. n.s. Wales. C. Livistona inermis ? (Dwarf Palm.) 6-10 feet high. From the slender stems walking-canes are made. The name is probably incorrect. It is a very small pinnated-leaved Palm and has been received living in the Jardin des Plantes. C. Endiandra glauca (Teak-Wood of the colonists). A magnificent tree, 100-140 feet high; its wood is hard, close, and fine, dark- coloured in the duramen, with a powerful aromatic fragrance. A very strong and valuable timber. B. Acacia decurrens (Black Wattle). 40-60 feet high. Bark valuable for tanning. C. Meliacece, sp. (Rosewood). 3-6 feet in diameter and 80-120 high. The timber of this beautiful tree is highly valued ; it is ornamental ; and its essential oil, of agreeable fragrance, recommends the use of the wood for bedsteads, as insects will not lodge in it. B. Eucalyptus sp. (Mahogany of the colonists). Noble timber, 130 feet high, very strong, and so durable that one of the specimens, taken from a principal and much exposed rafter of Parramatta church, built in 1778, is still perfectly sound. Avicennia tomentosa (Mangrove). A low branching tree which inhabits the salt-water estuaries ; its wood, when small, is valued for stone masons’ mallets, because of its closely-inter- woven fibre. The collection of Indigenous Woods, from the Northern Trees^of Districts (Moreton and Wide Bays), was formed by Mr. Bay and Charles Moore of the Sydney Botanic Garden, under circum- scntby a * ’ stances of peculiar difficulty, chiefly arising from the want of of' r tife syci- manual assistance. He therefore confined his attention Q^° tanic chiefly to the trees which were likely to be of commercial and economical value. The number of specimens, as already stated, is about ninety. Their names appear to have been given in Europe from examination of corresponding flower- ing branches, which were communicated, we believe, to Mr. Moore, of the Chelsea Botanic Garden, and subjected to some correction at the Jardin des Plantes. The printed catalogue (yet unpublished, and hitherto not circulated among jurors,) gives the name in English of the tribe to which the tree belongs, its local name (if it has any, but this is of rare oc- currence,) among the settlers, the average height and diameter of the trunk, together with remarks made on the spot where the tree was felled, and such information as could be obtained about the timber. The list (of ninety) includes about a dozen. 102 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hooker'ox which appear likely to be useful for cabinet-work and furniture and general purposes. Among the most beautiful — '* are the Moreton Bay Cypress, the Oxleya of the same district, y. s.Wales. j-p e “ Yellow-ioood” producing a yellow dye from the heart- wood and a brilliant red from the bark (is it not rather a Maclura or some Moraceous plant ?), the fC Pine Tree, 5 ' and others. A kind of Dogbane is in the collection, of which Mr. Moore says that the bark is more intensely bitter than Cinchona and partakes of the same nature. (JST.B. — M. Brong- niart and M. Milne Edwards have undertaken to analyse it.) There is also a specimen, though small, of the extraordinary Bottle tree ( Delabechea rupestris of Lindley), of which the height is often 30 feet, and the width 1 6 ; and the centre is almost wholly an eatable pulp. (K.B. — A section of a moderately sized specimen is in the Exhibition, and in this collection; but a larger one, said to be 20 feet long and 12 wide, is too large to be deposited here.) There are fine specimens of the Moreton Bay Pine (Araucaria Cunninghami), considered the most valuable timber of that district, and obtainable in unlimited quantity. The tree, in favourable situations, grows between 200 and 300 feet high, with a perfectly solid shaft-like stem. Grevillea mimosoides of Wide Bay is allied to the Silky Oak of Moreton Bay, and its timber is employed for furniture. The “ Kauri Tree ” of Wide Bay is probably hitherto unknown to naturalists. It is doubtless a Dammara, and produces timber equally large and serviceable as the “ Kauri ” (Dammara Australis). Its place of growth is limited between Moreton Bay and the Burnett Elver ; its stems are 4-5 feet in diameter, and attain a height of 150 feet, I do not find the magnificent. Bunya- Bunya (Araucaria Bidwilli) in this collection of Woods; though the Bunya shrub is mentioned in the catalogue, and though its noble fruits and foliage are in another part of the Exhibition (they have been since presented to the Museum at Kew). The Moreton Bay Chestnut ( Castano - spermum) yields a wood which is very useful for cask-staves. The miscellaneous collection of woods contains, among many other articles, fine specimens of the Grass Gum-trees, of Kingia ; of Myall wood (Acacia sp.), already noticed as exhaling a smell like violets, both rough and polished ; stem of the “ Dogbane bark, >} suspected to be a Tabernaamontana, to which it is certainly allied (evidently not a Eubiaceous plant) ; wood of Erythrina Vespertilio ; and the Corh-wood of Moreton Bay. One of the most interesting of the objects (placed in another part of the Exposition) is the last remaining portion Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — N. S. Wales. 103 of the Tree , near which was buried (the ships then lying in Sir w. Botany Bay) the body of M. Le Receveur, one of the vegetable N aturalists attached to La Pey rouse's expedition. His Propucts - name and portions of a few words carved on the bark, some n.s.Wales. feet above the ground, are still discernable. This fragment is now, with great propriety, presented to the French Government. It is to be regretted that the tree has been much injured by the Bush fires of the Natives. Since my official examination of this fine collection of furniture, woods from New South Wales, there have been deposited on the landing-place of one of the staircases in the Palais de l’lndustrie, five cabinets or book-cases and four tables made from a great variety of the above-mentioned woods, accompanied by lists of their names. I may safely say that few objects in the Exhibition are so worthy of atttention; and their value will be determined by more competent judges of another class. The other objects that belong to my series of vegetable products are miscellaneous and not extensive, and more information is to be desired respecting them. From the period of its earliest discovery. New South Wales has been described as a country singularly barren in native eatables; and the climate would appear equally un- favourable to the production of any great variety of native Gums, Resins, Fibres, Drugs, Dye-stuffs, &c. Further discoveries may, however, correct or modify this statement. The following objects deserve notice : — Dye-icood from Oxleya xanthoxyla ; wood and bark and ^i t s ^j{}j ncouS dye ; also wool and cotton dyed with it, and specimens showing the interior or dyeing portion of the wood. The color is a rather rich yellow brown. The first Prize Gold Medal in New South Wales was adjudged for it. Also extracts of the wood. Mr. Oee. A beautiful Hat, like the Panama hat ; sample of articles made by prisoners in Cockatoo Island, from the leaves of the Cabbage Palm (Corypha Australis). “ One-third of the proceeds goes to the prisoners as a fund when they become free ; the remainder they have for tea, sugar, &c. The leaf is dried in the air (not in the sun), then scalded and split into widths (very narrow) and plaited. Twenty-four rounds of plat are required to make one inch, twenty-six stitches to each inch, and 240,552 stitches in each hat. One hat takes 257 yards of platting. The tree grows at Ulawarra.” In this class a Medaille d’Honneur was awarded to Sir Wm. Macarthur ; a Silver Medal to Mr. Chas. Moore ; and a Bronze Medal to Mr. Bousfield ( Secretary to the Commis- missioners for New South Wales), as co-operator. 104 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. VII- VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA). Edward Bell, Esq., Commissioner; Mr. N. Domis, Agent. a icTORiA. This (as concerns our class) is of small value, which is the collection • more t° be regretted as Dr. Mueller, the Government Bota- of trifling nist, has distinguished himself by his varied information, might have extensive travels, and accurate researches into the interior of greater^ 1 the Victoria Colony. To him the collection owes 24 Native had^ecn ler ^Foorfs, correctly and botanically named (bearing also their employed, colonial appellations) : six are communicated by Mr. Foot, and eight by Mr. Gibbons. They are, generally speaking, good specimens ; and many of them, if they had been accom- panied by a note of their qualities, would doubtless have attracted attention, and been found of commercial or artistic value, — the fragrant Myall icood, for example. Dr. Mueller also sends of Barits , probably useful for tanning, as follows : Sassafras Barit (Atherosperma moschata), Santalum persicarium (a food of the aborigines), Wattle Bark (Acacia mollissima and dealbata) and Iron Bark. There are three Gum Besins, viz., Gum of the Australian Boxtree, Resin of Red Gum, (and Resin of Kauri Pines from New Zealand.) Three books are tilled with a well-preserved general col- lection of Australian Plants : two consist of dried specimens of indigenous plants, {( illustrating their usefulness ; v (as how ?) one is a fascicle of indigenous grasses. Mr. Murray sends a specimen of Murray Pine (Callitris Preissii), which yields Gum Sandarach ; Volatile Oil, distilled from the foliage of the Bed Gum-tree (Eucalyptus rostrata), similar to Cnjeput oil. A species of Polyvorus (without name) seems identical with the well-known European styptic, the Medicinal Agaric (Polyporus Laricis.) — A large piece of bark bears, on its inside, some curious drawings by the natives of Victoria. The above are all the vegetable products that merit notice. A printed Catalogue was given to the Jury, but it is void of any useful information. In this Class a Silver Medal was awarded to the Colony ; and a Bronze Medal to Mr. A. Clarke. v 'l™’ s VIII.— VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. (Special Commissioner: Mr. It. W. Nutt. Agents: Messrs. DesgranB and Son. Landcof- 113 The fine collection of Vegetable products, which Van less valuable Diemen’s Land contributed to the British Exhibition of be a expected; 1851, had led me to expect a far completer choice of speci- Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products , — V. Diemen' s Land. 105 mens than are displayed on the present occasion. They occupy h^okeron but little space ; and save some furniture, made from natve vegetable woods, there is hardly anything which requires examination by — the Jury of the Second Class. Even as regards the collec- ^ 'l™ S tion of woods, which is considerable, and includes blocks and spcci “ ls planks of various sizes showing the transverse and horizontal |‘^and iii- section, both polished and unpolished, the close of the Exhi- bition arrived, and several months longer elapsed, ere a catalogue appeared. The names affixed to a portion only of these samples were not merely defective, but often evidently incorrect ; and I had been compelled to pen some unfavor- able remarks on the subject of the disappointing nature of the collection, when I received a list of the Tasmanian contribu - tions, from which 1 make the following extracts. The remarks upon the woods are by Joseph Milligan, Esq. ; and I gladly testify to their importance and general value. Bursaria spinosa (Tasmanian Boxwood) is a small tree, about 25 feet high and half a foot in diameter ; but its wood is valuable for its hardness and even grain, and the profusion of its white and fragrant flowers causes it to be prized as an ornamental shrub. Bedfordia salicina (Dogwood). Though only attaining the height of a shrub, the root-part swells so much as to yield boards three feet long and a foot and half across, which arc of beautiful quality, taking an extremely high polish and showing veins, mottlings, and streaks of a nearly black color on a light ground. Ornamental boxes are exhibited of this wood. Ducrydium Franklinii (Huon Pine). The most elegant of Huo11 Pint '- Tasmanian woods, beautifully marked, and with a satiny lustre on its paler parts. Logs of it are often found half buried in the soft cold sand, which the tree affects, covered with moss and even with roots of other trees, and yet per- fectly sound, and as useful to the sawyer and joiner as if only felled that day. Such durability of timber is unequalled. The tree is about 100 feet high, and except that it ramifies too much to make good spars, it is esteemed above all others for ship-building, house-building, furniture and cabinet-work, machinery, turnery, &c. The trunk has often large pro- tuberances, which arc very handsome when cut and polished. Tables of Huon Pine are in the Exhibition, and fine planks ; also a bookcase ornamented with brackets, gilded with Tas- manian gold, (now in the Museum of the I\oyal Gardens of Kew). Eucalyptus Glohulus (Blue Gum-tree). The most valuable Gum ' trocs - of Tasmanian timber, attaining a height of 250 to 350 feet, and a circumference of 50 to 100 feet, at four feet from the 106 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sin W . Hooker ok Vegetable Products. V. Diemen's Land. Stringy barks. ground. Frequently the stem attains 200 feet high before giving off a single branch. The strength and elasticity of the wood are unequalled : it is in constant request with ship- builders, carpenters, millwrights, and engineers; bridges of great extent are wholly constructed of it, one, for instance, near Hobart Town, which is nearly 100 feet long, with a road- way of 24 feet. Like most of the Eucalypti, it yields a red astringent medicinal gum, used as Kino, and an essential oil like Cajeput is obtained by distilling the leaves. A section is exhibited which was taken from a Bine Gum-tree 320 feet high, which sold, (in palings, shingles, &c.,) for the sum of 24 51, , in 1854, and would have fetched twice as much money the previous year, when the demand for wood was far greater. From D’Entrecasteaux Channel and the South side of Van Diemen’s Land the Blue Gum-tree had been exported in various shapes, to the amount of 800,000/. in three years. Casuarina quadrivalvis (She Oak) and C. striata (He Oak) both afford a timber called Beef -wood ; it is very hard, beauti- fully spotted, streaked and marked, and susceptible of a perfectly mirror-like polish ; the colour is handsome. It is much esteemed for picture-frames, chairs, and small articles of cabinet-work. Eucalyptus gigantea (Stringy bark). One of the largest of Tasmanian forest trees, yielding only in dimensions to the previous species (E. Globulus) : the average height is 210 feet, and the circumference, at four feet from the ground, about 50 feet. The timber is in great demand for house building and 'all common purposes, where solidity and strength are the chief requisites. The natives make cata- marans of the bark of the Eucalypti, and a model, made by one of these people, is in the Exhibition. There are several species of Gum-tree in Tasmania ; one is called Peppermint tree , and is distinguished by its fibrous- barked trunk and smooth clean branches. Fagus Cunninghami (Tasmanian Myrtle). This tree is in reality an evergreen Beech, inhabiting all the parts (except the Eastern) of Van Diemen’s Land, growing in immense forests, and rivalling the Giant Gum-trees in stature, while it excels them in the beauty of its wood. The cabinet-maker can procure it in slabs of the largest size : the grain is fine and the colour bright pink and red, variously waved and mottled with rich darker tints. It has been sent to England for carriage panels. Picture frames and chairs are made of it. There is a magnificent figured plank of this wood, dressed and polished, and three round tables. Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle). A tree which abounds in Tasmania, from the level of the sea to nearly 2,000 feet, ■Wattles. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — V . Piemen s Land. 107 growing vigorously in great extremes of temperature, even smW. where the mercury indicates 21° at sunrise. It is evergreen, vegetable and would probably succeed well in the South of England : Pjlo yC GTS ‘ it grows from 80 to 120 feet high, and measures from five S to nine feet in circumference, at four feet from the ground, — The bark is useful for tanning, and a large quantity of gum, like Gum Arabic, exudes during summer. The timber is useful only for coopers. Acacia melanoxylon (Blackwood). An abundant timber tree, about 150 feet high ; its wood is adapted to cabinet work, being richly grained, feathery, and hard : the plain parts are used for boat-building and wheels, and the bark for tanning. Acacia mollissima (Black Wattle). The wood seems of no great value ; but the gum which exudes from this species, and in less abundance from other Acacias, is pure, insipid, and highly nutritious. The aborigines of Tasmania used to eat it both fresh and slightly roasted, and even the children of the European settlers are very fond of it. Acacia /?/m? , «(Booby-alla). A straggling, much- branched, low shrub, of which the long pods were eaten by the natives of Tasmania. Wood used for turnery, and, when split, for hats and baskets. Acacia sp. ? (Rosewood of Tasmania). A beautiful cabinet wood, but neither sufficiently large or abundant to be of much importance : it resembles Blackwood. Atherosperma moschata (Sassafras). A plain wood adapted for flooring, and extensively known as a superior material for carpenters’ screws and printers’ mallets, because it is of so soft and even grain. The dried leaves are used for a dye, and being full of a highly volatile essential oil they are medicinal : the bark, in infusion, is a stomachic and tonic. Eurybia argopkylla (Musk wood). Name derived from the strong odour diffused by the foliage. Though not of large stature, its wood is prized, especially the part procured from an annular enlargement of the trunk near the root, where the veins are remarkably graceful and varied, and the tints soft and harmonious. It is among the most valuable of cabinet woods. Banksia Australis (Honeysuckle of Van Diemen’s Land). A shrub 12-15 feet high, but valuable for the shade in sum- mer and sheltering covert in winter, which its leafy top affords. The wood is only used for fancy work : the bark is employed and even exported for tanning. Phyllocladus asplenii folia (Celery-topped Pine). Elevation from 120-150 feet, average girth six feet. The timber is tough and fine-grained, good for flooring, window-frames, 108 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hooker ‘ox an d ^ arm implements, while the young saplings make un- vegetable rivalled whip-sticks. The wood contains a fine white but not — abunclant resin. ^ Land?' b Croton, sp. (Pinkwood). A shrub, of which the w~ood seldom exceeds six inches in diameter, but is of a lively pink color and takes a good polish. Callitris Australis (Oyster Bay Pine). A handsome pyramidal tree, about 120 feet high. An allied species (C. Gunnii) is a particularly handsome shrub. They yield a fine white resin. Notelaa ligustrina (Iron-wood, of Tasmania). The wood of this small tree is as hard as ebony, and used for turnery and inlaid work. Olea apetala (Iron-wood of Norfolk Island). No timber tree of Norfolk Island is so important ; its wood is extremely hard and durable, well veined, and of a fine close grain. A pair of candlesticks, turned of this wood, are in the Exhibition. Exocarpus cupressiformis (Native Cherry). Gun-stocks and inlaying are made of the wood. Anopterus glandulosa (Tasmanian Laurel). Bather a shrub than a tree, though its beautiful wood serves for oma- mental cabinet-work ; the bark is used for tanning. Zieria arborea (Stink-wood). Woodsmen and colonists have given the shrub this name, on account of the strong ammoniacal odour, which recommends it to the aborigines, who bind fillets of twigs and leaves round their heads and necks to cure headache and other ailments. The tall straight young saplings, 15 feet long, are prized for spears. Alyxia buxifolia (Scent-wood of Tasmania). A straggling shrub ; the wood, only a few inches in diameter, diffuses a rich and enduring smell, resembling that of the Tonka bean. Pittosporum bicolor (White-wood). Wood used by cabinet- makers ; also by the aborigines for hunting-spears, with which they used to pick off game faster than a sportsman could shoot them. For war javelins, the heavier wood of Leptospermum or Casuarina was preferred. The wood is so close-grained and white, that it might serve the engraver’s purpose. Lagunea sp. (White-Oak). The largest of the Malvacea?, attaining in Norfolk Island a height of 80 feet, and a circum- ference of 15 to 18 feet. The wood is of little value. Cibotium Billardieri (Tree. Fern tree). It attains a height of 20 or 30 feet, and sometimes even of 40, when drawn up by growing in close ravines. The trunk is from a foot to 18 inches across, with a core which used to be eaten by the natives, though it is astringent and by no means nourishing. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — V. Diemen s Land. 109 Specimens of the pith, somewhat resembling a raw turnep in smw. consistency and appearance, are in the Exhibition. vegetable Melaleuca squarrosa. The natives make boats of the bark, Pll0PUCTS - and navigate them very skilfully. v - rS?*' 8 Araucaria excelsa (Norfolk Island Pine). The most ele- — gant of the Coniferae. The knots of it are beautiful for turnery, and cups made from them are in the Exhibition. A resin is afforded by it. Xanthorrhcea Australis (Grass-tree of Flinders’ Island). A red gum or balsam exudes from every part of the plant, which yields a rich perfume when burnt, and used to be employed as rouge by the aborigines. It might form a valuable ingredient for incense and sealing wax. Specimens of the gum are exhibited. Beautiful articles of Furniture made of the Tasmanian Furniture Woods are in the Exhibition. 1 would specify a table ofv.^iemen’s Blachvood (Acacia melanoxylon) ; another of the Huon Pine Landtrees - (Dacrydium Franklinii) ; and still more striking is a book- case made of the latter, with which few articles in the Exhibition could have vied, if the ornamental part and the general workmanship had been on a par with the material. There is also a table of Musluvood (Eurybia argophylla), (see p. 98,) of considerable beauty, and some very well carved brackets, four in number, representing Flowers, Fruit, Birds, and Fish, in different kinds of wood. The collection of Barks for Tanning is very small, Bar H s and chiefly VY attle bark (Acacia mollissima), Sassafras Bark substances. (Atherosperma moschata), and Cherry Tree bark (Exocarpus cupressiformis). Gums are still fewer ; the Kino of the Blue Gum is already mentioned. Among Miscellaneous Articles ar e Native Bread, which is a subterranean Fungus (Mylitta Australis), perhaps parasitical on the roots of trees, close to which it grows. The aborigines are fond of this article of food, which looks far from inviting to Europeans ; it has a peculiar Taint smell, and a not unplea- sant flavour. In the proportion of one part to three of rice or sago it makes a good pudding, and is said to improve soup. Among the Fungi are the Caterpillar Plants (Sphaeria Gunnii), which spring from the rings near the head of the caterpillar. The substance, called Manna, is afforded by several species of Eucalyptus , or Gum-trees ; it exudes chiefly during sum- mer, and is the saccharine juice of the young and tender twigs. It is said to be slightly aperient, and it was formerly a constant article of food with the natives, who still eagerly devour it, as do the children of the white settlers. A bottle of this Manna is exhibited. no Reports on the Paris Exhibition . hoSbeok I must not omit to mention two beautiful and well-dis- V-™ played collections of Alga}, sent by Mr. and Mrs. Fereday v Diemen’ an( ^ M r * ^ >ro P s ^ n S'- There are also sections of Tree- ' land EN s F erns, and specimens of superior Wheat, Oats, Hops, and Capsicums. Also Baskets, made by native women, of Lepi - dosperma gladiatum. In this class a Silver Medal was awarded to Sir Wm. Denison and to the Executive Committee of Van Diemen's Land. IX— CANADA. (Special Commissioners: Messrs. W. E. Logan and J. C. Tache.) Canada eol- Trophy tlie To aid the examination of this noble collection, (includ- aiso a series ing the magnificent Timber Trophy), the Jury received a mi woods." catalogue of the articles, arranged according to the Classes of the Exposition ; and attention was immediately directed towards the extensive suites of Woods. One series, con- tributed by Mr. A, Dickson, consists of rather small and uniform specimens, 64 in number, in the Gallery of the Annexe. In the area of the same building stands a large pyramidal Trophy, composed of very noble planks (longi- tudinal sections), and blocks (transverse sections), 36 in all ; upon most of them, the names, Canadian and Botanical, are distinctly inscribed. The 64 smaller samples were all collected, prepared, and named by Mr. Andrew Dickson, and one half of them are from an area of only 100 acres. In the catalogue they are arranged according to their natural Families (of which there are 16), as follows : Magnoliaceje. Liriodendron tulipifera. Tulip tree. Tiliaceje. J'ilia Americana . Lime, Bast-wood. Anacardiace^e. Rhus typliina . Sumac. Acerace^:. Acer saccharinum. Sugar Maple, and 3 varieties, the Bock, the Curled, and the Bird’s-eye Maples. A. dasycarpum . Soft Maple. Amygdale^e. Prunus Americana. Wild Yellow Plum. Cerasus Pennsylvania. Bed Cherry. serotina. Black Cherry. — Viryiniana. Choke Cherry. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Canada. Ill Pomaces. Crataegus punctata, Apple Thorn. coccinea. Red Thorn. Crus-galli t White Thorn. cordata. Washington Thorn. Pyrus Americana. Mountain Ash. Amelanchier Canadensis. Service CORNACEiE. Cornus Jlorida. Cornel. Oleace^. Fraxinus Americana. White Ash. sambucifolia. Black Ash. pubescens ? Rock Ash. juglandifolia? Rim Ash Laurace^e. Sassafras officinale. Sassafras. Ulmacete. TJlmus Americana . White Elm. fulva. Red Elm. * — — racemosa ? Rock Elm. f Gray Elm. Juglandaceas. Juglans cinerea. Butter nut. nigra . Black Wallnut. var. Soft Wallnut. Carya alba. Shell-bark Hickory. tomentosa ? Smooth-bark Hickory. glabra. Pig nut. amara. Bitter nut. ClJP DLIFERiE Quercus alba. White Oak. bicolor. Swamp White Oak. rubra. Red Oak. nigra. Black Oak. Castanea vesca. Chestnut. Fagus ferruginea. White Beech. Carpinus Americana. Blue Beech 3 or Hornbeam. Ostrya Virginica. Iron wood. Betulacead. Betula papyracea. Paper Birch, or Canoe Birch. excelsa. Yellow Birch. lenta. Cherry Birch. nigra. Black Birch. SlR w. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Canada. 112 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hooker ox SALICACEiE. ^pSSuct? Salix nigra. Black Willow. Canada. Populus tremuloides. Aspen. — grandiclentata. Large-toothed Aspen. balsamifera. Balm of Gilead. — monilifera. Cotton-wood, or Necklace Poplar. Plat an ace js. Platanus occidentalis. Button-wood, or American Syca- more. Conifers. Pinus rigida. Pitch Pine. resinosa. Bed Pine. mitis. Yellow Pine. Strobus. White or Weymouth Pine. Abies balsamea. Balsam Fir. Canadensis. Hemlock Spruce. alba. AVhite Spruce. • nigra. Black Spruce. Larix Americana. Larch, or Tamarack. Thuja occidentalis. Arbor-vitas, or White Cedar. Juniperus Virginiana. Bed Cedar, or Savin. The above series is considered to represent the useful Trees of Canada. They are remarkable for the many pur- poses to which they are applied, and for their large commer- cial export, especially to England, whether as timber or in the shape of staves for cooperage ; also for the fact of their being easily seasoned, and not liable to split or suffer from dry weather. its woods hy: The larger specimens, forming the Trophy, were collected by John Sharpies, Esq., of Quebec, and the list of them is accompanied by brief remarks on their uses, as follows : — Six Planks of Yellow Pine and Kamouraska or Sea Board Pine, (varieties of Pinus mitis). Plank of Red Pine (Pinus resinosa). Black Spruce Deals (Abies nigra), 2 specimens ; a wood of good quality. Tamarack, also called Hackmatack , known in England as Larch and Juniper (Larix Americana), an excellent wood, much used for shipbuilding. Butternut, boards of, sometimes called Grey W all nut (Juglans cinerea), extensively employed for furniture. Black Wallnut Veneers, bordered with Bird’s-eye Maple, and veneered on Butter-nut. Hickory (Carya alba). Much employed for ship building. White Oak (Quercus alba). Ditto. Grey and Red Oaks. Ditto. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Canada. 113 Beech (Fagus Americana). ho^er'w Ironwood (Ostrya Yirgimca). Vegetable Hock Elm (Ulraus Americana)*,' A splendid wood of large PEO f^f TS - dimensions, used in ship building. Canada. Grey and Steamy Elms. White Ash, also Grey and Black Ash. A tough and valuable timber, obtainable in large quantities, except the first, which is somewhat scarce. Black Birch (Betula nigra). Used for furniture and ship building. White, also called Canoe Birch (B. alba). The wood ap- plied to the same purposes, the bark for making canoes and covering houses. Basstvood boards (Tilia Americana). The chief material for coach panels in Canada, as it does not warp or split, and takes a high polish. Rock Maple (Acer saccharinum). Used for furniture. Curled and Bird’s-eye Maples, 4 specimens. Chiefly for veneer; one roll of Bird’s-eye veneer, cut by Mr. St. Arnaud at Quebec, is exhibited; it is 30 feet long and 21 inches broad. Interesting, as it doubtless is, to see in Europe so fine an woods of assemblage of Canadian Timbers collected at one spot, there — fin™but ’ is, nevertheless, no novelty; nor have the exhibitors, so far noveity? e ° f as I can perceive, detected any new properties in them or new uses for them. Other samples of woods, and some of them excellent specimens, are contributed by Messrs. Far- mer and De Blaquiere (57 kinds), by Mr. Wm. Kennedy, Mr. St. Arnaud, &c. General Vegetable Products, in the wild state, in this col- Gums, Sugar lection are, as from most northern regions, few. Iheyare&c. chiefly Canada Balsam., the natural exudation from the knots of Abies balsamea (fine samples) ; Potash and Pearlash, (apparently of good quality, but which require to be compared with others from elsewhere) ; and Sugar, from the Maple (Acer saccharinum). The latter well known preparation from the sap of the tree is made universally by the farmers and settlers in the woods, during the spring of the year, and chiefly for home consumption ; it is generally preferred above West India sugar, and is used unrefined, formed into cakes and lumps in moulds. Kecently, Messrs. Kedpath, of Montreal, have subjected this substance to the refining process ; and their sugar will bear comparison, to the eye at least, with the produce of the cane, and its taste is very good. Lastly, I have to mention a considerable collection ofPharmaceu- native Pharmaceutical preparations, beautifully dried, and rations. 3 I 114 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. HoSeTon arranged in bottles, bearing the botanical and colonial names. As ma ^ ex P ec ^ ec ^j ^ ie 7 are ver y similar to those of the — ' northern United States, with which the plants of Canada are Canada. near ]y identical. An interesting little volume, entitled “ Esquisse sur le “ Canadie, considdrd sur le point, de vue Economiste, par “ J. C. Tache, Membre du Parlement Canadien, et Com- iie^tio°nf ductions are extremely inadequately represented in the Great few?but s Exhibition. The collection is meagre (as regards Vegetable well named. Products) and of trifling value, being wholly confined to small specimens of woods, which are smoothed and polished, and some walking-sticks, and to a collection of the native medical plants of the colony. Both the one and the other - are, however, very correctly named by Messrs. Pappe and Zeyher, who have distinguished themselves by their botanical knowledge, and who would undoubtedly, if they had been encouraged by the authorities, have largely aided in making known the resources of the Colony. The woods are about 80 in number, and may, perhaps, be considered to represent fairly the familiar kinds of the Cape Colony. Fortunately, Dr. Pappe, a resident physician at Cape Towm, published in 1854 a useful little pamphlet, entitled “ Sylva “ Capensis, or a description of South African Forest-Trees d white and hard, used for axles, & c. Ochna ai'borea, Burch., 'Rood-hout, Redwood). Wood red and hard, suitable for furniture, but chiefly employed for the handles of agricultural implements. Celastrus acuminatus, L., (Zybast, Silk-bark). Bark and leaves remarkable for the numerous fine silky threads which they show when broken. Wood, fine and hard, beautifully shaded when polished, and very splendid in ornamental joinery ; it would suit well for the manufacture of musical instruments. C. rhombifolius , Eckl. and Zeyli., (Pendoorn). Wood hard, close, and yellow like box, used by Turners, also for musicad instruments, as flutes and clarionets. Pterocelastrus typicus , Meissner, (Spekboom). Wood soft, light, and used for charcoal. P. rostratus , Meissn., (Witpeer). Wood like that of the pear tree ; used for waggon work. Hartogia Capensis , Thbg., (Lepelliout, Ladle wood). Wood hard, fine-grained, and surpassing when polished the finest mahogany, invaluable for veneering and turnery. Eleeodendron croceum , D.C., (Saffraan-hout, Saffron-wood). Name derived from the conspicuous saffron-yellow resinous crust, which covers the bark. Wood fine-grained and hard, used by builders and cabinet-makers ; the bark is good for tanning and dyeing. Cassine Mauroceiria , L. A small shrub ; the wood is fine, and when polished is yellow streaked with brown ; it would answer well for musical instruments. C. Colpoon , Thbg., (Lepelhout). Wood hard and hand- some, adapted for fancy cabinet-work. Rhamnus celtifolia , Thbg., (Camdeboo, Stinkhoutb Wood yellowish and tough, used for planks, yokes, axe-handles, and cooper’s work. Scutia Capensis , Brongn. (Katdoorn). A shrub ; branches armed with hooked thorns, wood fine-grained and strong, useful for turnery. Heeria argentea, Meissn., (Kliphout, Klipesse). Wood resinous, fine grained and heavy, very handsome, marbled like the maple when polished, and well adapted for fancy furniture, ornamental boxes, and musical instruments, &c. Rhus viminalis , Vahl, (Karreehout). A small, willow- like tree, with grey smooth bark and reddish-brown pliable Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products . — C. of Good Hope. 117 wood, which recommends the larger branches for waggon tents and the young twigs for bows; the wood, too, never harbours insects. Rhus leeviegata , L., (Taaibosch). A small tree, only a few feet high ; the wood is used for waggon-work, and being hard and tough would suit the Turner. R. tomentosa, L., (do.) Root and bark of branches used for tanning ; wood hard and tough. R n lucida, L., (do.) Same qualities as the preceding. Virgilia Capensis, Lamarck, (Keurboom). A small but handsome tree, 15-20 feet high, which has diffused itself all over the Colony, from the eastern provinces of which it is a native ; the bark is black and rough ; wood light and soft, pretty when polished, but liable to be worm-eaten ; it is used for yokes, spars, &c. Erytlirina Caffra , Thbg, (Kaffirboom, Kaffirs’ tree). This tree, attaining a height of 50 or 60 feet, is termed the giant of Kaffrarian forests ; its bark is grey, and the wood soft and light, and the trunk is therefore prized by the inhabitants, who hollow it into troughs and canoes, and use it instead of cork for their nets ; when the timber is tarred, it is said to make durable roofs. Acacia horrida , Willdenow, (Doornboom, Thorn tree). Wood hard and tough, improved by steeping before it is used for furniture ; the bark is good for tanning leather, and gives it a reddish colour. Gum Acacia exudes spontaneously from the trunk and boughs, and is a well-known article of commerce. The appearance from afar of this tree is eagerly hailed by the traveller in the scorching South African deserts, as indicating the existence of water. Schotia tamar indifolia, Afzelius, (Hottentots’ Boerboom) Wood reddish-brown, tough, and durable, employed for yokes, &c. ; the bark is brown and rugged, and the beans or fruit are eaten by the natives. S. latifolia. Same qualities as the preceding ; a taller tree, 20-30 feet high. Olinia Capensis , Klotzsch (Hardpeer). Wood very com- pact and heavy, fit for making musical instruments, picture- frames, and fancy-work, and valuable to waggon makers. O. cymosa, Thbg. A smaller tree, but with similar qualities of wood. Cunonia Capensis , L., (Rood-Els). Wood tough and close, resembling that of the Linden, and in much request by cabinet-makers and wheel-wrights ; not injured by damp. Weinmannia trifoliata , L., (Wit-Els). “A stately tree” (23-30 feet high), wood lighter than the preceding, but used for the. same purposes. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Cape or Good Hope. 118 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Cape op Good Hope. Cnrtisia faginea , Alton, (Hassagay-Hout, Assagai- wood). The most valuable wood in the Colony for strength and durability, and highly prized for making the waggons, which afford almost the only means of locomotion, and which often travel immense distances and over very difficult ground. Trichocladus crinitus, Persoon, (Onderbosch). The very tough branches and twigs of this shrub are used for hoops, baskets, &c. Burchellia Capensis , D.C., (Buffeldoorn). A small tree, the wood of which is very hard, and employed in making agricultural implements. Gardenia 7 hunbergia, L., (Buffelsbal, Wilde Katjepiering). Wood hard and strong, used for tools, clubs, yokes, ploughs, &c. G. R othmannia, L., (Zwarthout). Wood hard, strong, and tough ; used for the same purposes as the foregoing species. Plectronia ventosa, L., (Schapendrolletjes). Wood close and hard, takes varnish well, and looks handsome and marble- like ; it is suited for small fancy furniture ; the fruit, though tasteless, is eaten by the natives. P. Mundtiana, Pappe, (Kloofhout). A shrubby tree; the hard white wood is used for turnery. Tarchonanthas camphoratus , L., (Siriehout, Wilde Salie). A small tree, 8 feet high ; the wood is handsome when polished, and adapted for joiner’s work. The fresh leaves smell like camphor, and are chewed by the Mahomedans and smoked by the Hottentots, and used in infusion or tea as antispasmodic, tonic, and resolvent. Philippia Chamissonis, Klotzsch, (Kabinet-hout). The wood is much valued by cabinet-makers and turners. Royena lucida, Thbg., (Zwartbast). The black bark gives the name to this small tree, of which the wood is hard, yellow, and striped with brown ; it is used for tools, furniture, waggon-work, &c. R. glabra , L. W ood light and porous ; valueless, except for fuel. Euclea racemosa, L. Wood hard and heavy; used for screws and fuel. E. undulata , Thbg., (Guarrihout). Of similar height to the preceding, 6 feet ; the wood is brown, close-grained, and fit for fancy work. The natives eat the berries. Sideroxylon inerme , L., (Melkhout). Name derived from the milky bark ; wood yellow, durable, and so little affected by moisture as to be much valued for boats, mills, and bridges. The fruit is eatable, and called Jackal besjes. My r sine melanophleos , R. Brown, (Beukenhout). Wood tough and employed for waggon work. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products . — C. of Good Hope . 119 My r sine ? mitis, Sprengel. Wood spongy and little worth. Olea verrucosa , Link, (Olyvenhout). One of the best vegetable woods in the Colony for density and hardness, it lasts longer R0 ^1 CTS - than iron, looks handsome when polished, and is admirably g So£hope adapted to all kinds of machinery, furniture, &c. r l he tree — strongly resembles the European olive, which might, pro- bably, be successfully grafted upon it. 0. laurifolia , Lamarck, (Zwart Yzerhout, Black Iron- wood). Wood dark, close-grained, and heavy, used by cabinet- for all kinds of furniture, and by farmers for tools, ploughs, &c. 0. Capensis , L., (Ironwood). Wood compact, heavy, and used for wheels and poles of waggons. Secamone Thunbergii, E. Meyer, (Melktouw). A milky juice oozes from this shrub ; its stem climbs to the tops of the tallest trees, and is used like ropes by the baboons to convey themselves when seeking for food or escaping from danger ; the natives use it as we do the willow, and call it Bavia - anstouw or Baboon's rope. The wood is white and hard, but very small. Gonioma Kamassi , E. Meyer, (Kamassiehout). Wood yellow, with whitish flames, hard, close-grained, one of the finest and heaviest in the Colony ; useful for furniture and veneering, for making tools for carpenters, and ploughs, &c. The flowers are delightfully scented. Halleria lucida, L., (Witte Olyve). A very small tree, only about 6 feet high, with a fine-grained wood, useful for small articles which demand strength and durability, as screws, planes, &c. Buddleia salvicefolia , Lamarck, (Saliehout). An excellent hard wood, much used by the Colonists, also by the Kaffir chiefs and warriors for javelins or assagais. Chiliantlius arboreus , Burch., (Wilde Vlier). Hard and tough wood, employed for common furniture. Oreodaphne bullata, Nees, (Stinkhout). A beautifu tree, from 20 to 35 feet high, the African Oak * of Mr Barrow ; its wood has a disagreeable smell when cut ; it resembles wallnut, and is used for gun-stocks and superior furniture ; vermin will not approach it. Where the tree is allowed to attain its full height, as at the Knysna river, it is employed for ship-building ; but the wantonly destructive practice of firing the forests, especially on Table Mountain, every year, ruins the good timber, besides inflicting the serious damage of lessening the already too small supplies of * The true African Oak (from Western tropical Africa) of commerce is Old- fieldia Africana of Bentham and Hooker. 120 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. water. Under the Dutch government heavy penalties were vegetable attached to this outrage, which was denounced as arson. v — ‘ Leucadendron argenteum , B. Br., (Witteboom, Silvertree). Good hope. Wood soft and spongy, liable to be attacked by insects. The tree is highly ornamental and conspicuous. Protea grandiflora , L., ( Wagenboom). A small tree, useful for many purposes. The wood is beautifully grained and of a pretty colour ; the bruised leaves, saturated with water and iron, produce a black and fairly good writing ink ; the bark is a powerful astringent, valuable in diarrhoea and affording the best tanning. Leucospermnm conocarpum , R. Br., (Kreupelboom). Wood reddish, looking well when varnished, and used for charcoal ; the bark is excellent for tanning skins, and its decoction is a powerful astringent. Brabejum stellati folium, R. Br., (Wilde Almandelboom, Wild Almond). Wood red, reticulated, very ornamental for joinery and cabinet-work ; the bark contains a powerful tanning principle. The fruit, which is a drupe with a vel- vety covering, much resembles the almond; the natives eat it after many days’ soaking in water, as they attribute noxious qualities to it when fresh, the roasted kernel serves for coffee. Fusanus compressus, L., (Pruimbast). Wood heavy and fine-grained, fit for fancy-work, and the bark useful to the tanner. Urostigma Naialensc , Miquel. The wild fig-tree of the Hottentots, who call it t’Kaa. The wood is light and porous ; the fibres of the bark make serviceable ropes. Salix Gariepina , Burch., (Wilgeboom, Willow-tree). The wood is light and soft, of small value ; the larger boughs are used in house-building, the smaller ones for baskets. The tree much resembles a weeping willow. Widdringtonia juniperoides, Endlicher, (Cedarboom). A valuable tree, which attains a considerable size in time, for it grows slowly, and the cupidity of cabinet-makers &c., causes it to be too often felled when young, so that it is, unfortunately, fast disappearing on the Cedar Mountains, to the great regret of well-wishers to the country. The annual conflagrations act their part in destroying this ornament of the Colony, which used to be very abundant. The timber is very valuable for many purposes ; and a gum exudes from the branches and cones which has medicinal virtues, and is allied to Gum Olibanum, and is considered particularly effec- tive in the treatment of gout, rheumatism, &c. W. cupressoides } Endl., (Sapreehout). A light wood, used for cooperage, especially pails. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products — C. of Good Hope. 121 Podocarpus elongatus , L’Heritier, (Geelhout). Extensively H w. used for planks and beams, and for all kinds of joinery ; its vegetable tall stem is excellent for masts of ships. products. P. Thunbergii, Hooker, (Kaapsche Geelhout, Cape Yellow- q^hope. wood). The wood is lighter than and inferior to that of the — preceding species, and only employed for common furniture, &c. Niebuhr ia Caffra , D.C., (Witbosch-hout). A light, tough, white wood, adapted for agricultural implements, &c. Eugenia Zegheri , Harvey, (Wilde Jambos). W ood white, hard, heavy, and fine-grained, fit for ploughs, axles, &c. Halleria elliptica , Thbg., (Oudehout). Wood yellowish and tough, though soft ; it is chiefly employed for ploughs, &c. Canthium ? (Kaapsche Kaj atenhout, Cape Teak wood). The yellowish hard wood serves to make rural utensils, and is largely employed in Coopers’ work. The pamphlet,* from which I have made the above extracts, contains an Appendix with a very interesting account of the Cape Wax-berry Myrtle (Myrica cordifolia), and the best mode of collecting and preparing the wax, as a source of profit. None of the wax, however, is exhibited; and the prolonged absence of the Commissaire for this department forbade my Class from obtaining any further information about this curious substance, which is the more to be regretted as vegetable waxes are now much in demand. There is a handsome box of inlaid Woods of the Cape Colony, consisting of 24 kinds, accompanied by a diagram and names. Except the Woods, all the Cape of Good Hope collection is very uninstructive, and conveys no adequate idea of the useful Vegetable Products of the Colony. The Pharmaceutical Plants are carefully dried and pre- served in bottles, with the names only (no remarks) attached. They are 41 in number, and are as follows : — Ballota Africana. Leysseria gnaphalioides. its pharma- Artemisia Afra. Ornithogalum altissimum. ducts. Monsonia ovata. Elytropappus Phinocerotis. * Dr. Pappe renders justice to S. Hartman, Esq , M.L. A., for his valuable communications respecting the useful trees of the Eastern Province ; to John Schenble, Esq., of Cradock, for specimens of the most valuable woods, from the Uitenhage District; and to C. Zeylier, Esq., whose experience and practical knowledge of the Cape Flora are only equalled by his modesty. Since the above was written we have been favoured by Dr. Pappe with another of his interesting pamphlets, entitled “Contributions to the Cape (Economic Flora,” from the Cape of Good Hope Almanack and Annual Register for 1356, in which 25 plants are described, and their officinal properties recorded. This may be considered a supplement to his useful “ Florae Capensis Medicse Prodromus,” being an enumeration, with descriptions, of the Medicinal Plants indigenous to the Cape Colony. 122 Re-ports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ON Vegetable Products. Cape op Good Hope. French Colonies. French Colonies (not Algeria) collection : hardly avail- able to the jury. Pelargonium cueullatum. Diosma crenata. Cliffortia ilicifolia. Leonotis Leonurus. Arctopus echinatus. Osmatopsis asteriscoides. Melianthus major. Pilogyne Eckloni. Yiscum Capense. Leontonyx angustifolia. Bubon Galbanum. Pelargonium, sp. Cassytha filiformis. Matricaria globosa. Cissampelos Capensis. Htemanthus coccineus. Citrullus amarus. Helichrysum serpyllifolium. Helichrysum auriculatum. Tanacetum multiflorum. Mohria thurifraga. Pelargonium anceps. Aloe ferox. Garuleum bipinnatum. Homeria collina Sw. (in a small box, like roots of Ixia). Salvia Africana. Lyperia crocea, Adiantum Capillus Yeneris. Ricinus lividus. Adiantum Ethiopicum. Mundtia spinosa. Ranunculus pubescens, Th. Hydrocotyle Asiatica. Hyamanche globosa In this Class a Bronze Medal was awarded to the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, and to Messrs. Pappe and Zeyher. XI— THE FRENCH COLONIES (exclusive of ALGERIA.) (Administration of the respective Colonies.) Several attempts were made to inspect this collection in such a way as to derive instruction from it, but without suc- cess. There was no catalogue ; the Commissaire was, appa- rently, without a bureau, and the person who acted in that capacity was destitute of any knowledge whatsoever of the objects exhibited. At length on the last day of July, a gen- tleman presented himself with an imperfect MS. catalogue : it contained the scientific names of some of the articles, but the difficulty of finding them was extreme, for there was no classification, even into countries ! And the arrangement, if such it could be called, of the objects, did not correspond with the catalogue ; and the attendant was unable, in several instances, to refer from the one to the other. Martinique, Guadaloupe, Guiane Fra^aise, Isle Reunion, Senegambie (and Gabon), India (Pondicherry), — all have their products indiscriminately placed, as best suited the tables which they occupied. The collections profess to be furnished by the Administrations of the respective Colonies. Still it is obvious that under the circumstances which I have described, it was impracticable to arrive at any correct conclusions, either as Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products, — French Colonies. 123 to the scientific or commercial value of the objects, or the ’■ Vegetable resources of their respective countries, vegetable In proof that the above strictures, written on the spot, ProI)UCTS - are not too severe, I quote the excellent ef Visit e a Colonies l’Exposition,” published under the direction of the distin- St .. ic ^; cs 0ll guished M. Tresca, principal Inspector of the French Exhi- its poverty, bition in London in 1851, and “ ancien Commissaire du “ Classement a l’Exposition de 1855.” He writes thus:— - “ La pauvrete et le petit nombre des ^chantillons envoyes par “ nos Colonies, a conduit, sans doute, au systeme de classifi- “ cation que nous avons vu en vigueur dans cette partie de “ l’Exposition. Tous les produits reunis, agglomeres, sans “ distinction du pays, qu'ils venaient des Antilles ou du “ Senegal, de la Guyane ou de la Reunion, forment, sans “ doute, un ensemble assez satisfaisant au premier coup “ d’oeil; mais cette confusion augmente enormement les diffi- E0 ^_ CTS - the Indian Archipelago, placed in the gallery of the Annexe.* * They are exceedingly numerous, and a catalogue was pro- T11 — _ mised ; but, when it was received it proved to be m manuscript, and worse and to consist solely of an enumeration of the pieces of wood, named * mere blocks, rarely smoothed or polished, piled one above another, and bearing the corresponding numbered Indian (Malayan) names only with the catalogue. Of the properties and uses of the woods, the catalogue said nothing, nor was the attendant better informed. All that could be learnt was, that the samples consisted of woods of Java, Borneo (amounting to 100), Sumatra, and Celebes. Adjacent is a large collection (placed without order, and rarely marked, save with a number, and now and then a local appellation,) of vegetable products unaccompanied by catalogue printed or written ; and re- specting which the Commissaire knew no more than he did of the woods. Even the native names were confounded, different specimens being jumbled under one name. Three comme une come d’abondance, de superbes cubes d’indigo ; cot autre verse les minces feuillets de la gomme lacque. Voici du poivre, du cafe, du the, des clous de girofle dans cette coupe Indienne. Cette balle evente est tout plein des fibres du Rameh, dont un echeveau est suspendu a Tangle de cette caisse. De ce cote, s’ouvre une boite de cigares ; de cet autre, se montrent de belles feuilles de tabac d’Hollande. II y a dans ce fouillis de ricbesses, dans ce chaos de matieres bruts qui donnent Texistence a milles industries, une sorte de senti - ment de sa valeur; cela respire Tintelligen.ee du producteur, Tart du commer^ant, l’activite de ce grand peuple autrefois le maitre des mers, qui sut si bien tirer echange de tout, encaquer ses harengs, troquer ses tonnes infectes contre des tonnes d’or.” * The origin and history of this collection is given by an English gentleman resident in Java in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago, vol. VIT, p. 261, &c. “ The example was set by the Crystal Palace Exhibition, of 1851, in London, and in laudable imitation, the Dutch Colonial Government of Java set about forming a collection of objects which should exhibit the natural Produce and the Industry of Java and the Indian Archipelago. The chief movers of the business were M. ScbifF, Director of Culture, M. Van Rees, resident of Batavia, and M. Tromp, Civil Engineer; also, Dr. Bacher, celebrated for his knowledge of the Fauna of the Netherlands India. Aided by numerous Government officers and private individuals, these gentlemen set actively to work, stimulating the native chiefs in the several Islands to collect and transmit whatever was worthy of notice; and when the collection was deemed fit for public inspection, His Excel- lency the Governor of Netherlands India, D. Van Twist, opened it with great ceremony on the 10th October.” Creditable, however, as such a museum is to the Hutch Governor of Java, the writer of the account, from which I have quoted, shows that it is lamentably deficient in objects of scientific and practical infor- mation. Flax from the fibres of the wild Plantain, some wax procured from the leaves of the same plant, specimens of Bamboo, measuring 2 feet in circum- ference at the base, and flowers of the celebrated ltafflesia, are the most noticeable articles of Vegetable Productions; for nothing can be learned from a heap of barks, fibres, rattans, seeds, fruits, leaves, marked “musters of various plants ! The perplexed visitor is unable to extract any information from such a mass of confusion. 128 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Nether- lands. Some valu- able articles. Fibres. Some valu- able woods. distinct Algas are called Agar-Agar. Apart from this col- lection is the Trophy, of considerable size, made up of bales, bags, and boxes of the vegetable and other productions of the Netherlands India; here and there displaying fine speci- mens of Woods, Cocoa-nuts, Barrels, or Baskets of Indigo, Coffee, and other commercial articles, without name or note. But around the Trophy is a table, whereon are placed products which do bear some correct names, and a few of which are unquestionably of interest. At a very late period of the Exhibition, M. Adriaan Van Ilasselt sent a f£ Catalogue d'une Collection de ProduitsNatu- “rels, Commerciaux, et Industriels des Possessions Neer- “landaises dans les Indes Orientates, envoyee a FExposition “ Universelle de 1855.” It seems to refer solely to that portion which forms the Trophy just mentioned in the area of the Annexe ; for M. Van Hasselt says, that it was no easy matter to arrange the heterogeneous mass of boxes, articles of merchandize, &c , in a form which should not be utterly shapeless, and that he hopes this point has been accomplished. Also, that care was taken to exhibit nothing but the pro- ductions of the Dutch possessions in this groupe, carefully excluding such as come from the English and Spanish parts, from China and Japan. The following articles merit notice: Rameh , the fibre of Boehnieria tenacissima, rough and in several stages of preparation. Jute, the well-known produce of Corchorns capsularis. Agave fibre , or Pita , which makes excellent cordage. Goemi fibre, from the Talipot Palm. Is woven into coffee bags in Java Oil of Cinnamon , now an important item of export from J ava. Oil of Nut meg -flowers, from Moluccas, Cajeput oil, and Gum oil', the latter is said to be obtained from a sort of copal, but is of somewhat uncertain origin. Gum Dammar , from Dammara orientalis, an Amboyna Pine : it is used to caulk ships, and to make torches, &c. Ebony Wood from the Moluccas (Bauhinia variegata and B. purpurea.) Yellow Wood (Xanthoxylum montanum), 'which gives a yellow', green, and olive dye. Sappan Wood (Caesalpinia Sappan), used for dyeing red. Amboyna Wood (Pterocarpus Draco ?), valuable for turnery and fine furniture. Kajoe Wood, a hard and rare article, its origin unknown. Malacca Canes and Rattans, white and brown, in great variety ; such as are employed for the seats of chairs, &c. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Netherlands. 129 Nutmegs , of different qualities. Pepper, Cloves, Cinnamon, Cassia, Caoutchouc, Gutta Perclia, and Gutta Lahoe, (which vegetable is a waxy substance from Ficus cerifera) are all important Pll0 ^_ CTS - productions : of the latter, more fully described below, and which promises to be a really valuable article, the Sumatrans Spic “ make flambeaux which burn bright but cause much smoke. Nutmeg Butter is an article comparatively new to Europe. The Bark of Laurus Culitaban, a large tree growing in the Moluccas and Amboyna, is employed in medicine and as a spice. Sogah Bark is a dye, the tree is not certainly known. My friend, Mr. Hanbury, has noticed among other samples in this collection the following ( see Pharmaceutical Journal of London for Dec. 1855), Turmeric and Ginger, both very fine. Brown and. White Sago, Benzoin, Musk-seeds , (Hibiscus Abelmoschus), Oil of Cinnamon (the fluid so called is colourless), Bark of Cassia vera, which under the name of Barks. Figablas, is largely imported into London, (it is probably used as a succedaneum for the more costly cinnamon bark) : solid Oil of Nutmegs, Anthophylli (the half developed fruits of the clove), Bound or Clustered Cardamoms, Pengha.war Jambie, hairs or hair-like scales from a Fern, a Cibotium (a kind of Scythian Lamb of old writers), used as a styptic, specimens of the rare Lopez-root, marked “Morus Indica”, of Nees ab Esen- beck (?) (once included in British Materia Medica and still retained in that of Holland), and lastly, a coarse, sawdust-like, slightly aromatic substance from Amboyna, marked “ Storax en larmes , qualite precieuse, introduite depuis peu en Europe,” which is unqestionably referable to Sty rax officinale, Linn. The Edible Birds ’ nests, and the Alga ( Agar Agar, of Java EdibieBirds’ and Banda), which is supposed to contribute materially to the composition of these nests, must not be overlooked. The Alga is a species of Sphcerococcus, the S. spinosus, Agardh ; it is manufactured into a sort of glue or jelly, and much relished in China. Naturalists are still divided upon the point, whether the gelatinous matter which distinguishes the edible nests, is not, after all, a secretion from the bird, a species of swallow. Professor Owen is of that opinion, while the French Naturalists seem generally to believe it to be prepared by the bird from some kind of Alga. The attention of our Class has indeed been directed to a Vegetable peculiar substance called “ Vegetable Wax, under the name of “ Getah-Lahoe, >> accompanied by a drawing and specimens of the plant, which is a species of Ficus (Ficus cerifera, Blume), a native of the Dutch possessions in Sumatra. Specimens were handed over to the French chemists for analysis, but I am not aware that the results have been published. In the meanwhile a figure and description has appeared in the 3 K 130 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hookes ox French “Annales des Sciences Naturelles,” 4me Series, vol. 3. ^Sucxf P* 330, the ^ a ^ter from the pen of Dr. Bleekrode, Professor nether Foval Academy of Delft. That gentleman's analysis, lands, to a certain extent, is there given ; — too long to be transferred to these pages, and not easy to be compressed, and his con- clusion is ; i( La Getah-Lahoe promet de devenir un produit important pour la fabrication des bougies, meme de celles ou la cire entre comme mature premiere. J’ai commence a en faire Implication, et les resultats que j’obtiendrai seront publides le plus tot possible. C’est par la pratique que doivent etre continues les essais du laboratoire, afin qu’on puisse decider de la valeur industrielle et de l'avenir de la Getah-Lahoe It is, I believe, quite an anomaly that a species Fig (Ficus), should yield a wax, and even Dr. Bleekrode thinks it possible that the substance sent may not be pure from the tree : “ II y a, en meme temps, une autre probleme a resoudre, savoir si la cire vegdtale appellee Getah-Lahoe differe reellement des diverses especes des cires vegdtales qui ont dtd de temps en temps importees en Europe. II est aussi d’une grande importance de connoitre l’arbre duquel la Getah- Lahoe s’ecoule, afin d'etre certain que les indigenes ne melent pas les differentes sortes de sues laiteux." na ; a and lch °' Little as the Dutch authorities have contributed in the Camphor wa y 0 f information by their contribution to the Great Paris cultivated . J . pi there. Exhibition, they have certainly not been negligent or the true interest of their Dutch possessions in the East, in de veloping their resources through the aid of intelligent and ' scientific men. That the introduction and culture of the Tea- plant is carried out to a great and very profitable extent we all know. Naturalists in the different departments, at home and abroad, are required to direct their best energies in the furtherance of similar objects, and recent accounts have been received of the successful introduction of Cinchona Plants in Java. A professor. Dr. Miquel of Amsterdam, is stated to be the first to suggest the experiment, and Mr. Hasskarl, a German gentleman and able botanist, was engaged to visit the Cinchona districts in South America, to collect the best species, and convey them (living) to Java. Dr. and Professor De Yriese has published admirable treatises on the famous Camphor Tree of the Malay Islands ; and be is, or we are much mistaken, devoting his attention to the valuable Gutta Percha Tree , which is known to abound in Borneo, where the Dutch have vast possessions, whose vegetable riches time and industry can alone fully develope. samples of, ^e Furopean portion of the Netherlands collection, there from the are samples of leaves, oils, and extracts ; also the curious fibres, Fir. made into coarse mats and lace, white and looking like cotton, Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products.— Netherlands. 131 of the Fir (Pinus sylvestris), and even coarse paper of the H ^ E Y' 0X same material. These articles are contributed by Penhorst, Vegetable Perous & Co. The pecuniary value of this kind of fibre is lR0 ^f CTS - perhaps not fully ascertained. ^ands?’ In this Class a Silver Medal was awarded to La Socidte — Neerlandaise de Commerce of Amsterdam ; and Honorable Mention to J. von Halmael, for woods of Surinam. XIII.— MEXICAN REPUBLIC. “SSS Republic. (Commissioners : M. Pedro Escandon, M. Juan Agea, and M. le Conte de Brignola.) A collection which, though small, appeared to merit a more detailed notice than I could give of it in the absence collection : of a catalogue, or of any person who could afford information, mated inits for it was not till long after the jury’s work was done that catalogue; the Mexican Commissaire furnished a catalogue. In it we are assured that, “ L’exposition Mexicaine est celle qui, apres “ l’exposition des Etats Unis, offre le plus d’ abondance et “ le meilleur assortement des produits du Continent Ameri- “ cain.” This may be quite true, for it is no very great honour to stand next below the United States in the great Paris Exhibition ; and this low position of Mexico may be accounted for by the unsettled state of the country. The catalogue enumerates nine samples of woods from Monterey- its woods Nuevo Leon, 212 samples from the department of Vera Cruz, including 44 which are used for cabinet-work, and the rest chiefly for ship-building and carpentry, and 23 from Jalapa. The names of most of them convey no information. “ Tarai wood ” and “ White Equimite ” and 6ff Huaco ” afford no clue to the trees of which these woods are samples ; and this defective nomenclature is the more to be regretted as we are assured that the island of Carmen, near Yucatan, exports wood to the amount of two millions of francs yearly, and that mahogany and cedar (Cedrela? or Juniperus ?) grow there abundantly. Dye-woods are also sent from Vera Cruz. Bois d’ Aloes, marked “ Lignaloe, Fagara lignaloe. ” This extremely fragrant wood is the Bois de Citron du Mexique of Guibourt, Hist, des Drogues , iii. 491, and quite distinct from the Lignum Aloes of pharmacy (Hanbury), Essential oil of ditto. Logwood and Brazil-wood are appellations familiar to us ; they come chiefly from Yucatan. Among the more miscellaneous articles are Mexican barks ; (from Nepeta citriodora), Saint Ignatius ’ Beans (a powerful poison), medicinal Barks of wild Cinnamon , of Copalche (Quinquina), Gum Elastic and Copal, Liquidambar and other Resins, all bearing only the native names ; the Roots of Sarsa- K 2 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . 132 Sir W. par ilia, Jalap, Turmeric , Madder , Ginger and Aromatic Aristol - vegetable ochici the root and fecula of Convolvulus Michoacan , and the Products. ^ pjpitzohoac (Eupatorium sessilifolium*) ; the Flowers Subm! of the Mexican Aristolochia, of Dorstenia Contragerva, of — ' Commelina tuberosa, and of a kind of Chamomile , called m Mexico Astrogale (all these flowers are reputed to have medi- cinal properties) ; the Fruits of the Sago- Palm, Vanilla and Cassia, the seeds of Dolichos pinguis, called PJca-pica &c. On the specimens of Copal (Copal bianco) Mr. Hanbury resins: remarks ( Pliarmaceut . Journal, vol. xv., p. 342,) that this resin has appeared in English commerce under the name oi Mexican or Vera Cruz Elemi ; it is the Tacamaque jaune huileuse of M. Guibourt’s Histoire des Drogues, probably the produce of the Elaphrium elemiferum of Boyle. . Of the two specimens of Re' sine de Uquidamber (Liquidambar styraciflua) one is pale yellowish-brown and nearly trans- parent (it is obtained by incision of the trunk ?), the other and modi- |rey and opaque (procured by boiling the young branches m cinal herbs. wa t er ?), both are from the department of Vera Cruz: — or the Contra-yerha root, which is here as thick as the little fingei, and is, perhaps, the produce of Psoralea pentaphylla, L., one of the Leguminosae, described by some authors as Contragerva nova v. alba, or Mexican Contragerva root. . In this Class a Bronze Medal was awarded totne Mexican Government. Guate- mala. Guatemala collection : very trifling containing only a few pharmaceu- tical articles. XIV.— GUATEMALA. (Commissioners: Le General Garcia Granados, and Emile Fouknier.) This region, so rich in vegetable products, has afforded and contributed only one small case, affording nothing m our department save a few specimens of Materia Medica, mostly unknown in Europe, hut enough to show what might have been done had there been the will to do it. The native or Spanish names alone are attached to the samples. Mr. Hanbury * Tins plant has nothing to do with Eupatornm KmUfohwn, which is a native of the United States ; specimens in my possession prove this plant to be Acourt'a rigida,T « A Crystallized acid, of which there are samples accompanying the Pipitzohoac root, is extracted from the root. Powerful drastic and Ter properties belong to this acid, the smell resembles Valerian and the taste i c very acrid. It is insoluble in water, whether cold or warm, and is only dissolved by alcohol and ether. Combined with potash and with oxydes of iron and other metals, it dyes woollen, silk, and cotton stuffs with various shades of violet and yellow. * The above particulars are extracted from Exhibition consisted of glittering powdery eye, gold dust, and quite as rich in color. the Catalogue. The sample in the chrystals, resembling, to the naked Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Guatemala. 133 ( Pliarmaceut . Journal , vol. xv., p. 343,) has noted as follows, — H ®^ w - Estoraque de Balsarno , samples, a pale yellowish-brown bark vegetable in coarse fragments, having an agreeable smell like Styrax Pe o:ditc ts> Calamita ; Copal, an odorous resin (Icica, sp. ?) ; Sangre de Guate- Drago , a red resin in small masses, produce of a Croton ? ; * — •’ Guaco, a small root, somewhat like Senega (probably the produce of Mikania Guaco or an allied species, for such are celebrated in South America as sovereign remedies in case of snake-bites ; Racine de Sintale , aromatic, (Cyperus ?) ; Piment, espece dite Cordoncillo, (Piper, sp. ?) ; Piment de Vera Cruz ; Piment de Vera Paz ; Quinquina de Escuintla ; Quinquina de Ckiquimula ; Mapaguite , a small, oleaginous, orange -coloured fruit ; Suvin, black legumes, about three inches long, used in dying ; The febrifuge ; and Suif vegetal , or vegetable tallow. Honourable Mention in this Class awarded to the Republic. XV.— THE REPUBLIC OF MEW GRANADA. New Granada. (Commissioner: M. J. de F. Martin.) New Granada ‘‘ Boisjaune et bois de Erdsil; Balsam of Tolu of Cartha- a°fewdrug S . gena ; Vegetable Waxes from the provinces of Bogota and Carthagena ; Indian articles made of woods and varnished by the Indians of Gasto ; Quinquina de Neiba, and Quinquina des provinces de Popayan and Bogota.” These, we pre- sume, so mentioned in the Paris Catalogue Officiel, 2d. ed., are what Mr. II anbury ( Pliarmaceut . Journal , vol. xv., p. 343,) indicates as “ Quinquina du Pehon de Pitayo , Quinina de Pandi and Quinquina de Fusagasuga , which he says are all refer- able to the Quinquina orange de Mutis of Guibourt’s Histoire des Drogues, the produce of Cinchona lancifolia, Mutis , (Cinchona Condaminea, var. 5. lancifolia of Weddell ; and the Quinquina de Pitayo, Mr. Hanbury remarks, is rightly labelled.” There are also five samples of Vanilla from the forests of New Grenada. Honourable Mention in this Class is awarded to the. Republic. XVI— REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA. Costarica. (Commissioner: M. G. Lafond de Lurey.) Dye-woods , Caoutchouc , and Woods for construction and other purposes. Honourable Mention awarded to M. R. Escalante in this class. 134 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W Y VTT Hooker ok ¥ Vegetable Products. Argentine CONFEDE- RATION. ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION (including PARAGUAY). Samples of Wood of Corientes, Entre-Rios, and Paraguay, Maioca meal and Mate (or Paraguay Tea , Ilex Paraguay ensis). Many good samples of various drugs and dyes, but without tangible names or even useful remarks. In this Class a Bronze Medal was awarded to the Republic of Paraguay. Brazil. Brazil collection : interesting, but small ; chiefly of drugs ; XVIII— BRAZIL. An interesting but small case, exhibiting a Block of the Wood, Scrapings, Fibre, Root, Seeds, Hat, Mats, Lace, and two sorts of Candles, all the produce of different parts of the Copernicia , or Wax-Palm of Brazil : such is the entire con- tribution which represented this extensive empire, so pecu- liarly rich in Vegetable Products. Towards the close of the Exhibition appeared a small but interesting collection of vegetable products, “ obtained during an exploration of the River Amazon/' by a Brazilian gentleman we believe. Mr. Hanbury thus reports on the Drugs recognizable (for there is no catalogue and almost no information could be obtained) : e( Sarsaparilla Abutua , a root somewhat resembling Pareira brava, but yellow; Simaruba Bark; Brazilian Clove Bark (Dicypellium caryophyllatum, Rees); Casca pretiosa (Mespilodaphne pretiosa, Nees), Coca leaves (Erythroxylon Coca, Lam.) ; Sassafras Nuts ; Vanilla. ; Tonka or Tonquin bean ; Guarana paste (Paullinia sorbilis. Mart.) ; some barks of Cascarilla 8fc.” But what interested me most was a model representing the mode of extracting the Caoutchouc from Siphonia elastica, and of the oven where it is prepared by being smoked and coagulated with the burnt nuts of the Attalea excelsa, a palm of the country. A very interesting account of preparing Caoutchouc from Siphonia is given by Dr. Weddell in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vo!. xv. p. 116, and a still more interesting one in the following page by Mr. Spruce, extracted from Hooker’s Kew Garden Miscellany for July, 1855, p. 193. st. XIX.-ST. DOMINGO. Domingo. st Domingo A vei T miscellaneous collection, sent by Sir Robt. Schom- umiamed : b ur gk, H.B. Majesty’s Consul in that island, and unfortu- though sent nately without names, except here and there some of the Schom?' country. Samples of Woods are numerous, cut, and imper- burgk. fectly polished; they rarely present any beauty of colour the mode of preparing caoutchouc in Brazil. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — St. Domingo. 135 or veining. Pina de Tea , a large section of a tree, 2\ feet in diameter, and the leaves and fruit probably of the same — (is it not Pinus occidentalis ?) ; Guaiacum , Lana del Aibol de Yayruno , Resin de Airime, Divi-Divi, Fibres and Lassos , Baskets and Mats (coarse), Bamboo , Fibres of “ Anona” (Ananas ?) and Banana , ee Asperillo fino con su Estrella f this article looks like a horse-collar, made of split palm-leaves, and is very neat. Several Walking -canes, and Tobacco in long rolls, complete the collection. XX— BAHAMAS. This very limited collection was only exposed at a very late period, and in our Department it exhibited nothing but a few woods, viz., Ebony f Iron-ivood , Yellow -icood , Brazil- wood, Mahogany , and a few others, unnamed ; Fibre of Pine- apple leaf (Bromelia, sp. ?1, Hat of Pita Plant (Agave Ameri- cana), a quantity of Pita fibre, very long and good ; a number of Sticks or Walking-canes , and a bag of Fibre from the leaves of Pinus Taeda. 100 lbs. of leaf will yield 70 lbs. of fibre, which can be prepared at 2d. per lb.” Also, a stout cord from some Palm. (?) In this Class Honourable Mention was awarded to Mrs. Bobertson for the Pita hat and canes. XXI.- UNITED STATES. (Commissioners: M. Maunsell, R. Field.) “ On est cruellement desappointe,” exclaims M. Tresca, quand, arrive au pavilion qui indique les galeries de Y Union, “ on rencontre a peine quelques echantillons de coton, quel- ques machines, et divers objets de caoutchouc.” In truth, the first notice of objects exhibited in the “ Catalogue Officiel” has nothing whatever under Class II. A Second, or Supple- mental Catalogue, specifies, as exhibited by M. Andre, of San Francisco, California, 1. “Memoire sur les coupes de V Acajou ; echantillons et desein de l’arbre a Caoutchouc ; memoire sur l’extraction du Caoutchouc ; Caoutchouc naturel et pur ; — and “ Plantes et sues medicinaux (of California ?) ; but these entirely escaped our notice ; 2. “ Sceaux et cuves de cedre, exhibited by M. M. Storms, freres, of Ne w York.” If these form part of the “ Boisellerie Americaine” exhibited in the Annexe under the agency of Mr. Chas. Fay, I may observe that the stall, of considerable extent and with numerous objects of general woods, deservedly attracted very great Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. St. Domingo. Bahamas. Bahamas collection : a few woods and fibres. United States. United States col- lection : disappoint- ingly insig- nificant. 136 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. United States. New Zealand. New Zealand collection : only a few fibres of little value. Hawaii. Sardinian States. Sardinian States col- lection : native woods, and some articles made of them. attention, from the beauty of the woods, the perfection of the workmanship, and above all, the cheapness of the articles, as announced in the distributed advertisement. It was with difficulty that any could be procured for the Museum of the Royal Gardens of Kew, for all were bespoken. The buckets (so called) raye, that is, the staves alternately of Cedar ( Pencil Cedar), Juniperus Yirginiana, and Fir (*' f Sapin”), with hoops of brass, were elegant and substantial, and delightfully fragrant. Bronze Medal awarded to Mr. T. Thompson by this Class, and Honourable Mention to Mr. Ant. Andre, for Memoirs relating to Y egetable Products, and to MM. Storms freres, for sceaux et cuves de Cedre (Juniperus Yirginiana). XXII- NEW ZEALAND. Unwohthy of notice, quite unnamed; it contains only a few specimens of Woods, cut and polished, New Zealand Flax (Phormium tenax), and indifferent samples of Kauri Pine. Since our inspection, the Commissaire requested us to examine “ a great variety of Fibres, which had recently arrived.” They are from the Baron de Thierry, and consist of only two kinds, viz., the New Zealand Flax, and Ti (Dracama terminalis). The former is, 1, “Prepared by steam, an invention of M. de Thierry.” 2. “ Process invented by M. de T., for material for paper-stuff,” a substance for which M. de Thierry claims the reward of 1,0007. offered in “The Times” for such a discovery. 3. " Pasteboard (execrably bad and loose), made at a first attempt, and proving that papier-mache can be manufactured from New Zealand Flax.” Also a Fibre (very strong, but coarse) and prepared by M. de Thierry, from Ti (Dracaena terminalis) ; the yellow is prepared with cold water, the white with hot. XXIII.— KINGDOM OF HAWAII. Wood formerly employed by the natives for making their lances and war-clubs. XXIV.— SARDINIAN STATES. (Commissioners: M. le Comte Antoine Nomis de Pollone.) This presents nothing in our department, except a respect- able collection of well-prepared native 'Woods : and a noble block, (from J. B. Bottero, Turin,) partly polished, of Juni- perus Sabina, a very fine and handsome wood prized for Sir W. Hoolter on Vegetable Products. — Sardinian States. 137 cabinet-work, and said to possess medical properties and to be H( ^® E Yoir a vermifuge : the block is valued at 500 francs. Also a great vegetable number of articles, made apparently of Beech ; they are ll0 HL T * beautifully variegated and stained of different colours u par Sa ^S3e£ k immersion.” (The Pharmaceutical Journal, v. 15. p. 519,) * — * announces that a new branch of industry has lately been esta- blished in Sardinia, namely the production of Alcohol from the Cactus or Indian Fig , which grows wild, with remarkable luxuriance, in every part of the country. The fruit is sometimes used by the poor as food, but more generally for feeding pigs ; its price is about 7d. a hundredweight. XXV -PONTIFICAL STATES. (Commissioners: M. le Baron de Havelt.) About 30 small blocks or sections of branches of Trees, cut U2i!?SS. more or less smooth, and about as many slabs, polished, lection-. Besides these, among which there was nothing peculiar, I re- of woods, s marked fine Cones of Pious Pinea , and stalks of Hemp, of hemp, & c . astonishing length, probably 20 feet, and with a diameter of j- of an inch or more. Such hemp is considered to yield a very inferior fibre. Still more remarkable in size was a specimen of the lower part of a Hemp stem, 5 feet long, with a diameter of not less than 3 inches. It is almost woody and solid ; at least the section near the root has that appearance. XXVI- GREECE. Greece. (Commissioners: M. Sfikibion Spiliotakis, M. Georges Zizinia, and M. Alexandre Jonidis). This Kingdom exhibits a small Box of Woods , and other Grecian small samples, about 70 or 80 in number ; for which a Bronze trm!ng? n: Medal is awarded to the Hellenic Government ; also Acorns and Gall-nuts for tanning and dyeing , Sumac for the same, and Carols (pods of Ceratonia Silicjua), which are food for horses and cattle. XXVII— OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Ottoman Empire. (Sent by his Excellency, JMoustapha-Noury- Pacha, the Governor- General of the Province of Tripoli, Barbary.) Leaves of “ Meleze/’ called ar-ar (purgative). Gall-nuts §^ 0 ^ ol (. Afss ) for dyeing skins. Gall-nuts (lubda) for dyeing silks, lection: “ Geranium chandgoura (depuratif).” “ Soie vegetaleC de- tnflmg ' rived from an Apocyneous plant. Root of Iris (Florentina). Gum-arabic. Purgative oil of a Terebinthaceous plant. In this department, though we do not find them noticed in the Cata- logue, is a considerable collection of native Pharmaceutical Vegetable Products of the Empire, presented by M. Della Suddato the Ecole de Pharmacie at Paris. A Bronze Medal was awarded to the Province of Tripoli. 138 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. Egypt. Tunis. Sikgapore, Borneo, &c. Mauritius. Mauritius collection : less valuable than might be expected from an island pos- sessing a Botanic Garden. XXVIII.— EGYPT. TroeNE (Privet-berries, for colouring wine). Doum Palm (Hyphene Thebaica). Matting and Basket- work. Sennaar Gum , and a few other trifling objects. XXIX— KINGDOM OF TUNIS. (Commissioner: M. le Chevalier Elias Mussali.) Chiefly cultivated plants. Numerous varieties of Dates Black Olives. Brou de Noix and its bark (probably Fustic , for dye). Henna , in leaf. Karoni, a small composite Seed. Wallnut (Ecorce de N oyer) bark, called souak. Basket-work, and Cooperage . XXX.- SINGAPORE, BORNEO, Ac. (Products of the Indian Archipelago, of the Malay Penin- sula, of Cochin China, and Siam.) Under the above head, and under British Colonies apart from “ India,” we find a brief Catalogue of what entirely escaped our notice : — “ Woods of Penang for inlaying , Swallows' ( edible ) nests , Vegetable wax and paste from Borneo. Resins, mastics, and gums from Sumatra, Borneo, and Siam. Caoutchouc and Gutta-percha. Katian-nuts, and oil of the same. Garribi Mats and inlaid-work .” XXXI.— MAURITIU S. (Agents: Messrs. Aubin and Husson.) With the exception of neatly prepared but very small speci- mens of correctly named native Woods , prepared by Professor Bojer of the Royal College, Port Louis, Cocoa-nut Hood, a few Woods of the Seychelles, Nuts of the Coco de Mer (Lodoicea Sechellarum), good Vanilla , and Rlipe Oil from Bassia butyracea, there is nothing of the smallest interest belonging to our Class, which is the more to be regretted and the less to be expected, inasmuch as there is a very old established Botanic- Garden, kept at the public expense, formerly belonging to the French, and celebrated as the recipient of the rarest and most interesting tropical plants and fruits from the Malay Archipelago and the West Indies and Tropical Africa, which were thence distributed to all the East Indian posses- sions, both French and English, — while more than one very able and accomplished Botanist resides in the island. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Tuscany . 139 XXXII -TUSCANY. hook^V Vegetable If the samples of Woods sent from Tuscany to the Great products. Exhibition in London attracted notice, the present Collection Tuscany. is equally deserving of attention ; especially as many of Tuscancoi- them are eminently adapted for Ship-building. The speci- sfSp3£iiia- S mens in block, retaining the bark, with the inner surface cut j^woods and polished, are 69 in number, botanically named. Others, which are squared and smoothed, but not polished on all sides, bear numbers only. The former represent the forest- woods of the country (native and introduced), the latter the Naval Timber. Some of these appeared to be of excellent quality, very heavy : others were inferior, and seemed to possess no great durability. Among the Pines, Abies pectinata is reckoned particularly good. (A Tree of this species in Tuscany is ascertained to be 400 years old.) M. Siemoni, the manager of the Grand Duke’s private domains, in the province of Casentino, transmits samples of the forest-products under his charge ; among them a horizontal section of Deal, upwards of 2 metres in circumference, one of Beech 3J metres in circumference, a hollow cylinder of Elder more than 7 metres in circumference, and squared beams of Carpinus Betulus, of remarkable length and thick- ness. The Ivy and Hawthorn also attain the size of timber in these woods, as shown by samples. There are also many articles made of the above kinds of wood, among them Tubs and Boxes; the latter are in nests, and though of simple workmanship and very cheap, they are remarkably neat and well finished. The fruits or cones of Pinus Pinea (the Stone Pine) are particularly large and fine. There are also Oil of Lentisk, Oil of kernels of the Pine, and Olive Oil, and Manna of good quality in drops, collected at Bocca Strada. Large Trays, divided into compartments, contain many native wild Vegetable Products (as well as cultivated ones). I noticed dried Lime floicers for Tisane, Birch and Elder Jlowers for the same purpose, Fruits of Juniper and Whortle- berry (Vaccinium Myrtillus) for colouring wine. There are also numerous Oils and Essences. The most interesting part of the collection is the beautifully beautiful arranged series, exhibiting the progress of Straw-platting, Leghira° f as practised in Tuscany, from the delicate, slender Plants of P lat ; Wheat, with small bearded ears, to the perfect and valuable Leghorn bonnet, or basket, &c. and hio . hly The chief novelty in the Tuscan collection is a series of interesting specimens illustrative of the production of Alcohol, Paper, afcohofand 4 ^ and Card -board from the roots and stems and foliage of the Sedfrom icild Asphodel (Asphodelus ramosus). They are accompanied Asphodel • 140 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. HoS ox ky a pamphlet of 72 pages, giving a full history of the plants, vegetable by M. Pinondel de la Bertoche, with an account of a society pboducts. w } 1 j c | 1 j s forming in Tuscany for the manufacture of these Tuscany, articles on a large scale. Every one is familiar with the pretty, lively-looking white-flowered Asphodel of our gardens. In the South of Europe, and apparently on both sides of the basin of the Mediterranean, the plant is extremely abundant ; though it has never, so far as I know, been turned to any account, except that in times of scarcity its acrid fasciculated roots, after much boiling, have been eaten by the poor. The present Collection displays, from the “Franco-Italian Society” established at Florence, for the distillation of the Asphodel, the following objects in connexion with the subject: — IVell pre- pared specimens of the Plant, with roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit from dry rocky places, and others from the marshes of Talamone and from the forest of Alberese, with a disserta- tion on the feasibility of growing the plant in the Pontine Marshes, and the Maremma. Bottles of Alcohol extracted from the Asphodel ; specimens of the residuum of the roots after being twice distilled ; paper stuff from the stalks and leaves of Asphodel, card-paper, cards, paper, and writing- papers, of various qualities, manufactured from the same, and mixed in various proportions with rags and common paper-stuff. M. de la Bertoche, in the above noticed pamphlet, asserts that Asphodel roots contain upwards of 27 per cent, of alcoholic principle, or more than double the quantity which resides in the root of Beet. The stalks and leaves contain a remarkably tenacious fibre, fine, strong, and flexible. The distillation of Asphodel root has been already pursued, and with considerable success, in Algeria ; but the immense abundance of the plant in Tuscany, where it has hitherto been considered only a pernicious and most ineradicable weed, points to the advantage of endeavouring to turn it to account. The fasciculated roots, after cleansing and crushing, are mixed with water, and the fluid is exposed to heat, so as to facilitate fermentation. The Alcohol, which it yields, is pure and colourless, perfectly transparent, and has the smell of Alcohol itself. It contains neither acid, salt, nor oily matter : it burns without leaving any residue, and the flame is remarkably bright. So much for the spirit which is ex- tracted from it. But, at the present time, when material for paper seems likely to fail, a most important succedaneum is afforded by the remains of the Asphodel. It is well known that the price of rags is now doubled, and that many sub- stitutes for this material have been suggested. Straw, nettle- fibre, sawdust, cotton, the leaves of Maize and Banana, and Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Tuscany. 141 various other substances, have been tried with more or less Sir w. success ; but if the desired article can be procured from a vegetable substance which has already served a valuable purpose and products. is comparatively only refuse and dross, a double end is Tuscany. gained. And it is undeniable that the residuum of the Asphodel roots, after distillation, together with the other parts of the plant, are eminently adapted to this object. The expense of adding the foliage and stalks is no more than that of mowing them. Three processes are necessary, — the separation of the useful portions, — the bleaching, — and the reducing the substances into a homogeneous and tenacious pulp. The first is better effected by crushing than by grind- ing, as the latter mode is apt to destroy the fibre. The second operation involves most difficulty, as the root is covered with a skin, which contains a tanning principle ; and it is necessary, unless the expensive method of hand-peeling the root be adopted, to expose the substance to air and light, aided by immersion in diluted chlorine, which brings the substance to a very pale brown tint, which is not objection- able for many sorts of paper. For the third process, that of reducing the whole mass to a smooth and tenacious paste, the paper-manufacturers must supply the details: they have indeed already effected the object, and produced beautiful drawing- paper, paste-board, card-paper, and mill-boards of various sorts, all eminently fine and glossy , and possessing every recommendation, save perfect whiteness. The gum, which abounds in the Asphodel, is a highly advantageous ingredient : it gives gloss to card-board, and prevents writing-paper from becoming absorbent. The stoutest cartridge-paper, which is made from this plant, is found to bend without breaking, and is not apt to tear. Corsica, Spain, Algeria, Portugal, all have hastened to follow the example of Tuscany, and to seek to derive advan- tage from the Asphodel, either as yielding Alcohol or Paper- stuff, or both. If even the enormous tracts which are covered with Asphodel should in time be exhausted, the culture of of the plant is by no means difficult. It has been the subject of experiment in the Royal Botanic Garden at Florence, where it increased by tubercles and runners only too fast ; for the very moving of the soil to eradicate the plant, causes it to spread and multiply four or five fold. The manager of the Grand Duke's domain at Alberese offered, a few years ago, 40,000 francs for the extirpation of the Asphodel in a comparatively limited territory, and no person was found to undertake the next to impossible task. The noblest specimens are seen in the forests of the Apennines, and on the seashore. The plant grows abun- 142 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SlR w. Hooker on Vegetable Produbts. Tuscany. its culture likely to prove a great boon. Spain. Spanish collection : its forestal production interesting, but ill- named. Woods. dantly in meadow-land also, and is not rejected by sheep, nor injured by their tread. To sum up the matter, the Asphodel produces Alcohol and Paper, at a much cheaper rate than any other material which has yet been tested ; and there is good reason to hope that it may yet prove a providential benefit to many sterile and unproductive districts. Practical and scientific men are earnestly invited by M. Bertoche to turn their attention to the subject, and to carry out a series of experiments, which shall establish the value of the discoveries which he so ar- dently promulgates. In this Class a Silver Medal was awarded to M. Siemoni for forest products. XXXIII— SPAIN (including CUBA). Though due notice was given by the Secretary of Class II. of our visit to the Spanish Collection, we were not favoured with the assistance of the Commissaire, which would have been eminently useful in the absence of any Catalogue, save a bare List of the Woods and their Products. The Collection is, however, a remarkable and interesting one, which reflects much credit on those who formed it. Many of the objects are unnamed; others have only Spanish names. The Woods are in general scientifically named. The Catalogue is enti- tled “ An Enumeration of the Natural, Industrial, and Artistic Productions, displayed in the Spanish Section of the Universal Exposition of 1855/' This List corresponds with the nu- merous sections of W oods which, probably, collectively re- present the forestal resources of Spain Proper, independent of its Colonies. They are alphabetically arranged, and con- sist of 2 species of Abies, of Acer 8 (including 2 from North America,) 1 xEsculus, 1 Ailanthus , 1 Alnus , 1 Amygdalus , 1 Arbutus , 1 Berberis , 1 Betula, 1 Broussonetia, 1 Buxus , 1 Calluna , 1 Carpinus , 1 Castanea, 1 Catalpa, 2 Celtis, 5 Cerasus , 1 Cercis, 2 Cistus , 2 Citrus , 2 Cornus, 1 Coronilla , 1 Corylus , 9 Grata yus, 3 Cupressus , 1 Cydonia, 2 Cytisus , 2 Diospyros, 1 Eleagnus , 4 Erica, 1 Euonymus , 1 Fagus , 1 Ficus , 5 Fraxinus, 3 Genista , 2 Gleditschia, 1 Gyrnnocladus, 1 Hedera, 1 Hibiscus, 1 Ilex, 3 Juglans, 5 Juniperus, 1 Lau- ras, 1 Ligustrum, 1 Lonicera, 1 Melia, 1 Mespilus, 3 Morus , 1 Myrtus, 1 Nerium, 1 Olea , 2 Pavia, 1 Persica, 2 Phillyrea , 9 Pinus (including Cedar), 3 Pistacia, 2 Platanus, 9 Populus, 2 Prunus , 1 Punica , 6 Pyrus, 16 Quercus, 2 Rhamnus, 1 Rhus , 4 Robinia, 1 Rosa, 1 Rosmarinus, 7 Salix, 1 Sam- bucus, 1 Sophora, 1 Spircea, 1 Staphylea, 1 Syringa, 1 Tama- Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Spain. 143 rix, 1 Taxodium, 1 Tax us, 1 Tecoma, 1 Thuja, 2 Tilia, 0N 1 Ulex, 2 Ulmus, 3 Viburnum , 1 Vitex, 1 Zizyplius ; — 186 Vegetable species in all, named in Latin and Spanish, but accompanied Plt0 ^. CTS - with no remarks. Spain. Of Charcoals there are 44, with Botanical, French, and Charcoal. Spanish names. There are also Charbonnailles for Crayons, prepared from Cistus ladaniferus, and from the Cones of Pinus maritima and P. Pinea, and from the acorns of 3 Oaks, (Quercus Ilex, pubescens, and Robur). The Resins from the different Pines are numerous, but except the Spanish Pine, the Aleppo Pine , Turpentine, Juniper, and Sandarac, their names are Spanish and local. There is Birdlime from the Holly and Mistletoe, and a substance called Galipot, manu- factured by Meceta & Co. From the Ecole Forestiere of Villaviciosa is a collection of Forest Produce, Charcoal, Charbonnailles (for crayon draw- ing), Wood-ashes, Resins, Barks, Spartes, together with Tools, mallets, and measures employed in woodman's work. Of Espartos ( fibre of Lygeum Spartum), there are noble Fibres, samples, both raw and prepared, consisting of Bundles of rope of various sizes, from string for nets, to cables for ships of large size, and applicable to different purposes, haul- ing vessels into port, boarding ships, &c. Barks for Tanning are those of the Alder, of the Aleppo, Spanish, Corsican, Bordeaux, and Stone Pines, of the Rex, Cork, and 4 other Oaks, and 3 kinds of Willow. In Cork there are most beautiful specimens of carving, as Boxes and Inkstands, Cork soles, Stoppers for bottles of all sizes, and slices of cork both raw and prepared. Under the title of “ Plants’ are well-preserved branches, with the Acorns and sometimes Galh of Quercus avellanas- formis, 16 varieties of Quercus Ballota (the oak with edible acorns), 3 branches of the Spanish Oak, 3 of the Lusitanian Oak, and as many of the Cork Oak and Rex or Evergreen Oak. Under the head of Forests of Costa Firma are 105 samples Misceiia- of woods, small and polished, all placed in one large frame, ducts. pi °' and with the local names only. Among numerous Vegetable Products (chiefly cultivated) are dried specimens of Salsola (species of), with Soda and Barilla prepared therefrom (at Alicant). Barcelona Nuts, remarkably large, Earth-nuts (the tubers of Arachis liypogcea ), Liquorice, rough and refined, liquid and in lump. Seeds of Canna Indica (for what use?) 2 small Agarics, dried on string, (Agaricus albellus and A. aromaticus). Carob fruits. Onjones (dried Peaches). Boots of Alkanet (Anchusa tinctoria), and a few Drugs and Dyestuffs, wild and cultivated. Reports on the Paris Exhibition. 144 Ho^oker'on Planks of Date Palm (a very light and soft wood ; for what Vegetable -Qgg T ) Products ” — ’ « Tesca (Amadou) under this name is a fibrous cottony v —' substance, some white and some yellow, but of what material it was impossible to determine. Fruits of Capparis spinosa {Capers) from Cordova, in pickle. Reseda lu tea {Dyers’ Woad)> Dried leaves and stalks of Sage for making Tisane. Cones and seeds, very large and good, of the Stone Pine (Pinus Pinea). To sum up the Spanish collection, it may be pronounced as distinguished by the great variety and value of its forest productions. Colonies of The Spanish Possessions or Colonies are miserably little except represented. In Class II. PORTO RICO only exhibits a °‘ few unnamed indigenous woods , samples of Gum Elemi , and fibre of Banana , “Maguey” and “Ananas.” CUBA ranks a little higher, but its productions here exhibited are almost ex- clusively manufactured articles, and, as might be expected, chiefly Tobaccos and Cigars. I searched in vain for spe- cimens or information relating to the little known Pine which gives name to the “ Isla di Pinos,” or the celebrated wood called Sabicu. The origin of this wood is still a vexed question ; Don Ramon de Sagra attributing it to the Acacia formosa of Humboldt and Kunth, Mr. Bentham to a new species of Lysiloma , viz., L. Sabicu, Benth. “ Son bois,” says M. de Sagra, “ est dur et d’un usage tres repandu ; on en fait des soulives ou des planchers : on l’emploie egalement dans certains ouvrages de charronage, par exemple dans la con- struction des charettes.” This has been a great article of trade with the Cubanites. No less so is a very beautiful substance familiar to us under the name of Cid>a-bast, and long known as the material used for tying up the Havanna Cigars into bundles. It is a kind of Lace-bark (and of the same nature, being the inner layers of the bark of a tree), almost as delicate, and even more silky than the well-known Lace-bark of Jamaica (Lagetta lintearia). Of late years it would seem the merchants of Cuba can turn it to better account. It has been found by gardeners and nurserymen equally fitted for tying up plants, &c. as the Lime-tree bark or bast from Russia, and has been largely substituted for it, and it is extensively imported in bundles, afforded by 1 and may be often seen at the shop windows of nurserymen Christy, re- an( ^ seedsmen in London. All these three objects, in- some curious f° rma ti° n respecting which the Spaniards systematically Cuban withhold, have been recently inquired into by a scientific included in friend of mine, a casual visitor to Cuba, Henry Christy, Esq. tion?°* lec " Branches with Cones of the Pine have been communicated Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Spain . 145 by him during the present year (April 1856), and prove it to h ®“ Yok be identical with, or very closely allied to the North American vegetable Pinus resinosa, Soland. of which Cuba may be considered the PEO fff TS - southern limit, as Lake St. John, Canada, is the northern. Its Spain. leaves are longer than those of the continental P. resinosa, but in other respects they, as well as the cones, seem to be iden- tical. I possess specimens from New Orleans, so that this species has a most extensive range. Specimens of Sabicu, sent at the same time, prove that Mr. Bentham’s views, ex- pressed in the Kew Garden Miscellany, vol. 5, p. 236, are correct (it is Lysiloma Sabicu ;) and specimens and seed- vessels from which young plants are raised at Kew, show the Cuba Bast to be a Malvaceous plant, the Paritium datum , Bich. (Hibiscus elatus, Sw . ), a tree scarcely to be distinguished from the P. tiliaceum, St. Hil. In this Class a Silver medal was awarded to the Ecole Forestiere de Villaviciosa for forest products, charcoal, and charcoal for drawing, woods, ashes, resins, barks, esparto, &c. &c., and a bronze medal to M. Carere and to M. F. Fonorella for corks. XXXIV— PORTU GAL AND ITS COLONIES. Portugal and ITS Colonies. As a whole, this is a rather extensive collection, though Portuguese deficient in correct and scientific nomenclature, as well as collection; in arrangement. There is, however, a catalogue which tensive, assists in pointing attention to some of the products, such as — Pine Wood , Pitch , Tar, and Spirits of Turpentine , sent from the General Administration of Forests. Resin from the Plum-tree , Orchill. A very good collection of Portuguese Woods, fairly nume- Woods, rous, but ill-named ; 18 are cut into long pieces and smoothed ; among them are fine specimens of the Orange , the Ilex (and its bark for tanning). Fig, Stone-Pine, Seaside Pine , and Cedar (very good). Cork , in large sheets and cut. Amadou , &c. Acorns for tanning and Myrtle leaves for the same pur- pose. Resin from the Cedar. Woods employed for building purposes. Timber from the Black Oak, Wallnut , and Carob tree. Textile Barks , Rushes and Reeds for mats. IAme-Flowers. Baskets, and Bags of Agave. Palm leaves , and Sabots of the same. Woods of Madeira, unnamed and small, but some very beautiful, and numerous small articles of marqueterie. 3. L 146 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Sir w. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Portugal and ITS Colonies. Fibres. Austria. Austrian collection : eminently rich in woods ; valuable information afforded respecting them ; te Tucula ” (?) wood; from Angola. “ Orseille v (?) Copal Resin from Angola, Benguela, and from Ambrisete and Guissama. Lichens. Dragon's Blood and Elemi from the same. Baskets and Mats made of Masseta (the Reed-mace, Typha) very large. Vegetable Fat from Mafura. Manna from Cape Delgrado. Purgative powder. Mats from Mo- zambique, (made of Raphis vinifera). Wood of Teea and of Sico. Coffee from wild plants at Solar and Timor. Fibre , marked from “ Sanseviera Angolensis ” (which is a MS. name of Dr. W elwitsch for a remarkable new species of Sanseviera , with long stout terete leaves : it is now in cultivation at Kew). The cordage and rope made of this plant appear to the eye of excellent quality, whatever experience may prove them to be. The Sansevieras are remarkable, in general, for the strength and tenacity of their fibre, so that one kind is called “ Bowstring Hemp/’ “ Jonca ” is the fibrous leaf of Cyperus longus (?), used in making mats and baskets. Brooms of Cocoa-nut fibre. Various other Samples of Woods and different products, bearing no name, and therefore conveying no information. In this Class a Bronze Medal was awarded to the “Arsenal de la Marine a Lisbonne ” for Woods, & c. of Portugal: a Bronze Medal to Dr. Barral for a collection of Woods of Madeira ; and to the Conseil des Colonies a Lisbonne, for Orchil. XXXV— AU STRIA. In this extensive and valuable collection, the Woods were the portion which chiefly fell to the inspection of Class II. And here the task was facilitated by the guidance of a most intelligent and enlightened gentleman, M. Kreuter,* than whom it were difficult to point out any individual equally well informed upon all matters connected with Forestry, whether as regards the natural state (so abundant in the Austrian Dominions), or the planting of new Forests, or the nature and value of Woods. Austria possesses, indeed, a vast amount of Timber, which her Government wisely seeks to turn to the most profitable account. Unfortunately, the best kinds are yielded by the most mountainous districts, from * On his return to Vienna, in February 1856, M. Kreuter published, in the “ Allgemeine Land-und Forstwirthshaftliche Zeitung,” an interesting but brief notice of the “ Forest Economy ” of the Great Paris Exhibition, specially alluding to the Austrian Department, from which some of the following infor- mation is obtained. The “ Catalogue special des Envois d’ Autriche,” is little more than a List of Contributors’ names, with the exception of a Statistical Preface. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Austria. 147 whence the difficulty and cost of removal are very great ; Sir w. and it is an acknowledged fact that the same sort or species vegetable of Tree, whether Oak or Pine, which affords most admirable PsoDUCTS » wood in the poor soil of the elevated mountains, is nearly Austria. valueless, except for firing, at the foot of the hills, and in the accessible plains, where there is a richer soil, washed down from the high ground, and a far wanner climate. Many of the samples of Timber in this Collection are corroborative of this assertion. A box of Seedling Specimens , from Bohemia, two years old, illustrates the principal Trees cultivated in Bohemia : they are Pinus sylvestris and Picea, Larix , Fraxinus excelsior , and Quercus Robur. They are grown on a poor soil, and sown in ridges, (the ridges being made artificially to give them a greater depth of earth;) and the second year they are planted in the forests. Samples of Oak and Pine are particularly fine ; they are fine s P eci ~ in longitudinal and transverse section (with the bark on), and both rough and smoothed ; some were nearly 6 feet in diameter, and of most perfect growth. A section of Pinus Pinea, from the forests of Silesia, at an elevation of 4,500 feet, and in very poor soil, has 220 rings. Larch from Galitzia, grown at a great elevation on the mountains, has 280 rings, and is only 2 feet in diameter; the wood is very compact and valuable. The same tree, at the foot of the mountains, with only 250 rings, is 3J feet in diameter and the wood is worthless. The former is so ex- cellent in quality that it repays the enormous expense of cutting into planks on the spot and sending them for 20 miles, on men’s backs, to a cheaper line of conveyance on level ground ; these planks are much sought for as sounding- boards of musical instruments in England. Noble specimens are exhibited, some in block, from 20 to 30 feet long: one unrivalled sample had 430 concentric rings in a diameter of only 14 inches. Whereas the common size of a section, with that number of rings, is thrice as big. Besides various native woods, the collection includes the numerous implements used by foresters, some of which well merit attention, especially two kinds of dibbles, one for planting out seedlings, (taken up in the second year,) and the other for planting those of 4 — 6 years old. Knoppern * is the name given to a peculiar kind of Gall Gails of acorns, — — — — — called Knop* * This Gall was pronounced by some naturalists to be quite a new species, and hitherto only known to be produced in the forest of Hungary. The following account of it is given in a hand-bill, which was distributed by the exhibitor : — “ The Knoppern is simply an excrescence of the acorn ; it is abundant in Hungary, and it fetches a considerable sum. It is by no means an universal L 2 148 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir w. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Austria. Medicinal plants, &c. which affects the acorn of the Oak, and forms large, crest-like, thick and spongy excrescences. The Insect which causes them abounds in some years more than others, and an abundant harvest of Knoppern yields an immense revenue to the proprietor of the forest which is thus affected. They are stated to be largely purchased in Britain for tanning leather. The commoner globose Galls (Cynips Quercus) are of no value. It would be very desirable to determine the exact insect which causes the Knoppern ; specimens of the Oaks producing them show the trees to be the Quercus peduncu- lata and Q. pubescens. Amadou is amply exhibited ; but the sale of this substance has much declined since the invention of Lucifers. Old decayed Holly-wood forms good Amadou. There is a rather considerable collection of cultivated Seeds , &c., and of medicinal Plants ; the most interesting is the production ; nor is it always to be found on the identical trees which generally yield it. Not every acorn-bearing Oak has Knoppern growing on it ; it is confined to the species or variety, called Quercus stagnosa, which inhabits valleys and damp marshy places. And even on this tree, it only appears when the nights are warm and rainy, and towards the end of July and beginning of August ; it is then that the outer coat of the acorn is softened and punctured by the Insect, and the heat of the sun draws out the sap, which forms this curious excrescence. The hotter the weather is, the larger are the Knoppern , and the more easily do they drop to the ground, where they are regularly gathered up with the least possible delay, as the damp earth would spoil their quality and colour; for which reason the Knop- pern should be dried for five or six days in the sun, and then turned over many times a day' for some weeks, to prevent their becoming mouldy. Thus dried, they sell for various purposes, and chiefly for tanning leather. In a favourable season, these galls are so abundant, that a single large Marsh Oak will produce as many as fetch 250 francs on an average; but the price varies prodigiously', from 10 francs to 40 francs the kilogramme, according as it is a good or bad season for them. They are chiefly exported to England, Germany', and other parts of Austria ; and the trade is now in the hands of the Jews.” Since my return to England I learn from my excellent friend, Mr. Hanbury, the following additional particulars : — “ These galls are not unknown in commerce ; the best account of them to which I haveaccess at this moment is in Martiny’s Encyklopadie (1S47,) a German book. He says they are commonly called (by pharmaceutists , I presume.) Gallce quercus calycis, and that the insect occasioning them is the Ci/nijis quercus calycis of Entomologists. Further, that these galls are largely produced in Hungary, Moravia, Sclavonia, Styria, &c. , and that the towns of Pesth, Oldenburg, and Trieste, are the places where the trade in them is chiefly carried on. The Estates of Prince Esterhazy, in Hungary, are said to produce a large supply of this gall. For representations of Knoppern, Martiny quotes Zenker — MerJcantil Waarenk , Bd. iii., Taf. 49, fig. 8. 9., and llayne — Arzneneigewachse , Bd. xii. Taf. 47, fig. 6. 7., Guibourt in his Hist, des Drog. t. ii. p. 280. figures the gall in question as Gallon de Hongrie ou du Piemont. Perhaps even his Galle corniculee, fig. 139, is the same thing. Pereira quotes him in his Elements of Materia Mecuca, vol. ii. p. 1226. “In most of the samples of the galls I procured, the gall has completely invested the acorn, which lies concealed inside. Its origin seems to bl invariably frorri the cup of the acorn. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Austria. 149 root, raw and prepared, of Rhubarb , Rheum Emodi (R. australe of Don.) Teasels for dressing cloth are of excellent quality ; and no machinery has yet been invented which adequately re- places them. They are extensively cultivated in Hungary, and also collected from the wild plant, and sent by way of Prague to England, &c. Of Bast, from Tilia Europasa, there are line specimens : the raw material and some even made into artificial flowers. It has been an article of great consumption for out-door Mats, and for the gardener’s use in tying up plants ; but, for the latter purpose, it was for a time superseded by Cuba Bast. A small box contains, 1. The core, or receptacles of the grains of the ears of Indian Corn or Maize, which, in time of scarcity, have been advantageously converted into nourishing bread or biscuit. 2. The core broken down. 3. The same still more pulverized. 4, 5, 6, 7. The flour, into which the core is converted, in various degrees of fineness (the seeds having been removed). 8. Flour from the seeds or grains, show- ing the difference. — A basket of the biscuits is placed beside this box. The Statistical Preface to the Austrian Catalogue asserts that an entire third of that Empire is clothed with forests, which annually furnish 17 millions of “ cubic cords ” of wood, of all descriptions. In some provinces, the country is almost wholly covered with trees : in others, the proportion is small. This circumstance, combined with the different prices of labour, the irregularity of demand (for steam-engines, rail- ways, steam-ships, &c.) cause an extreme disparity in the value of wood in various parts of the Austrian Empire, so that while timber is extensively exported, it is also largely imported from Switzerland and Piedmont. The average value of the yearly exportation of wood, for building and fuel, in blocks, logs, beams, rafters, planks, laths, &c„ amounted in 1852 to upwards of 27 millions of francs (more than a million of pounds sterling). Charcoal, especially for foundries, is also an important branch of industry, and gives employment to upwards of 5,000 workpeople. It is however, but little exported. Entire districts, especially in the mountain vallies of Bohemia and Tyrol, are inhabited by workers in fine wood, inlaid floors, marquetery , 8fc. Cabinet-work is chiefly pursued atVienna, Prague, and Milan, and furniture was thence exported, in 1852, to the value of a million and a half of francs. Fancy articles and wood turnery are almost confined to Milan, where the name of intarslatura has been given to this kind of in- dustry for many centuries. Sir W. Hooker ox Vegetable Products. Austria. Biscuits made from the core of maize. Austrian forests ; their value. Charcoal. 150 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Austria. Articles of wooden manufac- ture, as car- riages and musical instru- ments. Its woods, <&c. Carriages and Musical instruments, especially Pianofortes, must by no means be overlooked among the Austrian pro- ductions which make a demand on the forests ; the latter are much esteemed, and in Vienna alone about 3,000 are made every year. Ship-building is conducted principally at Trieste, Venice, and Fiume, with a steadily increasing activity. Reckoning the hulls and masts and spars of a ship to be strictly articles of wooden manufacture, the annual value of ship-building is estimated at between two and three millions of francs, and that of repairs at a quarter of a million. Boats for river navigation, to be used on the Danube, Elbe, &c., and steam-vessels must also be added. M. Kreuter gives his testimony to the importance of the Austrian Forests in very striking words. He says, “ Shall we be told that it is needless to exhibit samples of Oak, Elm, Fir, and Larch, because everybody knows these woods? True ; but still it was these very specimens which attracted the greatest attention, from their strikingly superior perfec- tion of growth, and their admirable quality, excelling even the specimens from British North America. Besides,' now is the time when Timber for ship-building is in unusual request; and it was universally allowed that the Austrian Oak is superior to all others in dimensions and quality. One section, from an oak 64 years old, measured 3 feet in diameter, and elicited the admiration of ship-builders and engineers of all nations.” Austrian Fir is equally valuable as Austrian Oak ; no wood is so good for the sounding-boards of musical instruments. The establishment of railroads causes an immense demand ‘for timber ; each sleeper measures 3 cubic feet, and one mile of single rails requires 8,000 sleepers, which lasting on an average 5 years, gives a yearly demand for 1,600 sleepers, or 160,000 sleepers for every hundred miles. Austria is always laying down new railways. The ingenious process of Dr. Boucherie (noticed under French Collection, next page), who impregnates timber with metallic oxydes, thus rendering almost incorruptible the softer Avoods of Birch , Beech, Maple, &;c., which could not otherwise be used underground, will greatly increase the supply of sleepers, besides saving the more valuable trees. Ingenious machinery, for manufacturing barrels, by which half the cost is spared, by making half the quantity of wood serve the purpose, is also exhibited. Government is taking measures to secure the national orests, those sources of the empire’s wealth. In conclusion, it is much to be desired that Austrian culti- vators should introduce the Conifers of the East Indies and North America. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Austria. 151 A Bronze Medal in this Class was awarded to the Domaine Ho s J E E Y‘ oir imperial de Brandeis, and to Count de Zamryski for Woods, Vegetable and Honourable Mention to Messrs. Daply and De Kubiyi Peo ^_ cts - for Knoppern, and to Count d'Elz. Austria. XXXVL— FRANCE. Prance. In the Department of Class II., France (exclusive of its^JJ^. Colonies), exhibits but few and miscellaneous objects : bJtionsto Woods of Corsica. — *20-30 large Planks, in the Agricult- Class n. not ural Department, sent by the Administration of Forests in numerous; Corsica, to whom “ Honourable Mention ” has been awarded. A duplicate collection has been presented by the French Government to the Museum of the Royal Gardens at Kew. M. Boucherie showed his process for impregnating trun- cheons of wood with sulphate of copper, the liquid, in less than two minutes, oozing out at both extremities. M. Bou- cherie regrets that the English do not patronize his invention, which is extensively employed in France for the sleepers, &c. of railways. This neglect on the part of our country was the less to be expected, because the “ Jury Report ” upon this subject, on the occasion of the Great Exhibition of 1851 (p. 153), was eminently favourable and complimentary, and a Prize Medal was awarded for the discovery. So fully indeed is the process described there that I shall only give the concluding remarks of a “ Report on the results of Dr. Boucherie’s process for preparing woods,” in a pam- phlet, circulated at the Paris Exhibition. a We conclude, process for from what has been stated, that Dr. Boucherie has in- SShighiy vented very simple and practical processes for permeating im P° rtant - the interior of portions of white wood of all dimensions, with prepared fluids, which promote their preservation. That this injection, even with substances most favourable to penetration, is most speedily performed when a tree is fullest of watery sap, and is most recently felled. That certain descriptions of wood are utterly impenetrable by these solvents. That, among the various fluids tried by M. Boucherie, the sulphate of copper dissolved in the proportion of at least 1 kil. 50 (3 lbs. 6 oz.) in the hecto- litre (42-| cubic feet) of water is the only -one which has maintained in perfect preservation for seven years the pieces of beech and of hornbeam submitted to experiment. These were permeated by sulphate of copper in the proportion of 5 to 6 kil. (11-12 lbs.) to the stere (35J cubic feet). That white woods, thus imbued and laid in the ground for sleepers of railways, last longer than those of oak placed in the same situations. That it, therefore, follows that it would be 152 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Fraxce. Agricultural and useful plants, shown by M. Vilmorin. M. Charn- brelent’s success in planting and fertilizing the Landes, near Bayonne. desirable in future to use white woods, similarly prepared with sulphate of copper, whenever they can be employed in the above-mentioned situations.”— In France this process has been most favourably received. In the forest of Compiegne M. Boucherie has establishments for felling and preparing the timber for the Government railroads on a very large scale, and a“ Grande Medaille d’Honneiir” has been awarded to him by the Jury of 1855. The noble and very extensive Agricultural Collection of MM. Vilmorin, Andrieux, and Co., contains several objects that might be claimed by our Section, viz., an extensive collection of the Seeds of usef ul Plants , native and cultivated ; specimens of Tertile Plants; others, which are used for dyeing and for economical purposes; Woods, with their applications, especially the different kinds that can be ad- vantageously employed for hoops in cooperage: Cones of Pines, Oils, Spirits, Primitive Substances, with the plants from which they are derived. A highly valuable set of Drawings, first-rate in execution, of the species and varieties of plants cultivated in France, contains many which are indigenous to that country. M. Chambrelent , of Bourdeaux, exhibits samples of young trees. Oaks and Pines, sown in the Landes or sandy plains of the Gironde in 1852, and cut in 1854, after the shoot of that year, and consequently presenting 4 rings, or circles, in the transverse section. These specimens attracted great attention,, being remarkable for their size taken in connexion with the well-established fact of their age (youth, rather,) and from the circumstance of their being reared in a district and upon a soil notorious for sterility. The Oak is a common oak (but whether Quercus pedunculata or Q. sessiliflora, does not appear) ; and the Pine is the Pinus maritima. Those cut in 1854 measured the tenth of a metre (or 4 English inches) in diameter at the base, and 4 metres (or 13 feet 4 inches) high.* They had been taken up and officially sealed (or stamped) by the magistrate himself, from a plantation of seed- lings of about 200 hectares (494 acres), in presence of a former Inspector of Forests, who had assisted in sowing them, as well as eight other persons, all of whom had sown (or seen sown these Landes. The Agricultural Society of the Gironde had watched and attested the striking vigour of the nursery plantation in question, and had adjudged 2 Gold Medals to the cultivator. These trees, the oaks especially, are beyond comparison the most favourable results that have ever been * Some cut in 18.55 and exhibited, were 17 and 18 feet high and 9 inches in circumference. Sections are in the Kew Museum, Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products , — France. 153 obtained. For, though the soil of the Landes generally suits T t. S i t eW ' oaks and firs, the casually sown plants never exceed, m the Vegetable same length of time, a height of 5£ feet to 6 J half feet. 1 E0 _^_ CTS ' The causes of the more favourable result seem to be : — Fjraxce. 1. The draining work which was performed before sow- ing the seeds, whereby the ground, which had always been covered with water in winter, is comparatively dried. 2. The arrangement of the seedlings in regular beds, inter- sected by open spaces, through which wind and air have free passage ; and 3. The facility with which it thus becomes practicable to water the ground, in the driest summer, by cheap and ex- peditious modes, and thus to moisten and fertilize this vast area of the Landes, where a burning sand shows no trace of surface water. The details of the expense are fully given in the pam- phlet, and may be summed up in rough numbers by saying, that the expense of each hectare (2J acres) containing 400 metres (or 1,300 feet) of draining-cuts, and 6 plantations of seedlings, .90 metres (or 300 feet) long by 10 metres (33 feet) broad, amounted to only 52 francs and 20 centimes (21. 2s.) including the trenching and digging, the purchase of the seed, and the planting of it. “We have since, says M. Chambrelent, sowed 300 more hectares (740 acres) on the same principle, and with equal success, as testified by the committee sent from the Agri- cultural Society of the Gironde ; and a very much larger extent of ground (3,500 hectares) 10,500 acres, has been similarly treated by a society which pursues our method. “ Nothing is now required for these nursery grounds than to let them alone: the trees will grow; and in 6 or 7 years after each sowing the produce will suffice to pay all expenses, and, judging by the oaks, may be calculated as eventually yielding annually, as much as 150 francs (61.) a hectare (2£ acres).” After stating these effects it seems well to glance at the Natural i country which has been hitherto so deplorably sterile, and Landes. llc which promises to be so valuable in future, and to say a few words on the improvement and culture of the Landes. The vast territory which is thus named is described in the pamphlet as lying between the sea and the valleys of the Garonne and the Adour. Its scattered huts and isolated clumps of fir are inaccessible in winter, by reason of the inun- dations of the surrounding country. And yet this desert is close to one of the largest towns of France, it enjoys the mildest of European climates, and is traversed by the Bayonne railway. Most important would it be to cultivate this great 154 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. SIR W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. France. Improve- ment to be expected. Especially a supply of valuable trees. extent of country, and many attempts have been made, but they have failed, through ignorance of the soil and its capabilities and its defects. The Landes are farther described by M. Chambrelent, an almost perfect level, from 160 to 190 feet above the sea; the surface is sandy and arid, about two feet deep, resting on a stratum of impervious subsoil: it is composed of vegetable sub- stances and sand, and is, in fact, a sort of cement ; its name in the country is Alios. No spring of water; whatsoever, exists on the surface : no moisture is perceptible in summer ; while in winter the abundant rains, which characterize the vicinity of the ocean, fall in prodigious quantities for half a year, and finding no escape, either by superficial flowing or internal filtration, they remain stagnant till dried up in summer. Thus the district passes from half a year’s inundation in winter to burning sands in summer. The distressing con- sequences to man and beast may be imagined ; sickness and sterility ensue. And yet, experience has shown that, by processes nowise costly, the soil may be both dried in one season and moderately moistened at another, and that the profit will be incalculably great. It is obvious that trenching and draining, cutting through the hard surface, and carrying the cuttings in a direction which shall take advantage of the, however slight, natural slope of the ground, are the first requisites. The objections commonly raised to open ditches, viz., that they take up space, and that manure is washed into them and wasted, are inapplicable in the case of the Landes ; first, because the ground is comparatively little worth ; secondly, that the plantations of young trees absolutely demand free ventilation ; and, thirdly, in the matter of manure, that none is used or needed. These trenches are also a valuable safeguard against the destructive conflagrations which often prevail, in fir forests more especially, and wherever the soil is much overgrown with heath and brake, or strewed with branches and dead leaves. Trees will gradually improve the pure sand of the Landes and render it capable of agricultural operations ; and all the more surely because, bad as the soil is, it is not unfavourable to the fir and the oak, as may be seen by the magnificent specimens of these trees which always establish themselves in spots where there is a comparative exemption from inundation and from scorching. Trees, too, are a marked desideratum in France, especially for ship -building. Ever since the revolution of 1789, which was followed by the subdivision of land into innumerable small holdings, forests and woods have yielded more and Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — France. i 55 more to the axe ; and no new plantations having taken their sisf. places, the country is becoming gradually denuded of trees, vegetable Already, independent of the 3,500 and the 500 hectares PROr>UCTS - (10,000 acres) which are described, a great Insurance Com- France. pany and several large capitalists have turned their energies to the subject; and the President of the Association of the South, whose views on behalf of the Landes are very dis- criminating and liberal, even now possesses more than 10,000 hectares, (25,000 acres,) which will shortly be covered with seedling trees, and which will prove one of the most extensive forestal improvements in France. Government is now carrying new roads through the Landes. The railway facilitates this operation ; and incalcu- lable will be its benefits, especially in aiding agriculture, and thus bringing some profit out of the soil. In this Class a Silver Medal was awarded to M. Chambrelent. Various samples of Woods for Cabinet-work and other purposes are exhibited by different persons, but none are of a remarkable character. Mr. Millett , being engaged in a series of scientific experi- ments on the growth of trees as affected by the nature and peculiarities of the soil, exhibits a considerable number of specimens of the woods, and soils and rocks, from the forests of France. Insects injurious to woods, and the woods thereby injured, ^' e ^g C ‘ n and insects serviceable to agriculture, are exhibited by M. ^jurious^ Mocquerys, (Rue Grand Pont, Rouen), under the head of insects. “ Entomologie applique eV They are beautifully prepared in five large glazed cases ; the insects are correctly and scienti- fically named ; and such a collection cannot fail to be of great service to foresters, and to horticulturalists and agricul- turalists generally in Europe ; for without an acquaintance with the causes of the mischief done to trees and plants it is vain to attempt a remedy, and unless useful insects are known to us they will be liable to share the fate of the destructive ones. A collection of this kind already exists at the Museum of the Royal Gardens of Kew, which, by the purchase and addition of that now under consideration, is rendered extremely valuable. The following is a summary of the contents of the cases of M. Mocquerys : — Woods injured by certain Insects. 1. Oak icood, bored by the larvae of Cerambyx Her os. Damage 2. Oak wood , of which the heart and knots are pierced by woods by the larvae of Mesosa nubila. sects? 11 m ' 156 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker off Vegetable Products. Prance. 3. Beech wood , furrowed by the larvae of Phymatodes variabilis , and the holes whence the insects emerged. 4. Beech wood, pierced by the larva of Clytus mysticus. 5. Apple-tree wood, perforated by the larva of Cerambyx Cerdo ; the insect, captured in its gallery, and the hole whence the perfect insect emerges. 6. Apple-tree wood, furrowed and perforated by the larvse and perfect insects of Sinodendron cylindricum. 7. Chestnut wood, furrowed by the larva of Hylot.rupes Bajulus. 8. Chestnut wood, perforated by the larvae of Clytus Arietis . 9. Hornbeam wood, furrowed by the larvae of Callidium Alni. 10. Branches of the Aspen Poplar, distorted and pierced by the larvae of Compsidia populnea. 11. Elm bark, channelled by the larvae of Scolytus de- structor ; and ditto, furrowed in all directions by the larvae of Scolytus pygmceus. 12. Fir-bark and wood, the bark is loosened from the tree by the work of the larvae of Hyluryus Piniperda, and the wood is full of holes, whence the perfect insects emerge. 13. Ash wood, and two pieces of bark, the latter seen within as attacked by the larvae of Hylesinus Fraxini, and externally showing the holes of exit of the insect ; also the wood grooved by the passage of the larvae. 14. Lime branches , of which the bark is bored by the larvae of Hylesinus serralicornis . 15. Hasel branch , perforated by the larvae of Clytus Arietis. 16. Maple branch, grooved by the larvae of Hylesinus vittatus. 17. Fir-bark, detached by the action of the larvae of Pissodes notatus, 18. Apple-tree tcood, containing the channels of the larvae and the habitation of a family of Tomicus monographus. 19. Pear-tree Wood, pierced like a sieve by the larvae of Valgus hemipterus. 20. Elm wood, perforated by the larvae and perfect insects of Rhyncolus cylindrirostris. 21. Beech wood, punctured and perforated by Phlceophagus ceneopiceus. 22. Fir tcood, injured by the larvae and perfect insects of Anobium Pertinax . 23. Wallnui-tree wood (seasoned), perforated by the larvae of the same. 24. Beech wood, pierced by the larvae of Anobium tessela- tum . * Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Trance . 157 25. Oak wood (seasoned), furrowed by the larvae of the H( ® ) 1 J^J’* olr same. vegetable 26. Poplar wood, attacked by the larvae of Hedobia Pfi0 ^f TS - imperialis. France. 27. Osier boughs , attacked by Cryptorhynchus Lapathi. 28. Fir branches , attacked by Pissodes notatus. 29. Wheat grains , attacked by Sitophilus granarius. 30. Maize, attacked by Sitophilus Oryz.ee. 31. Peas , attacked by Bruchus Pisi. 32. Lentils, attacked by Bruchus rufimanus. 33. Lentils (Egyptian), attacked by Bruchus Mocquerysii. 34. Beans, attacked by Bruchus fiavimanus. 35. Vetches, attacked by Bruchus granarius. Coleopterous Insects, — Injurious to Agriculture, Hor- ticulture , Sylviculture, fyc. 1. Melolontha vulgaris, Linn., M. albida, Dej., and M. insects Hippocastani, Fab. All these insects, whether in the perfect emXnTiy or grub state, do considerable damage to crops of grain and togrSn, lve to forests ; as grubs, they eat the seeds, and when perfect, wood > &>c *1 they strip the trees of all their foliage. 2. Rhizotrogus eestivus, Oliv. 3. Amphimallus ater , Herbst. All these have the same habits as the Melo- lontlice. 4. „ rufescens, Lat. 5. ,, solstitialis, Linn. 6. Anomala Juki, Pkl. 7. Phyllopertha horticola, Linn. _ 8. Agriotes graminicola, Linn. This insect lives indis- criminately on the roots and stems of Rye , Wheat, and Barley. 9. Agriotes Segetis, Bierk. The larva, in gnawing the root- stock of the Oat, destroys every plant which it attacks. 10. Sitophilus granarius, Linn. Whether in the larva or perfect state, this insect does infinite mischief in Corn grana- ries, destroying an immense quantity. 11. Bruchus Pisi, Linn. In the larva state it pierces the Pea, and remains there till perfect. 12. Bruchus jlavimanus, Shr. The Bean is attacked by the larva of this insect, which only emerges when perfect. 13. Bruchus rufimanus, Shr. Equally destructive to Lentils. 14. Bruchus nubilus, Dej. It destroys Vetches . 15. Apion apricans , Herbst. As a larva, this insect com- pletely destroys Clover seed . 158 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Sirw. 16. Attica oleracea.Fah. The Rape and many other allied Vegetable plants are entirely stnpt ot their leaves by this insect. Products. 17. Attica Lepidii, Ent. H. It infests all the Crucifer ce, France. an( j utterly destroys their leaves. 18. Attica atra , Pkl., and 19, A. Brassicce , Fab., have the same habits. 20. Psylliodes Rapes, Illig. Still more ruinous than the three preceding to the Cruciferce. 21. Phyllobius obtongus, Linn. It gnaws and destroys the grafts of Fruit-trees. 22. Bromius Vitis, Fab. It subsists on young Vines , gnawing their leaves and young buds. 23. Centorynchus sulcicollis , Gy 11. In the larva state, it causes tubercles on the root-stock and roots of Cabbages. 24. Hyturgus Piniperda, Linn. It resides in the larva state between the bark and wood of the Fir , and in the perfect state it cuts off the young shoots as clean as could be done by the gardener’s shears. 25. Hyturgus Ligniperda , Fab. Prodigiously destructive to the forests of Coniferce. 26. Hytastes ater , Pkl. Same habits as the previous species, and equally addicted to cutting off the shoots of young resinous trees. 27. Pissodes notatus , Fab. It injures orchard-trees and young Firs. 28. Hytobius Abietis, Linn. Ditto. 29. Agritus cyaneus, Oliv. The larvse destroy the Oak , Beech, and Birch. 30. Cerambyx Cerdo , Linn. The larvae live withinside the wood of the Appte-tree. 31. AEgosoma scabricornis. The larvae inhabit the wood of the Willow and Plane-trees. 32. Ancerea Car char ias, Linn. The larvae live inside the wood of Poplars and Aspens. 33. Compsidia populnea , Linn. Nearly the same habits as the two preceding species. 34. Saperda scalaris, Linn. Both in the larva and perfect state it perforates the Apple-tree. 35. Clytus arcuatus, Linn. It perforates the seasoned wood of the Elm with numerous holes. 36. Clytus quadripunctatus , Fab. Ditto the Birch. 37. Clytus Arietis , Linn. Ditto the Beech and Elm. 38. Clytus mysticus , Linn. Ditto the Beech. 39. Phymatodes variabilis, Linn. Ditto ditto. 40. Callidium sanguineum, Linn. It pierces, with many channelled holes, the wood of the Oak, when seasoned for use. Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — France. 159 41. Callidium Alni , Linn. It attacks and destroys the growing Alders . 42. Mesosa nubila, Oliv. It perforates the Oak with many tubular holes. Coleopterous Insects, — which are beneficial in Agricul- ture, Horticulture, and Sylviculture, Sfc. 1. Cicindela campestris, De Geer. Insects which are car- nivorous and subsist on other insects, and which, therefore, both in the perfect and larva state, destroy great numbers of the injurious kinds. 2. Cicindela hybrida, Linn. The same habits. 3. Procrustes coriaceus , Linn. This insects lives chiefly on the caterpillars of the forests. 4. Carabus auratus, Fab. In both states this insect wages constant war against snails, caterpillars, and larvae, of which it destroys a prodigious quantity. 5. Carabus auro-nitens, Fab. 6. )> catenulatus, Fab. 7. )> purpurascens, Fab. 8. » nemoralis. Mull. 9. 33 monilis , Fab. 10. Si cancellatus, Illig. 11. Si granulatus, Linn. 12. Si arvensis, Fab. 13. 33 do. var. Pomeranus, Oliv. 14. S3 convexus, Fab. 15. ss intricatus, Linn. of precisely habits. similar 16. Calosoma sycophanta, Linn. It subsists on all cater- pillars, especially the processionary kinds. 17. Poecilus cupreus, Linn. Equally addicted to the de- struction of injurious insects. 18. Omaseus melanarius , Illig. The same habits. 19. Steropus madidus, var. concinnus, Fab. Ditto. 20. Abax striola, Fab. Ditto. 21. Staphylinus nebulosus , Fab. These insects, in both states, prey exclusively on snails and caterpillars and kill great quantities of them. 22. Staphylinus murinus, Linn. 23. „ cesareus, Cedh. 24. „ chalcocephalus, Fab. 25. Ocypus oleus, Muller. 26. „ cyaneus, Pkl. 27. Silpha. quadripunctata. It lives in forests, and sub- The same habits. sists on the caterpillars which are found there. SlR w. Hooker on Vegetable Products. Prance. Insects which are useful to grain, wood, &c. 160 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Hooker os ^8. Thanasimus formicarius , Fab. Both in the larva and vegetable perfect state it actively preys on the larva? which infest Pboducts. an( ] particularly those of the Bostrichi. France. 29 . Lampyris noctiluca , Linn. These insects, commonly known as glow-worms, feed, when in the larva state, on the garden snail. 30. Drilus Jiavescens , Fab. This insect also subsists on snails and slugs. 31. Coccinella septempunctata, Linn. The larva? feed ex- clusively on the wood-lice which infest so many of our plants. 32. Adalia bipunctata , Linn. I 33. Myrrha octodecimguttata, Linn. > The same habits. 34. Propylea quatuordecimpunctata. J workf'the Basket-work. — There were many beautiful samples of best osiers “ vannerie, line et commune,” and, what was more to the rose. 1 purpose of our Class, good samples of the raw material as cut from the osier-grounds, accompanied in one instance by an excellent pamphlet which merits wide circulation. It is entitled “ Traite pratique de la culture de TOsier et de son usage dans Tinclustrie de la vannerie, fine et com- mune, orne de quatre planches, suivi d'un apercu sur l’art du Vannier, par A. Moitrier, ancien ouvrier Yannier. The kinds M. Moitrier recommends for the best twigs are, 1. “ Le Romarin oil Queue de Renard ,” the best of all ; 2. il La Petite Grisette ,” of good quality, but not of such vigorous growth as the preceding ; “ l' Osier noir” ; te V Osier vert ou franc, et la Gravalanche : these two of good quality. Such are the tff noms du pays ” in the osier districts of France ; and if the botanical names had been given, other countries would have benefitted the more by this pamphlet. Acacia tree; Acacia- hoops. — M. Moussillar, of Beole, Gironde, exhibited its ut.htj . a cf ]yj eu j e q e (J 0uze cercles d’acacia,” and happily accom- panied by a pamphlet entitled “ Observations sur la culture et l’utilite de l’acacia (Robinia pseudo-acacia).” Here seems to be another of the many uses for which this graceful tree, a native of the United States, may be advantageously em- ployed. The attempt for cultivate this tree for profit in England, at the suggestion (and mainly from the nursery) of the celebrated Mr. Cobbett, proved a failure ; our climate not being such as to bring the tree to perfection except in sheltered positions, the branches were very brittle. But m France the hot summers are favourable to the ripening of Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. — France. 161 the wood, and one sees even the waste ground along the sides of the railway, lines bordered with this tree. If ex- perience should prove the correctness of M. Moussillar’s statements, it is well worthy the attention of foreign arbori- culturists. Many interesting Economical Plants in the rough state (produits brutes) are in the section, called Produits Chy- miques, viz. — ■ Zoster a, for making paper, (in many northern countries the same substance is extensively collected for stuffing cushions, pillows, and mattrasses). Noble specimens of Kousso ( Bray era anthelmintica). Angelica , roots and seeds (the former very large). Cudbears from various localities ; and Orchills. M. Mocquery s received “ Honourable Mention"’ for his col- lection of insects, M. Moitrier for basket-work, and M. Mous- sillar for hoops of acacia. XXXVII.— GREAT BRITAIN. (Commissioner : Henry Cole, Esq., C.B.) As might be expected, wherever the land is extensively and highly cultivated, and where the arts are brought to great perfection, there, as in Great Britain and its sister country, France, and in Northern Europe generally, we find great richness in manufactured articles, and corresponding poverty in those productions which fall under our Depart- ment, namely, Raw Vegetable Products. The native Woods * of the United Kingdom are known to every one; and its Fibres are chiefly exhibited in the marketable form, being, indeed, mainly derived from cultivated plants. Some objects, however, are worthy of notice, though generally ranged under heads alien from Class II. British Agriculture, for example, was admirably repre- sented (by the Board of Trade) : it included a good collec- * In the “ Notes on the Trade and Commerce of the United Kingdom,” given in the “ Catalogue of the Woods exhibited in the British Section of the Paris Universal Exhibition, 1855,” the Forests are alone and very slightly noticed, to the effect that the gross value of timber in England and Wales is estimated at from 40 to 50 millions sterling; that in the total area of the Royal Forests there are 122,622 acres ; that 51,612 acres besides are enclosed for the growth of timber; and that the entire extent of woodland in Scotland is cal- culated at about one million of acres. Ireland is, comparatively, destitute of timber. 3. M Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products. France. Some useful plants. Great Britain. British col- lection : unavoidably limited, as to wild native pro- ductions, the land being too gen ('rally cultivated. 162 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sib W. Hookeb on Vegetable Peoducts. Geeat Bbitain. Messrs. Lawson’s agricultural and econo- mic collec- tion. Mr. Archer’s cabinet. tion of Woods used for construction,* both native and cultivated exotics, though very inferior to the Woods shown by Peter Lawson and Sons, in the Crystal Palace of 1851. A Collection, still more interesting, because more difficult to be obtained, included the Cones of the various Pines which have been recently introduced into our arboreta and pleasure-grounds, especially from the Himalaya Mountains, and from the New World. From the United States, Oregon, California, and the elevated regions of Mexico, there were Fibres of various kinds, and native Dyeing Materials. This vast collection was principally formed in Scotland by Messrs. Peter Lawson and Son, whose own exhibition in the Crystal Palace in 1851, must be fresh in the recollection of every one. All the objects have been arranged under the superintendence of Professor Wilson, the distinguished in- dividual who holds the Chair of Agriculture in Edinburgh. The two following collections are placed in the Educational Department, but they assuredly deserve notice from our Class. Mr. Archer, who collected the Liverpool imports which were exhibited in 1851, and who is the intelligent author of Popular Economic Botany , sends a Cabinet with 8 drawers, each divided into compartments which hold specimens of the more important Vegetable Products, correctly named, viz., * Professor Wilson, in his admirable lecture delivered at Edinburgh and since published, “on the Agriculture of the French Exhibition,’’ has the follow- ing remarks on timber for naval purposes: “ In ship-building, about 40 cubic “feet (in round numbers) are required per ton, — say 32 cubic feet for the hull, “arid 8 for fittings: this would give for a ship of 1,000 tons, 32,000+ 8,000 “ cubic feet. The two main elements for the builders’ consideration are strength “ and specific gravity, both separately and in relation to each other. The value “ of the former is not so generally determined as that of the latter, which was, “ for that reason, the principal object of the experiments alluded to. Let us see, “ therefore, how far the specific gravity of the timber influences the ship. The “first-class Woods entered at Lloyd’s are eight in number, viz., English Oa/c, “ American Oak , African Oak, Moruvg Sal or Malabar Teak, East India Teak, “ Greenheart, Mora, and Iron-Bark j and these differ considerably in specific “gravity. A cubic foot of English Oak weighs 40 lbs. ; of American Oak, “ 46 lbs. ; of African Oak, 50 lbs. ; of Malabar Teak, 39 lbs. ; of Mora, 62 lbs. ; “of Iron-Bark, 65 lbs. Besides these, other Woods are largely used, as Hon - “ dur as Mahogany, which weighs 31 lbs. per cubic foot ; Eucalyptus, 50 lbs. ; “ Canada Pine, 22 lbs.; and Cedar, 25 lbs. “ Now, taking these specific gravities into calculation, the hull of a 1,000 ton “ship would require, of English Oak, 572 tons; of American Oak, 657 tons; “ of African Oak, 714 tons, of Teak, 537 tons; of Mora, 885 tons ; of Eu- “ calyptus, 714 tons ; and of Iron-Bark, no less than 930 tons While it would u require of Mahogany only 443 tons; of Canada Pine, 316 tons; or of Cedar, it 362 ton>-'. Taking the two extremes, Iron-Bark and Canada Pine, a difference is shown of 614 tons, nearly 200 per cent., in the displacement tonnage of the vessel, and in the consequently increased capacity for freight.” Sir W. Hooker on Vegetable Products . — Great Britain. 163 1, Fibres. 2, Miscellaneous. 3, Spices. 4, Materia Medica. sirw. 5, Dye-Woods. 6. Dye-Stuffs and Tannins. 7, HardWoods. vegetable 8, Building-Woods : — a very extensive and useful series. Products. The Rev. J. S. Henslow , Professor of Botany in the Uni- BRrrAiir versity of Cambridge, exhibits two large cases containing a Profe ^r r most extensive series of Fruits and Seeds analyzed, showing Hensiow’s their external and internal structure, the embryo and its seeds! and different parts, the albumen, & c., &c., illustrated by drawings and engravings and by models of wax (the latter are un- fortunately almost destroyed, probably from the package containing the cases having been placed near the furnace or funnel of the steam- vessel which conveyed them). The whole is a work of great industry, and exceedingly instruc - tive, displaying much botanical knowledge. A Silver Medal was awarded. It would have been better appreciated by the Jury of Class II. British Herbs and Extracts.— About 100 beautifully pre- Mr. Kent’s pared British Medicinal Herbs and Extracts. The colour medicinal and forms of the plants, whether dried or as in some instances plants - immersed in liquid, are most wonderfully preserved by pro- cesses peculiar to Mr. Kent , the exhibitor, a gentleman who obtained much and deserved notoriety at the Exhibition of 1851, by his Pharmaceutical preparations of British Herbs, now in the Museum of the Boyal Gardens, Kew. The present collection far excels Mr. Kent’s first series, and by the Jury of Class XII. was considered to merit the Silver Medal. XXXVIII.— SWEDEN. Sweden. (Commissioner : M. C. Brandstrom.) Considering the northern position of this country and its collection • therefore limited amount of useful Vegetable Products, it highly res- makes a fair figure in the Exposition, chiefly, indeed, by its contains’fme Woods. There are sections of very fine trees : — -Firms Abies , trees mensof 4-5 feet in diameter ; Pinus sylvestris , 4 feet. Alnus incana , the Northern or Mountain Alder, is a tree now extensively reared, and on the Swedish mountains it grows rapidly, making excellent charcoal, and attaining a diameter of half- a-foot in 1 0 years. Sections, three feet across, are in the Ex- hibition. Beech is four feet in diameter. Birch is much used for boxes. Excellent basket-work is shown of peculiar make, woven of the bast of Lime , and dyed blue at the edge with a mountain berry ( Vaccinium ). These baskets are sold for a sou and a half. A handsome cabinet with drawers, made of the Mountain Elm (Ulmus montana) ; beautiful coopers’ work in small barrels for holding snuff ; and hand- M 2 164 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. France. Articles made of wood : as matches. Maize in Sweden. Norway. Norwegian collection : a few woods only. Switzer* i»and. some drinking-cups and buckets, with lids, the bottoms of Beech , the sides of Juniper , and the slender hoops of Willow : all these are offered at extremely low prices. Pinewood is extensively used in Sweden for making Matches, and re- markably neat Allumettes are prepared of it. A manufactory of these articles was established in 1845, at Jonkoping, which employs about 400 workmen. The machines for cutting the matches are propelled by a steam-engine, and they turn out about eight millions of matches, in 80,000 wrappers, every day. The chief sale is in Sweden, Norway, and in England. These matches are said to be remarkable for their easy, silent, and infallible ignition, during all states of climate and of weather, which renders them peculiarly valuable for sea-store ; while the mode of packing them securely guards against spontaneous ignition. They are also safe from ex- plosion, being made without any phosphorus or such sub- stance, and they are kindled by very slight friction, without blaze, smoke, or disagreeable smell. Specimens of the matches from the manufactory are exhibited. One is surprized to see plants of Maize which had grown and ripened in Sweden. At Smoland, in the south part of the kingdom, they had attained to 11-12 feet long in two months. The soil is rich and the maturing of the grain is alleged to be due to the strong and long-continued action of the sun. In this Class a Bronze Medal was awarded to M. Man- ner skauts for samples of Woods. XXXIX— N OH W AY. (Commissioner : M. E. Tidemand). Norway contributes nothing to our Class and Section but very fine planks and boards of Spruce ( Abies excelsa ) and sections of trunks and planks of Pine (. Pinus sylvestris ;, pitch and tar and other products of the Pine tribe, panniers made of roots of trees, and boxes neatly carved by the peasantry, especially of Birch and Lime. Various Woods, viz., Alder, Oak, Beech, Birch, Spruce, Elm, Juniper, White-Beam (Pyrus Aria). XL.— SWITZERLAND. (Commissioner : M. Le Colonel Barman). The Corporation of the Bourgeoisie of Neuchatel send specimens of Spruce from the forests of La Joux. Sir TV. Hooker on Vegetable Products. — Baden . 165 Sir W. XLI.-GBAND DUCHY OF BADEN. SS Products. (■Commissioner : M. Dietz, Counsellor to the Minister of the Interior of the — • Grand Duchy), Baden. Exhibits a collection of all the kinds of Useful Timber (Bois de sciage) of the Grand Duchy, and a collection of cut laths and planks (planches et lattes scides). XLXI.-PBUSSXA. Prussia. (Commissioner : M. George de Viebahn). Oak staves are exhibited in this Class, and Moss, (Poly- trichum commune*) raw and manufactured into brushes and brooms. XLIIL— SAXONY. Saxony. (Commissioner : M. leDocTEUR Waldemar Setffarth). Thin sheets (feuilles) of Acacia and Maple , cut with a circular saw. Summary. With a view to the chief object of this Deport, as con- ®h“^p r ^ rt of tained in the instructions of the President of the Lords of the its object, ’ Committee of Privy Council for Trade ; viz., “ The Vege- table Products obtained without culture, and contained chiefly in the sixth section of Class II. in the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855, viewed with special reference to the position which the United Kingdom there holds as compared with Foreign Countries, and to the progress, if any, which has been made since 185 1,” it becomes my duty, after the preceding notice of the several collections of this class and section, and the occasional remarks thereupon, to institute this comparison and to draw my conclusions. And this I shall do as briefly as the subject will allow, and with all practicable care. It must be confessed, that in comparing the London Exhibition of 1851 and that in Paris of 1855, a difficulty arises from the different arrangement in the respective Exhibitions and catalogues; for, whereas in the Paris Exhibition these vege- table products are chiefly comprised, as just observed, in Class II. and Section 6, and each country has its contributions * In many rural districts of England and Scotland excellent brushes and brooms, hassocks and baskets, are made of the long wiry stems of this abundant moss. 166 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Utility of collections much de- pendent on the infor- mation sent with them. so classified : in the English Exhibition and Catalogue there is a double arrangement ; lstly. A classified series, according to the nature of the products of British contributors; and 2dly, of colonies and foreign countries. In the Colonies, the objects belonging to our class and section stand in the catalogue without any sort of order or arrangement, while in the clas- sified series they are placed in three different classes ; for example, under 1, “ Chemical and pharmaceutical products 2, under “ substances used as food and 3, “vegetable sub- stances used in manufactures and these three classes are by no means confined to the products to which our attention was to be especially directed. It should be borne in mind also that my duties are restricted as much as possible to vegetable products obtained without culture, and chiefly to raw materials, and to a notice of their immediate uses and applications, exclusive of the more finished and manufactured results, thus embracing objects often little attractive to the eye of a casual visitor, but which are, never- theless, of the highest consequence to trade and commerce, medicine, the arts and domestic economy, &c., as affording materials for the artisan and mechanic in a thousand different ways.* It must be confessed, indeed, that the value of such collec- tions as have appeared in our two great Exhibitions does not depend so much on their quantity or variety as upon the in- formation with which they are accompanied, either attached to the samples or given in Catalogues, or described to the juries by the exhibitors, and the correctness of the names and of the localities of the plants yielding their several valuable pro- ducts. This cannot be accomplished to any extent and with a certainty of beneficial success without the aid of science, and especially botanical science ; and it will be incumbent on me to show that rich as is the collection now under immediate consideration in the Paris Universal Exhibition, and superior as it must rank in that point over the London Exhibition of * It is well known that this section of Class 1 1. was mainly represented in the Annexe of the Great Paris Exhibition, and we gladly quote the remarks upon this section given in the “Times” newspaper of September 26th, 1855: — “ The Annexe is not the most brilliant part ot the Paris Universal Exhibition ; but it commands by its contents the highest degree of attention and interest. While idle curiosity exhausts itself upon the more showy products of industry which are collected in the main building, here will be found the men who look carefully at the great sources of employment and national wealth, whose strong and mas- culine minds teach them to regard with feelings akin to contempt the thousand forms into which the caprices of fashion and taste cause the labour of the world to effloresce. Their thoughts are fixed with unalterable constancy upon those deep-set and broad foundations on which the fabric of human industry is raised, upon materials which the beneficent Creator has supplied in such abundance for our use.” Sir William Hooker on Vegetable Products. 167 1851 (indeed, it would be strange if it were not so, after the Ho s J EE Y' OI f glorious example set them on the previous occasion), yet the Vegetable want of scientific knowledge, and of accurate, or even any kind 1 _ — of information, has rendered collections that might have been knowledge of the greatest importance to the countries producing them, ^g pen ~ and to the world at large, worse than useless, a disappoint- ing heap of mere rubbish. Products are sent without even names ; and very frequently names are attached to products with which they had no sort of connexion. I proceed now to offer a few remarks on the relative collec- of 01 coiiec- on tions in the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1855. bSSi 85 i I. India and the Indian Archipelago (p. 4). Itandi855 ; is well known what exertions were made and with what superiority success by Dr. Hoyle, under the auspices of the India Com- indfancoi- r ’ pany, to render its contributions to the 1851 Exhibitioner- worthy of so vast and valuable a territory as India, and of those who govern it. Still greater preparations were made for Paris ; and it has been stated, we believe on good autho- rity, that no less a sum than 60,000/. was expended, and well spent too, by the Indian Company in the preparations for the Paris Exposition Universelle. Thus not only are the collections in our department (and the highly finished articles of vegetable origin in a still greater ratio) vastly increased, but the means of inspection are much facilitated by the arrangement of the raw products, especially of the fibre, each in its proper family to which it belonged, an arrange- ment due to the scientific knowledge of Dr. Hoyle.* In one department only, did we note a deficiency as compared with 1851, and that was in the collection of woods; and this we can attribute to two causes ; firstly, to want of space for such very bulky objects as would fitly represent the forestal value of so great a portion of Asia ; and secondly, the fact that there was little to add in that branch to what was shown in 1851. But, if the raw material was not here adequately represented, the various manufactured articles of native and other workmanship exhibited in the gallery of the Palais, were of the highest beauty aud interest. Long as our notice is (relating to the raw products, p.p. 4-32, give further accommodation to the extent of 13,000 square feet of mural glazed cabinets. And it is in every respect fortunate that the building is so far advanced ; for an addi- tional opportunity of acquiring valuable collections was afforded during last summer, when I was summoned by the French Imperial Commissioner to take an active part in the Jury of the Second Class at the Great Paris Exhibition. That Class, mainly relating to vegetable products, offered the very objects most requisite to enrich our collection. A grant of 200/. was accordingly obtained from the Treasury, to be expended in procuring such articles as were most important for the Kew Museum ; while the President of the Board of Trade liberally offered an equal sum. Thus provided, and further assisted by the several officers of the Science and Art Department of the Board of Trade, then in Paris, and enriched by numerous donations from many exhi- bitors, forty-eight large cases were transmitted to Kew. They contain Vegetable Products, many of them very rare and valuable, from Algeria, Australia, Austria, the East Indies, France, the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Jamaica, Mauritius, Norway, Prussia, Sardinia, Sweden, Tuscany, the United States, Tasmania, Victoria, Wurtemberg, &c., &c. All have arrived in safety, and their contents will go far towards filling up the surplus space in the new Museum. fc To say that this collection of vegetable products is ^hc Kew unrivalled, is saying little, and no more than might have being copied been asserted while the Museum was quite in its infancy, indXjpa^ since nothing of the same instructive kind had ever been &c - attempted. Ours is the gratification of having set the example, which is now being followed in several of our colonies (Jamaica, Demerara, Melbourne, &c-.). The East India Company is forming similar Museums in London, at Calcutta, and at Madras ; another has been attached to the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh ; and at the moment of drawing up this Report, I observe the following paragraph in the Liverpool “ Daily Post:” — A Museum of applied Science is recently founded, in connexion with the Royal Institution of this town. It contains already about 600 specimens, many of great value ; and as it has commenced with the vegetable substances, we purpose to follow out the plan which has afforded so much satisfaction and instruc- tion at the Museum of the Roygil Gardens of Kew.’ A small, but well-arranged, series of similar objects was formed, towards the close of the Paris Exhibition, by order of his N 2 180 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Sir W. Hooker ok Vegetable Products. Imperial Highness the Prince Napoleon ; and we are likely to have a powerful but honourable rival in the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. There, indeed, an un- exampled collection of woods, and other products connected with physiology and pure botany, has long been deposited, but with no approach to an Economic Museum, till now, when donations and purchases, made at the close of the Great Paris Exhibition, will lay the foundation of one there on a most extensive scale.” I have, &c. W. J. Hooker, K.H., and Knt. BacheL, F.R.S., and Director of the Royal Gardens of Kew. Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 181 On Indian and Colonial Products, useful as Food and for Manufactures. — By J. Forbes Boyle, M.D., F.B.S., &c., Professor of Materia Medicaand Therapeutics, King’s College, London. To the Bight Hon. the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Board of Trade. My Lord, As your Lordship thought it desirable that I, as well as others of the Jurors, should make a report on such subjects as we were engaged in examining at l’Exposition Univer- selle held at Paris in 1855, I have the honour of submitting the following observations on subjects which appear to me of general interest. I could have wished that the desire had reached me while occupied in the duties of my J ury, as many things might then have been noted, while passing through every part of the Exhibition, which would have formed ma- terials for a suitable report ; especially as most of the subjects treated of in my own Jury were more of a professional than of a general nature. My duties as a juror of Class XII. were, moreover, performed in conjunction with the charge of the great East Indian collection, which occupied so large a space both in the Annexe and in the Palais de l’lndustrie. As my time was necessarily much occupied, not only in arranging but in giving information respecting the contents of this de- partment, my report will be confined to India or the raw products of the Colonies, as this is a subject which I have long made a special object of study, and which I also attended to in the Exhibition of 1851. Baw products were then included in Class IV., of which I was a Juror; and many of these, indeed all such as are employed in medicine as well as in the arts, were included in Class XII. of the late Exhibition. The first consideration in making observations, is the order in which they should be arranged. The most obvious is that of the Exhibition itself ; but as that has ceased, and the object of the present Beport is to treat of such things as appear to be of general interest, it does not appear necessary to adhere to an arrangement, when doing so is productive of incon- venience. This is the case with one part of the arrangements of the classification of 1855, as in the separation of cultivated from uncultivated products, whether animal or vegetable. Because, when we have to deal with the products of the whole Dr. Royle on Indian AND Colonial Products, &c. Arrangement of observa- tions. Dr. Royle on Indian AND Colonial Products, &c. According to Exhibition of 1851, Attention paid to Raw Products. 182 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. world, we find, that not only is the same substance obtained by cultivation in one country, and from the profuse bounty of nature in another, but we find that this is the case even in different parts of the same country. As these various products are valuable to man, either for immediate or for manufacturing use, on account of their re- spective properties, so it is preferable to arrange them accord- ing to their nature or their chief proximate principles. F or it is, in most cases, evidently immaterial whether a wood or a fibre, a dye or a drug, is obtained from a wild or a cultivated plant, or even whether a silk is spun by a wild or a cultivated silkworm. Therefore, it is at all events better to treat of them together, than as distinct objects of study. A classi- fication according to the properties of objects, moreover, is not only good, but having been promulgated from the Ex- hibition of 1851, has become known in all parts of the world : indeed, several of the collections made for the Exhibition of 1855 were sent arranged according to the classification of 1851. Before proceeding to notice individual articles or groups of such as are similar in nature, we may make one general observation respecting the collections themselves. This is respecting the greatly increased attention which is paid throughout the world to the collection and exhibition of the various substances now usually classed under the head of Kaw Products, even though some of them have undergone a process of manufacture, as for instance, sugar, indigo, tea, &c. Of these collections, those from the British dependencies were especially conspicuous, as from India, Australia, Guiana, Ceylon, while Canada was remarkable for its timbers and agricultural collection. But Algeria and the French and the Dutch colonies also exhibited very excellent collections. In some a very great variety of objects were shown, proving the great extent of the natural riches of the country illustrated. Others displayed a great number of specimens of the same article, showing the attention paid to its cultivation by various colonists. Some again displayed only small quantities of each article, even when these formed considerable articles of commerce. Others, on the contrary, exhibited comparatively large specimens of what were only experimental cultures. This might and did deceive, not only casual observers, but even some writers, with respect to the comparative abundance of articles so differently exhibited. This was more particu- larly the case when they did not pay attention to the very important fact, whether the space allotted was in proportion to the quantities of things which a country had to exhibit, or only so much as could be spared. It would, for instance, have Dr. Boyle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 183 been easy for India to have covered double the space that Dr. Boyle was allotted, even without the contents of numerous boxes ° n A nd UN which had been sent from India for the Exhibition, and left products, in London or elsewhere on account of the anticipated want of space. We may observe also, that it is very desirable that the should be raw products of different countries should be connected as with Natural much as possible with the plants or animals which yield them ; Hlstory * and the scientibc names of these given in connexion with the vernacular names of their products. This not only because the former are everywhere the same, and each only applicable to particular species, while the latter may and do vary in every district. But it is also more satisfactory, and most useful, indeed essentially necessary, in order to trace out any information which may have been published respecting par- ticular articles, and to compare them with similar products from other countries, or with those which may already be in use. In order further to attract the notice of manufac- turers, information should, as much as possible, be added respecting the uses, the quantities procurable, and the prices of new articles. The establishment of trade and of local museums will greatly conduce to the collection of such information. As an effect of the Exhibition of 1851, we may adduce, as not much known, the establishment of the Museum in Madras, which in two or three years has collected about 30,000 spe- cimens for exhibition, as shown in a well-arranged and printed catalogue. Indeed, it may be added, that six subordinate museums have been established within the limits of the Madras Presidency during the last year, and a central one in Bombay. For the collection of articles, and for methodising such information, it is necessary to give ample notice to distant countries previous to any proposed Exhibition; otherwise new things with strange names, when presented to Jurors and manufacturers, are apt to be neglected, in place of being sought out and inquired about, not only for experiment, but as suitable for different purposes. Mineral Substances. Bocks and minerals will necessarily be noticed by other Jurors, and due justice will be done, as well to the iron and steel works of England as contrasted with those of the Con- tinent, as to the gold of Australia, and of California, and to the much praised Onyx Africaine of Algeria. But as there were some mineral substances exhibited in the Indian department. 184 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. de. jRotle which, though small in size, were yet of general interest, and 1 and 1 as little is generally known respecting them, some obser- Colonial — i: — — — he made concerning the coal of India Pkoducts, &c. vations may also &c - respecting its graphite, petroleum, tin. Indian Coal-Fields. Indian coal fields. The Indian coal-fields are probably equal in extent and in the number and thickness of the beds to any in the world. These beds extend over nearly 30° of longitude, from the east to the west of the Valley of Assam, and along the Silhet mountains, between -27° and 25° of north latitude. From thence the coal has. a southern development, as in Arracan and the Tenasserim provinces, and their several islands, as far south as 11° of north latitude. If we return again to the north, we find coal beds near Rajmahal, on the western bank of the Granges, in 25° of north latitude. Thence we may follow them through the Burdwan and Ramghur formations, along the Nerbudda as far as Hooseinabad, with a southern extension into Cuttack and Central India to about 21° of north latitude. Finally, on the extreme west we have the small coal formation of Cuteh, and other trifling deposits along the Indus. This coal varies in quality as in other formations. It has sometimes been rather hastily asserted that it is all of inferior quality, because some that was superficial was found to be so. The principal coal-pits have had the advantage of having been examined by an experienced geologist, the late Mr. Williams, and some of them subsequently by Mr. Oldham, the present geological surveyor. The former observed, as others had pre- viously done, the anomalous position of this coal formation, resting as it does upon the older rocks ; but like them, he was unable to find any organic remains by which the age of this Age of coal, formation- could be determined, though in other respects he considered it analogous to the coal formation of England. But subsequent observation, and the finding of some fossils in the central part of India, makes it probable that the age of the coal is subsequent to that of the Oolitic formation. Mr. formation of Williams observes, that it has been ascertained that the coal- field entombed in the Bainoodah Valley has a developed thickness of at least eleven thousand feet. It is a portion of this coal-field which has been worked for the supply of Calcutta and the steam navigation of the Ganges. The principal beds have been called the Burdwan coal- field, distant about 140 miles from Calcutta. The only difficulty experienced in obtaining an abundant supply has been from the irregularities of navigation of the Damoodah river. The railway, which passes directly along the coal- field, will, however, obviate this, as the railway company has Burdwan coal. Dr. Hoyle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 185 engaged to carry 75,000 tons of coal per annum from the collieries to Calcutta for the next two years. This coal has for many years been used in considerable quantities in Calcutta ; much of it is like brown coal, and is chiefly laminar in structure, has a specific gravity of between 1 * 3 and 1 ‘ 4, leaves a larger proportion of ash than English coal, but gives out more gaseous matter. It is well adapted for blaze fires, less so far coking and close furnaces. It has been much employed in the steam engines established in Bengal, as well as in river navigation. Mr. Williams was of opinion that the best description of coal would be found here. The expenditure of Burdwan coal for the year 1850 was calculated to amount to 6,311,961 maunds, each of 82 lbs. The average cost of Burdwan coal in Calcutta was about five annas, English and W elsh coals being procurable for six annas a maund ; but in the year from 1st May 1852 to 30th April 1853, the prices ranged from ten annas to one rupee two annas. At the Exhibition, specimens of coal were exhibited from the Ranigunje mine, from Bamghur, and also from Singrowlee. This lies directly south of Mirzapore, which is on the Ganges. As the coal is of good quality, equal to the best Burdwan, it would rapidly come into extensive use if it were not for the wild and rugged country which intervenes between the mine and the Ganges river. The mine has, however, been worked by Messrs Hamilton, of Mirzapore, and found good for steam purposes by the Ganges Steam Company. The specimens of Assam coal were not of such good quality as some which had previously been sent. As this has been thought to be the best of the Indian coals, and one which yields very fairly good coke, numerous attempts have been made to obtain a supply from this locality, but the hilly nature of the country throws considerable impediments to the transport. The specimens of Arracan coal are interesting, as being near the sea, and as placed between the coal-fields of Assam and those found on the Tenasserim coast; hence these also have their chief interest from the ready access to them by sea. The coal, called of Arracan, has been found at Bamree and at Sandoway, but the most promising site is at a place called Hoong, near the head of a river which falls into the Sandoway Channel. Of the Tenasserim sites of coal, some are in the Mergui district on the Tenasserim river. That situated near Thian Khan is important, both from its extent and from the superior quality of the coal. It is, moreover, easily accessible for the supply of the Straits and of Ceylon, and may there- fore, like the coal of Borneo, be considered important for the steam navigation of the Indian seas. Dk. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. Other kinds. Assam coal. Arracan coal, &c. 186 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Hoyle on Indian AND Colonial Products, &c. Earth oil. Abundance. Uses. Graphite or blacklead. Petroleum or Earth Oil. Specimens of this very useful — but comparatively little known, as an Indian — product, were sent from two or three places, as Assam, Arracan, and Rangoon, where the supply is abundant, the price moderate, and the access to some of them, even by sea, easy. The supply is most abundant along the banks of the Irrawaddy ; indeed Rangoon, or Ra- nangoong is said to be named from words signifying Earth oil creek, from the numerous wells of petroleum in its neigh- bourhood, and which are also found higher up the river. The produce of some of the wells is said to be about 800 hogs- heads annually ; numerous boats are constantly employed in conveying it away, as the natives use it for various purposes. It is of a dingy green colour, of a viscid consistence, some- times more fluid. The greater portion (80 per cent.) of this earth-oil consists of a very fine naphtha, which is separated by distillation, leaving bituminous residue, which could be used .for the purposes of asphalt. Drs. Christison and Gregory obtained from it many of the same principles as are separated from tar. Hence it has been inferred, that this petroleum is the product of the destructive distillation of vegetable matter. It is used by the natives for lamps, and boiled with resinous matter, it serves for painting the timber of houses, and for paying the bottoms of boats, which it preserves from decay and vermin. A not unimportant use, especially in countries where the houses are built on posts and always liable to be flooded. So in the West Indies, Barbadoes tar is said to be used for paying ships, and saving them from the Borer or Teredo. The distilled naphtha forming an excellent solvent for caoutchouc, might be employed in the country itself for dissolving the caoutchouc which is produced there, and thus be used for excluding rain from tents, and for the coverings of carts and boxes. It might also be employed for anti-attrition purposes, and become an imjiortant article of commerce. Graphite or Plumbago. Since the diminution or nearly cessation of the supply of the best graphite, or what is called blacklead, we have been supplied with good pencils chiefly in consequence of Mr. Brockedon’s invention, of obtaining compact graphite from great mechanical compression of pure powdered graphite. So Mr. Brodie’s discovery of the method of purifying graphite by chemical agency promises to be of great utility, in enabling us to make use of the less pure specimens, and thus of greatly extending their employment. Some of Mr. Brodie’s experi- Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 1 87 ments were made upon impure graphite which was produced Dk.^Royle in India, chiefly in the southern and maritime province of and T ravancore*. These specimens are in nodules, extremely soft, peoducts, but brilliant, and very much like the Ceylon graphite, which is sold from 87. to 107. per ton. The purer specimens of the Travancore graphite would rank with these, but as all impurity diminishes its value, care should be taken in picking out the best pieces, such as those free from the admixture of quartz or of iron ore. As Trevandrum, near which the plumbago is found, is near to the sea, and also to a port like Cochin, little expense need be incurred in sending this article to market, which can, moreover, come as ballast. Some graphite was also exhibited from the distant province of Kemaon in the Himalayas. This also had the disadvantage of being mixed with quartz and iron ore ; but from the internal purity of some of the nodules, and the compact nature of the mineral, it is probable that some of the best quality of graphite may yet be found in a locality where the supply is abundant ; and as the best graphite sells for 30s. a pound, such would readily pay all expenses of carriage from even so distant a locality. Rock Salt, Kaolin, Corundum. An interesting series of specimens in the Indian collection, of though they arrived in a broken state, was formed of nume- rous objects turned out of the rock salt of the salt range of the Punjab ; so also were some beautifully formed and large cubical crystals, formed of sea salt from the west of Kaolin and India. The various specimens of kaolin may become articles onSTdra™ of export from the Madras Presidency, as they seem well calculated for the formation of the best kinds of pottery and porcelain. So also the corundum, or koorund of the natives, which is found in so many places in the rock formations of the Madras Presidency, might be exported in large quantities, and would be greatly in demand as a substitute for the emery of the Levant, for the polishing of steel, &c., if the natives could be induced to collect only the pure specimens, and avoid intermixing them with others. The natives them- selves employ it largely for forming artificial grindstones, also for polishing granite, agates, and other hard minerals, as at Cambay, &c. The pebbles of the Godavery, of the Soane, Pebbles, and of Cambay are perhaps too abundant elsewhere to be an object of desire from such great distances. 188 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Doyle ox Indian AND Colonial Products, &c. Production of iron in India. Tin. Metals. The natives of India have long been famous for a know- ledge of the mode of producing steel of superior quality, as well as for various metallurgical compounds. Among these, the natives of some parts of India, as of Bellary and of Tanjore, are famous for the manufacture of bells ; those which were exhibited were much admired by good judges, for the purity and clearness of their tone. The production of good iron and steel is one of the most important objects for the improvement and development of all the other resources of a country, and India has long been famous for the production of both. The natives, not- withstanding the great abundance of iron ores, have no methods of producing either iron or steel in large quantities, such as are required in the present day, either for the fabri- cation of arms or for the rails and machinery of railways. Large sums have been expended for the establishment of the ironworks at Porto Novo, and considerable difficulties were experienced for many years in making them profitable. Of late years, Mr. Williams and Mr. Oldham, both employed on the geological survey, have each written, the former in favour of, and the latter against the probability of the profit- able manufacture of iron in India. But in this case, as in others, everything depends upon the greater or less vicinity to each other of the ore, the flux, and the fuel, and which, though far apart in one situation, maybe in juxta- position in another, and also near water carriage. Therefore, what is unprofitable in one place would be the reverse in another, and this the process of discovery will, I believe, shortly de- monstrate. Tin is an important product of eastern regions, as it is largely employed by the natives of India and others in various metallurgical compounds, for which they have long been famous. It is interesting also because it forms an ingredient in the composition of the most ancient kind of arms, in which it was employed for hardening copper. It has been inferred by some authors, that this tin must have been obtained from Cornwall, notwithstanding that the deposit of tin is very abundant in the east, as in Borneo and other islands, in the Malayan peninsula, and during the last few years it has been found in the Tenasserim provinces. The produce of the former localities is largely imported into Europe, that of the Tenasserim provinces has also of late begun to be exported. Specimens of stream tin of the first and second washings, and of smelted tin, were sent to the Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products, dec. 189 Exhibition from Moulmain ; the latter in flat tablets. The Dr.^Royle price of tin at Mergui is from 70 to 80 rupees the viss of and 365 lbs. In the year 1843, it was calculated that it could pkJSucts, be sent to England for about 385., when the price here was 465. per cwt. ; but in an actual experiment it was found that the metal cost 475. 9d., while the charges amounted to 205. 7 d., making in all 685. M. per cwt. It sold only for 565., entailing a loss of 125. 4<7. per cwt. But this was at a time when tin was at a very depressed price, as it usually sold for 725., and is now worth about 1305. per cwt. The continued import for ages into India of the precious Precious metals has been a subject of serious inquiry to political econo- ported into mists. The enormous quantities of gold from California and India ' Australia have diverted general attention from the former sources of supply of this metal, though some of these still continue to yield their average produce. But others are exhausted, or continue to yield such small quantities, as to pay but scantily the washers of gold. Among the poorly remunerated, though working on their own account, those of India may be included. But the sites are extremely nume- rous, both along the Malabar Coast and the foot of the Himalayas, as well as in Assam, where the sands are washed for gold ; and this has in some instances been traced to its quartzose matrix in the hills from which the rivers proceed in Southern India. Silver is nowhere obtained, but it has been stated that some of the galena found in the Himalayas contains some silver intermixed with the lead. Yet the con- sumption is enormous of both gold and silver in India, as indicated by the continual imports. It has been supposed by some that this is to be ascribed chiefly to the practice of hoarding these metals ; latterly it has been suggested, that the increased cultivation of the land in many districts requires an increased expenditure of capital. Both have no doubt considerable influence. But less importance than it appears to me to deserve, has been attached to the practice of the natives of the east loading their women and children with gold and silver ornaments. The love for these is so great throughout the land, that when the superior kinds cannot be afforded, imitations are substituted, or such as are made of less valuable materials, such as glass, horn, wood, and even of platted straw. Therefore, when the people generally increase in the means for supplying the necessaries of life, a portion of their superfluity is certain to be expended in purchasing silver ornaments for their families ; of which such numbers are worn by some females, as anklets, armlets, bracelets, necklaces, rings, and head ornaments of various kinds. Silver wire, moreover, is used for various tissues, as well as when gilded Dr. Hoyle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. Rice, Diet of natives of India. 190 Reports on the Paris Exhibition, for the various fabrics of gold and silk. It would be an interesting subject for careful inquirers in the neighbourhood of the larger towns, to endeavour to ascertain the quantity of silver expended for such purposes. But this would give only an approximation, for the Sonar or worker in gold and silver is to be found in all the larger villages throughout the length and breadth of the Indian empire. Agricultural Products. Though the subject of agriculture will necessarily be treated of by a J uror well qualified for the task, we may yet observe, that it is hardly possible to have any classification that is perfectly suitable for an exhibition of the products of the whole world. Thus in the present instance, what are known as imports only in European countries are the prin- cipal objects of the agriculture of Tropical regions, though excluded from the class of agriculture in exhibitions held in Europe. In the following observations on the agricultural products of such regions, I propose to refer almost entirely to articles of food, as it appears to me that greatly increased quan- tities may be obtained from warmer regions, which are well suited to European use, and might therefore be beneficially imported. Pice, the principal product of Tropical regions, has come to be an ingredient of European diet, though, owing to prejudices, not to the extent that is desirable, in order to give relief in times of scarcity. Because much larger quantities are produced in climates favourable to its production, such as Bengal, Arracan, and other parts of the east side of the Bay of Bengal, than are required for the subsistence of their inhabitants. Much remains for export, and hence the large quantities exported to different parts of Asia as well as to Europe. From Arracan many varieties of rice were sent to the Exhi- bition. The exports from Calcutta in 1855 amounted to 27,88,534 maunds, being an increase of about 140 per cent, on the previous year. By many it is supposed that the natives of some of these warm countries, especially of India, live almost entirely upon rice. Nothing is more fallacious, for it is only in a portion of such countries that the natives live upon rice as the chief portion of their diet; but even in these, considerable additions are made of ghee, or melted butter, as well as of various pulses, which, like peas and other legumes, supply some of the flesh-producing principle of chemists as a necessary ingre- dient in all diet. Besides these, many of the millets, as well as various vegetables, are employed. The durra of the Arabs, Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c . 191 the jowar of India (Sorghum vulgare), resembles maize or Indian corn, and is probably as much used as an article of and diet in Asia as maize is in America The straw, or rather products, stems, being cut into small pieces, are much employed as fodder for cattle. The grain, however, though smaller, is Soi ’g hum - also softer, and very apt to be attacked by the weevil, which renders it difficult of transport to distant countries. A variety of this plant, or a distinct species of the same genus, which has been called Sorghum sacckaratum, has lately attracted much attention for the production of sugar. In no instance is the benefit accruing from the interchange of plants of different countries more conspicuous than in the case of rice introduced from Asia into America, from whence some of the finest varieties now come, under the name of Carolina rice; while maize, widely diffused, though probably nowhere extensively cultivated in Asia, had the finest speci- mens in the Exhibition sent from Australia. Many of the smaller grains, known under the general name Millets, of millets, but differing much from each other, form a good deal of the food of the poorer class of the natives of India, and are usually very cheap in price. Though not accepted as suitable for the food of even the poorest in this country, some of the millets do form part of the diet of the people in different parts of Europe. They have the disadvantage of being small in size, yet their chemical constituents are very similar to those of the larger grains, and as they are harder externally, they are not so apt to be injured by the weevil, and may therefore be exported with greater facility. As they can be cultivated in the poorer soils of the East, they might be greatly increased in quantity for exportation, if required for the feeding of animals, and thus serve to save the larger cereals for the use of man. Besides the larger cereals and millets, many pulses, produced by species of Cajanus, of Pulses, Phaseolus, and of Dolichos, form ordinary articles of Indian diet. They are wholesome and nutritious, and are eaten either boiled with rice or stewed and flavoured in various ways, so as to form a palatable addition either to their boiled rice or to their wheaten cakes. These would form an excel- lent substitute, as has been proved by experience, for peas, either in the form of the lentil soup of the French, or be used like their haricots, or form an addition to stews. The chief of these are indeed known in the Mediterranean region, and used as articles of diet; for instance, Cajanus indicus, some- times called pigeon pea in England, and which, under the name of dall, forms one of the favourite pulses of the East : Cicer arietinum, or chick pea, the gram of the Bengal Presi- dency, upon which horses are fed instead of upon oats, and 192 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dp. Royle on Indian and Colonial Pkodttcts. &c. Wheat. From Aus- tralia. ; From Algeria. From India. sheep fattened for the table ; it is produced of a fine quality in Algeria and the south of Europe. In the Madras Presi- dency, the name Gram is applied to the pulse of Kooltee , or Dolichos uniflorus. Among the most commonly used of the pulses, are species of Phaseolus, known by the names of moong, mash, oorud, while others are produced by species of Dolichos, which may be called the haricots of India. A common kind of pea and the lentil are also much cultivated. Some of these seem well worthy of introduction into the W' est Indies and into Guiana, as suited to the climate, easily cultivated, and increasing the supply of food for the labouring population. Some of the Coolies from the East would especially appreciate the introduction of their favourite pulses. Wheat, however, is so much the principal grain, and its chemical constituents are of so general a nature, that all others are by some accounted to be of so little value as to be unworthy of notice. Indeed, the condition of those is inferred to be of a degraded nature who make use of other cereals, even as parts of a mixed diet. Yet, though wheat is the great object of culture throughout the European continent, the finest specimens of wheat seen at the Exhibition were grown beyond the bounds of Europe. As in the Exhibition of 1851, so in that of 1855, Australian wheat was shown to be of a superior quality, and it is well known that it always brings a high price in the English market ; but on the late occasion, a fine collection of wheats was shown from the French colony of Algeria, proving how much better it is adapted for such culture than for some of those of the Tropics which the colonists have attempted. Many of the finest specimens are of the variety known as hard wheats, which are so largely also exported from the Black Sea; but these, though nutritious, are objected to by millers on account of their hardness, as this renders them difficult to be ground. But still, from the large proportion of gluten which they contain, they are desirable for food, inasmuch as they are proportionally more nutritious, and are especially "well adapted for the making of macaroni and of vermicelli. They are, more- over, less readily destroyed by the weevil, and are thus more easy of transport. Few would look to India as a wheat country, and yet some samples of excellent quality, grown near the banks of the Nerbudda, were shown in the late Exhibition, as they were in that of 1851. Considerable quantities, moreover, have been imported into this country, and sold in the markets of London and Liverpool during the last year, as in the year 1848, when prices were also high. Wheat is cultivated along the valley of the Ganges, and all across India to its western coast, as Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 193 well as in the provinces of Sindh and in the Punjab. In the Dk. Royle Bengal Presidency, the cheapest is produced in the lower 0 N Ind IAN provinces, from the facility of irrigation, but dearer in the pkSJucts north-western provinces, from the greater expense of irriga tion in the cold or dry weather cultivation. The average annual price in Calcutta was calculated to be l r 13 a 4 P , or 3s. 6d. for a maund of 82 *28 lbs., or about 21s. per quarter ; cost, but with freight and other charges, it could not be landed in England for less than 50s. a quarter. From Broach, on the west of India, it was calculated it might be sent for 40s., but in an actual experiment it cost more. It is, however, an abundant and cheap produce of Sindh. About 90,000 qrs. imports^ of Indian wheat have been imported into Great Britain Britain, during the last year. The rapid increase which takes place in the exports of wheat from Calcutta, when prices rise in Europe, is shown by the following table. In 1851-52 and 1852-53 the exports were only to Asiatic ports and none to Europe ; in the subsequent years, exports took place to Great Britain and France ; 1852-53. 1853-54. 1854-55. May 1855 to Jan. 7, 1856. 259,489 252,314 462,078 934,178 maunds. The last sum is eqnal to 185,000 qrs., and took place in nine months, and may therefore be considered as tripled at once. Vide “ Friend of India.” The grain is dearest in September and October, or about Price at the period of sowing the seed, and cheapest in March, when month? the crop has just been harvested. The early period of this grain ripening in India is of considerable importance, as noticed by Colonel Sykes, if we look to a supply in seasons of scarcity, as both wheat and barley, being ripe in many places in February, might reach this country even by the route of the Cape of Good Hope before the English grains were ripe. The excellent quality of some of this Indian wheat is well some Indian worthy of attention. Of some grown along the banks of the il n un excel * Nerbuddah, one variety, a soft white wheat, weighed 64lbs. quaUty * to the bushel, and was valued a few shillings above the best wheat in the English market. Another, a hard wheat, weighed 63^ lbs. to the bushel, and was valued at something less, because not so well liked by the millers; though the natives of India, who buy their own flour and bake their own bread, that is, wheaten cakes, prefer the hard to the soft wheat, because they consider it more nourishing. In this they are probably right, as good chemical reasons can be given for their preference. 3. o 194 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dk. Royle The early ripening of this Indian wheat, like that of Algeria, makes it an important resource, not only in years of pSSucts, scarcity even by the route round the Cape of Good Hope, &c - but if there was any probability of a route being opened by Eany Tipen- the Red Sea, either by canal or railway, large quantities ol ing * the finest wheat might be readily and even cheaply obtained in all years from the west of India, and thus become an ordinary quotation of early Indian wheat m English markets. French expe- q^he oreat difficulty in the export of wheat from the East compression the frequency with which it is damaged by the w eevi , and it seems hardly possible to devise a suitable remedy. With respect to flour, the experiments caused to be made by His Majesty the Emperor of the French seem to prove that it may be conveyed to great distances, and retain all its qualities unimpaired for a long period of time. In these experiments flour was compressed by an hydraulic power oi about 300,000 kilogrammes (300 tons), and a reduction m its bulk was effected of rather more than 24 per cent. Alter this compression the flour was found to retain all its quali- ties. Some of it was fastened up in boxes, and examined six months, and even two years afterwards, and compared with flour which had not been compressed, but kept an equally long time. It was found that the pressed flour had m every case an advantage over the other. Experiments in baking proved the same thing. Some American experiments have also proved the great advantage of compressing flour to enable it to travel well : a modification oi the method mig t perhaps be applied, though with difficulty, to the entire wheat. Fecula or Starch, &c. The other vegetable products may probably be. most fitly noticed under the head of their respective proximate prin- ciples, though many of them are as much the objects ot agricultural industry in different countries, as those which have been noticed under that special head. Some oi these are also like them employed for food. Fecuia as an The fecula of chemists is in one form very well known by S le of the name of starch, and in another by that of arrowroot : and as this was at one time thought of only as diet for the sick, so was the other only for stiffening calico and linen- -But it is so abundant a secretion of and stored up in different parts of plants, (as the seeds, roots, and stems,) that the sources are abundant of an extended supply, and it might be included among the regular articles of diet, just as the Malays ive chiefly upon sago meal, and the South Americans upon cassava bread. The less pure kinds are required for starch, Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 195 for calico-printing, and for other manufacturing purposes, in Dr.royle which damaged flour is now regularly employed. on A nd IAN Fecula is usually intermixed in plants with other prin- pSSucts, ciples, some of these even of an acrid nature ; but in con- &c - sequence of its characteristic property of being insoluble in cold, though easily dissolved in boiling water, it is easily and cheaply separated from other substances by suspension in water, straining, and subsequent subsidence. While in other cases, we find the acrid principle is destroyed by the action of heat, as in the case of cassava bread, and in a less degree in the potato. Sago meal is an abundant produce of Tropical regions, as sago, of the Malayan peninsula, and of the numerous Indian islands. Some excellent specimens were sent from Singapore. It is a principal article of food with the Malayan population. The import into this country of sago meal has greatly increased, and much of it is employed in manufactures. The inferior kinds of sago have been made use of for feeding poultry and pigs. But as the trees take several years to attain perfection, and must be cut down before the fecula can be washed out of their split stems, we cannot expect any great extension of the culture. But one of these, the ordinary Arenga saccharifera, can be successfully cultivated on the low coasts near the sea, and abounds in sap, which can be used as palm wine, or converted into sugar ; the older trees when cut down yielding sago. They yield, in addition, the strong and durable fibre known by the names of Ejoo or Gomuto fibre, and sometimes as “ Vegetable bristle/' in the English market. Sagns Icevis , which is remarkable for yielding the fecula which is afterwards granulated into sago, may be planted on the very edges of the maritime marshes which abound in the same localities. It is noted among palms for throwing up young plants around it, in the same way that the plantain does, and therefore affords great advantages for cultivation in such localities. Sago-like meal is yielded by some of the other palms, ^Sces such as Caryota urens , the Kittul of Ceylon, which also yields a black fibre like that of the Ejoo, useful for the same purposes. Some species of Phoenix yield a similar farina. Of this, specimens were sent to the Exhibition, being used as an article of diet in times of scarcity in India. So the plantain, which abounds in all the tropical parts of the world, Plantain yields with little culture a very large return per acre, and a mea * ■ superfluity of nutritious food. This may either be preserved in a dried state, of which good samples were displayed from Ceylon, and some specimens that had been kept for several years from India. A meal may, moreover, be prepared from o 2 196 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. Cassava flour and tapioca. Arrowroot. Sugar, desirable to extend its supply. it. In South America both are objects of attention and of internal trade ; the flour is either cooked for food or made into biscuits. It seems desirable that this should also be extensively practised in eastern countries, where the plantain is equally abundant, and where its refuse stem might be made to yield a profitable return in the form of fibre for paper-making, or for ordinary cordage. Some fine specimens of fibre were shown from India, as well as from Guiana ; and the paper made from plantain-fibre was among the toughest of all the new kinds of paper. The fruit is pre- served in some parts of India, and specimens of meal have been sent from different parts. The Cassava is another plant of which the yield per acre is large, and which in South America affords so large a portion of the food of its inhabitants in the form of cassava bread, or as tapioca, which is the cassava flour granulated. There are two varieties of this plant, one the sweet, and the other the bitter cassava: it is the latter which is chiefly employed for obtaining the above flour ; and though it has been introduced into eastern countries, and cassava flour and tapioca prepared from the plants there cultivated, it seems to be nowhere so extensively cultivated as it might be. Arrowroot, a name once commonly applied to the fecula of a plant which had arrow-shaped leaves, is now used as a general designation for the fecula obtained from a variety of plants. The arrowroot of the West Indies is now also cultivated in the East, and some fine specimens of the fecula were sent from India. Though this kind is that much pre- ferred, there are many others, as, for instance, the Gannas and Tous les Mois of the West, and the Curcumas of the East, which yield fecula, which for all essential and nutritive properties is equally good. As the microscope enables us at all times to distinguish one kind of fecula from another, we need never be deceived about what we are employing. Some of these Curcumas yield such fecula in all parts of India, and about 7,000 or 8,000 maunds are annually exported from the Malabar Coast. A great variety of other so-called tubers, as yams, sweet potatoes, all yield fecula, and some others which are not useful for diet. The Igname de Chine, a variety of Dioscorea Batatas, is being cultivated in France, as a substitute for the potato. Sugar. The production of sugar has long been a principal object of attention not only in the British but also in other colonies, and the result has been a great reduction in price, so as to Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 197 bring it within the reach of a much larger circle of con- Dr.Royle sumers. But this has not yet attained such extension as to obviate the great rise in price to which it has been subject during the last year, and apparently without sufficient cause. Though the surface of supply cannot be considered as con- fined, yet for an article of universal consumption in Europe, it is desirable to have the supply from a still more extended surface, and, if possible, from a still greater variety of plants, as the failure of the crop of one is not likely to occur at the same time with another in a distant country. The supply may moreover be increased by improved methods of cultiva- tion and of manufacture. Though the sugar cane yields by far the largest supply of sugar both in the Old and in the New World, it has been proposed to cultivate the plant called Sorghum saccharatum even in India. A variety of the same plant introduced from the north of China has been pro- posed for cultivation in France, where beet-root sugar is so largely produced. The Palms yield a continual supply of sugar, and without palm sugar, the trouble of annual culture, but then they take many years to come to perfection. The wild date tree yields much of the sugar sometimes distinguished by the name of date sugar, which is produced in Bengal and exported from Cal- cutta. It has been proposed to make use of the Palmyra tree, which is so abundant in many parts of the Madras Presidency, for the same purpose. Both date and palmyra sugar were among the kinds exhibited from India. The diffe- rent sago palms, which abound in saccharine sap, might also be made to yield a regular supply of sugar. Some of the Gornuti sugar was sent from Singapore. An abundant and Ni pa sugar, yet neglected source of sugar appears to be the Neepa or Nipa plant, which is sometimes called Nipa Palm ( Nipa fruticans ), but which belongs rather to the Screw Pines, This plant is very abundant all along the shores and creeks of the Malayan peninsula and islands, and the sap, obtained by simple tapping, yields by evaporation large grained sugar. It might form further occupation to the people of Pegu and similar places, who live near to where it grows, and who already collect its leaves for thatching. Considerable attention is now paid in different parts of improved India to the improved manufacture of sugar, as at Cossipore, in India, near Calcutta, by the Aska and the Astagram Sugar Com- pany in the Madras Presidency, also in the north-west of India and in the Bombay Presidency. It is probable that in addition to the present increased exports, larger quantities will be obtained from that country. But the great internal AND Colonial Products, &c. 198 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. dr. Hoyle consumption and the sudden rise in price at the ports of 0> and IA 1< export, when an extra demand occurs, throw some difficulties Colonial * n wa y commerce. Products, &c. Tea in Indian and Dutch collections. Tea cul- ture recom- mended by author in Himalayas. Culture in Assam. Culture in Himalayas. Its success. Extent of culture. Tea, Coffee. The Exhibition contained, both in the Indian and Dutch collections, very interesting specimens of tea made out of China. It was long thought that the climate required by the tea plant was of so peculiar a nature, that it could not be successfully cultivated beyond certain prescribed limits. From a careful comparison of the soil, climate, and vegetation of the portions of the Himalyan Mountains with which I was best acquainted, and such notices of the Chinese tea districts as could be obtained from the account of the Jesuits and by others who passed through or near to tea culture in China, I was of|opinion, that the tea plant could be successfully cultivated in the Himalayas, and this as long since as the year 1827, as also in an essay on the subject printed in 1834, in my Hima- layan Botany. Tea plants having been found in Assam, the culture and manufacture was prosecuted in that valley with the aid of imported Chinese manufacturers, at first with some difficulties, perhaps inherent in all such undertakings in new and distant situations, but at present very successfully, as a tea much in request is readily sold at good prices in the English market. Two very good specimens of this tea were sent to the Exhibition, and one from a Chinaman named Amoong, who has become a resident in Assam. In addition to the culture in Assam, experiments were com- menced in the north-western part of the Himalayas with seeds imported from China. When the plants had attained a suffi- cient age, the experiment was made of converting the leaves into tea, with the aid of Chinese manufacturers. The success which has attended the experiment was well shown by the favourable reports which have been made by skilled brokers, both in Calcutta and London, on the samples sent over. This is still more evident by some facts taken from Dr. Jame- son, the present superintendent's last report. The plantation of Paoree, which four years ago was a mere oak and rhododendron jungle, has now 350,000 plants yielding tea, and 500,000 seedlings. The yield last year was 3,394 lbs. of teain a plantation of less than 200 acres, and the return this year will be about 5,000 lbs. The Kaolagir plantation, which was very flourishing, yielded last year 4,112 lbs., which the return of the present year will exceed 10,000 lbs. The yield is at the rate of 70 lbs. an acre. Preparations had been made for extending the cultivation over a large tract of country, by Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 199 the 2,000,000 of seedling plants which Dr. J. has reared. He Dr.Royle further says, the tea plant is now flourishing over four and a ON Ind IAN half degrees of latitude and eight degrees of longitude, over Soducts, a tract containing upwards of 30,000 square miles of land. &c - The cultivation of the plant is not expensive, nor would Expense of the manufacture be so when once fully established, and the ofm’wac- natives of India have learned to make the different kinds of ture * tea under appropriate superintendence. But at present the Chinese tea manufacturers, engaged at a high salary for the whole year, are employed only for a short period, that is, during the season when the tea is actually being made. The great object to be kept in view is to induce the natives of the hills, and more especially the cultivators, to engage in the cultiva- tion of the tea plant. These experiments have determined that though there are Green and different species of tea plant, yet that both black and green Slade from teas may be made from the same plant, and are most com- £iant! me monly made from the species called Thea viridis. Mr. Fortune, who was sent out to China by the Court of Directors of the East India Company, when the great success of the experi- ment warranted that every advantage should be given to it, especially settled the last point. The differences seem to depend more upon the manufacture than upon the plant. The black teas undergo a process of fermentation, while the leaves in the green tea manufacture are roasted without any such previous change. Dr. J ameson calls attention to the fact that in China teas go through the final process of manipulation in the interior of the country, and in this state are purchased by the agents of the merchants, and forwarded to the sea-board towns, where the second firing, with winnowing, sifting, picking, and packing, is performed. If such a system could be intro- duced into the Himalayas, it would greatly encourage the natives to undertake the cultivation in different quarters. Six varieties of green teas were exhibited from the tea varieties of nurseries established by the Indian Government in the Himalayas! 6 Himalayan Mountains, and were packed in very small boxes, made in exact imitation of the tea chests made in China. Some of the teas are considered by brokers to be as good as China teas, others they call fancy teas. Dr. Jameson estimates that the tea can be sent from the Himalayas for 6d. per lb., and some could, no doubt, be sent at once for sale to Europe, if it were not that it brings a much higher price, that is, about five shillings a pound by being sold on the spot, that is, at the annual sales which are held at Almorah. The following account of the sales of tea has lately appeared in an Indian newspaper, and as the extract has been 200 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Dr. Rotle on Indian AND Colonial Products, &c. forwarded to me by Dr. Jameson, it may be considered authentic : — “ We have been favoured with an abstract statement of the quantity of tea recently sold by auction at Almora and at Deyra, with a memo, of the number of purchasers, European and Native, their place of residence, &c. These state- ments are yearly becoming more interesting, and are especially so at a time when Government have offered very liberal terms to those who may be inclined to enter on a speculation bearing every promise of success, if carried out with prudence and determination. “ The number of chests of tea brought to the hammer at Almora, amounted to 908, containing lbs. 9,612 and 6 oz. Of these, 5 37 chests were purchased by Europeans, and 871 by Natives. One hundred and three chests were bought by Residents in the Punjab, where the new teas are especially appreciated, 96 for the North Western Provinces, 16 for Nainee Tal, and 322 for Almora and its visitors. The natives who bought were all residents of Almora or Nainee Tal. Three kinds of green tea (Gunpowder, Young Hyson, and Hyson skin,) and three kinds of black (Souchong, Pouchong, and Bohea,) were sold at Almora and fetched per pound : — Gunpowder - _ High. - 4 12 Low. 4 8 Aver. 4 8 2 Young Hyson - - 4 8 1 8 2 14 5 Hyson skin - - - 0 7 0 5 0 8 20 Souchong - - 2 15 1 1 2 9 11 Pouchong - - 1 11 0 14 1 2 10 Bohea - - 0 9 0 7 0 7 10 “ The quantity sold at Deyra amounted to 308 chests, containing 3,588 lbs. 8 oz., of which 290 chests were bought by Europeans, and 18 only by natives None but black tea (Souchong and Pouchong) was offered, and realized very high prices, viz : — High. Low. Aver. Souchong - -540 240 2811 Pouchong - -2 12 0 150 1 10 2 “ Nearly all the second class or cheap teas were purchased by natives, showing that all that is wanted, are sufficiently low prices to create a great demand. Those that now rule are still too high for natives, and must continue to be called ‘ fancy’ ones, so that the speculation must pay handsomely. “ We look forward with much curiosity to the result of the coming sale at Hoosheearpoor, where the Kangra teas will be disposed of in the course of another month or so.” Teas from A great variety of teas were shown from the Dutch posses- sions in Java, which appear to be of good quality; but as I was unable to obtain any information respecting them, it may suffice to say, that the culture and manufacture seem to succeed there as well as in the Himalayas. It would be interesting to compare in all points the results arrived at in these several localities. Coffee. Arabian coffee was first cultivated by the Dutch, and some of their plants first sent by the French to the West Indies. There it is now so extensively and successfully cultivated that Jamaica coffee bears the highest price in the English market. So that one has a difficulty in thinking of where it is indigenous, as it is a much more important article of agriculture in the West Indies, Java, and Ceylon, than in Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 201 its native countries. Though some parts of India are well Db. Royle adapted to the culture, it is not yet so extensively cultivated ON as might have been expected from the vicinity of its Arabian p^ucts, sites to the Malabar Coast. Here, however, some excellent &c - coffee is grown, as well as in the hilly regions of Mysore and on the slopes of the Neilgherries, and some of these are of such good quality and so carefully prepared as to bring the same price as Mocha coffee. Some very good specimens of coffee have also been produced in the interior of India, as in the district of Chota Nagpore, where the culture might apparently be greatly extended, and be of great benefit for consumption in the interior of the country. Tobacco. The interchange of useful plants has, in the several instances we have referred to, produced remarkable effects in the economy of nations. This is the case also with the tobacco, which, a native of America, is now cultivated in most parts of the world, and is being constantly introduced into new situations. The culture, though long known to the Arabs, has been taken up by the French colonists of Algeria, and In Algeria. 725,418 kilogrammes are reported to have been produced in the year 1855. The culture of tobacco has been introduced into the villages of almost every part of India, but chiefly In India * for the consumption of the cultivators, though they do not understand or pay attention to the proper mode of curing tobacco as practised in America ; so it is usually dry and readily falls to powder. It is therefore not well suited for export. This is not, however, the case with the Arracan and Sandoway tobacco, which has long been famous in the East. The last named place was formerly the site of one of the Portuguese settlements. This tobacco has of late years been exported in considerable quantities to Europe, while the culti- vation has also been extending on the opposite coast of the Bay of Bengal, in the islets of the Godavery. There is no doubt that tobacco might become an esteemed article of export to Europe from thence as well as from other parts of India, if care was taken as much with the curing as with the grow- ing of the leaf. Bengal rum and Indian opium do not require to be no- ticed, though both were exhibited, though there is a prospect of some of the latter being sent for sale to Europe. Spices. The spices, which formerly brought such enormous prices, spices from are now so much diffused that their culture does not probably foSS. afford more profit than other cultures. But their circle 202 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Dr. Rotle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. Separation of gluten from fecula. Preservation of meats. seems still to extend. Thus cloves and vanilla were exhi- bited from Mauritius, and round cardamoms from Java, from whence also there were specimens of cassia lignea as well as of the true cinnamon. Fine specimens of nutmegs and of mace were sent from Penang and Singapore, as well as from Travancore and Tinnevelly, in the peninsula of Madras. Cloves are produced in the same localities as w T ell as in Cochin ; cinnamon has long been introduced into the south of India as well as along the Malabar Coast; and cassia is a produce of these localities as well as of Travancore and Cochin, Cassia buds, similar to those imported from China, though produced by a different species of Cinnamomum, are also produced in Travancore, Cochin, and near Tellicherry. Along that coast the small cardamoms, and pepper, and gin- ger, and capsicum, are all ordinary articles of culture and of export, and it may thus vie even with the Spice Islands in the variety, and also in the quality of some of its aromatic products. Preservation of Meat and Vegetables. In connexion with articles of diet, it is not out of place to refer to the admirable methods which have of late years been adopted for preserving food of all kinds, in addition to the old ones of salt, saltpetre, and great cold : grains and hay being preserved by careful methods of drying. But before mentioning these, we may briefly notice that M. Martin, and after him, others have successfully practised the separation and preservation of the gluten of wheat, which is always lost in the ordinary preparation of fecula or starch, and which is known to be more abundant in the hard than in the soft wheats. It is now sold as gluten granule , and is especially useful for making various substitutes for Italian vermicelli and macaroni, affording at the same time great facilities for changing the diet of patients in diseases where fecula is objectionable, on account of its being apt to become saccharine, and subsequently acid, in passing through the system. The preservation of meat and vegetables by enclosing them in a vacuum in tin cases, is well known and extensively practised. Other methods of preservation are also now prac- tised, as with sulphuric acid gas ; covering them with gela- tine ; and lastly with glycerine, which is now r so abundant a product in Mr. Wilson’s improved methods of candle-making. Meat biscuits were a great feature of the Exhibition of 1851, so also preserved milk ; of this still better specimens were exhibited at Paris : while the masses of vegetables pre- served according to the methods of M. Masson are still more valuable contributions, as they enable the superfluities of the Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 203 country to be transported to the distant and crowded locali- dr.royle ties of towns, where a deficiency is at all times experienced, ox and also to be consumed in regions and at seasons where p£J£ucts they could not otherwise be obtained. Vegetable Products chiefly used in Manufactures. Gums, Gum-Resins, and Resins. Gums, Gum-resins, and Resin are to be found in large quantities and in great variety in most parts of the world, chiefly, however, in warm countries. But the pine tribe yield resins in the coldest climates, and what is called cherry-tree gum is produced in temperate climates by many of the stone- fruited tribe of rosaceous plants. The term Gum is so inaccu- Difference rately applied in ordinary and commercial language, as to gums and include also many of the resins, but these are at once distin- resinb ' guished by being soluble in spirit and insoluble in water. True gums, on the contrary, being readily dissolved in water, form mucilages, and are sufficiently digestible to be used as occasional articles of food. For instance, the gum-collectors near the west coast of Africa are said to live for weeks chiefly on the Gum from gum which they are employed in collecting. Africa is, indeed, a^dAuS the great source of the fine gums, which in commerce are ha ’ usually called Gum Senegal and Gum Arabic. India also yields considerable quantities of an inferior kind, as does Australia ; all which are the produce of different species of Acacia. The purer kinds are much employed in medicine for their mucilaginous properties. A very great variety of gums are produced by other trees, J^Pt° 0 v f e ; rdi but as many of these resemble cherry-tree gum rather than nary gums, gum arabic, they are not so well suited for the purposes of the calico printer, for stiffening calico and other fabrics, or for giving a lustre to others. As it is an object of con- siderable importance to get gums for such purposes as cheap as possible, it seems a very desirable subject of inquiry for chemists, to ascertain the varieties in composition of the more abundant kinds, and to devise methods by which they might be made useful for the manufacturer. Resins so valued for making varnishes are greatly in demand, Resins, and new kinds, if of good quality, are eagerly sought after. A very interesting collection of those known in commerce was exhibited by Mr. Wallis. Among these, mastic, a produce of Mastic, the Mediterranean region, is one of the most valued, but has become dear from its great consumption. It is not improbable that a good substitute might be obtained for it either from Arabia or Persia. Copal, a produce both of the west and and east coast of Africa, is remarkable for its purity, abun- S{fca. from 204 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Db. Hoyle ON I YE I AY AND Colonial Pboducts, &c. Piney varnish and resin. Damraers of the East. Wood oil. Cuttapercha in India. c ylcn gums a »d resins. Oils and fats required in large quan- tities. dance, and the great size of the pieces, but the tree producing it seems to be unknown. But what is obtained from the east coast finds its way to Arabia, and is from thence, like some other African products, sent to Bombay ; whence it is ex- ported, and thus comes to be called East Indian copal. With this is sometimes confounded the light and also greenish coloured resin of Vateria indica , which, in its liquid state, is known on the Malabar Coast by the name of the Piney var- nish. The purer specimens of this resin seem well suited for the uses of the varnish maker. A great variety of resins, produced by different trees, are spoken of under the name of Dammer, w T hich in the Malayan Archipelago seems to be a name applied to resins in general, sometimes even to the resin of the Cowrie or Kaudi pine, and which is commonly knov r n as Cowrie yum ; it is produced by Dammona australis. The name is very frequently applied to the resin of Shorea rohusta , which is an extremely useful and very abundant resin in the East, though perhaps not well adapted for making var- nishes. But a very clear and pellucid, pure-looking resin was sent to the Exhibition, under the name of Dammar, both from Borneo and from Assam. It is more than probable that this is the produce of a species of Dipterocarpus : a genus belonging to the same natural family as the above Shorea and the Camphor tree of Sumatra, and which abounds in use- ful products, as, for instance, in abundance of the oleo-resin called Wood Oil , or Gurjun , which is much used in the East as a natural varnish for wood, and for paying ships. It is a compound of two very useful ingredients, that is, an oleo-resin- like copaiba, yielding a volatile oil which dissolves resin and caoutchouc. Gutta percha w~as sent from Singapore, and in connexion with it, it is interesting to state that it has been announced by Dr. Cleghorn that the tree yielding this sub- stance has also been found in the forests of Mysore. Kuttee- mundoo, the inspissated milky juice of an Euphorbia, and having some resemblance to gutta-percha, is well v r orthy the atten- tion of chemists, as is that of Calatropis and of other milky juiced plants. Besides the Indian collection of gums and resins, which v T as extensive, good collections were also shown from Ceylon and from Guiana. But many require careful examination and analysis before we can be aware of the uses to which each is applicable. Vegetable Oils and Fats. The extraordinary extension which has taken place in tbe commerce of vegetable oils and fats, would seem hardly to require any further development. But, notwithstanding the Dr. Boyle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 205 enormous quantities of palm oil imported from the west coast de.royle of Africa, and of cocoa-nut oil from India and Ceylon, manu- 0N iND IAN facturers here require every variety of vegetable oil and fat, p^oDucta and in any quantity in which they can be imported. Several of the Colonial collections exhibited specimens of new or little Great variety known oils, though that of India was, no doubt, the most m co omeh * extensive. Among them were some which are new to Europe, and which will require investigation ; but others, which are comparatively little known, are probably the most important for early introduction. In the first place, among the solid oils vegetable or vegetable fats and butters as they are called, we have the carira. vegetable butter of Canara, as it is sometimes called. It is of solid consistence, and admirably adapted for candle-making; it is produced all along the forests of the Malabar Coast, and is therefore easily accessible to commerce. It is obtained from the fruit of an excellent timber tree ( Vateria indica ), already mentioned as yielding the Piney varnish, and therefore afford- ing facilities for the collection of two useful materials at the O same time. Another fatty substance, which I have the authority of Bassia fat. Mr. Gf. Wilson for stating would be extremely valuable for candle-making, is the Bassia butter, which is yielded by two species of Bassia, the B. longifolia and the B. latifolia of bota- nists, — trees yielding excellent timber, their flowers saccharine matter, which is fermented into spirit. This forms one of the most common araks or spirits in use by the natives of almost every part of India. The Iilipie is common in the Madras Presidency, and the Muohwa in the Bengal Presidency, ex- tending also all across Central India, even to the western coast. The butter is obtained from the kernels of the fruits of both species, and is much used by the natives of the country ; but it might become an article of export, while they could easily employ some of the cheaper and abundant vegetable oils of an- nual plants, of which the cultivation can be readily extended. The lllipie was mentioned as Bassia butyracea in the Bourbon collection, but this species is a native of the Almora hills. Some of these, under the name of mustard and of rape oil, on seeds, as also their seeds, which are different species of sinapis, are already exported, as are also sesamum, or til seed, and the black or Kalee til. So castor oil seeds and those known as lamp oil seeds (species of Jatropha), safflower, sunflower, and similar plants, are abundant sources of oil ; so also are ground nuts and poppy seed. But the great variety can only be known by examining full catalogues of such oil-yielding plants. The readiness with which the exports of some may be increased is evidenced in a remarkable manner with linseed. Of this 10 bushels were first exported in the year 1832, but which 206 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. on Indian * n y ear 1850-51 h ac [ i ncrease( J to, — from Calcutta; * 765,496 maunds, each of 82 lbs. ; 801 cvvt. from Madras, and products, 50,112 cwt. from Bombay. _JiL The latest accounts mention the export of linseed from 2eSed in ’ Calcutta alone to have increased from 12,13,775 maunds in ?ndi° a rts from P rev i° us > to 17,15,176 maunds during the last year, and mustard seed from 3,58,234 in the former to 13,92, 1 10 maunds in the latter. As the foregoing increase of the export of linseed from India did take place during the long peace, it is evident that it can be produced, and yield a profit to all concerned, even at ordinary prices : and this notwithstanding the great distances which the linseed has to traverse, both of land and of ocean, before it can reach English ports. In the year 1854, as a necessary result of the declaration of war with Russia, considerable increase took place in the prices of the chief exports from that country. Large quantities of linseed were ordered from India, but losses were in some cases sustained in consequence of the variations in price, as, for instance, from 54s. in January to 70s. in March, and 56s. 6d. at the end of August, though the price rose again later in the year. These depended on the uncertainties prevailing respecting the blockade of the Russian ports. In 1853-54 upwards of a million of quarters of linseed were im- ported, but it was calculated that in 1854-55 the imports would not amount to above 700,000 quarters, of which India was expected to furnish a good proportion. But at the end of 1855 we find the brokers reporting that “the range of prices and source of supply are altogether different from for- mer years ; and the latter consequence of the war is a subject for great congratulation, and more than reconciles us to the loss of Russian produce, inasmuch as it so materially benefits our East Indian possessions. Already do we receive as much from there alone as the total import of some years since ; and should we have a protracted war, the larger cultivation and the increasing facilities of transport in India will render us wholly independent of Russia.” Owing to this source of supply, the total importation was only less by 100,000 quarters than in 1854, and 300,000 quarters under that of 1853. With this it may be observed that new sources of supply will be added to those which have been yearly in- creasing their cultivation, for both Sindh and the Punjab have taken up the cultivation of linseed, and will probably be able to produce flax. Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. 207 Tanning Substances. Astringents, useful in medicine and essential in the art of tanning, are very abundant in warm countries, and might be imported in any quantities, if the freight did not throw im- pediments in what are usually bulky articles; for they are commonly the bark or wood of trees, where the astringent principle is mixed with much other vegetable matter. But as this principle can in some cases be usefully separated by the action of water, so gambir, the produce of a tree on the Malayan peninsula, has been largely imported a ; a tanning substance, as is also catechu, often called terra japonica, the extract of another tree (the acacia catechu), though obtained also from other sources. Kino is an astringent exudation, which hardens into a brilliant gum-like substance, which is much esteemed for tanning, but from the small supply is usually too dear; but the tree (Pterocarpus marsu- pium) yielding the best kind of Kino, has been found on the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal and in some of the forests of Central India, though at one time thought to be confined to the Malabar Coast. The Butea kino is also a useful tan- ning substance, though found to be difficult of management ; it has been proposed to make extracts of several other astrin- gent woods and barks which are favourably situated, as, for instance, of the mangrove. Other substances, as galls, are sufficiently compact to bear the expense of distant transport, and we obtain them both from Smyrna and from India, though each the produce of near Moosul. The tamarisk gall, produced abundantly in the north-west of India, might form an export from Sindh in much larger quantities than it now does. Some of the plants of the New World are being culti- vated in India as the Libidebi or Caesalpinia coriaria, which yields an excellent material for tanning. The leather tanned in India under European superintend- ence is of excellent quality, as by the Messrs. Teil, in Cal- cutta, and by the Government establishment in Mysore, from both of which localities excellent specimens of leather were sent to the Paris Exhibition. The materials used in India are chiefly barks of species of Acacia, and also of some Cassias, and the fruit known by the name of Myrobalans, which is useful also as a dye. Byes. The rich and harmonious colouring of the varied manu- factures of India, has always attracted much attention to the natural colours and dyes of the country in which these Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Troducts, &c. Astringent extracts suited for export. Oak galls. Tamarisk galls. Indian dyes. 208 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Te. Royle on Indian and Colonial Peoducts, Ac. Dye of Butea flowers. Datisca can- nabina Green indigo. Improved Lac dye. pleasing results are produced. There is no doubt that the country, as well as many others which are less known and still less explored, abounds in an endless variety of materials which may be turned to the purposes of the dyer; some of these are well known in Europe, others comparatively or entirely unknown. Specimens of many of all kinds were sent to the Exhibition from India, and many of them accom- panied by their mordaunts, as well as with specimens of cloth dyed of the several colours. These will all afford useful subjects for future investigation. It may be thought that many new dyes are not required, as so many shades may be produced with the old ones. But I am informed by a very intelligent dyer, that he finds every dye possesses some useful and peculiar property which makes it more useful than any other for some particular purpose. Some of these will be- come more valuable from the methods which are becoming adopted of separating the dyeing principle from the rest of the vegetable matter, as is done, for instance, with the indigo and annotto among vegetables, and with the lac among animal products. This has also been effected with the dye of the flowers of Butea frondosa, which form so rich an orna- ment of the jungles of all parts of India, but of which the bulk renders them unsuitable for transport to distances. One of the colours most admired by some artists at the late Exhibi- tion was a kind of lemon yellow, as seen in some silk scarves from the Punjab. It is more than probable that this colour is produced by the roots and stems of a plant called ikl-beer , which is there much esteemed for dyeing silks of a yellow colour, and which I believe to be those of Datisca cannabina , a plant found as well in Europe as in the Himalayas. Dr. Stenhouse having analysed the Punjab specimens, found that they yielded datiscine, which had already been dis- covered in the European plant. Some of the Indian lichens tested by the same chemist did not give any favourable results, though some very promising ones had been obtained from another set of Indian lichens by Mr. Piddington. A very interesting new dye was the so-called green indigo , of which a specimen was at my request exhibited by Dr. Falconer. It is further interesting, as one kind of this dye is employed by the Chinese, another by the Burmese, and this third kind was obtained from the valley of Assam. All are the produce of species of acanthaceous plants, and will no doubt attract the attention of both chemists and dyers. A very important result has been attained by Mr. Henley, as he exhibited specimens of cloth dyed scarlet both with the best cochineal and with lac dye prepared by a new pro- Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. 209 cess of his own. The result is not only that the colour is as Dr^Royle brilliant as that produced by the cochineal, but Mr. Henley and states, that his lac dye can be afforded to be sold for one pbJSucts, fourth of the price of the cochineal. Cotton - and Fibrous Substitutes eor Hemp and Flax. Cotton is a product of such vast importance to the manu- facturing prosperity, not only of this but of other countries, that any fresh sources of supply cannot fail to be of interest both to the merchant and to the politician. Several such have of late years been announced, but their progress has not been sufficiently great to attract any subsequent public attention. The imports, however, continue to increase, having been upwards of two millions of bales in the past year, including an increase of near 90,000 bales of cotton from India. This latter import depends not only upon the price being high in Europe, but also upon the demand in China. Some very good specimens of cotton were shown in Aus- Cotton from tralia, and if labour were cheaper, there seems no doubt but Austraha - that much excellent cotton might be produced in situations where there was sufficient moisture of soil or of climate. A curious result of this growth of good cotton of the American species was seen in a piece of muslin, which had been woven by Dacca weavers with fine thread spun in Man- chester. It was shown in the Australian department, because the cotton had been grown there, though for the same reason Manchester goods might have been exhibited in the American quarter. Considerable attempts have for several years been made cotton from to grow the American cotton-plant in Algeria, and if we A1 ° ena< * were to judge from the number of cultivators and from the value of prizes which have been at different times awarded, we should conclude that the success must have been con- siderable. So also, if we look at some of the entire plants exhibited in the dry state, we find them well branched, and bearing numerous bolls of a good size, and well filled with good cotton, proving that the locality where these were grown must be favourable to the production of good cotton. If we look also to the success in Egypt, there would appear to be nothing in the climate which is unsuitable. But then it must not be forgotten, that it is only in consequence of the facility of irrigation by the overflowing of the Nile, that the culture succeeds there ; and therefore, if there are facili- ties in this respect in Algeria, it may equally well succeed. Otherwise I should think that the dryness of the climate 3 P Dr. Royle on Indian AND Colonial Products, &c. Culture of cotton in India. In Dharwar. Cotton in other dis- tricts. 210 Reports on the Pelvis Exhibition. would in many parts prevent a full crop being obtained. I was unable to ascertain the quantity of cotton obtained per acre, and the expenses of culture, as well as the profits of this, in comparison with other cultures. It is generally well known that various attempts have been made in the last fifty years to grow American cotton in India, and notwithstanding the favourable reports and fine specimens, the culture has taken root but in few places. This, not because there is not enough of heat or of mois- ture for the growth of the plant, or of fair weather for the ripening of the cotton ; but from the want of a due pro- portion in which these are supplied to the growing plant at the times when they are required. This I have shown in a special work on the subject, # and therefore need not refer more particularly to the subject. In that work it is stated that nowhere were the prospects so favourable as in the district of Dharwar, apparently from its having the benefit of the two monsoons. These prospects are in the course of being fully realized. For the cotton grown by the natives themselves from acclimated American seed, and bought by the Indian Government at a price above that of the native cotton, and sent to the English market, has been always sold in Manchester at a profit. The cul- ture, which is now entirely in the hands of the natives, has steadily increased, as it has been reported that in the season 1854-5 there were under cultivation in the Dharwar district ' 63,298 against 41,403 acres in the preceding year. Mr. Frost, the engineer for making cotton- cleaning machines, reported that year that “ in the course of time, it (that is, the American cotton) will be cultivated in every field in which it will grow, and the native cotton will have to make room for it.” The number of saw gins of different sizes, which were made in the Government factory, and sold at cost price to the natives, for cleaning the American cotton, were stated by Mr. Frost to be upwards of 300. The price of this Dharwar-grown American cotton in the Bombay market was 120 rupees per candy of 784 lbs., when the native cot- ton was quoted at about 90 and 100. In the neighbouring district of Belgaum 1,911 acres were in cultivation, and in Ahmedabad 254 acres. But in the Candeish district, where there were 1,696 beegas in 1853-54, there were in the following year only 16 beegas. At the Exhibition of 1851 a great variety of specimens of cotton were displayed in the Indian department, but it was not thought necessary, especially from the want of space, to do * Culture and Commerce of Cotton in India, by J. F. Rovlc, M.D., F. R. S., 1851. Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 211 more than show the kinds which are common in commerce, DeJRoyle as the above Dharwar, the Broach, the Tinnevelly, & c. In and connexion with the Broach cotton, we may refer to the pkJSucxs, establishment in that district by Mr. Landon of cotton- spinning machinery, from which the first samples of yarn cotton spin- sent into the Bombay market sold at prices somewhat above "®^ d es ^ ab - the same numbered yarns from England. A spinning factory Broach, has long been established in the vicinity of Calcutta. The Russian war has enhanced the price not only of lin- piax. seed but necessarily also of flax and of hemp. Though this had the effect of greatly increasing the imports of Indian linseed, and probably also of its cultivation in India, it did not have the same effect in Ireland, as the flax crop there of 1855 was by 35 per cent, less than that of the preceding year, owing partly to want of adequate remuneration in the previous year, and partly also to cereals, more particularly wheat, paying better during war. It has been expected, and not unreasonably, that where much linseed is grown, there flax might readily be produced. This, however, is not so easy, unless the climate is favourable ; as it is quite possible to have one which is suitable to the ripening of the fruit and seed of a plant, and not be so much so for the production of long fibre. Such, indeed, is the case with many parts of India. But I have do doubt that ordinary flax, such, indeed, as is most wanted for some of our manu- factures, may yet be produced in India, and sent profitably to the English market. This is already the case with other and cheaper fibres, of which we may observe that large quan- tities were imported in gradually increasing quantities even before the war. Quantities of Hemp imported into the United Kingdom. 188-1. 18-51. From Russia 506,803 672,342 „ British territories in East Indies - 9,472 590,923 Of this return we may observe that, though under the head Hemp fi and of hemp from Russia, it is certain that only the true hemp is from India - included, but under that from “ British territories in the East” it is probable that no true hemp is included, though the plant is grown in the country for its intoxicating secre- tions, but produces strong fibre in the Himalayas. But as the fibres which are imported are all such as sell at lower prices than hemp, it shows how well the country, though distant, is able to carry on the trying competition. These are facts of great importance ; for India possesses fibres of every quality and strength, as I have endeavoured to show in a p 2 212 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Rotls on Lndian ANI) Colonial Prodl-cts, &c. Other fibres. Cliina-grass in India. Introduced into France. Fibres well fitted for cordage. Collections of fibres from colonies. Fibres for paper-mak- ing. work dedicated to the subject.* The exports of fibres have considerably increased from India during the last year. The true hemp, moreover, as mentioned above, is produced of great strength in the Himalayas ; and it is interestiug to state, that 32 bales having been sent as a sample for trial to this country, have just reached the India House. The white fibres, such as Manilla hemp, plantain, agave or aloe, sanseviera, & c., may be applied to various purposes, some of them for textile, and others for ordinary cordage, all of them taking and retaining colour when dyed. Indeed, we see the Manilla hemp and aloe fibre, as it is called, applied to a variety of purposes in France, as for making fine cordage, mats, bonnets, and lately even introduced into ribbons. So some of these separated by the Italians, have been called Soie nouvelle and Soie per ellene, and applied to a variety of purposes. The fibres of the Indian plants ambaree and sunn, when of the best quality, are well calculated to supply the place of hemp, while the Rhea fibre, which is probably the same as (S China-grass/’ requires only some machinery to be applied to its preparation to undersell Russian hemp, as it excels it in strength. The cultivation of the China-grass in France, to which attention has for some time been called by M. De Caisne, cannot fail to enhance the value of the foreign article, by having its properties both well ascertained and made more generally known. The existence of these various fibres would have been much more valued, if it had not been for the continued imports vid Memel of Russian hemp into this country. The excellence of some of these fibres for cordage has been admirably shown in the specimens of rope sent from Calcutta by Messrs. Harton, as well as in the ropes made of Rheea fibre in this country. The great attention which has been paid to the subject of fibres of late years was conspicuously shown in the collections displayed from the British dependencies, as from India, Guiana, Jamaica, &c., and also in the collection from Algeria. The fitness of many of these fibres for conversion into paper was also shown in various specimens of paper made of plantain and of aloe fibre, of that of the Screw pine, of the sunn of India, also from Daphne cunnabina, bamboo, & c., and even from the fibres of the jute, by Mr. Hollingsworth, in the form of silver, writing, and cartridge paper ; though it has been said that this fibre cannot be bleached. * The Fibrous Plants of India fitted for Cordage, Clothing, and Paper, 1855. Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 213 Dr. Royle WOODS. on Indian AND The collections of woods from several of the colonies were Products, among the conspicuous objects of the Exhibition, as will no — doubt be described ; for the rich furniture woods of Australia, Excellent collection of the hard woods of Guiana, the variety from Jamaica, the Monies? 1 * 1 deals from Canada and Norway, all attracted universal atten- tion, as well as what has been supposed to be one of the kinds of cedar of Scripture, the “ citrus” of the ancients, produced by the Thuya d’Algerie, Thuya articulata , now Callitris quadrivalvis , which abounds in Algeria as well as in other parts of the north of Africa. The collection of woods from different parts of India at the Exhibition of 1851 was extremely large, amounting to nearly 1,000 different species. From the known want of space, it was not possible to exhibit more than a few of these woods. Few are known to commerce; but Poon (Callophylli species) spars are exported from the Malabar Coast for the use of the British Navy, and the Teak some- Teak forests, times both from the west coast of India and from that of the Bay of Bengal. The forests of Canara and Malabar having for many years been left to the care of the natives, were fast dwindling away: but the judicious measures adopted by Dr. Gibson, have in a few years been productive of bene- ficial effects. Similar cave has been devoted to the forests which are within the precincts of the Madras Presidency .. The teak forests of Pegu will require constant attention, or they will also be destroyed from the reckless proceedings of woodcutters thinking only of present gain. In the interior other timber of India, the Sal (Shorea robusta) and the Sissoo (Dalbergia treei ' sissoo) are the most valued timber trees, while the Toon (Cedrela toona) is much used as a furniture wood, as are ebony and blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia) in Madras and Bombay. It is more than probable that continued attention will be required to extend and preserve the natural forests. A fine plank of Deodar, four feet in diameter, was exhibited Deodar from the Himalayas. It is an interesting fact that some 0 f pl “ nk * the bales of shawls were packed in thin planks of Deodar wood, and some of the boxes containing goods from the Punjab were also made of Deodar wood. These, in addition to the preference in which it is held for boat-building on the Sutlej, show how much it is appreciated in the vicinity of the moun- tains where it grows, and how valuable is the introduction of the tree into this country of which thousands of the seeds have annually been distributed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company. 214 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. dr. Hoyle In connexion with woods, it is interesting to refer to the ' * and A various inodes of preserving timber, as this saves the best ; Products, and makes the inferior timbers useful for various purposes to &c - which they could not otherwise be applied. The bois-marbre was also an interesting object of attention, as one in which the different kinds of woods are imitated by uniting the saw- dust of the different woods with some agglutinating material. Products of the Animal Kingdom. The animal, like the vegetable kingdom, affords in all its departments numerous products useful to man in all parts of the world. The utility of some for food, and of others for carrying or for dragging loads, is too well known to require further notice, than that in proportion to their utility is the im- portance of the various measures for improving the breed of animals and for introducing them into new situations where they can find a congenial climate and suitable food. But as we have only to notice a few points of this extensive and important subject, we may, as in the case of vegetable pro- ducts, notice them under the head of proximate principles. Isinglass, Shark Fins, Birds' Nests. These apparently incongruous substances may be treated of together, for they are valued in consequence of all abound- ing in the substance called gelatine, distinguished by being- soluble in boiling water, and forming a tremulous or solid jelly when cold. The great source of the purest isinglass is well known to be the swimming bladders of sturgeons (Grenus Acipenser) which inhabit the rivers falling into the Black and Caspian seas. The Paris Exhibition contained some very interesting specimens of a result of the Exhibition of 1851, that is, some fine specimens of isinglass obtained from the sturgeons which abound in the rivers and lakes of North cSifda Sfrom ^ mer ica. Professor Owen having called the attention of the Commissioner from Canada in 1851 to the existence of this fish in the above localities, and to the value of their swimming bladders, the Paris Exhibition displayed, as a result of this observation, numerous specimens of isinglass, now becoming an article of export from Canada. india lassfrom The numerous coasts of the Indian seas have long been sw r ept for the same substance, though produced by a different fish (a Polvnemus), indeed, by several other fishes, though it does not appear in Indian price currents under the name of isinglass, but under that of fish-maws. Of these, large quan- tities are constantly taken to China, where it receives the Dr. Doyle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. 215 expressive name of fish- sago, and the great love of the people Oe.^Royle for all kinds of gelatinous dishes, makes these in constant ‘ and demand, as well as sharks’ fins and the edible birds' nests. SiSSixs, Sharks are therefore constantly caught all along the coasts of the Indian seas, and are now still more valuable to the shark fins, fisherman, as a considerable demand has arisen for all kinds of fish oil. This, though it has been long known on the Malabar Coast, has only lately become a regular article of export from India to England. The shark yields one of the kinds of lish oil exported from India. So the esculent nests of the salengana or swallow of these eastern seas are valued on account of their gelatinous proper- ties, and are prized in proportion to their purity, together with sea-slugs and agur-agur, a species of sea-weed. Silk and Wild Silks of India. Of the .various raw products, none were displayed in such variety, or which made so* brilliant an appearance as silk. For here we had the chief districts of France vying with those of Italy, while Greece and Spain, India and China, all sent contributions characteristic of their respective cultures. But according to various Continental manufacturers whom I saw, it seems hardly possible to produce as much silk as is required for the increasing demands of trade. Among these, I was surprised to find that the silks of India were comparatively so little known even to many manufacturers, who said they had never seen such silk from India as was exhibited by Messrs. Watson and by Messrs. Lyall. These were probably not superior to what is usually imported into this country, but here I am told the regularity of demand and the prices can be more relied upon by importers, and therefore the best silk is sent to the English market. I was still more surprised at the numerous inquiries made JJdfo &ilksof respecting the wild silks of India. These Were very well represented in a case of the insects with their cocoons, pre- pared by Dr. Huffhagle, of Calcutta; while numerous speci- mens of the several manufactured silks were sent from Bengal and Assam. Before proceeding, it, is necessary to notice the vaidous kinds, though it is difficult to do so with great accuracy, from the different names given to the same insects in different districts. But, from the specimens of silkworms exhibited, and which were examined by Dr. Milne Edwards, the following species may be made out, though some others are mentioned in Indian journals : — 1. Saturnia atlas is said in some works to yield the tusser or wild silk of China; one kind, however, of this is known to be yielded by the true Plialcena Cynthia. 216 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Hoyle on Indian AND Colonial’ Products, &c. The Eri of Assam intro, duced into Europe. d Introduced into West . Indies. 2. Saturnia Mylitta , sometimes called S. Paphia, and also Phalcena Paphia ; yields the tusseh or tussur silk of India, and is known by different names, but feeds generally upon the leaves of Terminalia Catappa , Pentaptera glabra, and Zizyphus Jujaba . 3. Saturnia assamensis, sometimes called Bombyx Saturnia, is the Moonga of Assam, and may, perhaps, include the variety called Mazankoore ; it feeds as above ; the latter variety on the leaves of species of Tetranthera and of other Laurinese. 5 4. Saturnia Arrundi, usually called Phalcsna, and also Bombyx Cynthia ; it is the Eri of Assam, and feeds upon the leaves of Ricinus communis. 5. Bombyx Mori , or common silkworm moth, which feeds upon mulberry leaves, is the Pat of Bengal. Some of these species have been inquired after, not only for the silk which they produce, but also for introduction into Europe, especially France ; as, for instance, the Chinese silk- worm, which lives upon the leaves of a species of oak, and also the Eri of Assam, which feeds upon the leaves of the Ricinus or castor-oil plant. Success has been obtained with the latter through the aid of Mr. Piddington, curator of the museum at Calcutta, and of his Excellency Sir W. Reid, governor of Malta. He however, reports (7th July 1855) its complete failure in Malta during last summer, though its num- bers increased so rapidly in the year 1854, that no doubt was entertained of the success of acclimating this silkworm in the south of Europe. Sir William further says, “ In Italy they promised to thrive, and succeeded the first year ; but I under- stand that this year they have failed also in Ital}\* I have not recently heard whether others sent to Algeria are or are not prospering.” M. Hardy, writing in September 1854, seemed to think, from the results which he had obtained, that he was almost certain of success in naturalizing this kind in Algeria. It must, however, be observed that the climate of Assam, where this Eri silkworm flourishes, is a warm and a moist climate, exuberant with tropic-like vegetation, while the countries into which it had been introduced, though warm, are rather remarkable for dryness of climate. In addition to sending the Bombyx Cynthia to the above countries, Sir W. Reid successfully sent it from Malta to the West Indies. About thirty fresh cocoons were placed in birdcages. On the voyage the chrysalides became moths; these laid their eggs, and these eggs began to hatch on their arrival at the island of Grenada. Mr. Wells, writing from thence in November 1855, says theyf “ perfectly succeeded, as far as relates to * Messrs. Bellini, of Rivoli, did not find the results repaid them for the trouble, t Journal of Society of Arts, 1855. Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 217 their being adapted to this climate, and to their propagating Dr. Royre rapidly, and perfecting their cocoons. This is abundantly ° k A nd IAN proved from the fact that this day (being twelve months from products, their introduction) I have the eighth generation of worms now hatching, having had seven crops of cocoons within the year.” But there we have a suitable climate and congenial vegetation, and if labour is abundant, the Eri may perhaps answer as well as in its native sites. The silks produced by these silkworms are, however, of worthy of the attention of manufacturers. The tusser is the silkworms, most abundant product, inasmuch as it is found in many of the forests all along the foot of the Himalayas, as well as in Central India. It is everywhere used as clothing by the natives of the country, and even by Europeans ; while con- siderable quantities of the woven tusser is now imported into this country, though apparently but little known on the Continent. But one French manufacturer had commenced making some plush-like material, of different colours, of the tusser , as he said, imported from China. The Indian tusser is at least equally well adapted for the purpose, and both the Eri and the Moonga silk seem worthy the attention of manufacturers for various purposes, from their strength, durability, and cheapness. The display of the silk of the mulberry silkworm was, as Mulberry I have said, both varied and splendid. Greece, the country into which it was first introduced, from Asia, exhibited the success with which silk is still cultivated there. The silks of Piedmont, both raw and organzine, were very fine, and the exhibitors numerous. But the southern provinces of France proved, from their specimens, that they are as favour- able as any for the culture of the silkworm. The exhibitors were very numerous, and the art of silk-throwing shown to be carried to a high state of perfection, while others displayed the care with which the habits of the animal are studied. The silk of M. Broski was as beautiful as exhibited in 1851, but it does not appear to have yet become abundant. The culture of the mulberry silkworm ( Bombyx morx) was Experiments early introduced into India from China, where it flourishes tore in Cul " chiefly about Nankin, or in 32° of north latitude ; but in India Bengal * none of the older silk filatures extend to beyond 26° of north latitude. This can, I conceive, be ascribed only to the excessive heat and dryness of the north-western provinces of India, being unsuitable to the animal, besides producing a dryer and harder leaf than it likes for its food. The country- wound silk, that is, silk cultivated and reeled by the natives, was in so much disrepute about the middle of the last century, that several Europeans were sent out, when “ it was deter- 218 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. De. Royle on Indian AND Colonial Peodttcts, &c. In Madras Presidency. In Mysore. In Bombay Presidency. Experiments on silk cul- ture in the Punjab. mined that the method of spinning and dressing the silk as practiced at Novi in Italy was to be adopted in all the plan- tations.” From such beginnings has the silk trade of Bengal become established as one of the great staples of that country. In the year 1852-3, silk, to the value of 69,41,599 rupees was exported from Calcutta, together with 32,08,901 rupees’ worth of piece goods. The raw silk sent by Messrs. Watson, as also by Messrs. Lyall, both from Bengal, were much admired by the Jury of the Silk Class, and medals awarded for both. As early as the year 1791, experiments for the introduc- tion and culture of what succeeded so well in Bengal, were made in the Presidency of Madras, and continued for several years, but without any permanent results ; as in the year 1854 only 1,666 lbs. were exported. This is probably owing to the climate of the Madras Presidency being generally unsuitable to the culture. For, in the more elevated climate of Mysore, experiments have been continued to the present time, and some very good specimens of silk were sent to the Exhibition both of 1851 and of 1855: also to the Exhibition held last year at Madras ; when it was stated as probable that the culture may be successfully carried on in the valleys of the Neilg- berries. The silk produced in Mysore is required for the manufacture of the silk shawls of that province. In the same way experiments were made in the Bombay Presidency about the year 1775, repeated again in the Deccan in the year 1830, and persevered in for ten years under the superintendence of an Italian, M. Mutti, but without eventual success, as was always anticipated by Dr. Gibson, in conse quence of the heat and dryness of the climate. Though these instances may appear to put limits to the extension of silk culture in India, and to a supply of raw material from that country ; they only do so in the districts having the climate which has been indicated. In the valley along the foot of the Himalayas in North-western India there is a less arid soil, a more temperate climate, and species of mulberry appear indigenous and flourishing. This is still more the case in the lower hills which bound the Punjab, and in many parts of the Punjab itself. Here, indeed, a most successful experiment has been commenced, of which the results were shown in the Exhibition. These consisted of specimens of the silk of two seasons ; that of the first year was pronounced by Messrs. Durant to be of a good quality, strong, and apparently obtained from healthy cocoons. The reeling, how r ever, was considered very defective, and the silk had what is called a crapey appearance, and on this account was considered worth not more than 7s. or 8s. per lb. But M. Deverinne, well acquainted with the reeling of silk in Dr. Hoyle on Indian and Colonial Products , dec. 219 Bengal, having been sent up by the Indian Government, the dr. Royle reeling of the next season's silk was greatly improved. This x and was pronounced also by the Messrs. Durant to be a most prJSucts, creditable effort, and obviously the work of a person who understands the reeling of silk, and though with some defects, this silk was valued at 155. per lb. Though there is considerable demand in the Punjab for raw silk, which is at present imported from Bokhara, as well as from China and from Bengal, it is probable that in time, enough may be produced even for export ; especially as there is a favourable climate in the same district where China tea is being successfully cultivated, with an abundant and unoc- cupied population. Wool, Camel and Goats’ Hair. The collections of wools in various parts of the Exhibition Principles . . , . . r , . n , , for guidance were extensive, varied, and interesting, and will no doubt be in wool . culture, fully dwelt upon by the Jurors within whose province wools are included. They might be considered either as the produce of different breeds of sheep or of different countries. In doing this, we should find that their qualities, as fitted for different purposes, depend upon the influence, not only of breed, but also of climate and of food. For, as I observed on a former occasion, in considering the probability of the production of wool, we have to consider the best breeds of the animal suited to the climate in which they are to be placed, as well as the pastures upon which they are to be fed.” Various causes, therefore, interfere much with the success of any experiments which may be made for the introduction of superior breeds of sheep into new localities, and for the im- provement of their wool. This, it is obvious, must depend upon the food and climate being suitable to the breed of sheep which has been introduced into it. For, if the locality is deficient in these respects, the sheep can as little thrive as the wool improve ; and for these reasons one breed of sheep, even though not the best, may yet be superior to another for introduction into particular localities. Thus, with regard to Australia, the sagacity of the late Australian Captain Macarthur, as early as the year 1790, conceived that "°° ' both the pastures and the climate were well suited for the breeding of sheep and for the production of wool. He began his experiments with some small Bengal sheep, which are perhaps the least fitted of any Indian sheep for the purpose. He obtained some Merinos from the Cape of Good Hope in the year 1794, and a fresh supply in the year 1805. The Bengal sheep were found to be very prolific, but the cross had the disadvantage of taking more after the hair-bearing 220 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . I)R. Royle or Indian and Colonial Products, &c. Wool from the Cape of Good Hope.] sheep of Bengal than the wool bearers of Europe. Captain Macarthur determined upon keeping the Merino breed pure, and his sons sent some of the wool of these flocks to the Exhibition of 1851, where it was greatly admired, and a prize medal awarded. These sheep have been the source of most of the fine Australian wool, of which such large quantities are exported. For no other importations of the purer breeds of sheep are known to have taken place until about the year 1825. About this time the Australian Agricultural Company imported fine-woolled sheep from both France and Saxony. The results of crossing the improved Australian breeds with these sheep, are seen in much of the wool which is now im- ported into this country, and which is so highly esteemed in the London market. The tract most favourable for sheep farn^s is said to extend from about lat. 23° on the east coast, to Port Lincoln in lat. 35°. All to the south-eastward of this line, about 250,000 square miles, maintains numerous flocks of sheep, yields suitable pasture, has a favourable climate, and with the neighbouring colony of Van Diemen’s Land, yields most of the Australian wool which is imported into Europe, but chiefly Great Britain. Of this 163,192 bales were imported into the principal ports during the year 1855. Some early attempts were made to improve the breed of sheep at the Cape of Good Hope. We have seen, indeed, that some Merino sheep were early introduced from thence into Australia, but apparently without much effect. Similar experiments have, ho v/ ever, been resumed, and high prices are given in the colony for Merino rams. Great improve- ments have been made in the improvement of wool in that colony, and the exports have greatly increased, as 1833 . 18 - 19 . From Cape Town - - 73,324 lbs. - 1,567,212 lbs. „ Port Elizabeth - 39,753 „ - 3,457,734 „ 113,077 „ - 5,024,946 „ The quantities imported into this country amounted in 1855 to 38,272 bales. But one defect of South African wool grown in the interior is that it arrives in a dirty state, and not so clean as purchasers wish : but this is partly owing to the want of streams of water at convenient distances from the sheep runs. Hence the sheep farmer is often obliged to sheer his sheep when in a greasy and dirty state, and then cart his fleeces to a suitable spot for washing. Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , c tec. 221 From the south we may proceed to the north of A frica, dr. Royle where we have in Algeria vast tracts of country, supporting, 0 X In£ ia1s it is said, about 8,000,000 of sheep, and likely to yield not p^Sucts, only large quantities, but also improved qualities of wool. Several colonists have commenced improving the breeds of wool from indigenous sheep, some with rams obtained from Naz, in France, others with Merinos procured from Perpignan. Numerous specimens of the improved wool have been exposed, and some of the wool of the cross breeds sold for 280 francs the 100 kilogrammes, when the indigenous wool sold only for 140 francs. Though we can hardly expect fine American cotton and superior wools in the same district, there are probably many parts of Algeria where fine flocks of sheep may be maintained, and superior wool become an article of export. It is curious that Columella, who occupied a farm in the Pyrenees, mentions the improvement of sheep by the introduction of rams from Africa. From the north of Africa we might pass to the parts of w ° o1 from Asia in the same latitudes, which from the earliest periods have been pastured by innumerable flocks of sheep, and where the inhabitants were probably the first to clothe them- selves in wool. But little of this is accessible to commerce, from being far in the interior, and from the want of navigable rivers. For where these exist, we find the wool of these inner tracts making its way to the coast, and being quoted as an article of commerce ; as, for instance, the wool which is said to be Indian, because imported from India, and to the amount of 15,045 bales in the year 1855. This wool is chiefly produced in the countries which lie on wool from either side of the Indus, as well as in Beloochistan and and° Beloo- Affghanistan, whence some makes its way to Sonmeanee and chistan ’ &c * * Kurachee. Thence it is taken to Bombay, where it is joined by the wool from Cutch and from Marwar, with a little from the Deccan. The exports of wool from India first took place in the year 1834, when 69,944 lbs were exported, but since then in greatly increased quantities as above noted. Lately specimens of the wools produced in the Punjab, and in the countries along the foot of the mountains, and in the Himalayas themselves, as well as sheep and goats’ wool from the Tibetan-like country on their northern face, were sent to this country for their values to be ascertained. Of these wools, the goats’ hair or wool is unsuitable to the boats’ ha* English market, from being so much mixed with long hairs as to be unfit for use in English machinery, until these hairs have been picked out. The price is also so high that loss would certainly be sustained unless sent in a clean state, when it might be sold for the shawl and similar manufactures. 222 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr.Royle on Indian AND Colonial Products, &c. Punjab and Himalayan wools. Wool of north-westj India. Wool culture in Bombay Presidency. Wool culture in Mysore. Wool culture in Hyma- layas'. The black wool of the Punjab and of the Umballa district is little esteemed, and there is a prejudice against black wools ; but that from Goojerat might be used for some purposes, from being a long combing wool. The mixed wools, though called white, are not so in the specimens. These also are little esteemed. The Himalayan wools from the district of Simla are well thought of, as being adapted for the English market, being valued at from 9d. to 13c?. per lb. The white wools from the Punjab are also considered to be well adapted for the English market, and the cleaner kinds, though few, are free from hairs, and valued at from Id. to llcZ per lb. These, like the Himalayan wools, would sell higher if sent in a clean state. Wool is produced in considerable quantities along the north-west frontier of India, but it is used up by the inhabi- tants for making their blankets, cloaks, rugs, and carpets. Blankets, which sell for one rupee each at Saharunpore, have, I am told, been exported with profit even to Australia. Wool is also produced on the western side of India, as in Candeish and Guzerat, also in the Deccan, and proceeding southward, likewise on the table land of Mysore, Experiments were for some years made in the Bombay Presidency for the improvement of the breed of sheep and of their wool. It was then ascertained that the Cape-bred merino sheep, were better adapted to the country than those imported from England. Though the experiments were persevered in for several years, no permanent effect seems to have been produced. In Mysore similar experiments have long been carried on, and certainly with the result of producing some fine wool from crosses with merino sheep: but the progress has not been rapid, nor the culture extensive. Mr. Southey informs me that he lately sold some eight or ten bales of this Mysore wool, which brought 20 d. per lb., also that a part of it very closely resembled some Saxon wool. Mr., now Sir W., Macarthur has informed me that he had for several years sent every year, six of his merino rams to India. The Jury at Madras state that Mr. Fitzgibbon, in charge of the sheep farm at Hargunhully in Mysore, had made great endeavours to improve the merino breed of sheep, and had sent an interesting set of specimens of excellent quality. But only 79,072 lbs. of wool were exported from the whole Madras Presidency during the year 1855. The Himalayas are well suited to the production of such wool as is required by the English manufacturer, and the quality, already good, might probably be much improved, as Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 223 the climate is excellent, and the pasturage nutritious. Of dk.^oyle these the natives take advantage, by driving their flocks to 1 akd different elevations according to the season of the year, products. Some experiments were made for improving the breed, but &c ~ unfortunately, I think, with merino sheep, which do not appear to me as well suited to a climate which is so rainy for three months of the year, as are some of the English breeds of sheep. As a very valuable Report has been published by a Deputa- tion from Bradford, for a copy of which I am indebted to Mr. Edward Waud, I beg to be allowed to quote a few passages from the Report : — ie After giving a mere passing glance at the English and Australian wools, which were well represented, the qualities of which are too well known here to require any comment, the Committee beg to call the attention of the trade to their observations upon Continental, and more particularly upon French wools, many of which well deserve the especial notice of the staplers and spinners of this district. “ They are not aware that any important quantity of French French wool, wools has ever come into this market, although many of their sorts possess qualities which peculiarly fit them for our manufactures. The duty on exportation of wools being only nominal, namely, one penny farthing per hundredweight, there is no impediment on the part of the French govern- ment to their being imported into England. “ Of French wools there was, indeed, a great variety, many Austria of them of beautifully fine and long fibre, suitable for combing purposes, and well adapted for the manufacture of warps. “Of Silesian and Austrian wools, several cases w ere Tuscan wool, noticed, but as their nature is so weil known to the trade, it will be unnecessary to enlarge further on them. (( The Tuscan wools presented no feature of usefulness to Canadian the w orsted trade, and the Spanish wools, although well wool ‘ represented, are not of a class suitable to our trade. “ Of Canadian wools, Messrs Barber Brothers sent speci- mens well adapted for combing purposes. The deputation had not before seen any sample from our Canadian colony, and they think it probable that if the attention of the trade were drawn to this new source of supply, a large and mutually profitable business might arise from this favourable exposition. “ Before closing their remarks on this division of their labours, the Deputation beg to observe that, as far as wool is concerned, the superiority of the French merinos appear in a great measure to arise from the combination of their fine long wools for warp with colonial wool for weft.? 224 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Wool from Shanghai in China. Camels’ hair. Other animal products. Fish oil. Tallow, hides, and horns. Shell lac and lac dye. Pisciculture. I may here mention China as a new source of wool. Some hundred bales sent from Shanghai have been lately sold in the English market. Among the specimens of wool and of fabrics made from them, there was a small quantity of Camels’ hair from Sindh, the produce probably of the country to the north-westward of the Indus. So extraordinary an effect having been produced by the introduction of alpaca-wool, which a few years ago was unknown to our manufacturers, it might be desirable to inquire if anything could be done with this. But the quan- tity procurable is said to be small, and much required by the people themselves. A cloak made of camels’ hair was suffi- ciently fine in texture to look like merino, though differing much in being harsh to the feel. The coarser qualities of the 'wool are used for making very durable rugs. Besides the above, a variety of other animal products would afford materials for observation, but the foregoing have occu- pied a more than duly proportionate space and time. We have seen that fish oil is now becoming a regular article of export from India to England. The trade seems susceptible of great increase, as the natives of the coasts are already much occupied in carrying on a fishery for isinglass, sharks’ fins, and for drying fish. Though the names are not known, there is no doubt that oil is obtained from others besides the shark. Tallow also is now imported, as well as hides and horns, all of which were unknown in commerce, when Mr. Colebrook wrote and recommended these for export whenever the freights became lower than in those days, when it was from 121. to 18/. per ton. I cannot, however, avoid noticing the products of one of the smaller animals though it has already been men- tioned under the head of dyes, and that is the lac insect, and of which the other produce, shell lac, is now indispensable for making marine glue, now so extensively employed in most of the ships of the magnificent British navy. There might be a dread of the supply decreasing in proportion to the exten- sion of cultivation, if it were not for the power which the natives have of spreading the insect, in the same way that the Mexicans do the cochineal. There will probably always be jungle enough at the foot of the various hills for the propaga- tion of an insect, which is now doubly valuable for its dye rivalling cochineal, (v. Eyes, p, 87,) while its resin is required for a multitude of purposes besides that which has just been mentioned. In connexion with the propagation of this insect, one is involuntarily led to think, of the admirable methods adopted by careful scientific observation for propagating various kinds of fishes, and now known as Pisciculture. This practice will Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 225 not only be valuable to all European nations but also to ail their colonies. Drugs and Pharmaceutical. Products. As any view of the raw products of any general collection, without taking some notice of the interesting materia medica exhibited, would be incomplete, I propose making a few general observations on the drugs and Pharmaceutical products of the Paris Exhibition before concluding this already too ex- tended report. These, perhaps, may be best noticed under two heads, because, with a few exceptions, Pharmaceutical products are only produced of a superior quality in countries where chemical science has made considerable progress : while Drugs, the produce of nature, will be best grown where the soil and climate are most suitable for elaborating the principles which make them useful as^ medicines. In noticing these, we must repeat the observation which was made at the beginning of this paper, that though the collections as such, must be judged of as shown at the Exhibition, the riches of the several countries represented cannot be so apprehended. Because the number and nature of the collections depend upon the fancy of indivi- duals, who do not in general, like sending to distances, so well as exhibiting nearer home, unless there is a fair prospect of new markets. This will explain why there was a much larger number of Continental than of British Exhibitors in the department of Pharmacy, as well as the greater size of the collections of the former. The British exhibitors, for instance, were far from numerous, and their collections were small ; in fact, they seemed to confine themselves to the things which they manufactured in large quantities, or in which they especially excelled, without attempting to make a general collection. Mr. Kent, of Stan- ton, was, however, distinguished by a good collection of indigenous materia medica, so excellently dried as to retain the natural colours as well of the flowers as of the leaves. In this, however, he was rivalled by M. Ilalbique of Caen. The vegetable extracts of the English exhibitors were remarkable for retaining the natural colour, odour, and taste of the several plants from which they were made, as shown by J. Bell and Co. and by Mr. Squire: the former also displayed excellent specimens of cod-liver oil, and the latter some choice chemicals. Mr. Morson exhibited some alkalies, including aconitine, for preparing which he is celebrated ; Mr. Davenport, a good collection of salts of iron, &c., of morphia and quinine, and the acrid principles of ginger and capsicum ; and Messrs. Smith, of Edinburgh, the newly sepa- rated principle Aloine. May and Baker displayed an excellent 3 . Q Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products, &c. Pharmaceu- tical products from Great Britain. 226 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dk.Royle ox Indian and Colonial Products, &G. From north f Europe. From Ger- many. French phar- maceutical , collections. collection of pharmaceutical and chemical preparations, which some of the foreign Jurors especially noted for their cheap- ness : while Howard and Kent exhibited some of the finest samples in the Exhibition of sulphate of quinine, as well as of cinchonine and some vegetable acids, nitrate of silver and other pharmaceutical salts. The collections from the north of Europe were generally small in extent, as the collections of excellent cod-liver oil from Norway. A pharmaceutical collection from Stockholm was not remarkable, nor were those from Holland; but Van Enst and Dyk exhibited oil of rhodium, distilled from the wood so named. C. Schmidt, of Bavaria, sent some well dried and cheap ergot of rye, Secale cornutum . Several exhibited essential oils from Leipsic. Prussia was well represented by the excellent collection of Trommsdorf, conspicuous alike for its chemicals as for several vegetable principles, as well as by that of Fay and of Hermann. Austria sent the varied collection of Batka, of Prague, in which some of the less common metals were seen, and among the dried vegetables, the petals of the Arnica, separated from the other parts of the flower, were conspicuous for being well dried. The collection of Dr. Lamatsch, of Vienna, was remarkable for both its che- mical and pharmaceutical preparations. In France, the home of the Exhibition, and a country where both the science and the arts dependent upon chemistry are so well understood and succesfully practised, there was of course a large number of exhibitors, who displayed good specimens of their respective manufactures or excellent collections. Among the subjects of general interest, we may mention the award of a “ Grande Medaille d’Honneur ” to Aubergier for the cultivation of the poppy and the production of opium in France. The excellent drying of medicinal plants by some exhibitors has already been noticed. Many extracts prepared in vacuo were admirable, though those of the nar- cotic vegetables seemed inferior to those already noticed as sent from England. Among chemicals, the crude soda, with other products obtained from sea weed, was well worth notice; as also the various preparations from the native nitrate of -soda of Chili, and another collection of those obtained from bones. The several manufactures of quinine displayed, as might be expected, excellent specimens of the various salts of the cinchona alkalis. It was interesting to see the large masses of the new metal aluminium, as well as of sodium ; for the production of the former has now given much en- couragement to the preparation of the latter. The collection of Robiquet was rich in organic products, as that of M&aier in salts of morphia, fine powders, and preparations of barley. Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 227 while to the foreign Jurors the collection of Dorvault was conspicuous alike for its pharmaceutical preparations and its excellent selection of the rarer drugs. The countries to the south did not display anything par- ticularly interesting in materia medica. Tuscany, however, sent some essential oils and good specimens of iris root : the Pontifical States little if anything but castor-oil seeds. 'Spain exhibited barilla and the plants from which it is obtained, as well as some good extract of liquorice ; while from Cuba there was what may be considered a good col- lection of drugs and pharmaceutical preparations sent by Dr. Sauto. New York and Canada both sent good speci- mens, and the latter a good collection, of essential oils. In the Indian collection there were specimens of several both alkaline and metallic salts made by the natives themselves, by processes with which they have been acquainted for ages, and the products of which they continue to employ in medi- cine, as well as in the arts of dyeing and of calico-printing. In connexion with these pharmaceutical products, we may most suitably notice the various collections of drugs which were sent to the Exhibition ; but, as has been already ob- served, generally from countries different from those which sent the former class of medicinal agents. This has, no doubt, been owing to the science of chemistry and the arts dependent on it, being in a less advanced state in the one than in the other. But nature has been so bountiful in her gifts, that the soil and climate of most of those which are warm regions, produce a variety of plants which secrete active and aromatic principles, in such variety and abundance as to make their products valuable as articles of commerce : either for employment as condiments, or for medicines, or for employment in the arts. Some of the collections were interesting, as enabling us to determine the sources from whence some articles known in commerce actually come. Others were vainly looked for, as the countries producing cinchonas, for instance, had sent no collections. Many of the others contained articles which were totally unknown, and distinguished only by native names, with sometimes a notice of the uses to which they were applied. To make such articles sufficiently interesting to excite the attention of competent observers, it is necessary that they should be ac- companied either with the scientific name, or with specimens, of the plant producing it, and an account of the uses to which it is applied by the natives of the country. If this were not a subject too much neglected by professional men, who conceive that everything useful is contained in the Pharmacopoeia, many of these questions might be resolved Q 2 Dr. Royle on Indian and Colonial Products. &c. Pharmaceu- tical products from south of Europe. From Cuba. New York and Canada. From India. Collections of Drugs. 228 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Royle ox Indian AXD Colonial Products, &c. Drugs from Toronto. From Mexico. Guatemala. Paraguay. New ‘Gre- nada. British Guiana. French Guiana. Jamaica. Drugs from Algeria. Collection from an Arab physician. by tbe various medical men visiting tbe coasts or the interior of different countries. Yet this is a subject which should not be neglected by them, for it enables a medical officer, as I can vouch from experience, frequently being independent of European supplies, either when these fail, or he has to prescribe for disease, far from medical depots and dispensaries. From the New World there were several collections, and among these a very good one from Professor Croft, of Toronto, with several essential oils from Lyman, of Mon- treal, and Giroux, of Quebec, and others from New York. Mexico sent a very interesting collection, among which there was a specimen of Winter’s bark, and a fragrant wood called lign aloe, though the true ahila or aloes wood is a native of Silhet, Burmah, and Siam. There was also the kind of elemi yielded by the shrub, which from the specimens sent me I had named Elaphrium elemiferum. Guatemala for- warded a number of drugs with local Spanish names, but which were not referred to the plants whence they are ob- tained. Paraguay also contributed some unknown drugs, either with native names or with such as are known in Europe, but applied there, as, for instance, senna, to the leaves of different plants. Mate, however, or the leaves of Ilex Paragaensis, and used there as well as in many parts of South America as a substitute for tea and coffee, is now well known. New Grenada sent some specimens of the cinchona barks of its own produce, and which, though with local names, are well known from the subject having been so thoroughly studied. From the opposite side of the continent, that is, from British Guiana, there was a very extensive collection, in many cases well named, and illustrated by a printed cata- logue. With some well-known drugs, there were others less so, and many astringents which might be used either as medicines or for tanning. Some native-grown pepper was also shown, as also from French Guiana, which also showed icthyocolla or isinglass, with cinnamon bark, cloves, tonka beans, and vanilla ; some of these were also shown from Mar- tinique and Guadeloupe. So the collection of Jamaica was extensive ; proving the natural riches of the island and its capability of supplying a great variety of articles for com- merce as well as for the support of its inhabitants. Beturning to the Old World, we may first notice the French colony of Algeria, where opium, said to be of good quality in the proportion of morphia it contains, has been produced. From thence a collection of drugs was exhibited interesting both from the number of specimens, and from the French and scientific having been added to the Arab names, and to a notice of the uses of the drugs. The whole was Dr. Hoyle on Indian and Colonial Products , &c. 229 sent by an Arab “ Sid Mahommed Ben Chouar, Medecin, Dk.Roylf AJ ger.” Few other products were shown from Africa, except 0> SS 1 ** from the west coast, as some sticky caoutchouc, also gum products and copal, which we receive via Aden and India ; and which were also seen in the Isle of Bourbon collection, as they may other French be imported either via India or direct from Africa. The contributions from the French colonies were, however, so mixed together that it was sometimes difficult to know to which of them a particular article belonged. Among these was shown a number of drugs from l’Ecole de Pharmacie, collected at Pondicherry by M. TEpine, Pharmacien of the .Marine ; many of these are necessarily the same as are in common use in the peninsula of India; but much time would be required to determine these, as an actual examination of specimens would be necessary, because many were without names. The Turkish collection of M. Della Sudda, which I have omitted to notice, would be an interesting object of study in connexion with African and Indian collections, be- cause many of the articles exhibited in 1851 I know were undoubtedly the produce of India. I myself exhibited in London, in 1851, a very large collection, amounting in all to about 1,000 specimens, of the mineral, vegetable, and animal substances used as drugs in different parts of India, but the manuscript in which they are noted and partly de- scribed, and which would lend some assistance in such an examination, still remains unpublished. The Indian collection of the late Exhibition was rich in the various natural and partially manufactured articles which are used by the natives, or likely to be useful in the various arts and manufactures of Europe. They are inte- resting therefore to commerce. Some of the most important of these have already been noticed, others it would be out of place to describe on the present occasion. The collection of pure materia medica, or of substances used solely in medi- cine, was less extensive. But it was selected with a view to prove what a number of drugs, available for the various objects required to be effected by a complete and efficient materia medica, are within the reach of medical officers in India. Some, however, have been selected because they were interesting from their historical associations, as they undoubtedly formed articles of the materia medica of the Greeks, and must therefore have been included in the com- merce of the ancient world. To these were added a number of drugs from Scinde and Travancore, as well as from Madras, which it was impossible to exhibit properly, partly from the want of space and partly because they arrived late. But also because they were sent without any but the native 230 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Dr. Royle ox INDIAN AND Colonial Products, &c. Ceylon . Dutch Pos- sessions. names, which are often unintelligible even to those studying the subject, in consequence of the number of languages in use in different parts of India, and therefore requiring for their full elucidation, much time, and a polyglot catalogue. This may be prepared as the several articles are studied. Many of the same things are show n in Ceylon as in India, as w~ell as in the collection from the Dutch possessions in the Eastern Archipelago, w T hich, though composed of much larger specimens, did not contain many articles which were not exhibited in the great Indian collection, as this contained products and articles of commerce from countries extending from Singapore to the Punjab. Having, my Lord, taken a general view of the different classes of substances to which I have myself paid attention, and which, or some of them at least, appear to be not only of commercial but of general public interest, I fear, though wishing much to avoid doing so, I may have encroached upon the province of other Jurors. I have, therefore, in most instances confined myself to illustrating Indian subjects, as the information respecting these is not generally well known. But as in so doing I am well aware, from the number of substances treated of, that I have transgressed the limits to which such a report should be confined, I have to request your Lordship's consideration, and hope that you may ascribe it to my desire to do justice to the commis- sion w ith which I have been honoured. I have, & c. J. Forbes Boyle, M.D., F.B.S., late President of the Jury of Class XI L Captain Foivke on Civil Construction. 231 On Civil Construction, being Class XIV., by Captain capt. -r, t, 1 • Fowke on h owke, Boyal Engineers. Civil Con- STBUCTION. To the Right Honourable the Lord Stanley of Alderley, President of the Board of Trade, &c., &c. My Lord, In accordance with your instructions, I have the honour to submit to your Lordship the following Report on Civil Construction, as represented in the Paris Universal Exhibition. In examining the arrangement of the system of classi- System of fication adopted by the Imperial Commission, we find that cation, the fourteenth class begins with the enumeration of materials used in building and civil construction in general : this is the principle throughout the entire classification, viz., to com- mence with the raw materials, followed by the tools and apparatus used in their manufacture, the concluding part being reserved for the results of such manufacture. Such an arrangement would seem peculiarly happy in the present case, as the nature of the building materials in common use in different parts of the world has always exercised an important influence over the character and nature of the constructions of which they form a part, so much so as, in fact, to influence in a great degree the system and feeling of national archi- tecture, so that we have the ponderous massiveness of Egypt, the stern grandeur of Greece, and the classic elegance of Home, all the offspring of a hard enduring material, more or less stubborn under the chisel and mallet. The more manage- able materials in use in the middle ages were undoubtedly instrumental in producing a change in the nature of the con- structions of the period, and probably to such accidents of place and circumstance are we indebted for many of those beau- tiful and fantastic forms which delight us as much by their delicacy of execution, as by their hardihood of design, and in which the architect, adapting his work to the materials at his disposal, has atoned for his departure from the severe outline and imposing masses of classic architecture, by the introduction of a charm to which his sterner predecessors were strangers. In our own time, in newly settled countries, such as America and many of our colonies where wood is abundant, and stone is either difficult to be obtained, or expensive from 232 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on f’lVIL CON- STRUCTION. Section 1. Building Stones : England. Building stones : British Colonics. the scarcity of labour, we find a different kind of construction springing up, often picturesque in appearance, and exhibiting much talent in design, but especially creditable for its sim- plicity and ready adaptations ; at the same time its ephemeral and temporary character cannot fail to give it more or less an air of insecurity and want of strength, however unmerited. Finally, we come to that period which has with truth been called the age of iron, in which a total change of material has effected as great an alteration in the constructions into which it enters, rendering simple, feats of construction which it would have been folly to have attempted in any of the previous periods ; and of the facilities which are afforded by the use of this material for covering large areas with economy and quickness, no better illustration can be given than the build- ings which have been erected for the two great Exhibitions of London and Paris. First in the list of materials we come to stones, marbles, and slates of various kinds, exhibited either as specimens of the quarries from which they have been extracted or under the forms in which they are known in commerce, as ap- pertaining to different species of employment in the arts of construction. From England we have a collection of the building stones of Cornwall, contributed by the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851, and some beautiful specimens of serpen- tine from the same county, and examples of granite capable of a high degree of polish from Aberdeen ; but the Bristol and Bath stone, the Portland quarries, the Yorkshire sand- stone, Scotch freestone, and the numerous and valuable slate quarries of Devonshire and Ireland, are entirely unrepresented. Some remarkable samples of green Connemara marble are exhibited by Mr. John Costello in the form of a table and chimney-piece, and there are two exhibitors of roofing slates from Carnarvonshire, who send good specimens, and we have a specimen of the granite which is now being used in the construction of new Westminster Bridge, sent by the Cheese- wring Granite Company of Dartmoor. A beautiful decorative material, contributed by Mr. Magnus of Pimlico, although having slate for its basis, can scarcely be said to come under the head of building materials in their unmanufactured state, and besides it has been so ably described under the head of decoration by Mr. Digby Wyatt that it would be superfluous to do more than notice it in this report. From the British Colonies are sent several very complete and perfect series of building stones. Canada has a collection exhibited and arranged by the geological survey, from which it would seem that the prevalence of wooden buildings in that Captain Fowke on Civil Construction, 233 country is by no means to be attributed to any want of more permanent material. Specimens of basalt, sandstone, serpen- civil cop- tine, granite, and white and red marble, the products of the STR !: < T IOV colony of New South Wales, are contributed by the Rev. W. B. Clarke, of Sydney, but more as geological specimens than in reference to their merits as stones of construction, and unac- companied by any description either as to their capabilities in this respect, or to the readiness with which they can be obtained for building purposes. In the same category may be included some specimens of granite from British Guiana, and calcareous stones, limestone, steatite, and marbles from Jamaica. Specimens of building stone are sent from Van Diemen’s Land, and examples of the same class form part of the valuable collection of the rocks, ores, and fossils of Victoria, contributed by Captain Clarke, Royal Engineers ; these, with some samples of the curious material called flexible sandstone, and also of Chunar marble in the Indian Collection, complete the Exhibition of the building stones of the British Empire. France is extremely rich in this material, and much of the Building architectural beauty of Paris is undoubtedly to be accounted France, for by the possession of inexhaustible quarries of a beautiful building stone, of an extremely enduring quality, and at the same time so even of texture, and so easily wrought as to be capable of receiving every variety of ornament. The building stones of Normandy are also justly renowned, and several of the most celebrated quarries of Caen are represented at the Exhibition under the names of Eontenay stone, Aubigny stone, &c., and strange to say, the best specimen of this material, viz., Caen stone, is exhibited by an English firm, Messrs. Gates and George, who have sent an exquisitely carved altar, reredos, and doorway, which do credit to their workmanship, and at the same time serve as admirable illus- trations of the capabilities of Caen stone for the more delicate descriptions of carving, appertaining more especially to works of a medieval character. A good sample of a peculiarly hard red sandstone from the department of the Vosges, is found in the dado which forms the lower part of the external walls of the Palais de l’lndustrie, where its colour is introduced with good effect in contrast to the paler Parisian stone with which the remaining parts of the building are constructed. There are, besides, between twenty and thirty different exhibitors of stone, marble, and slate, from all parts of France and Algeria, by far the greater number of whom contribute marbles in either rough blocks or worked up into ornamental articles or forms. Roofing slates are also sent by many persons, almost all the specimens being very much thinner 234 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Civil Con- struction. Building stones : Wurtem- l»urg. than those made use of in this country, where this kind of covering is more popular than in France ; in fact, the greatest objection made by French builders to the employment of slate as a covering is, that it will not bear the weight of any workman who may be sent on the roof for the purpose of repair, and this objection, which appears at first sight absurd, is easily understood when the samples of French roofing slate are examined, The very general employment of tiles, and more recently of zinc has, however, divested the slate trade in France of the important place which it holds in this country among arts appertaining to construction. In the numberless forms in which we see slate every day used in England, such as in flooring, cisterns, the fittings up of water-closets and other con- veniences at railway stations, &c. it seems almost if not totally unknown in France, and some slate slabs for pavement, for floors, a billiard table, and a garden seat of the same material from Angers, are quite novelties to the Parisian constructors, while a stair with slate treads exhibited by Messrs. Valiguir and Co., is looked upon as a discovery. Some very fine collec- tions of the marbles of different districts of France are seen in the Annexe, but all of such very small sizes, and set in such a way that no opinion can be formed of either their general character or the dimensions of which they can be obtained. In the Algerian Collection appears a very handsome chimney piece, as well as some detached slabs of an exceedingly delicately marked and beautifully tinted Oriental alabaster, the product of that colony, and some similar specimens, but inferior in size and colour, among the Turkish productions. This beautiful white translucent marble is quarried in the province of Oran in Algeria, at a distance of only two miles from the sea, and as it can be obtained in blocks of con- siderable size, and delivered at the cost at from 17 s. to 2 1 s. the cubic foot, we may hope ere long to see it brought into use as a material for internal decoration. Algeria shows several other kinds of marble, alabaster, porphyry, and granite, and of these many are said to have the advantage of being found close to the coast. From Tuscany we have, from the collection of the Royal Polytechnic Institution of Florence, specimens of the marbles for which she has long been famous, such as the yellow sienna, the travertine, the macigno, and other v/ell-known names. And Greece also sends us some of her anciently renowned Pentelicon, green porphyry, and “ rouge antique.” The most perfect and complete collection of building stones in the Exhibition is undoubtedly that sent by Wagner of Stuttgard, and exhibited among the Wurtemburg raw produce ; they are cut in neat blocks, and arranged like an Captain Foicke on Civil Construction. 235 octagonal gatepost, and in the order of their geological forma- tion. They are accompanied by a description of each specimen, which adds to their value as a collection, and which is there- fore given in English as follows : — o O No. 1. Granite from Roethenberg, used for the great column before the Palace at Stuttgard. No. 2. Granite from Euzklosterle, near Wildbad, used for Schiller’s monument at Stuttgard ; power of resistance to crushing weight, 7,917 lbs. per cubic inch. Nos. 3, 4, and 5. Granites. No. 4 very fine grained, from the valley of the Murg. All these granites are fit for monumental construc- tions. General specific gravity, 2*64. No. 6. New red sandstone from Schramburg. No. 7. Ditto from Hausen, of a dark red colour, frequently used for monuments. No. 8. Ditto from Fiedrichsthal, used as a fire-proof ma- terial for the inside lining of furnaces. Nos. 9, 10, 11. Ditto from Freudenstadt. All these sandstones come from the Black Forest, and the large blocks fetch good prices. They are well adapted for building purposes on account of their hardness and being readily wrought; they also resist change of temperature. They are obtained in large blocks and in flakes of a large size. The detached blocks and the quarry stones of a coarser grain yield very large millstones ; the finer sorts are used as grindstones. The specific gravity is 2*22 to 2*36, the finer “grained sorts being the heaviest. No. 12. Limestone from Friedrichsthal, used for building and paving stone. Its specific gravity is 2*76, and power of resistance to a crushing weight, 8,687 lbs. on the cubic inch. No. 13. Dolomite from Rothwiel, building stone for in- door work. Specific gravity, 2*26. No. 14. Sandstone of the red marl, near Ludwigsberg. Power of resistance to a crushing weight, 4,979 lbs. on the cubic inch. No. 15. Ditto in laminge or flags. No. 16. Ditto, secondary from Stuttgard. Power of re- sistance to a crushing weight, 7,635lbs. on the cubic inch. No. 17. Ditto, secondary from Maulbronn. Power of re- sistance to a crushing weight, 7,476 lbs. on the cubic inch. No. 18. Ditto, secondary from Miihlhausen. Power of re- sistance to a crushing weight, 5,128 lbs. on the cubic inch. No. 19. Ditto from Gerlingen, near Leonberg. Power of resistance to a crushing weight, 6,740 lbs. on the cubic inch. Capt. Fowke on Civil Con- STBTTCTION, 236 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowxe ox Civil Cox- »tkucxiox. All these sandstones occur in blocks of large dimensions, and also in large flags ; they are excellent stones for building on account of their fine grain and the ease with which they can be wrought. The white varieties are frequently employed for sculpture, and also for grindstones. Their specific gravity is from 2*14 to 2 2 8. No. 20. Sandstone from the superior strata (called Stuben- sanstein) coarse grain, from Schlaydorf, near Tubingen, first quality. No. 21. Ditto, Stuttgard. The two last-named sandstones occur in blocks of very large size, but rarely in flags. The meeting of German architects, in 1854, pronounced this stone to be one of the best materials known for building purposes. The exterior walls, as well as most of the sculptures of Cologne Cathedral, are of this stone, great quantities of which are still transported there on the Neckar and Rhine. This stone never decom- poses, nor does any vegetation grow on its surface, as it does not contain any earthy matter ; it maintains its light grey colour, resists the heat and cold, bears a heavy weight, and is easily cut without injuring the health of the workmen. Several churches built of the same stone in the thirteenth century are now in good preservation, thus proving its power of resisting the destructive influence of time. It thus shows all the advantages of granite. The best quality is found in the neighbourhood of Tubingen and Niirtingen. It is also used for different sorts of millstones, ac- cording to the fineness of the grain. It surpasses the English stones used for husking rice, and makes ex- cellent grindstones. Its specific gravity is 2 02, and its power of resistance to a crushing weight, 2,095 lbs. on a cubic inch. Nos. 22 and 23. Lias-sandstone, from Plieningen and Goppingen, both sorts used as building stones. Their specific gravity is 2T, and their power of resistance to a crushing weight, 3,856 lbs. on the cubic inch. No. 24. Lias limestone from Yaibingen, near Stuttgard, used as paving stone. Specific gravity, 274. No. 25. Lias slate from Zell, used for table-tops and floors, chiefly for its large dimensions and low price. No. 26. Sandstone of the lower oolite from the brown jura of Aalen, fire-proof, used in lining furnaces. Specific gravity 1 *96. No. 27. Dolomite, from the white jura of Urspring, near Ulm. Building stone. Specific gravity 274. Captain Fowke on Civil Construction . 237 No. 28. Saccharoide limestone of the coralline oolite of the the white jura, Arnegg. In the valley of the Blau river this stone is met with in very large blocks ; it is extremely solid, and is used for paving and building. Its specific gravity is 2-42, and its power of resistance to a crushing weight is 6,663 lbs. on the cubic inch. No. 29. Limestone from the coraline oolite from Schnaitheim, Ileidenheim, used as building stone for in-door work. Specific gravity, 2*48. No. 30. Fresh-water marble, red, from Bottingen, near Miinnsingen. No. 31. Marble of the Oxford clay, yellow, from near Kircheim. No. 32. Ditto, grey, from Ochseerwang, near Kircheim. No. 33. Ditto, yellow, from near Zwiefalten. All these marbles are susceptible of a high polish, and are often employed for ornamental w T ork. Specific gravity, 2*72. No. 34. Limestone of the coraline oolite from near Ulm. Building stone. No. 35. Ditto, flag. No. 36. Lithographic stone of the same formation, from Kolbingen, near Tuttfingen, chiefly used for polished table-tops and flooring. Specific gravity of Nos. 34, 35, 36, 2-46. No. 37. Molasse, from near Wiblingen, building stone of inferior quality. Specific gravity, 2*16. Power of re- sistance to a crushing weight, 687 lbs. per cubic inch. No. 38. Fresh -water limestone from the tertiary formation from near Ulm, very good building stone. Specific gravity, 2*52. No. 39. Limestone, fresh-water deposits from Geisl in- gen, remarkable for its lightness and great resistance to the influence of the air. When first quarried it is sawn with a common handsaw ; it hardens on exposure to the air, and bears a heavy weight. The stone has been employed in building very high church spires, for the arches of railway viaducts, and for fortifications. Its specific gravity is only 1 48, and its power of resistance to a crushing weight from 600 lbs. to 1,000 lbs. percubic inch. No. 40. Limestone of the diluvial beds from Unterturk- heim, near Caunstatt, used as a building stone. Specific gravity 244. Power of resistance to a crushing weight, 873 lbs. per cubic inch. No. 41. Ditto, fresh-water deposit from Seeburg, same quality as No. 39. Besides this collection there are some of the finials and other ornamental work intended for Cologne Cathedral in Capt. Fowke on Civil Con- struction. 238 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Fowkeon g rea t nave, which show in a remarkable degree the Civil Con- beauty of the Stubensandstein, it appears to take an extremely struction. g p ar p arr j Sj anc [ ^- 0 wor k w ith great ease into the most elaborate forms, and these qualities, together with its delicate tint of clear whitish grey, which it is said to keep for any length of time, seem to render it most valuable for con- structive purposes, more so apparently than any stone with which we are acquainted. Specimens Belgium exhibits some porphyries, but not for building Belgium’, purposes, they being intended for paving stones, and shown in that form ; some of the same stone is also shown broken up for macadamizing roads, and is the only specimen of this material in the Exhibition, the contributor is M. Tacquenier, of Lessines. Several specimens of marble and stone from the same country are exhibited both in the raw state, and also wrought into various ornamental articles, such as table-tops, and chimney-pieces, &c. The prices of some of the Belgian marble chimney-pices are so low as to defy all competition from this country, where the necessary labour alone could not be obtained for the sum demanded for the finished article ; the workmanship and finish of these cheap articles is manifestly very inferior, and numberless tricks of trade, such, for instance, as getting up the surface by French polish- ing, are said to be resorted to. Among the varieties are a good black marble from Namur, white marble and red marble from Hainault, all in the form of chimney-pieces, and a great slab of dark slate-coloured or black marble about 14 feet by 6 feet, having its surface covered with heraldic ornament in bas-relief, but for what purpose it is intended it is impossible to form a conjecture. The classification, after mentioning building stones, pro- ceeds to the enumeration of other articles or materials of con- struction in the following order. Cements, Limes, cements, hydraulic limes in their different stages of mortars, &c. p re p ara ^ 0Ilj artificial hydraulic limes, puzzolanas, sand, & c. Mortars and concretes, including various methods of com- position and machines for its manufacture. Plasters, plasters mixed with alum, plasters mixed with silica, stuccos. Before entering into the consideration of these subjects, it is necessary to notice one, which, strange to say, appears to have been omitted from the French system of classification, unless, indeed, it may be found under the head of some other class, as is of not unfrequent occurrence in that work, where its practicability and usefulness are often sacrificed to its Artificial philosophical arrangement. The subject of artificial stone is one which is thus omitted, and which being represented by several exhibitors may, perhaps, be introduced with pro- Captain Fowke on Civil Construction . 239 priety into the present section, taking as it does a middle rank between natural stone and cements, and being gene- rally composed of one or both of these ingredients in different proportions, and treated in various ways. The term artifi- cial stone is used in connexion with the many different kinds of cements and compounds that have been from time to time brought forward as substitutes for stone as a building mate- rial, and more especially' with a view to the saving of the costly labour necessary in reducing the raw material to the ornamental forms required for architectural decoration ; many of the substances known by that name differ from cements only in their application, and in being moulded beforehand, and used in building in blocks in a hard state, and they may be said to be distinguished from the kind of material known as terra-cotta in being a chemical combination of the ingre- dients of which they are composed effected without the aid of heat. In one case, indeed, which is represented in the Exhibition under the epithet of artificial stone, heat has been employed to a great extent, namely, in the great block of semi-vitrified brick or clinker, contributed by M. Borend, and more fully described further on. And in the case of Mr. Ban- some’s artificial stone, which is, perhaps, the one that most of all the various attempts really deserves this epithet, the che- mical combination can only be effected by the aid of great heat. The nearest approach to Mr.Bansome’s process in the Exhi- bition seems to be that of M. Kuhlmann, who exhibits speci- mens of his method of saturating soft and friable stones with silicate of potash, so as to render them hard and permanent, and not only to improve in this respect the building stones already in use, but to enable what has hitherto been thrown aside as quarry rubbish, from its softness, to be made use of in a state in which it is harder and less liable to deterioration than the naturally firmer and more valuable beds. Another obvious advantage attending the employment of this process, is that the softest stones may be wrought into the most deli- cate forms, and then submitted to the action of the silicate of potassium, thus saving the expense of the labour in cutting, which the harder qualities necessitate. Several experiments that have already been made on this process are said to have been attended (as far as can be judged of without the effect of time) with entire success, and the cost of silicatizing the face of a wall is stated not to exceed from 1 d. to 1 \d. the super- ficial foot. The operation consists in simply saturating the stone with the liquid made use of until it is no longer capable of imbibing moisture, and the colour, although at first much changed, is eventually not injured. Among the many exhibitors of artificial stone who appear in the French section (and, indeed, France is the only con- Capt. Fowke ox Civil Cox- STRTJCTIOX. M. Kuhl- mann’s pro- cess for hardening stone. M. Duvn es- ini's artili- cinl stone. Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. i'OWKE ON Civil Con- struction. M. Coignet’s Bet-on pise. 240 tributor under this head), a M. Dumesnil, accompanies some blocks of artificial stone with a kind of estimate of the com- parative expenses of construction with brick, rubble, and ashlar masonry, and also with his artificial stone, which he makes out to be in the following proportions : — £ Front exterior, complete in ashlar masonry - 1,114 The same elevation in brick - - - - 827 The same in rubble masonry - - - 560 The same in artificial stone - - - 480 No data are given on which these sums are founded, and knowing the extremely favourable eye with which inventors are apt to regard their own inventions, they would of course be received with caution ; his manufacture has, it is said, been in use with some success for several years ; it seems to be principally composed of plaster of Paris, and is cast in moulds into any shape. A M. Coignet exhibits a block of the concrete which he has used in the construction of a house near St. Denis, and which has excited considerable interest in Paris. M. Coignet has, as the results of a series of experiments, given us the recipes for making two kinds of concrete suitable for house building, which he distinguishes by the epithets of economic concrete, and hard and solid concrate. The first is composed of — Sand, gravel, and pebbles - 7 parts. Argillaceous earth - 3 parts. Quick lime 1 part. This concrete, he says, properly beaten up and mixed, has given walls nearly as hard as the common soft rubble masonry used in Paris; in price it competes with ordinary pise work, over which, however, it has the advantage of being able to resist moisture. The hard concrete is composed of— Sand, gravel, and pebbles - 8 parts. Common earth, burnt and powdered 1 part. Cinders, pow'dered - - - 1 part. Unslaked hydraulic lime - - Imparts. The materials to be perfectly beaten up together. Their mixture gives a concrete which sets almost immediately, and becomes in a few days extremely hard and solid, which pro- perty may be still further increased by the addition of a small quantity, say one part, of cement ; and the price, depending principally on that of the time and labour, was, in Paris, under unfavourable circumstances, 2>\d. to 4 d. per cubic foot ; with more favourable conditions, 2d. per cubic foot. A house, three stories in height, 65 feet X 45 feet, standing on Captain Foioke on Civil Construction. 241 a terrace having a perpendicular retaining wall 200 feet in f6wkb T oit length and 20 feet high, has been actually constructed, with gJ^vexioS every part, including foundations, vaults of cellars, retaining — wall, all walls exterior and interior, without exception, of this hard concrete (Beton Dur), as well as the cornice, mouldings, string courses, balustrades, and parapets, and without bond iron, lintels, or wood throughout ; the use of plaster in the interior is also avoided, as the concrete takes a surface sufficiently fine for papering. The retaining wall measures 22,750 cubic feet of masonry, and constructed of Paris hard rubble (meulieres) or ashlar, it would have cost from 1,200/. to 1,500/., and in common soft rubble (moellons) and stone coping, from 650/. to 750/. ; on M. Coignet's principle it has cost — 22,750 cubic feet of concrete laid at 2 d. per £ cubic foot ------ 190 Balustrade in moulded concrete - - 18 Total - -P208 The entire house, M. Coignet says, only cost 400/., and he further states that to build one similar of ashlar it would have cost probably five times that amount ; the same person has also constructed a chemical manufactory at St. Denis, in which walls, drains, and water-pipes are all of this material, as also the foundation of a 30-horse engine. If all these statements as to cost, &c., are correct, the material of M. Coignet would appear worthy of being further inquired into, as it would seem to afford a means of construction at a price hitherto unheard of. Another description of artificial stone, a large block of which is exhibited by a M. Berand, comes rather under the head of brick than artificial stone, as it is procured by the application of fire, and is, in fact, simply an enormous mass artiflciai nds of brick ; it is proposed as a substitute for stone in sea stone - walls and other maritime constructions, where the superior durability of vitrified material will give it an advantage over concretes made with lime or hydraulic cements ; it ranks in the same class of materials with the slag cast into blocks and proposed as a building material by Mr. Chance, of Birming- ham, and it is much to be regretted that both he and Mr. Ransome should have abstained from exhibiting in this class, as the artificial stone of the latter gentleman is certainly far superior to anything of the kind in the Exhibition. Before quitting the subject of building stones, it must not Soisson be omitted to notice the stone of which the Palais de stone * l’lndustrie itself is constructed, and which was quarried in 3. K 242 Captain Fowke on Civil Construction . Fowke T on the neighbourhood of Soissons, about 7 0 miles from Paris ; it Civil Cok- bears the name of Viilars-la-Fosse, from the quarry from — 1 ‘ ' which it is extracted, and has been employed largely in the construction of the new galleries of the Louvre, in the repairs of the Palace of the Elysee Napoleon, and several other public works, and seems likely to become popular with the architects of Paris, as from the quarries being within three or four miles of the river Aisne, a branch of the Oise, and also within a tolerably easy distance of the Chemin de fer du Nord, it can be brought to Paris easily and cheaply ; its price in the quarry is Id. per cubic foot for blocks not exceeding 20 inches cube ; 8 d. per cubic foot for blocks up to 40 inches cube ; 9 \d. per cubic foot up to 60 inches cube ; and 11^*7. per cubic foot up to 80 inches cube; at Paris the price of the last-mentioned is about Is. Id. the cubic foot ; its capability of resistance to crushing is very great, in some experiments it having borne' as much as 3.\ tons on the square inch, for which reason it is in great repute for founda- tions and substructures. The next subject we come to is that of cements and limes, of which there are an immense number in the Exhibition, but as in most cases, the samples are extremely small, and already set, it is impossible to form an opinion upon their qualities, except where they are accompanied by analysis and state- ments of their merits, which, after all, is an unsatisfactory way of deciding upon the comparative merits of different objects of the same kind, and it is much to be regretted that such an opportunity was lost of making satisfactory and full trials of all the limes and cements exhibited ; an attempt by some of the Jurors of Class XiV. to institute a series of experiments of this kind either failed altogether, or was only partially carried out, from want of sufficient quantities of the cements in their unslacked state having been sent by the various exhibitors ; owing to this cause, none of the limes or cements sent from England were examined at all. The lime which was most favourably mentioned w T as a new one, known by the name of Chaux d’Echoisy, the manufacture of M. Jugand Boux, of Augouleme, and of which the following Analysis of analysis is given: — Carbonate of lime - - 803*0 the Chaux d’Echoisy. Carbonate of magnesia - 26*0 Carbonate of protoxide of iron - 5*8 Alkali ----- 1*2 Pyrites ----- 8-0 Clay - 146-0 Bitumen - 10-0 1000-0 Captain Foivke on Civil Construction. 243 It is said to be unaffected by the action of salt water, but Capt. of this some time is necessary to judge. crm? E coN- The next materials we come to in the classification are STRLTCTI0N - pottery employed in the construction of buildings, including roofing tiles, bricks, hollow bricks, and terra-cotta pipes. The several descriptions of roofing tiles shown in the Paris Tiles in five Exhibition, almost all of which are from France itself, may be c as es> * considered as belonging to one of five different classes, the first of which includes the original flat tile, the examples of which differ merely in the material of which they are com- posed, and in their greater or less thickness and weight, governed in great measure by such material. The other four classes or general forms of tile are the results of different attempts which have been made from time to time to obviate the great objection to the employment of flat tiles, namely the necessity of laying them so that the roof is covered at every part of its surface with three thicknesses of tile, and the consequent enormous weight of this description of covering, an evil so great as to have almost entirely banished it from all large modern structures in this country, as more than counterbalancing its undoubted and great advantages of durability, great strength, resistance to the action of the wind, cheapness, and perhaps the most impor- tant of all, the fact of its being so bad a conductor of heat as to render the attics of buildings thus covered, less sensible of the extremes of heat and cold, which are so much felt where metal or even slate is employed. The best specimens of the flat or Burgundian tiles, (as they First class ; are termed in France,) in the Exhibition are perhaps those of§Sf uudy Messrs. Genot and Co., to which they give the name of gres cerame. In appearance they are almost like fine grained granite, with a very metallic ring, extremely thin and light, and no doubt of great strength and durability. A somewhat similar tile, from the factory of M. Boulanger, of Aunenil (Oisi), if anything surpasses the first-named in thinness and lightness ; in both, the clay is completely vitrified, and it is a pity that some particulars as to weight, price, &c., of such a remarkable material have not been sent with them. It may be mentioned here that Messrs. Genot exhibit draining tiles and pipes of the same excellent material. The average weight of the flat tile may be taken at upwards of 5,000 lbs. the thousand, 380 tiles to the square of roofing, which thus weighs from 1,800 to 2,000 lbs. in this material. The flat tile is kept in its place by pegs or nails driven ®f a c ™ d through holes in its upper part, and each tile is by this means attached to the lath without being dependent on its neigh- bours for support ; the same rule applies to the next class, which is, as well as the first, flat, and attached in the same R 2 244 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fottke ox Civil Cox- Stettctiox. way, and in which the attempt to reduce the weight consists merely in cutting away those parts of the tile which are con- cealed beneath others, and in some cases also in rounding off or pointing the exposed part, so as at the same time to contribute more or less to its ornamental character; the result is a tile somewhat in the shape of the blade of a shovel flattened, and in some cases approaching the form of the spade pip on cards, and which is fastened, as in the flat tile, by a peg driven through a hole in the short stalk or handle at its upper extremity ; these tiles are further ornamented in many cases by the introduction of figures or patterns in relief on their surface ; they have the advantage of being easily fixed, and lighter than the plain flat tile, but still necessitate a very high pitch of roof to enable the laps to be perfectly weather- proof. The first departure from the ordinary Burgundian pattern is illustrated by the tiles exhibited by M. Blondeau, which are merely the former with the lower corners rounded off, and a little scoop at each side taken out of the part -which is hidden by the superposed tiles. Some of these tiles are more or less ornamented in relief on the surface, and when fixed have a very pretty effect. They appear to have been gradually pared away by different makers till they have assumed the form described above as that of the spade pip on a card, which seems to be the one generally in vogue among the French and Belgian makers. Belgium sends, by M. Josson, of Antwerp, some good examples of this class of tile, the weight of which is stated to be 3,740 lbs., and the cost 60s. per thousand ; 220 of these tiles cover a square of roofing, the weight of which is therefore 812 lbs., which gives a remarkable difference in their favour in comparing them with the Burgundian tile ; their price in Belgium is 60s. the thousand, or 20s. the square, fixed. Similar tiles are exhibited by many French makers; among them may be noticed those of M. Yaultrin, which only seem to differ from those described above in being larger and cheaper, the tiles costing from 55s. to 110s. per thousand according to size, the square taking but 140 of the larger, and costing only 13s. A M. Martin, of Botirbonne les Bains, also exhibited speci- mens of a similar tile, but of which no particulars as to price or weight are given. The desire to remedy the obvious disadvantages result- ing from the long overlapping joint and high pitched roof, the necessary consequences of the two descriptions of tile just mentioned, has induced makers to resort to the con- struction of several varieties of tile, the general principle of which is to substitute for the lap a short vertical joint rendering the lap and high pitch unnecessary, and at the same time connecting the tiles so firmly together that they Captain Fowlte on Civil Construction. 245 are not wholly dependent on their hold on the laths for _ Cai>t - being kept in their position ; these objects are attained in Civil con- different ways, which, however, all unite in the employment ST '--- I0N ' of tiles having their edges turned alternately up and down, so as to form vertical joints at their junction, instead of only overlapping each other as in the first two cases just described, and the remaining classes merely differ in their mode of car- rying out this improvement; and, first of alt, we have what may be called a third class in the common pantile so much Third class used in London, which is made in such a form that the pantlle ' tiles in each separate course make such a joint with each other, but without reference to the course immediately above or below them ; this mode gets rid of the difficulty of pro- viding a great amount of lap for the longitudinal joints, but leaves the horizontal still untouched, and still therefore neces- sitates a considerable overlap and a high pitch of roof. In the fourth class we have the edges inclosing one angle Fourth of the tile turned up, and the remaining two down, and b * the tile laid, so that the angle first-mentioned shall be upper- most, and that the joints shall run in a diagonal direction, by this means continuing the vertical lap all round the tile, which thus enables it to be employed at a much less inclina- tion, and with so little overlap as to have only one-sixth of the surface hidden or useless for purposes of actual cover- ing ; in this tile the peg is also dispensed with as a mode of fastening, the tile having a small projection on the back at its upper part, by which it is attached to the lath, a slight increase of projection in the ledge at the lower angle, which fits into a corresponding depression in the tile next below, serving still further to secure each in its place. This class may be subdivided into such tiles as are square, and those that are lozenge-shaped ; of these, the former, 246 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke ox Civil Cox- structiox. M. Courtois’ tiles. M. Burdin. Fifth class. known as the tile Courtois from the name of its inventor, is perhaps the most simple, while the lozenge-shape gives more scope for the introduction of ornament ; the square tile has also the advantage of having a less length of joint in pro- portion to its length, and consequently of having rather more of its surface exposed than the lozenge. Each one of the tile Courtois weighs 4*5 lbs., and 180 of them are required for a square of 100 superficial feet, so that the weight of this amount of covering would be 810 lbs., and its cost 44.9. One of the principal exhibitors of the lozenge tile of this classis M. Burdin, of Lyons, whose tile is strengthened by a slight rib along its centre, which adds materially to its ornamental appearance, and enables it to be made extremely thin and light, the square of this description of tiling not amounting to more than 770 lbs., and the single tile being 5*1 lbs.; it is shown in three dimensions, running 150, 250, and 350 tiles to the square, and costing respectively 6/., 3/. 125. 6d,, and 3 7. 45. the thousand tiles, or for the first two, I85. the square, and for No, 3, 22s. 6d. Another maker, a M. Gaillard de Romanet, also from Lyons, exhibits a tile identical in principle with that just described, but with greater pretensions in the way of ornament ; in this tile the small strengthening fillet is developed into a grotesque bird’s head, something approaching to the grotesque gurgoyles so often seen in mediaeval structures, which is remarkably pretty in the hand, or when seen close, but is altogether so insignificant in size, and so wanting in boldness, as to be utterly thrown away at even the lowest height of a roof in actual construction ; these tiles are shown as laid alternately, white and red, and although, as before mentioned, the orna- ment must be considered as so much waste, yet the whole effect in a roof must be pleasing and light. The fifth class of tiles may be considered as only differ- ing in principle from the tile Courtois in having the tiles Captain Fowke on Civil Construction . 247 laid with their joints horizontal and vertical instead of diagonally, and consequently having the turned-up edge carried along the top and one side, and that turned down along the other side and the bottom ; but so many modi- fications have been introduced, that in many of those ex- hibited the original or governing form is with difficulty discovered. This class, as well as the last, may be said to consist of two subdivisions, differing in the manner in which the tiles are laid ; that is, whether the vertical joints of the tiles in different courses coincide, or whether they are laid so as to what is technically called break-joint ; the former seems to have the advantage in permitting the ledge or flange to be carried uninterruptedly along the upper and lower edges of the tile. Among the examples of rectangular tiles of the fifth class, those of M. Pegnaut (department cote d’or) approach, perhaps, nearest to the tile Court ois in form. They are shown of all colours — red, black, white, brown, yellow, blue, and green, and are distinguished from most others in the building by being glazed on the upper surface. In the tiles of M. Gilardoni, of Altkirch, who is said to be the originator of this class of tile, a centre projection or corrugation is intro- duced, by which the tile is strengthened sufficiently to enable it to bear the weight of a workman on the roof, and at the same time to be of great lightness ; 140 of these tiles cover a square, which costs from 12s. to 13s. But, perhaps, the best and most complete exhibition of roofing tiles is that of Messrs. E. Muller and Co., of Paris, who provide not merely for a covering, but also give the means of introducing skylights, either to open or fixed, venti- lation tiles, and of employing tiles as flashing, round chimneys, and in similar situations. The form of the tile seems a little complicated, but not at all so as to render it more difficult to be fixed, or to require a more skilled description of labour for that operation, and this slight complication does not seem to affect the manufacture in any way, their price not differing from that of the average of the tiles exhibited. This tile, which may be better understood by a reference to the cut, has the fillets or flanges along its lower edge slightly returned parallel to the face of the tile ; this return being locked into a corresponding recess in the tile next below it, more effectually secures it from the action of the wind, and at the same time gives a water-tight joint without the neces- sity of a high pitch. The longitudinal joint is formed by two small fillets on the face of the one tile, fitting into two grooves in the reverse of the next, thus being secured by three edges lapping over two, instead of merely one over one as in the Capt Fowke on Civil Con- struction M.Pegnaut’s tiles. M. Muller’s tiles. Captain Fowhe on Civil Construction. 249 tile Courtois. The method of providing for the insertion of a skylight is extremely simple and ingenious ; it consists in having a cast-iron frame, with edges made to correspond with those of the tiles, and of the size of one, two, three, or more tiles ; this frame forming the skylight frame is fixed in any part of the roof with the same facility as the tiles them- selves, and is, of course, in every respect as weather-proof at the joints. Should light without air be required, recourse is had to a still simpler cast-iron frame, with a pane of glass in- serted in it; and should ventilation alone be the object, special ventilating tiles can be introduced as often as necessary while laying the ordinary tiles. In the construction of roofs with the tile of Messrs. Muller, not only is the steep slope of an ordinary tiled roof avoided, but the pitch is reduced far below that of an ordinary slate roof, being only one-eighth of the span, or at a slope of one in four. The weight of a single tile on this system is 5*5 lbs., and as it takes 150 to cover a square, it follows that this quantity of covering weighs 825 lbs., or somewhat more than with some of the lozeno'e- shaped tiles ; but this is more than compensated for by the decrease in amount of covering consequent on the alteration of pitch, by the additional security afforded against wind and weather, and by the facility obtained in the fitting of sky- lights, &c., by the employment of the tiles of Messrs. E. Muller and Co., whose merit the jury of this class has acknowledged by the award of a first-class medal, and whose productions are well worthy the attention of constructors in this country. The only other description of tile that remains to be noticed Capt. Fowke on Civil Con- struction. Bridge tiles. 250 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. Fowke ok ClYIL COK- SIKUCIIOK. M. Courtois. Flooring tiles. Mr. Minton. M. Martin- Brey’s tiles. is that in which the longitudinal joint is formed by a similar flange on the face of each tile placed contiguous to each other, and covered by a cap or bridge tile, either similar to the first, turned upside down, or formed like the Italian roofing in the shape of a mere fillet covering the joint. A modification of this system is exhibited by M. Courtois, which, however, does not seem to possess the same advantages as many of those kinds above described, and is, at the same time, more expen- sive than any of them, being 55s. 6d . the square. The use of tiles for flooring, although but rarely seen in England in modern constructions, prevails to a very great extent in France, and as a consequence we have the French part of the Exhibition full of many varieties of this useful material, some of the manufacturers claiming beauty of colour or design, some excellence or durability of material, and others lowness of price, as the distinguishing mark of their particular make or clay. When we speak of tile-making for purposes of flooring or pavement having almost become extinct in this country, we must not forget to speak of the revival of the manufacture of encaustic tiles, a revival which has resulted in the development of that branch of art-manufac- ture to an extent far surpassing the original type, and of which Mr. Minton has given such beautiful examples in con- nexion with his exhibition of pottery, examples that are quite un approached by any efforts in that direction of the foreign makers in the Exhibition, and must be mentioned quite by themselves. At the same time, it should be noticed that this beautiful manufacture, from its price, is essentially “de luxe,” and precluded from being so extensively employed in ordinary houses, as is the case with the less expensive and more common kinds so universally used in France for the flooring of passages and rooms, both up and down stairs, even bedrooms being constantly floored with this material, which has the advantage of being fire-proof, and when covered with a carpet, much more noiseless than a wooden floor; it seems, however, judg- ing by the examples seen in France, to be difficult to render and keep the tiles perfectly true and level, which must thus form rather a destructive substructure for carpets. Some tiles, also with encrusted patterns, appear among the contri- butions of the Paris manufacturers, which seem executed with considerable nicety, and the patterns are good in them- selves, but there is not that beauty of design or high finish of execution which distinguishes Mr. Minton’s manufactures of this class ; in one branch, indeed, that of tesseraae for pave- ment, he is the only exhibitor, none of the French or other foreign potters having exhibited anything of the kind. M. Mar- tin-Brey, of Besan^on, has some. good flooring tiles, and at a moderate price, viz., 6d. per foot superficial ; they are glazed Captain Fowke on Civil Construction . 251 tiles of a dark reddish brown ground with a geometric pattern Fo ^ rt, on . in yellow encrusted in the surface. M. Vullant, of Chateau- Civil con- rouge, exhibits several specimens of pavement, some in patterns STR ^ I0N - formed with diamond-shaped tiles, imitating dark and light ^i e ^ c,llant ’ s marbles, interspersed with white, red, and black, the price of which is 6 J. per foot superficial, one a chess-board pattern in black and white at 5d. per foot superficial, also one at the same price in which white octagonal tiles are filled in with small square red ones, a sample at 4 the foot, in which white hexa- gonal tiles and diamond- shaped imitative marble make up the figure, and finally a very pretty herring- bone brick pavement, in which small cubes of black brick are introduced with good effect between the ends of the other bricks, the price being 6d. a foot. The maker claims for these that they are unaffected by heat, frost, or water, that they wash well, that their colours are unalterable, and that being all of precisely the same degree of hardness, there is no possibility of any unevenness in wear, as is the case where materials of different kinds are employed in conjunction. A piece of flooring is exhibited by M. Dufour to illus- trate a kind of tile, if it may be so called, of his invention, which is made of a kind of white cement or plaster, with a pattern in black asphalte encrusted in the surface. They do not seem to have any advantage over tiles properly so called, as they are much dearer, ranging from Gd. to Is. 6d. the superficial foot, and do not appear to promise the same amount of resistance to wear and tear. There is another invention, exhibited in the “ Annexe/' which being used as a tile in the construction of pavements, may perhaps be introduced here, although not belonging, strictly speaking, to this kind of manufacture ; it is a flooring material made of hexagonal cast-iron frames, which have parts of their surface sunk so as to form a series of cells ; these are filled up level with asphalte or cement of different colours, which is prevented from being Avorn down by the sides of the hexagons and the other projecting parts of iron, these latter at the same time being so arranged as to form an ornamental pattern or design. The principle is somewhat similar to that of the cast-iron street pavement lately laid doAvn in Leaden- hall-street; the price is not stated, but would probably be considerably more than that of tiles, and it is doubtful Avhether the increase of durability would be sufficient to compensate for a larger outlay. Perhaps the best specimens of flooring tiles in the Exhi- m. Chabert’s bition are those shown by M. Chabert, of St. Just des Marais, J cs * 252 , Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke ox Civil Con- struction. M. Carpen- tier’s tiles. Tiles from Chartres. Tiles from Turin. Bricks. a very smooth, even, nnglazecl, octagonal tile of a beautiful cream-colour, and so close in texture as almost to take a kind of polish. They are accompanied by small square red tiles for filing in between the octagons. The price of the octagons per 10 feet superficial is 4s. 6d ., and the necessary number of red squares for this dimension is Is. 3 d., so that the pavement complete costs rather less than 7 d. per foot superficial. M. Carpentier (Seine Inferieur), shows red and cream- coloured flooring tiles, some with only one colour on each tile, others with red pattern on a white ground, and vice versa, the price being from 6d. to Is. per square foot. From Ponchon (Oise), there are some tiles in the style of Dutch tiles, blue and white, and blue, white, and yellow, in squares, and a M. Fos- sarien (Paris) exhibits flooring tiles of a material which he calls “ Carrelage ceramique anhydroplastic,” which are painted in various colours, and are said by the maker to be durable ; but these again being made of a material that sets hard in a few hours without being submitted to the action of fire, come rather under the head of cements than of pottery, as the name would seem to imply. There are some very well finished and good coloured tiles from Chartres, they are whole coloured red and white unglazed, of three forms, octagonal, hexagonal, and rectangular, and the prices and dimensions are as follows : — Octagonal (pure white), 9 inches in diameter, 41. 16s. per thousand. Octagonal (red), 9 inches in diameter, 41. 8s. per thousand. Rectangular (white), 9 inches by 4 inches, 21. per thousand. Hexagonal (red), 8 inches diameter, 21. 5s. per thousand. Some curious looking flooring tiles are exhibited by Messrs. Corballa-Delucca and Co., of Turin; they are thin, light, well burnt and made, but being meant to represent a dull reddish coarsely veined marble, they are not so pleasing in appearance as some of the French flooring tiles enumerated above ; with this single exception none of the foreign states contribute anything under this head. Bricks, both of ordinary make and hollow, are also almost entirely confined to those of French manufacture. As excep- tions to this may be mentioned Messrs. Cartwright, Burton- on-Trent, and Ramsay, of Newcastle on -Tyne, who exhibit fire bricks and lumps ; there are also two beautiful samples of white brick from Toronto in Canada, five or six ordinary looking bricks from Van Diemen’s Land, -which were bought by a French maker, M. Borie, for, I think, five francs; and a sample of brick from the Penitentiary at Kingston, J amaica. Captain Fowhe on Civil Construction. 253 The principal show of French bricks was from the caft. . Burgundy district, and their distinguishing feature is their crm^co?- very beautiful colour. They are a rather small brick, very STK ^^ I0N - even, and of a very remarkable tint of reddish brown, which French - forms a good contrast with dressings of any warm light- coloured stone, such as Caen stone or the budding stone of the Paris basin. A M. Gerard has some small red bricks roughly glazed on one side, apparently a rude imitation of some hollo w bricks with coloured glazes, which were ex- hibited in 1851. M. Malle, of Paris, shows some bricks with a very deep projection on one side keying into a cor- responding hollow in the next brick. Messrs. Chaudet and Partition Son, of Paris, have some hollow bricks of a peculiar form bricks * for making partitions, ceilings, flues, &c. ; they are about 9 inches by 7 inches, and 1^ inches in thickness, each brick having a projection at one end which fits into a groove in the end of the next. They are used on edge, and some of them that are shown put together seem to form an extremely strong and good partition. Their weight is from 3 to 3^ lbs. each ; they are furrowed on the outside for plaster where it may be required, but the bricks themselves being of a good greyish white colour, this might, perhaps, be omitted in many cases. Partitions formed in this way have the advan- tage of being proof against fire, vermin, and sound, and of saving room by being not more than half the thickness of an ordinary lath and plaster partition. M. Paul Borie, of Paris, has a very large and valuable M.^Bone’s exhibition of his various kinds of hollow brick, which are now bricks, so largely employed in all constructions in Paris. They are made of six different dimensions, to suit the various uses to which they may be put ; viz. — Weight of No. Leugth. Breadth. Thickness. each. 1 ■ • 8 ! inches - 6 inches - 4 in iclies - 2-8: lbs, 2 ■ • 8f a _ 43 if - 2" a - 2-9 a 3 ■ ■ 8f a - 43 if - 2f a - 2-9 a 4 • ■ «? a - 4-3- if - 4| a - 5-4 a 5 ■ • 8| a - 4 I if - H a - 5*4 a 6 ■ ■ 8f a ■ ^2" fi ■ H if - 5*4 a Price per 1,000 delivered in Paris. - 485 . - 485 . - 485 . - 805 . - 805 . - 805 . These bricks differ from the hollow bricks that are in use in England in the form and extent of their perforations or hollows. Those that have appeared in this country being generally pierced with a number of small round holes in a transverse direction, and M. Borie, on the other hand, con- structing his with one or more rows of square openings 254 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Fowke T 'on running from end to end of the brick, and so disposed that civil Cox- every part of the skeleton, as it might be called, into which — * ’ the brick is thus divided, is precisely of the same thickness, and that, consequently, there is no tendency to shrink in one part more than another, and that all parts are equally burnt, and the brick of equal strength throughout. They are made of a very fine clay, and are said to be stronger than solid bricks. These hollow bricks are used not only for brick- work in walls, but also on edge in partitions similarly to those of M. Chaudat, and the principle is also carried into the manufacture of lintels for doors and windows, which are made of the required lengths by M. Borie, of brick clay, and perforated with longitudinal openings, the same as in his bricks. A hollow brick beam of the same section as one of his smallest common hollow bricks — viz., 4§ inches wide, and 2 inches deep, pierced with two longitudinal openings, which reduced its sectional area to 4*2 square inches, was loaded during the whole time of the Exhibition with a weight of 220 lbs. on its centre, the extremities being supported on bearings, 3 feet 9 inches apart, and another of these long bricks or lintels, measuring 4| wide by 2J deep, with a solid sectional area of not more than 5*2 square inches, bore with the same bearings, viz., 3 ft. 9 in. between the supports, a weight of 410 lbs. on its centre. M. Has- brocq’s bricks. M. Hasbrocq, architect of Paris, shows bricks moulded into peculiar forms for special purposes, as, for instance, for the construction of flues, for which he employs a brick, the form Captain Fowke on Civil Construction . 255 of which may he better understood by reference to the Cam. annexed cut. He also proposed the same shaped brick to be civil Con- used for rounding off the angles of rooms, and when covered STRUCTloy - with a white porcelain-like glaze to be employed in conjunction with a similarly glazed fiat brick, for linings of apartments where glaze is preferable to plaster, as, for instance, water- closets, &c. In the first figure these bricks are represented as forming a flue, and in the second, they are shown lining the corner of an apartment. In passing from the subject of hollow bricks to that of poSates* terra-cotta employed in construction, we first come to the bricks - exhibition of the Count de Pourtales, whose goods fill a sort of intermediate position between tiles and bricks, they are a species of terra-cotta tile or slab, strengthened on the lower side by deep ribs or flanges running longitudinally from end to end, and are proposed to be employed in forming ceilings, more especially where plaster cannot be conveniently used, in stables, &c. ; the specimens shown are about 18 inches long, by 6 or 7 inches in width, with a thickness of from half to three-quarters of an inch, and having four ribs each 2 inches deep and half an inch thick. They are shown bridging from one joint to the next, their ends resting on a small fillet attached to the lower part of each joist. They have the advantage of combining great strength and lightness, and in connexion with iron joints, would no doubt make an admirable fire-proof ceiling, and the system might probably be extended to the con- struction of floors also. An Englishman, a Mr. Taylor, has a Mr. Taylor’s method, a very ingenious one, of facing brick buildings with fS2° tta a thin veneer (as it may be called) of terra-cotta ; the pieces of terra-cotta which he uses are flat tile-shaped slabs of about 15 inches by 9 inches, and 1 inch thick, with a small return or fillet extending along the upper edge, which forms the means of connecting it to the brickwork ; he proposes to employ the same system with any building stone that is suffi- ciently manageable to be readily sawn into similarly shaped slabs, and exhibits a model showing a very neat way in which a great number of these pieces may be sawn out of a block of stone without waste, so that a house may be faced with less than a sixth part of the stone at present employed for the same purpose ; this system is said to have been tried in several houses with perfect success. There are two French manufacturers who exhibit very Terra-cotta * fine specimens of terra-cottas, as applied to architectural French * decoration ; viz., M. Yirebent, of Toulouse, and M. Garnaud, of Paris, the former of whom has a magnificent deeply recessed and elaborately sculptured Norman doorway, the recessed sides of which decorated with figures of saints in 526 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. capt. niches, and the arch mouldings in many highly-ornamented Ci^l E Con- concentric rings, would have been very costly to produce in btructios. even the softest and most easily-wrought stone, as it pre- sents a surface of from 250 to 300 superficial feet of carving. It is here produced in a beautiful Caen-stone- tinted material for 120£., or not 10s. a foot superficial, mud’s" M. Garnaud exhibits a window dressing for a window terra-cotta 7 feet 9 inches by 4 feet 6 inches, with an egg and dart window. moulding all round, wreaths of flowers and leaves over the window, a balustrade across the lower part, and an orna- mental string course underneath ; the whole surmounted by ORNAMENTAL WINDOW, CORNICE and STRING COURSE. IN TERRA-COTTA - BY M. GARNAUD. Captain Fowke on Civil Construction . 257 a very handsome cornice, supported on consoles in the form capt. of grotesque heads. It is made of good coloured material, c?vilCon- without casting or warping, and was bought for the sum of struction. 12£., an amount which any one must be aware would go a very small way in producing the same subject in stone. This material has been used with success in France for external decorations, and would seem to offer peculiar advantages for the same purpose in this country, more especially in localities such as London, where stone dressings are so expensive that their use is almost abandoned in ordi- nary cases, and recourse is had to cements and compos of various kinds, which are far inferior, both in effect and in lasting qualities, to the terra-cotta. The window in question was shown in a portion of a wall constructed of the rich reddish-brown brick of Burgundy, and the effect and con- trast of colour were very striking and good. A chimney-piece in biscuit, by M. Gille, and some caryatides and other figures in the same delicate material, intended for interior decoration, do not give so successful a result as the coarser terra-cotta, as they cannot compete with marble in appearance, and probably will exceed it in price ; and the difficulty of executing such large subjects in such a material, a difficulty whch is well exemplified by the cracks and failures of which those exhibited are full, will always present a bar to its being extensively employed in con- struction. In the garden behind the Palais de l’lndustrie the front of Porcelain a house is shown, which is largely decorated with plaques of decoratlon - earthenware or porcelain, painted with flowers and other devices in colour. The effect is more fantastic than in accordance with good taste, but still the attempt is not without value as suggestive of an exterior decoration, which might be turned to good account in an atmosphere like that of London, where its quality of readily washing and being easily and cheaply cleaned would render it worthy the attention of shopkeepers, as being in this respect more economical and better looking than paint. Perhaps the most successful application of earthenware to decoration is exhibited in the construction of the Exhibition building itself, where, in the grand entrance, in a kind of open porch, may be seen some two or three circular plaques or medallions of Lucca della Robbia ware, which are in- serted in the ashlar work of the wall with extremely good effect. Altogether there is enough to convince any one who may look into the subject that terra-cotta and earthenware may be brought with advantage to play an important part, both in the construction and decoration of our edifices of all classes and for all purposes. 3 . s 258 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Capt. Fowke on Civil CON- STRUCTION. Asphaltes. Bitume lamine. Again referring to the French classification of objects in the Exhibition, we come to the next subject, which is that of asphaltes and bitumens, both natural and artificial ; and here, as in the last section, we find the great bulk of the articles exhibited are from France, which country, indeed, supplies almost all the material of this kind at present in use ; in fact, with the exception of one exhibitor from Switzerland, M. Babineau, and specimens of asphalte from a Canadian Company at Hamilton, all the asphalte exhibited was French. The floors of several parts of the Exhibition building pre- sented good examples of the various methods adopted in Paris for laying asphalte as a pavement, whether plain, orna- mented with patterns in various colours, or marked into small squares by deep scores, to form a footing for horses; this substance is now very much employed in Paris in the construc- tion of footpaths to the different streets and open places, and seems to have met with much more success for this purpose than in England. Nothing novel, either in form or manner of treatment of asphalte as a pavement, has been elicited, but a material exhibited by Messrs. Automeyer, of Paris, is deserv- ing of notice, it is called 66 bitume lamine,” and is pro- posed for roofing flats, and in fact for all roofing purposes for which lead or zinc is now employed, such as the covering of domes or cupolas, flashings, gutters, &c., and, with the ex- ception of its non-capability to resist the action of fire, seems well adapted for that kind of work. A small summer-house was shown covered with it, and was made in the most irre- gular forms, apparently with a view of showing the facility with which the material could be employed, and although it was exposed through the whole summer to the intense heat of a Paris sun, it never at any time showed any symptoms of becoming soft, nor did it even in the parts where it covered the perpendicular sides of the small erection, exhibit at the close of the summer, any traces of having run, or altered in form, or in any other respect ; it is a preparation of asphalte in the form of sheets, which can be procured of several thick- nesses and widths and of any length, (that exhibited being about a yard wide and three-sixteenths of an inch thick,) and is applied somewhat like sheet lead, the joints being made by slightly melting or softening the parts to be joined by a hot iron. It might, perhaps, be employed with advantage as a substitute for lead in lining water-tanks or cisterns, and in fact in any situation where lightness and cheapness was an object ; in the two qualities of lightness and facility of application it has a decided advantage over the former material. The next subjects in the classification are “metal and wood (except when refeired to Classes I. and II.),” treated specially with regard to their qualities as materials of construction. Captain Foivke on Civil Construction . 259 The Exhibition, as would naturally be expected, presents Capt. great variety, and contains many points of interest in con- civtl E con- nexion with the employment of iron in construction ; and STRUCTI0N this part of the subject is above all others characterized by Iro yin the display of novelties and improvements in the application tion. of this most important material ; and there seems to be one singular difference between the two countries in the direction which the employment of iron seems to be taking ; for while in England it has become the property of the civil engineer, and is almost entirely confined to large and important con- structions, in France, on the contrary, wood and stone still seem to be the most popular materials for this class of works, and iron, although employed also to a considerable extent in civil engineering, has entered on a course in which it is comparatively unknown in this country, namely, that of supplying the place of wood in private and domestic edifices. The iron made use of for this purpose also shows a differ- ence between the practice of the two countries, England making use of cast and wrought iron, while in France the iron now invariably used for all girders and beams in the construction of houses, is rolied at once into the exact form required. The employment of rolled iron in girders and joists for Roiled iroa floors, which is almost unknown in England, and which gn ers * is now very largely adopted in Paris, owes its origin to the circumstance of a very extensively organized strike of carpenters which took place in that city in the year 1846, before which time iron was, even to a greater extent than in this country, debarred by its price from entering into competition with wood in the construction of buildings and private dwellings. In order to extricate themselves from the position in which they were thus placed by such an event, and with a view of preventing its recurrence for the future, the Parisian architects and builders turned their attention to the substitution of iron for wood, both in the roofs and also in the flooring of buildings, and more particularly to the best means of reducing the weight and cost of the material, which, as stated above, formed the greatest obstacle to its general employment. The first difficulty to be encountered was to obtain a sufficient supply of iron of the sections most suitable for the purpose, the roofing of several of the theatres, which had been constructed by a combination of such sections as could be obtained in the market riveted together, showing that the cost of labour consequent on such an arrangement must necessarily prevent its being generally employed. M. Yaux proposed and carried out the application of very s thin flat bar or plate iron for floor joists, but these being s 2 260 Reports on the Paris Exhibition. Oapt. Fowke on Civil Con- struction. M. Bleuze’s girder. ; M. Zores 5 system. obviously ill-adapted to give the necessary amount of lateral stiffness and rigidity, were quickly superseded by a joist or girder whose section was in the form of a cross, proposed and made by M. Bleuze, and in which he sought to give lateral rigidity by a single flange at the neutral axis of the beam, which thus assumed in section the form of a Greek cross. This, although a failure as far as the section was concerned, was a great advance in one respect, viz., that it was an iron beam made in one piece, specially for the purpose for which it was intended, instead of being merely made up of various shapes riveted together, as had been formerly the case, and as is to this day the case in constructing wrought iron girders in England. Much of the difficulty experienced by the French architects in perfecting this new construction was occasioned by the fact that, according to the custom which obtained at the time, the iron was trans- mitted from the manufacturer to the builder through the intervention of a dealer, who was totally ignorant and careless, both of the requirements of the latter or of the capabilities of the former to meet those require- ments, and it was not until the manufacturer and builder were brought directly into communication that the best forms of iron were made, especially for the purposes of construction, forming what are called in France “ fers spe- ciaux.” The cross-shaped girder of M. Bleuze being, as might have been expected, weak in proportion to its weight, recourse was had to a girder which was first adopted in the construction of the St. Germain railway station, and which was a slight modification of the common I rail, but which being made a great deal too heavy, fell to the ground from its consequent high price, and it was not till the month of February 1849, that the I girder as now used was produced, and first applied in Paris in the flooring of a house, No. 18 in the Boulevard des Filles du Calvaire for a bearing of 1 8 feet. A number of experiments were instituted by M. Zords, for the purpose of obtaining the best possible section for these new rolled iron girders, which resulted, first, in proving the uselessness of a third flange which had been introduced by some makers, as in the case of M. Bleuze’s girder, at the centre or neutral axis of the I girder, and afterwards in the gradual develop- ment of what are now considered in Paris to be the best and most practical forms of rolled iron girder, and which are described below. The principle of the substitution of rolled iron for wood having now been established, numerous modifications were proposed in the manner of its application and arrangement, 261 Captain Fowhe on Civil Const $ notion . as to the ties, struts, and connection with the remaining Fo ^e T on parts of the floor and ceiling, for both which a variety of cjvilCon- methods of construction have been from time to time v — adopted, and t>f which some of what are considered the best forms are here described. METHOD No. 1. PLAN. SECTION .ACROSS TULL GIRDERS. CAST-IRON WROUGHT CHAIR IRON CHAIR LONGITUDINAL section R^dOIST I-JOIST , / N f ) \ / JS.IRDER £Z n t xl ^ C E S !_ 1 N C * CAST-IRON WROUCHT CHAIR. IRON CHAIR The first has the girders of I shape, slightly arched, having a rise of *06 inches in each foot, placed at a distance of 3 feet 3 inches from centre to centre, and connected at intervals of 3 feet 3 inches throughout their length by ties of fiat bar iron on edge, resting on the lower flange of the 262 Reports on the Paris Exhibition . Capt. girder, and fastened one to another either by wrought-iron Civil con- straps or cast-iron chairs. Upon these ties are placed square stkuction. b arSj three between each pair of girders, running parallel to them from wall to wall, into which their ends, 4 turned down, are built. The girders are further tied to the walls at each end by iron straps fastened to vertical iron bolts in the wall, and in a lateral direction by the ends of the cross ties being also built in in the same way as the longitudinal bars. On the iron framework so formed the thick plaster ceiling is formed without wooden lathes, a wooden platform being held under it while the plaster is thrown in from above, and removed after it has firmly set. Small square wooden joists are laid over the girders, and the wooden floor laid on these in the ordinary way. In the second method described, the I girders are also placed at from 3 feet to 3 feet 3 inches from centre to centre, and are tied, or rather shutted, at intervals of one foot by small square bars, reaching from girder to girder, and resting on the METHOD No. 2. PLAN. n i > i ■ i V 1 i J) i ! ■ !) i n -i ! j) j) ij j) b SECTION ACROSS CJRDERS. . - ^ — — TRcSTJ R~bo • \ r fi-ViVx;,, P !/A=ST/E R/^CEIM ‘*^Jf*?* I Captain Fowhe on Civil Construction. 263 SECTION ALONG CIBDER5 Capt. Fowke on Civil Con- struction. lower flange, having their ends turned up in an elbow the height of the web of the girder, and kept upright merely by the plaster with which they are filled in ; this, as will be seen at once, is the most simple of these methods, but it is deficient in the ties with which the others are strengthened. The third method differs from the first merely in the manner in which the cross-ties are connected together, being a simplification of the chair already described. METHOD No. 3. PLAN. fA V