THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY v-6\00-\0& BULLETINS of the AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION of the NOT MEXICO COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS BULLETINS 100-106 1916-17 STATE COLLEGE, N. M CONTENTS 100- Winter protection of the vinifera grape by Fabian Garcia and J. W. Rigney 101- Feeding range steers by Luther Foster and H. H. Simpson 102- Grasshopper control by D. E. Merrill 103- The utilization of feed by range steers of different ages. II, Alfalfa hay and milo maize meal, by F. W. Christensen and others 104- Dry farming in eastern New Mexico by J.E, Mundell and Herbert G, Smith 105- New Mexico Beans by Fabian Garcia 106- The bean beetle by D. E. Merrill Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/winterprotection1001garc O’ I Clo.&ju*— ' 9 \\* BULLETIN NO. IOO JANUARY. 1916 New Mexico College of Agriculture And Mechanic Arts AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STATE COLLEGE, N. M. Covering the Vines After Plowing Winter Protection of the Vinifera Grape By Fabian Garcia and J. W. Rigney RIO GRANDE PUBLISHING CO LAS CRLCtS, N. M . 1916 New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL. Board of Regents of the College. J. H. PAXTON, President, Las Cruces, N. M. P. F. McCANNA, Secretary and Treasurer, Albuquerque, N. M. C. W. GERBER, Las Cruces, N. M. R. R. LARKIN, East Las Vegas, N. M. J. A. MAHONEY, Deming, N. M. Advisory Members. KON. W. C. MCDONALD, Governor of New Mexico, Santa Fe, N. M. HON. A. N. WHITE, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. M. STATION STAFF. GEORGE E. LADD, Ph. D FABIAN GARCIA, M. S. A.... LUTHER FOSTER, M. S. A... F. L. BIXBY, B. S F. W. CHRISTENSEN, M. S. D. E. MERRILL, M. S L. A. HIGLEY, Ph. D R. L. STEWART, M. S. A D. W. A. BLOODGOOD, B. S. . JOSE QUINTERO, B. S J. R. MEEKS, B. S. A E. H. DIVELBISS, B. S. A.... J. G. HAMILTON, B. S. A E. J. MAYNARD, B. S. A President of the College ...... .Director and Horticulturist Animal Husbandman Irrigation Engineer Nutrition Chemist Biologist ...... ... . ... .Chemist Agronomist Assistant Irrigation Engineer .Assistant Chemist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Agronomist ...Assistant Animal Husbandman A. B. FITE, B. S. A... .Assistant Horticulturist J T. BARLOW, B. S. A..... F. C. WERKENTHIN, M. A FLOY E. FRENCH R. V. WARE C. P. WILSON, M. S ARETUS H. BRADLEY .Assistant Agronomist Assistant Biologist Librarian Registrar Editor .Station Stenographer G.^O.1 n*hs&- yx& \00 -l o & Winter Protection of the Vinifera* Grape INTRODUCTION. The results of the first experiments with European grapes are given in Station Bulletin No. 58. The discussions deal mostly with the question of propagation, cultivation and va- rieties, and slight mention is made of the resistability of the European grape to the winter temperatures. The bulletin also makes some reference to the early his- tory of grape growing in the Rio Grande Valley and it shows that varieties of the European grape, principally the old Mis- sion or El Paso grape, were grown in parts of the Rio Grande Valley for many years before New Mexico became part of the United States. It has been ascertained that the range of adaptability of the European grape, as far as the winter temperature is con- cerned, is not as great as that of the native grapes. In other words, the European grapes are not as hardy to cold as the native varieties, such as the Concord, Delaware, etc. For that reason the best European grape growing districts of the State may be found in the warmer and lower agricultural districts. On the other hand, wherever the European grape will grow it produces better and larger crops and is at the present time the commercial grape for New Mexico. The early Mexican farmers, who were the first grape growers in New Mexico, ascertained, through experience most- ly, that it was good practice to protect their vines during the winter. Later vineyardists doubted the necessity of this practice •The Vinifera grape is the European or so-called “California” gra.pe 4 WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. and discontinued the use of it, with more or less unsatisfactory results. In view o-f this and the lack of definite knowledge on the subject, the Experiment Station planned an experiment to ascertain, among other things, the effect of winter protection upon the vines and yield. PLAN. In order to carry out this experiment, a small vineyard was planted between the 14th and the 20th of March, 1906, on the new horticultural farm in a very sandy soil. In this vine- yard 400 Flame Tokay, 40*3 Black Cornichon, 300 Emperor, 730 Muscat of Alexandria, a^d 600 Mission cuttings were planted. All of the plants of the Flame Tokay, Black Corni- chon and Emperor were rooted cuttings obtained from Cali- fornia. The Mission and Muscat of Alexandria were unrooted cuttings obtained from local vineyards. A very good stand was secured. The Mission and Muscat of Alexandria cuttings rooted remarkably well and the vines made almost as good growth the first year as the rooted cuttings. In starting this vineyard some of the Mission and Muscat cuttings were taken in the fall and heeled-in during the winter. These rooted somewhat better than those taken in the spring. All of the cuttings were planted in the field in squares eight feet apart and immediately irrigated. The sandy soil in which they were planted held the moisture well, and therefore required little irrigation. As a matter of fact, the irrigation was stopped about the last of July the first season. From that time on the vineyard was simply surface-cultivated. The small vines were banked late in the winter. The pruning in the spring of 1907 was done the first week in April and by the 21st of the month a growth of from six to ten inches had been made by some of the vines. All of this growth was killed on the 21st of April by a late frost. The killing back of this new growth caused the plants to start from the base, producing a number of sprouts during the summer which had to be removed, leaving one or two to form the stump. WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. 5 The growth made during the summer of 1907 was re- markably large. The shoots kept on growing until late in the fall, when the first frost occurred. The vines were banked up early in the fall of 1907. The pruning was done from the first to the sixth of April, 1908, two weeks after the uncover- ing of the vines. Immediately after pruning, the vines were tied to stakes which were driven by the side of the plant. The stakes used for this purpose were made of material not more than an inch to two inches in diameter and from one to two feet in length. The object of this operation was to strengthen the stump so that it would grow up straight. Most of the Mission, Muscat of Alexandria, Flame Tokay and Black Cornichon set a fair crop in 1908. The Emperor did not pro- duce any fruit. Figure 1. Tying the canes up in the fall. First operation. The vine growth during 1908 was very rank and due to a number of vegetables being planted in the vineyard it was nec- essary to keep irrigating until late in the fall. This late irriga- tion undoubtedly kept the vines growing too late and prevented the canes from properly maturing before the freezing weather started. In December, 1908, quite a drop in temperature oc= 6 WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. curred and the more succulent and tender canes were materially injured. The vines were not protected during the winter of 1908-’09. In the spring when the vines were pruned, April 1 to 4, it was observed that about ninety per cent of the canes were dead. On most of the injured vines the main stump was killed back to the ground. The grape vines, having the main stump killed, again sprouted from the base in the spring of 1909. This made it necessary during the summer to remove most of the sprouts and start a new stump. The canes produced from such buds are generally classed as renewal canes which do not, as a rule, bear fruit the current season. On account of such a large percentage of renewals the grape crop was very small in 1909. In the fall and early winter of 1909 part of the vineyard was pruned. The vines were covered from the 15th to the 22nd of November. In the fall or winter pruning of the vines the canes were cut back to about six buds, leaving from six- to eight-inch stubs. In the spring these stubs were again cut back to two or three buds, the usual number of buds to be left after pruning. In the spring of 1910 after the pruning was done no material difference could be seen between the winter and spring pruned vines. Since there seemed to be no material ad- vantage in the winter pruning the practice was not continued. The vines were uncovered March 15 to 20 and pruned from the 1st to the 5th of April. On April 17, 1910, a frost injured some of the young sprouts which had started to grow and this reduced the grape crop during that year. During the ripening season the honey bees did a great deal of damage to the berries, by sucking all of the grape juice out and leaving nothing but the hulls. WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. % Experiments. In the fall of 1910 the vineyard was divided into nine plats, in order to test different ways of winter protection and to get more reliable data on the effect of winter irrigation with no protection; irrigation and covering the vines with moist soil; covering the vines with dry soil and immediately irrigating them ; covering the vines with dry soil and not irri- gating them ; no protection and no irrigation ; and also to study the effect of the early and late treatment of the vines s WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. atm™* [Tfis^Turr cor fife Hon EEIPEROR rr w TREATED EARLY O * o 2 - * * 71 ^ ~ n b S <3 J uimtiii'm it t ; t : ;;;;:: I ♦ 4 4 4- ♦ 4- 4 t mu •, /. ! t s H rn H > 3 H “-1 > 'TJ rn LH 5 «b I 5 3j 4 = pi Ij 5 5j >:l;:i;:::::: D^ + |‘ 4 ** 4 **** it : t i : t tt it 1 t I :\i ii i * ::::; ; ; ; t * mu a o rn m ti fci if *-■»*♦♦-»■► + *+ ■• u ' * * t it t i 1 l 1 >♦♦♦*+++**♦«■ ~+«« t <■ » t ♦.**♦ + fit t ♦ t t tit l l l t : : : : : : : ; : : : : ; : : : ; : u, TREATED LATE 8 5 - ^2 3 »*2S r*i ^ 5 b 8 ~ o* * T ******** ♦ ; ::::: ♦ t ♦ + ; : : : : : J 8 5 ' t^Pi c s> 5 O' * . 1 t r t + I ♦ I . *::: Hi ;;::::' : ; : ; ; : ; ; : ; ; : : :: :: ; : : : : : 55 8 gis 5 5 0' * * * * 4 4- f ♦ * * * :::::: : : iitt * ♦ 4- | f ♦ 5 Q 2*8 ciom 3 K b b |4, ri .4.Z* + r + *** g* ,♦♦******♦* * * **z ****** nimzz mt it + ♦ 4 -. » 4 . 1 1 z + * + 1 * : : : ; ; nit 1 * * * * ; Figure 2. Plan of the plata. WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. Plats 1 and 6 were irrigated and not covered. Plats 2 and 7 were irrigated first, plowed and covered just as soon as pos- sible after the irrigation; usually, on the sandy soil in which the vineyard grew, from three to four days after irrigation. Plats 3 and 8 were covered with dry soil and immediately irri- gated. Plats 4 and 9 were covered with dry soil but not irri- gated. Plat 5 was not treated at all. Plats 1, 2, 3 and 4 were in the series treated early in the season, usually from the 1st to the 15th of November. Plats 6, 7, 8 and 9 were in the series treated about two weeks later, usually from the 20th to the 27th of November. In 1910, plats 1, 2, 3 and 4 were treated during the first week in November according to the outline in the plan. Plat 1 was irrigated but not covered; plat 2 irrigated and covered; plat 3 covered and irrigated ; plat 4 covered and not irrigated. About two weeks later, from the 18th to the 24th of November, the second series of plats was treated. Plat 6 was irrigated but not covered; plat 7 irrigated and covered; plat 8 covered and irrigated; plat 9 covered, not irrigated. While the winter of 1910-T1 was very cold, the canes on the protected vines were not killed. The uncovered vines, how- ever, were badly winter killed. The canes on plats 1 and 6 were badly injured, indicating that the simple irrigating of the vines was not enough protection to prevent the canes from being winter killed. In the spring when the vines were uncov- ered, it was found that the canes on the vines in plats 2, 3, 7 and 8 were fresher and plumper and the buds at the base of the canes were somewhat farther advanced than on the other plats. Soon after pruning, the first week in April, the vines in plats 2, 3, 7 and 8 started growing and they made a faster growth than the canes on the other plats. In 1911 there was a heavy crop of fruit set on the protected vines, but 3 very light one on the unprotected ones. In the fall of 1911, plats 1 and 2 were irrigated October 27 and plowed on the 30th. Plats 2, 3, and 4 were covered ac- 10 WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VTNIFERA GRAPE. cording to the plan from the first to the eighth of November. Plats 6 and 7 were irrigated November 16th and plowed on the 20th. Plats 7, 8 and 9 were covered from the 20th to the 25th of November. The winter of 1911-T2 was practically the same as the previous one and the uncovered vines were badly injured while the protected ones were not hurt. From the 8th to the 15th of March, 1912, the vines were uncovered. On May 4 a light frost did considerable damage to the tender growth and fruit buds which had already started to develop. This reduced the crop somewhat in 1912. Figure 3. Irrigating before plowing. Second operation. The treatment for the winter of 1912-T3 was the same as that for previous years. From October 26th to the 29th the grape canes were tied. Plats 1 and 2 were irrigated on Octo- ber 28, and the middles were plowed November 2, 1912. Plats 2. 3 and 4 were covered during the 3d to the 6th of November. Plats 6 and 7 were irrigated November 19, and plowed on the 23d. Plats 7, 8 and 9 were covered from the 24th to the 26th of November, 1912. The winter of 1912-T3 was exceedingly cold. On Jan- uary 8 the thermometer at the plats recorded a temperature of WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE 11 10 degrees below zero. This w^s unusually cold and is the lowest temperature that has beenjrecorded at the Experiment Station since meteorological records have been kept While the winter was unusually cold the beginning of spring was not much later than usual. On February 26 the vines were plowed and on March 3, 4 and 5 the dirt tljat had been left around the vines was removed. On April 1,‘ twenty-six days after the vines were uncovered, the pruning >vas started. On the whole the vines were a few days later in starting to grow in 1913 than during the previous year and while there were a number of nights of freezing weather the temperature did not drop low enough to damage the crop, except a 27-degree tempera- ture on April 24. This temperature reduced the fruit buds, but still quite a heavy crop of fruit : was set on the covered vines. On June 7 a hail storm did .some injury and further reduced the crop. The canes of the unprotected vines were practically all winter killed except a few on the Muscat of Alexandria in plat 5. The following table will give an idea of the amount of injury done in 1912-1913 to the treated and untreated vines: 12 WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. Plat No. os cn cn 4*. oo os oo No. of Vines ff g tf»-Cn 00 (OOO^OOKOO-l Winter Injured O o I 8 a p- £ 35 Cn Cn 00 -3 05 Sound o S' a ■b'bSHOOSKCnwO 0 cncncn4».4*-cncncn<3s CnCOCOCOU*OOrf».'X>i— No. of Vines New M< Mission ^ ^ a OMOtO^OMOh-* Winter Injured o o 3 pj Sound o X WMWOOMwSo o cococowtococococn cnu)OioococccoH* No. of Vine* W § ** o o ►* to to cn OMOOOOOMCOK Winter Injured O o 3 £: 3 EJ o* WMW CO CO CO Cn— ‘0500CO-30® Sound o 3 3* o 3 lcotoiocococococo.&. cno-»i. WH^OJOtONM Winter Injured O o ce o 3 CO t— 1 to to CO CO Sound d -* -3 05 © © -4 M ® 3 toeocococococococo No. of \ ines x> ® to to cn -3 tc cnos 1 i-> to to CO Winter Injured O H ooo®cocncni-‘H‘05 3 0. o X & £ << — * to CO CO CO CO Sound o jx>COCO®®COM*.Oj 3 Amount of Injury Done to the Vines During the Winter of 1912-1913. WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE n The above table will give a good idea of the amount of injury done to the treated and untreated vines during the win- ter of 1912-T3. Plat 1 shows that all the vines of all the va- rieties were winter injured. Plat 2 shows that all the vines of the Muscat of Alexandria and the New Mexico Mission were sound ; that thirty out of the thirty-three Black Cornichon were sound; thirty-one out of the thirty-three Emperor were sound ; and that thirty-four out of the thirty-five Flame Tokay were sound. Plat 3 shows that all of the Muscat of Alexandria were sound, while the New Mexico Mission, Black Cornichon, Emperor and Flame Tokay had one, two, two and one vines in- jured, respectively. Plat 4 shows: one vine injured in the Mus- cat of Alexandria; none in the New Mexico Mission, Black Cornichon and Emperor, and five in the Flame Tokay. In plat 5, six of the Muscat of Alexandria were sound. All the vines of the other varieties were injured. In plat 6 all the vines of all the varieties were injured. In plat 7 all the vines were sound except one in the Emperor block. Plat 8 shows that all the Muscat of Alexandria were sound; and that one each of the New Mexico Mission and Black Cornichon; three in the Emperor and eight in the Flame Tokay were injured. Plat 9 had two of the Muscat of Alexandria, no New Mexico Mission and Black Cornichon, four Emperor and ten Flame Tokay, in- jured. From these figures it seems that the Emperor and the Flame Tokay were the more susceptible to winter injury, as we find more injured vines in these two blocks even on the pro- tected plats. On the other hand, the Muscat of Alexandria is probably the hardiest, as aside from the larger number of canes being uninjured in plats 1 and 6 there were six vines not hurt in plat 5. The following table gives the yields of the treated and un treated plats for 1913" 14 WINTER PROTECTION OF THE VINIFERA GRAPE. Plat No. Winter Treatment Irrigated, not covered | Irrigated and covered j Covered and irrigated Covered, not irrigated Check 1 Irrigated, not covered ...1 Irrigated and covered Covered and irrigated 1 How Treated Early I Early Early Early Later Later Later When Treated No. of Vines in Plat Muscat of Alexandria 130 662 1115 201 517 555 395 Actual Yield per Plat, lbs. 1.49 9.57 13.57 3.09 1.1 11.1 7.6 Average Yield per Vine, lbs. 1013 6508 9227 2101 748 7548 5168 Computed Yield per Acre (680 vines), lbs. No. of Vines in Plat New Mexico Mission <71 Oi <71 O' CCWMNCOiC Actual Yield per Plat, lbs. .0 8.59 12.49 8.63 0.5 .81 12.0 12.0 Average Yield per Vine, lbs. 0 584i 8493 5868 340 551 8160 8160 Computed Yield per Acre (680 vines), lbs. oc tc to OC tC tc -J No. of Vines in Plat Black Cornichon 0 211 222 90 14 0 166 67 Actual Yield per Plat, lbs. ONCTO! wLecnbcbibie X u titi H-* n in ion > o ►3 > 3 Alfalfa, Ground Barley, and Cottonseed Meal. Alfalfa, Ground Corn, and Cottonseed Meal. Alfalfa, Ground Kafir, and Cottonseed Meal. Alfalfa, .Shredded Corn Sto- ver, Ground Kafir, and Cot- tonseed Meal. Alfalfa, Shredded Kafir Corn Stover, Ground Kafir, and Cottonseed Meal. Weight at beginning, lbs 2992 2978 2902 2925 3017 Weight at close, lbs 3918 3938 3788 3840 3837 Total gain (5 steers), lbs 926 960 886 915 820 Average gain per head, lbs 185 192 177 183 164 Average daily gain per head, lbs 2.04 2.11 1.95 2.01 1.84 Ground Barley fed, lbs 2836 Ground Corn fed, lbs 2843 Ground Kafir fed, lbs 2808 2858 2832 Cottonseed meal fed, lbs 709 711 702 692 708 Alfalfa hay fed, lbs 6642 6870 6665 3616 3830 Corn Stover fed, lbs 3867 Kafir Stover fed, lbs 3950 Average daily concentrate per head, lbs. . . 7.79 7.81 7.71 7.80 7.7S Average daily roughage per head, lbs 14.69 15.09 14.65 16.45 17.09 Concentrate fed per pound of gain, lbs. . . . 3.83 3.79 3.96 3.88 4.32 Roughage fed per pound of gain, lbs 7.17 7.16 7.52 8.18 9.49 Cost per pound of gain | 9.52c| 9.32c| | 9.90c! 9.25c 10.47c 12 FEEDING RANGE STEERS TABLE 3.— FINANCIAL STATEMENT. As an illustration to indicate what returns may be expected from steer feeding at the present time, the following financial statement is made. The prices for feeds used are approxi- mately those that have prevailed during the past three years. The steers were such as could have been bought during the past two or three years at about $35.00 per head, or $5.90 per hundredweight. LOT 1. GROUND BARLEY, COTTONSEED MEAL, AND ALFALFA HAY. Value of 5 steers, weight 3918 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred- weight, at close of experiment $318.44 Value of 5 steers, weight 2992 lbs., at $5.90 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment $176.53 88.16 .61 Cost of 2836 lbs. of Ground Barley, at $30.00 per ton Cost of 709 lbs. of Cottonseed Meal, at $35.00 per ton. Cost of 6642 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton. At the beginning of the experiment this lot weighed 29 lbs. more than the average for the five lots. Since the margin of $2.10 per hundredweight between the buying and selling prices was received on this excess, there is deducted from the profit | $42.54 12.41 33.21 265.80 Profit -on lot, due to feeding $ 48.14 LOT II. GROUND CORN, COTTONSEED MEAL, AND ALFALFA HAY. Value of 5 steers, weight 3938 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred- weight, at. elnse of experiment $315.04 Value of 5 steers, weight 2978 lbs., at $5.90 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment $175.70 89.44 .32 Cost of 2843 lbs. of Ground Corn, at $30.00 per ton Cost of 711 lbs. of Cottonseed Meal, at $35.00 per ton Cost of 6870 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton Margin of $2.10 per hundredweight on 15 pounds, which this lot weighed more than the average for the five lots $42.65 12.44 $34.35 265.46 Profit on lot, due to feeding $ 49.6* FEEDING RANGE STEERS 13 LOT III. GROUND KAFIR, COTTONSEED MEAL, AND ALFALFA HAY. Value of 5 steers, weight 3788 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred- weight, at close of experiment Margin of $2.10 per hundredweight on 61 pounds, which this lot weighed less than the average for the 5 lots Value of 5 steers, weight 2902 lbs., at $5.90 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment Cost of 2808 lbs. of Ground Kafir, at $30.00 per ton Cost of 702 lbs. of Cottonseed Meal, at $35.00 per ton Cost of 6665 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton Profit on lot, due to feeding $303.04 1.28 $304.32 171.22 $42.12 12.29 33.33 87.74 258.96 $45.36 LOT IV. GROUND KAFIR, COTTONSEED MEAL, ALFALFA HAY, AND SHREDDED CORN STOVER. Value of 5 steers, weight 3840 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred- weight, at close of experiment Margin of $2.10 per hundredweight on 38 pounds, which this lot weighed less than the average for the 5 lots ' Value of 5 steers, weight 2925 lbs., at $5.90 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment Cost of 2858 lbs. of Ground Kafir, at $30.00 per ton Cost of 692 lbs. of Cottonseed Meal, at $35.00 per ton Cost of 3616 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton Cost of 3867 lbs. of Shredded Corn Stover, at $6.00 per ton $42.87 12.11 18.08 11.60 Profit on lot, due to feeding $307.20 .80 $172.58 $308.00 257.24 $ 50.76 LOT V. GROUND KAFIR, COTTONSEED MEAL, ALFALFA HAY, AND SHREDDED KAFIR STOVER. Value of 5 Steers, weight 3837 lbs., a.t $8.00 per hundred- weight, at close of experiment Value of 5 steers, weight 3017 lbs., at $5.90 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment Cost of 2832 lbs. of Ground Kafir, at $30.00 per ton Cost of 708 lbs. of Cottonseed Meal, at $35.00 per ton Cost of 3830 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton Cost of 3950 lbs. of Shredded Kafir Stover, at $6.00 per ton Margin of $2.10 per hundredweight on 54 pounds, which Profit on lot, due to feeding $178.00 $42.48 12.39 19.15 11.85 85.87 1.13 $306.96 $ 41.9 14 FEEDING RANGE STEERS At the prices given above the farmer would receive good returns for his surplus crops and a fair profit in. addition. The value of the manure would, no doubt, in many cases offset the cost of the labor involved in the feeding; and in some instances might also cover the cost of grinding the grain. The returns on the last three lots, — fed kafir corn, — would be greater still if figured at the present price of this feed, viz., $20.00 per ton; and the advantage would be de- cidedly in favor of the kafir fed lots and would make steer feeding a more attractive proposition than formerly. The profit on Lot III would be increased to $59.40; on Lot IV to $65.05 ; and on Lot V to $56.12. At the time this experiment was conducted, the prices of both feeders and beef cattle were very low, while feed prices did not differ materially from the present. Figuring the results from the prices actually paid for the steers and feed at the time, and that received for the finished product, every lot was fed at a loss. The cause of this was very plain, and showed that with the high prices paid for feeds, a greater margin between cost and selling prices was needed in order to make steer feeding profitable. The steers cost $17.00 per head, which was $3.21 per hundred pounds, and they sold at $4.00; the proposition being handled on a margin of 79 cents per hundredweight. As the steers made fairly good average gains, ranging from 1.80 to 2.11 pounds per head pier day, it shows that the loss was due to the high cost of feed and small margin between the buying and selling prices. FEEDING RANGE STEERS 15 WASTE In the comparisons of the coarse feeds, the refuse or waste is an important consideration. Taking all the alfalfa hay fed to the five lots, the refuse amounted to ‘an average of only 2.5 per cent, while of the corn stover fed to a single lot 26.8 per cent was rejected; and of the kafir stover the re- fuse was 18.9 per cent. In feeding different kinds of coarse feed a certain quantity of waste is considered legitimate, de- pending on the character of the roughage. One would nat- urally expect a very much larger amount of refuse from stover than from hay. The roughage is usually the element of the ration of which the steer is given all that he will eat, the quantity being governed by the quantity and quality of what is rejected. The quality of the two kinds of stover fed seemed practically the same, but the steers ate the kafir stover with greater relish and rejected a very much smaller percentage of it, as shown by the statement above. Compar- ing the stover with the alfalfa hay at the relative prices of $6.00 and $10.00 per ton, and taking into account the waste less 2.5 per cent on all, the corn stover actually eaten would have cost $7.92 per ton and the kafir stover $7.18. It will be observed that this experiment gives data covering Three questions, viz., first, as to the comparative feeding val- ues of ground corn, ground barley, and ground kafir for fat- tening steers; secondly, as to the substitution of a cheaper roughage for a portion of the alfalfa -hay j and thirdly, a com- parison of kafir com stover with corn stover for this pur- pose. Keeping these three things in mind, the first three lots of the experiment should be studied together and the last three lots together. 16 FEEDING RANGE STEERS SUMMARY 1. It required 103.4 pounds of ground barley to produce as much gain- as 100 pounds of ground corn; showing bar- ley to be 3.3 per cent below corn in feeding value. 2. It required 107 pounds of ground kafir corn to pro- duce as much gain as 100 pounds of ground corn, indicating that kafir corn is about 6.6 per cent below corn in feeding value. 3. It required 103.5 pounds of ground kafir corn to pro- duce as much gain as 100 pounds of ground barley, indi- cating that kafir corn is about 3.4 per cent below barley in feeding value. 4. The above results in which the grains alone were con- sidered show corn to be superior to either of the other grains as a concentrate, but this is largely overcome for barley, and partially so for kafir, by the larger quantity of alfalfa hay used by the corn fed lot than by either of the other two. 5. Considering the last three lots, replacing about one- half the alfalfa hay with corn stover resulted favorably, in- creasing the gains 3.3 per cent and producing them at sixty- five cents per hundred pounds less. The substitution of kafir stover reduced the gains 7.4 per cent and made them cost fifty-seven cents per hundredweight more. 6. The substitution of corn stover for a part of the alfalfa hay increased the feeding value of the ration, while the sub- stitution of the kafir stover decreased it, and it required 12 per cent less of the corn stover for 100 pounds of gain. 7. The results of this experiment show that a farmer may grow for feeding purpose's whichever of the grain crops tested yield the best in his locality, and are best suited to the cli- matic conditions. Corn, barley, and kafir are very similar in composition, barley and kafir each carrying 1.5 per cent more digestible crude protein than corn, the barley 3 per cent less digestible fat, and the kafir 2.3 per cent less. Hence their nutritive values differ but little. Corn is the most FEEDING RANGE STEERS 17 palatable of the three, and kafir the least. The percentages of digestible matter in barley and kafir are practically the same — about 80 per cent ; while in corn it is about 5 per cent higher. They all give good results when fed with some leguminous hay, such as alfalfa or cowpeas; but with a car- bohydrate roughage such as timothy hay, corn and kafir stover, they should be supplemented with a protein-rich concentrate, such as cottonseed meal. All of the non-saccharine sorghums, including kafir, milo, and feterita, are practically equal in feeding value. 18 FEEDING RANGE STEERS EXPERIMENT NO. 2. January 19, 1910, to April 18, 1910; 90 Days The object of this test was to find the most economical method of fattening range steers under prevailing New Mex- ico conditions and with feeds grown at home or with those most readily available. In planning this experiment it was the idea to find the cheapest way to fatten, and with this in mind, the first ques- tion was, Can steers be fattened on alfalfa alone, or on alfalfa and corn stover, or must they have grain, and if so, what is the minimum quantity that will give satisfactory results? Lot I at close of experiment No. 2; fed choice alfalfa hay at night and shredded corn stover in the morning. FEEDING RANGE STEERS 10 Lat II at close of experiment No. 2; fed choice alfalfa hay alone during the whole 90-day test. STEERS USED The steers used were long yearlings, the same age as those used in the previous experiment, but the summer and fall of 1909 were very dry and the ranges very poor; in consequence the steers were smaller and much poorer than the average animal of that age should be; in fact, the average weights show them to be 200 pounds lighter per head than those of the year before. The steers were such as could have been bought during the past two or three years at about $28.00 a head, or $7.49 per hundredweight. They were of the same breeding and had run on the same range as those of the pre- vious year. There were 16 grade Herefords and 4 grade Short- horns. Delivery was made on the 10th of January, and until the test began on January 19, they were fed on roughage, consist- ing of alfalfa hay and wheat and oat hay, and were all kept to- gether. In dividing into the different lots, one grade Short- horn and 4 Herefords were put into each, and they were chosen according to weight, conformation, and general characteristics, in order to get the lots as equally balanced as possible. Since some little trouble was experienced the previous year from the larger steers fighting the smaller ones away from the feed racks, it was decided that they would all have a better chance if dehorned. Consequently, on January 18 and 19, they were all dehorned with the clippers. 20 FEEDING RANGE STEERS Steers of Lot III at close of experiment No. 2. This lot was fed choice alfalfa hay night and morning and 8 pounds of ground corn per head per day during the 90-day test. FEEDS AND FEEDING The lots were fed as follows : Lot I. Alfalfa hay at night. Corn stover in the morning. Lot II. Alfalfa hay both night and morning. Lot III. Alfalfa hay both night and morning. 8 lbs. ground corn per head per day for the entire period. Lot. IV. Alfalfa hay both night and morning. 10 lbs. ground corn per head per day during the last 30 days. The alfalfa hay and stover for Lot I were fed in such quantities as the steers would clean up, the thought being to allow each lot to utilize just what it would, and not an equal quantity. The grain for Lots III and IV was fed in one feed in the morning. The feeds were purchased on the local market, although the corn used was Kansas corn, ex- cept that fed during the last ten days, which was Mexican spotted corn. The steers did not eat this as well as the other. Some little trouble was experienced with some of the steers scouring during the first part of the test, but it never remain- ed long. It usually came after a few days of continuous in- crease in the quantity of hay. FEEDING RANGE STEERS 21 Four of the steers of Lot IV at close of experiment No. 2; fed choice alfalfa hay night and morning, and in addition, 10 pounds of ground corn per head per day during the last 30 days of the experi- ment. It required only a few days to get Lot III started to eat- ing its grain, a little less time being required than for pre- vious steers. TABLE 4— SHOWING GENERAL RESULTS OF TEST. Loti Lot II Lot III Lot IV Alfalfa and Corn Stover 1 ujiujiv Alfalfa and 8 lbs. of Ground Corn per head per day dur- ing the entire 90-day- test. Alfalfa during entire test; 10 lbs. Ground Corn per head per day last 30 days. Weight at beginning, lbs 1859 1908 1888 1821 Weight at close, lbs 2485 2736 3051 2748 Total gain (5 steers), lbs 626 828 1163 927 Average gain per head, lbs 125 166 233 185 Average daily gain per head, lbs 1.39 1.84 2.58 2.06 Alfalfa hay fed, lbs 3155 6849 4904 6361 Corn stover fed, lbs 3046 Ground corn fed, lbs 3008 976 Concentrate fed per pound of gain, lbs 2.59 1.05 Roughage fed per pound of gain, lbs 9.91 8.27 4.22 6.86 Cost per pound of gain | 3.98c| 4.14c| 5.99c 5.01c 22 FEEDING RANGE STEERS Lot I. Alfalfa Hay and Corn Stover. Value of 5 steers, weight 2485 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred- weight, at close of experiment $198.80 .05 $139.24 24.92 Margin of 51c per hundredweight on 10 pounds, which this lot weighed less than the average for the 5 lots. Value of 5 steers, weight 1859 lbs., at $7-49 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment $198.85 Cost of 3155 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton. Cost of 3046 lbs. of Corn Stover, at $6.00 per ton $15.78 9.14 164.16 Profit on lot, due to feeding $ 34.69 Lot II. Alfalfa Hay. Value of 5 steers, weight 2736 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred- weight, at close of experiment 1 | $218.88 Value of 5 steers, weight 1908 lbs., at $7.49 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment | $142. 91 | 34.25 1 | .20 Cost of 6849 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton. Margin of 51c per hundredweight on 39 pounds, which this lot weighed more than the average for the 5 lots. 177.36 Profit on lot, due to feeding $ 41.52 Lot III. Alfalfa Hay and 8 pounds of Ground Corn per head per day during the entire 90-day test. Value of 5 steers, weight 3051 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred- weight, at olosp of experiment $244.08 Value of 5 steers, weight 1888 lbs., at $7.49 per hundred- weight at beginning of experiment $141.41 69.64 .10 Cost of 4904 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton. Cost of 3008 lbs. of Ground Corn, at $30.00 per ton... Margin of 51c per hundredweight on 19 pounds, which this lot weighed more than the average for the 5 lots| $24.52 45.12 ! 211.15 Profit on lot, due to feeding $ 32.93 Lot IV. Alfalfa Hay during the entire test, and in addition, 10 pounds of Ground Corn per head per day during the last 30 days. Value of 5 steers, weight 2748 lbs., at $8.00 per hundred-] weight, at close of experiment 1 Margin of 51c per hundredweight on 48 pounds, which this lot weighed less than the average for the 5 lots] | j $219.84 .24 $220.08 ’alue of 5 steers, weight 1821 lbs., at $7.49 per hundred- weight, at beginning of experiment Cost of 6361 lbs. of choice Alfalfa Hay, at $10.00 per ton] Cost of 976 lbs. of Ground Corn, at $30.00 per ton $31.81| | 14.64] $136.39 [ 46.45 182.84 Profit on lot, due to feeding $ 37.24 FEEDING RANGE STEERS 23 SUMMARY 1. The cheapest gains were made by the alfalfa and stover, though those made by alfalfa hay alone cost very little more. The most expensive gains were made by the lot fed on a small concentrate ration during the entire period. 2. The market prices of the different lots, judged ac- cording to finish or quality, were as follows: Lot I, $6.50; Lot II, $7.00; Lot III, $8.00; and Lot IV, $7.50. These rela- tive prices would doubtless have held in any classified market. 3. According to the classification given above, the pro- fits per lot are in direct proportion to the cost of the gains; i. e., Lot III, whose gains were made at the highest cost, gave the largest profit; and Lot I, whose gains were made at the lowest cost, gave the least profit, — indicating that' the finish required by the markets can be most readily secured by feeding a concentrate ration with alfalfa hay or other roughage. 4. Basing this statement on a comparison of the gains made by Lots II and III, it required 827 pounds of alfalfa hay to make 100 pounds of gain, or 527 pounds of corn ; show- ing that as fed 100 pounds of corn replaced 156 pounds of alfalfa hay. At the prices given for the different feeds, 78 cents’ worth of alfalfa hay replaced $1.50 worth of corn. 5. Considering the market prices the same for Lots III and IV, the results are favorable to feeding a small concern trate ration during the whole fattening period, rather than a larger concentrate ration for a thirty-day period at the close; and the result shows still more favorably at 'classified market prices. 6. If sold on the local markets where no distinction is made in price on account of better finish, it may be more profitable to feed on roughage alone, particularly alfalfa hay, and make the feeding period longer; or on rough feed alone during the fore part of the period and add a grain ration only during the finishing period of thirty to sixty days. 7. The alfalfa-corn-stover lot ate the limited alfalfa hay 24 FEEDING RANGE STEERS ration without waste, while there was 19.6 per cent of the stover rejected. The other lots rejected an average of 8.2 per cent of the alfalfa. Lot II on alfalfa alone rejected the least: 5.9 per cent. Lot III, receiving a constant grain ration, rejected the most : 1 1 per cent ; and Lot IV, with grain the last month, rejected 8.4 per cent. 0 { Mr’ caUU ' e C oUefe e °; of itfVn° lS University BULLETIN NO. 102 APRIL, 1916 New Mexico College of Agriculture And Mechanic Arts AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STATE COLLEGE, N. M Fig. 1. Differential locust (male) at right; lesser locust (male) at left. Nearly natural size. (Original.) GRASSHOPPER CONTROL By D. E. Merrill RUG GRANGE PUBLISHING CO LAS CRUCES. N. M. «»»«. New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL Board of Regents of the College J. H. PAXTON, President, Las Cruces, N. M. P. F. McCANNA, Secretary and Treasurer, Albuquerque, N. M. C. W. GERBER, Las Cruces, N. M. R. R. LARKIN, East Las Vegas, N. M. J. A. MAHONE'Y, Deming, N. M. Advisory Members. HON. W. C. MCDONALD, Governor of New Mexico, Santa Fe, N. M. HON. A. N. WHITE, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. M. STATION STAFF GEORGE E. LADD, Ph. D. . . . FABIAN GARCIA, M. S. A.. . . LUTHER FOSTER, M. S. A. F. L. BIXBY, B. S F. W. CHRISTENSEN, M. S. D. E. MERRILL, M. S L. A. HIGLEY, Ph. D R. L. STEWART, M. S. A D. W. A. BLOODGOOD, B. S. JOSE QUINTERO, B. S J. R. MEEKS, B. S. A E. H. DIVELBISS, B. S. A.. . . J. G. HAMILTON, B. S. A E. J. MAYNARD, B. S. A A. B. FITE, B. S. A J. T. BARLOW, B. S. A F. C. WERKENTHIN, M. A.. R. B. THOMPSON, B. S. A... H. G. SMITH*, B. S. A FLOY E. FRENCH R. V. WARE €. P. WILSON, M. S ARETUS H. BRADLEY President of the College Director and Horticulturist Animal Husbandman Irrigation Engineer Nutrition Chemist Biologist Chemist Agronomist Assistant Irrigation Engineer Assistant Chemrst ...Assistant Animal Husbandman .Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Agronomist . . . .Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Agronomist Assistant Biologist Assistant Poultryman Assistant in Dry-Land Agriculture Librarian Registrar Editor Station Stenographer •Superintendent of the Tucumcari, N. M., Field Station, operated by the TJ. S. Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the New Mexice Agricultural Experiment Station. SUMMARY 1. Every part of the State is liable to grasshopper damage; without attention such injury will increase; preventable losses in dollars and cents are enormous; damages through occasional serious outbreaks increase the toll. 2. Damage is, in the main, from non-migratory species. 3. Natural enemies are numerous but can not be depended upon always to keep the grasshoppers in check. 4. Alfalfa, garden and truck crops, grains and young fruit trees suffer most from grasshopper attack. 5. Control is possible and practicable thru destruction of breeding places and eggs and thru destruction of the grass- hoppers by poisoning or by capture with machines for that purpose. 6. For best results control measures, both preventive and rem- edial, should be made a part of the annual farm program and shrould have community enforcement. 7. Provisions should be made for compelling treatment on idle land where necessary. INTRODUCTION This bulletin is the outcome of investigations carried on since the summer of 1912, with the exception of the summer of 1914 when the work was practically inactive. Most of the control experiments were carried on, necessar- ily, in the Mesilla Valley. In 1915, aided by instructions from the Experiment Station, County Agents J. Wj 1 . Rigney and J. W. Knorr extended the control experiments into the Pecos Valley, also, into Chaves and Eddy Counties, respectively. The important part of the data secured there is included in this bulletin. The attempt has been made to learn sufficient concerning the principal species of grasshoppers concerned in the ravages in the State to permit of judicious direction of control meth- ods. No attempt was made to work up data on. all the Grass- hoppers of the State. Every newly developed agricultural region is liable to grass- hopper damage, since the cultivated area is less than the un- cultivated and since cultivated crops are quite apt to be kept in more palatable conditions for longer time than uncultivated and are massed and more readily accessible. Since the days of the scourge of the Rocky Mountain Lo- cust damage from grasshoppers has been confined to species native to localities or regions in which injury was done either by non-migratory or semi-migratory species, any migrations being comparatively short and local, as from higher to lower levels of land, or occasionally from nearby regions of scant vegetation to regions of greater abundance. An outbreak and the ravages in eastern New Mexico of a more or less migra- tory species (Dfasfisteria longipennis Thomas) have been treated of by the U.. S. Department of Agriculture in Depart- ment Bulletin' No. 293. It Is important to be prepared beforehand against this pest GRASSHOPPER CONTROL * so outbreaks may be forestalled — a wiser procedure than at- tempting to fight hordes allowed to breed through careless- ness. In our farming regions already the damage has been considerable. As the area of crops increases the liability to damage will increase if no precautions are taken, as conditions will be ripe to favor the increase of the hoppers, — succulent feeding areas with plenty of waste ground to breed in, such as ditch banks, unkept borders of fields and roadsides and fallow land. Sod land is not much infested except at the edges. In fact, damage will result from lax farming methods and individual carelessness. Most of our injurious species breed, live and die right in one field. Control, then becomes personal in its application, every man’s need, an item in the individual’s farm management. It must be made preventive in the main, as shown later in the bulletin. At times the problem may become one for concerted action in a crisis, but at all times the problem is one for every farmer to consider. Crises will then be rare, indeed. If some indiv- iduals are lax, action on the part of other individuals may be necessary to get them to realize the importance of such con- sideration. The information contained in the following pages will apply to the various sections of the State, irrigated, dry farmed or otherwise, although each section will need to adopt control methods to suit its needs. To make the discussion plainer to some, perhaps, it may be stated that the terms “locust” and “grasshopper” are used synonymously. The term “locust” is applied by many to the big, noisy cicada or Harvest fly, so the above explanation will help to avoid confusion. 6 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL NATURE AND EXTENT OF INJURY Grasshoppers belong to the group of insects that feed by consuming the substance of the plant outright. Their strong jaws enable them to eat the leaves and tender parts of the plants with astonishing rapidity. In this way large areas may be stripped clean of all but the less palatable stalks of food plants, if the number of the hoppers is great, and whole crops destroyed. This is the sort of injury that makes the person concerned take notice and call for help — usually after the damage is practically done. However, there is an enor- mous amount of loss every year to crops, especially alfalfa, that is never noticed due to the feeding of the hoppers that are always present in numbers somewhat below what may be called scourge proportions. The young are small and incon- spicuous but they feed right along and always on choice parts of the plants. The adults may be numerous enough to eat the edges of the fields out some short distance, but still their presence is regarded as a matter of course and no steps are taken to prevent the injury. This yearly loss is thus very in- sidious but likely amounts to as much as the occasional lump losses during outbreaks. In 1911 and 1912 grasshopper damage in the Animas region was rather severe. In 1912 and 1913 in the upper part of the Mesilla Valley considerable damage was done in localized areas. In the lower part of the valley in 1912 the promise was for a worse infestation the next year. A warning was not heeded and in 1913 the injury was very severe over most of the area cited. The climax seemed to be reached that season and since damage has been less. This latter condition is due a! c o to more consideration being given the control of the pest annually. In 1914 various sections of the northern part of the State reported local injury. In the Pecos Valley damage has been considerable since 1911, but apparently the crisis of the infestation was reached GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 7 last season, 1915, when enormous losses resulted through tht Valley, in spite of the control measures applied too tardily. The account of the outbreak of 1913 in the Elida district has been cited. Every season reports damage from one place or another, showing the pest to be a general one over the State but show- ing also the damage is local and calls for local consideration. SPECIES OF GRASSHOPPERS CONCERNED IN INJURY The number of species occasioning the usual damage is not large. The following list* may lack a few kinds injurious in parts of the State where the writer has not had the oppor- tunity to visit. Inquirks for information on grasshoppers almost always come to the Station unaccompanied by speci- mens, since nearly every one knows grasshoppers as such and does not stop to consider what, if any, species may be more injurious than others. Of the list bdow, probably the first three occasion more damage than any others. DESCRIPTIONS The differential locust ( Melon o plus differ entialis) (Figs. 1 and 2) is a large species about 11-2 in. long with wing expanse of 2 1-2 inches. It is yellowish-green in color, there being sometimes a darker variety. The under side is a bright- er yellow. The hind wings are yellowish, marked with black. The two-striped locust ( Melanoplus bivittatus) is nearly the same size as the above, but of a greenish-brown color, with a distinct yellow stripe on each side from eye to end oi wing. ♦Note. The identifications of the species listed were kindly verified by Mr. M. P. Somes, Entomologist, Mountain Grove (Missouri) Fruit Experiment Station, GRASSHOPPER CONTROL I Fig. 2. — Differential locust (Melanoplus differentialis), female, at left, male in center. At right a blister beetle (Macrobasis longicollis). Nearly natural size. (Original.) The lesser locust (Melanoplus atlanis) (Fig 1.) is a smaller species, one inch or less in length, of a dark grayish- or red- dish-brown color. The wings are long and hind femora red- dish-yellow. The common red-legged locust ( Melanoplus feniur-rubrum) is so like the last species above that the two are difficult to separate, except on structural characters. This species is very slightly larger than the lesser locust and the hind femora are more of a red-brown color. The three-striped locust, ( lladrotettix trifasciatus) is a larg- er species than the first two, even. It is a pale tan color with three dark bars across the wing covers and inner surface of hind legs blue. The beautiful locust ( Schistocerca venn^ta) is a larger spe- ORASSHOPPER CONTROL I cies than the above, and of graceful build. Its color Is olive green, a white median stripe down the middle of the back, and with dark red tibia. The buffalo locust ( Brachystola magna) is large, clumsily built, in color usually a tan brown, and has only very short rudimentary wings. It is not often reported as injurious, but occasions inquiry on account of its remarkable size and ap^- pearance. DISTRIBUTION The differential locust has likely the widest distribution over the State, being found nearly always wherever farming operations are carried on, excepting in high altitudes. Its closest rival is the lesser locust. The two are apt to be found associated. Along with these the red-legged locust usually occurs, in larger or smaller numbers. The two-striped locust is found from Las Vegas southward into the Pecos Valley and south from there to the State line. It seems not to be found in the western part of the State. The buffalo locust is widely distributed at moderately high altitudes. This last season, 1915, the beautiful and the three-striped locusts were reported injurious with others in the Carlsbad region, the first reports of damage by them. The LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS Eggs and Egg Laying of the grasshopper are yellowish in color, longer than thick, curved and slightly tapering at ends. For the larger species the eggs are about 1-8 inch long. In later summer and fall, when the females come to maturity, they lay the eggs that are to produce the one generation each year. To deposit the eggs the female selects first a suitable place — one that has Fig. 3. — a. Eggs of differen- tial locust, enlarged; b. brok- en egg “pod”, showing eggs at end. (Original.) 10 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL firm soil, neither too loose nor too hard, well drained, with not too many fine roots, but usually with coarser roots that tend to make the operation easier. Fig. 4. — Weedy borders and edges of field. Breeding and roosting places for grasshoppers. (Original.) Fig. 5. — Sunflowers, Russian thistles and other weeds on field ditcn bank. Breeding and roosting places for hoppers. (Original.) GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 11 Ideal places are found in waste ground bordering fields, fence rows, roadsides, ditch banks, borders, fallow land, and weed patches. Fields that are cultivated are not sought for egg lay- ing, nor are places that are too hot and moist. For the latter reason eggs are not usually found mid-field in alfalfa. Some protection from sun is usually sought. Wet and cold retard egg laying. A spot selected, the female places the four horny processes on the tip of the abdomen to the ground and by alternate opening and closing of these and downward pushing a hole is dug in the soil as deep as the extended abdomen allows. (Fig. 6.) Fig. 6. — Female differential locust laying eggs. Somewhat enlarged. {Author’s drawing from Fig. 5 (Photograph) U. S. D. A. Far. Bui. 697.) In this hole the eggs are laid one at a time, the abdomen being gradually withdrawn to make room as the laying pro- ceeds. As a protection to the eggs against wetting and dry- ing, a mucilaginous liquid is secreted with the eggs which cov- ers the eggs, fills in between them and finally fills the mouth of the hole, when dry, making of the egg mass a roughly cylindrical curved “pod”. (Fig. 3.) 12 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL The depth at which the eggs are found varies from 1 to 2 inches. Very generally 2 “pods” are laid each year by each female. The number of eggs in each “pod” varies with the species. The red-legged locust lays from 20 to 30 eggs in each “pod”, the number in the second being usually less than the first. The lesser locust lays about the same. The differ- ential locust lays from 80 to 90 eggs in the first “pod”. The number has been recorded by some as high as 100. The sec- ond “pod” varies from 40 to 75. THE YOUNG AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT The time of appearance of the young in spring varies with the season, species and region. On first hatching they are very pale in color, but soon take on colors that resemble their sur- roundings. This, together with the small size, 1-8 inch to 3-16 inch, renders the young hoppers very inconspicuous, so many of them may be present and escape the notice of the casual observer until they grow considerably larger. Then one wonders where they all came from so suddenly. Increase in size is accomplished through a series of molts, a crack appearing near the neck and the outside covering of the body being cast off. After each molt the skin is soft and somewhat elastic, but soon toughens to protect the individual until the next time for shedding. The young have only indications of wings, “pads”, until after the fifth and last molt when most species gain the fully formed wings. Some species, the buffalo locust for instance, never gain more than the “pads”. In the Mesilla Valley the lesser locust and the red-legged hatch between the 15th and 25th of April and adults begin to come out after the first week in June. The differtial locust hatches about a month later, adults appearing about July 1st. Laboratory rearings of the lesser locust, taken just on GRASSHOPPER CONTROL U hatching out of doors, gave the average time for development as follows: From hatching to first molt 11 days; to second molt 13 days; to third molt 6 days; to fourth molt 6 days; to fifth molt, appearance of adult, 6 days; the total time being 42 days. There seems to be considerable variation in the time re- quired for development as young in various later stages up to last may be noted for four weeks after the first adults are seen. For one or two days after hatching the young remain grouped near where they issued before going to feed. On cold wet days they stay quiet in such dry places as they may find. Warm sunny days bring them out to feed. Cold rains at hatching time or soon after are very disastrous to the young. Damage by hoppers begins as soon as the young begin to feed. ADULTS Copulation begins a week or ten days after maturity is reached; the first eggs being laid after as many more days The period intervening between the deposition of the two “pods” is variable. The approach of cold weather restricts activity and the adults die later in the season, none hibernating. Wet weather in summer checks activities. Rain following continued dry weather is apt to be followed by Increased activ- ity, especially in egg laying. The feeing habits of the adults are so well known that dis- cussion is made only of important points. Succulent vegeta- tion is sought so food and water may both be obtained at once Water is also drunk outright if opportunity offers. In the insectary field hoppers may be observed to drink liber- ally or to eat of materials that are moist in preference to more dry food. Coarse rank vegetation bordering feeding grounds is used as shelter in day time from sun and from bird enemies and 14 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL at night as roosting places. As a rule there is a migration out from such places in the morning, after the sun is up, to feed; a return in the heat of the day; a second outward migration in evening, and a return to roost about sundown. If the food supply in a given local area is exhausted, or is removed, as in case of mowing alfalfa, there may be short, local migrations to new food supply. Progress during such migrations is gradual, by crawling, short jumps or short flights. NATURAL ENEMIES AND NATURAL CONTROL The natural enemies of grasshoppers can not be depended upon to control them in all cases because these enemies are subject to conditions varying from very favorable to decidedly unfavorable. In the latter case the grasshoppers would out- run the increase of natural enemies and a critical infestation be precipitated. This accounts for the periodicity of injuri- ous infestations in given localities where no preventive or rem- edial measures are employed. The following discussion will make possible a. better utiliz- ation of natural factors in control along with artificial meas- ures. DISEASES A fungus disease attacking grasshoppers kills quantities of them yearly. As the disease develops, the hoppers become sluggish and crawl to the top of vegetation and cling there tightly by the legs until dead. (Fig. 7.) Hot moist weather favors the growth and spread of the dis- ease. Such factors can not be controlled by man, so if the conditions are right the disease operates without man’s aid, if not it can not be assisted. Experimentation with the South African fungus, also, has so far been unsuccessful in the main. GRASSHOPPER CONTROL U Fig. 7. — Grasshoppers that have been killed by the fungus, clinging to various kinds of vegetation. (Original.) ENEMIES OF THE ADULTS AND YOUNG Birds are of most benefit in the destruction of grasshoppers. There are very few species that do not include grasshoppers in their summer diet. Most species of hawks, even, consume quantities. Quails, meadow larks, and blackbirds probably lead in the destruction. The much hated road-runner gulps 16 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL down huge numbers daily. In all, over a hundred species of birds are prominent as feeding on hoppers. In the Mesilla Valley, fields near breeding grounds of the blackbirds are free from grasshopper damage. Domestic poultry are fond of such food. Skunks eat masses of the hoppers. The young of certain red mites may be found in numbers on the wings of adults and young. The young of course shed the skin and mites with them. Very little injury is done the adults by these mites for active, healthy individuals may carry from one to two hundred of the parasites and seem to suffer no inconvenience. The very young may be killed but the mites do not become very plentiful early in the season. Certain grayish, hairy flies deposit maggots on the bodies of the hoppers. These tiny maggots go into the inside of the hopper, grow to maturity there, feeding on the tissue of the host’s body. When grown they come out and go into the ground to transform to the adult. In 1913 in the lower Mes- slla Valley these flies killed swarms of hoppers. Unfortun- ately, accident destroyed collected specimens before they could be identified as to species. Various predaceous ground inhabiting beetles eat consider- able numbers of the newly hatched young. ENEMIES OF THE EGGS The adults of the mites mentioned above destroy large quantities of the eggs in the ground. Larvae and adults of blister beetles (Fig. 2) are even more beneficial in this respect. The larvae of the bee-flies also infest the “pods”. Several birds eat the “pods”, especially when stirred out by harrowing. Skunks and mice dig out many eggs for food. CROPS ATTACKED As a group the grasshoppers listed in this bulletin as injur- ious are very general feeders if necessary. In the irrigated sections alfalfa affords the ideal food, early, succulent, plenti- Cx R A S S H O P P E R CONTROL IT ful, and undisturbed except for periodic mowings. Annual crops or those cultivated annually suffer less, except when the stable food supply of any region is short. Small grains may suffer if not too near ripe; corn when young is often attacked, but rarely so when the stalks attain large size. A field of corn may even act as a barrier to grasshopper advance, or edges of the field may he used as roosting places only. Gardens and truck crops suffer greatly when infested be- cause of the succulent nature of the food. Smaller sized fruit trees may be injured severely, or killed by having the leaves stripped off, (Fig. 8) tender twigs eaten and bark gnawed. Fig. 8— Young orchard stripped by grasshoppers. Damage to young orchards usually follows the cutting of alfalfa or some staple food supply from the orchard itself or from adjacent fields. The hoppers then congregate in the trees with above results. 18 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL CONTROL MEASURES For control measures to be directed to best advantage it is necessaray to have knowledge of the points brought out in the previous discussion. For control measures to be effective and certain they must be correctly applied by each farmer as his especial business; to make the results uniform, control measures should be applied by the community as a whole. Over large areas, where the return per acre from crops is small, control measures must be economical to be practical. The more they may be made to fit into correct farm practice the more sure they are of efficient results — both financially and in practice. The following measures take both these phases of control into account. Control of grasshoppers is discussed along two lines : Pre- ventive and Remedial. PREVENTIVE Outbreaks may be prevented almost entirely by attention to prohibition of egg deposition and to destruction of eggs before they hatch. The first may be brought about in con- nection with remedial measures to be discussed later, by keep- ing such places described above as the haunts of the hoppers free from sheltering weeds. Keeping down weeds along ditch banks, field edges, borders, roadsides, where hoppers congre- gate, exposes the insects more to their natural enemies and they will abandon the places. There is also almost as much benefit directly in such destruction in freeing the fields of weeds. It is good farming practice merely. Burning neglected weed patches may kill some egg pods and if burned when the hoppers are very small will kill many hop- pers. So, burning should not be done until the hoppers hatch if possible. It is safer on two counts, however, to keep the weeds down in summer. Destruction of the eggs may be accomplished by plowing, harrowing, or disking. This may be simplified by noting in GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 19 the fall where most of the eggs are being laid and treating such places particularly. Any of these above operations should be performed before the eggs hatch, of course, preferably in cold weather. Plowing should be deep enough — eight inches — to bury the eggs sufficiently to prohibit the young hoppers from coming to the surface when they hatch. Where plowing cannot be done, harrowing or disking to a depth of 2 inches, — thoroughly done, — stirs up the “pods” ; breaks many, allows the birds and other enemies a better chance at them and exposes them to fatal changes in temper- ature and moisture. A combination of these two is effective. Disk first and after two weeks harrow where disked. These operations are carried on at small expense at a time of year when more time may more easily be devoted to them than can be given profitably in summer to remedial measures. There is a large saving, also, in the amount of crops saved from de- struction. The discussion of egg laying showed the number of eggs to be somewhere near one hundred per female per season. How easy to kill fifty grasshoppers by destroying one pod ! How easy by the same means to prevent a possible 2500 eggs the next fall, allowing one-half for males and one-half for females in each fifty! It is easily observable that fields treated as above are free of hoppers in damaging numbers. Where land is left fallow for a long time, or where consid- erable extent of land, affording breeding places, is held un- farmed by landowners, there should be some means of compel- ling the employment of measures to lessen the danger from such infection spots to adjacent farmed tracts. REMEDIAL If the foregoing measures have not been employed thor- oughly the following means, carefully employed, will make the control of critical outbreaks possible. 20 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL MACHINES FOR CAPTURING YOUNG AND ADULTS Hopperdozer. The hopperdozer has bren in use for years in the Central States. In 1913 the h pperdozer (Fig. 9.) was used Pig. 9. — Hopperdozer, backstop removed. Note the partitions in the pan and lip in front. (Original.) to free alfalfa in a young orchard of hoppers. Several bush- els were caught in a two-hour run at first trial. The hoppers were grown and had already done severe injury to the young trees but later damage was stopped. After using the hopper- dozer direct lv on the alfalfa that was nearly ready to cut, the hay was cut, the mower being followed by the hopperdozer,. In this wav the field was cleared. Fig. 10. — Hopperdozer in use. GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 2L Fig. 11. — Removing hoppers from pan. The hopperdozer consists of a galvanized iron pan mount- ed on runners and having a back stop of canvas or oil cloth. The pan figured is 12 feet long by 2 feet wide by 4 inches- deep. The back and ends have a 2-inch flange, the front a 6-inch flange. The pan is supported by a 2x4 on either side set into the end of the runners which are 2 in. x 8 in. x 4 ft. The flanges are nailed to the wooden frame thus made. A low runner supports the bottom in the middle. The hitch is Fis. 12 — Hopper machine in use. 22 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL made directly to the runners. A back stop 30 inches high, with triangular pieces for the ends, made of canvas nailed on a frame, is held in position by allowing cross pieces of the frame to fit into bow irons on back of pan frame. The back stop may thus be removed for better protection when not in use. The partitions are inserted, without fastening, to reduce slopping. In use (Fig. 10) the pan should have about 2 inches of water with a film of coal oil on top. When the hoppers caught reduce the working efficiency, remove them with a scoop, al- lowing the oil and water to strain back. (Fig. 11). Replenish with water and oil when necessary. Better results will be had if the hopperdozer is used before the hoppers have attained their wings and where vegetation is only about eight inches or less high. Winged hoppers are not so easily caught, and they have already done much damage*, scattered wider and thus greater expense is involved in their capture. Once over with this mach'ne, as with the two types following, is rarely sufficient if hoppers are very numerous. Mr. J. W. Rigney, County Agriculturist of Chaves County, reported catching, with a hopperdozer similar to the above, but only 10 feet long, “Six bushels of hoppers during the last half of the forenoon. ” The farmer using this machine re- ported to him later “that he had caught 60 bushels off 71-2 acres.” Mr. Rigney reported that at another trial in less than two hours one machine collected eight bushels. This machine was 15 feet long, made with two pans 20 inches wide set on floors of 1-inch material allowing some play where the inside ends came together, a good modificatiion for rough land, es- pecially, when the machine is long. Some twenty hopper- dozers were put in operation in his County in 1915. GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 2 $ The cost will vary from $6.00 to $10.00. The cost for oil to run will vary from $.50 to $1.50 a day. Another type of hopperdozer (Fig. 13) was designed by the author to be used where the ground was rough and where the use of a shallow pan would not be so prac- tical. The pan was 9 inches deep, 12 inches wide at the bottom, and 8 inches at the top. At the upper front edge was a 20-inch lip slant- ing downward to serve as a threshold to the pan. Having the sides slant inward from bot- tom to top prevented slopping when the pan ground. The cut will show the plan of Fig. 13. — Type of hopperdozer designed for use on rough land, a and b, timbers supporting the pan, p, I, lip, resting on cleat, c. Scale, 1-10 inch equals 2 inches. (Original.) was in use on rough construction. Fig. 14. — Hopper machine, front view. Note curved metal shield in front GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 34 Fig. 15. — Back view of machine in Fig. 14. After the oil has evaporated the hoppers caught in the hop- perdozer are good feed for pigs or poultry. To > many should :not be fed at once, of course. THE HOPPER MACHINE The hopper machine (Figs. 14 and 15) makes possible the Fig. 16. — Close view of machine in Fig. 15, showing hoppers clinging to screen back. GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 25 capture of the hoppers alive, on sloping ground and without the use of any oil. This type of machine wars used in Colo- rado in 1902. It consists es- sentially of a box of length to suit the needs — 12 to 16 feet, square or rectangular in cross section, 2x2 feet or 2 x 1 feet. The back and top may be entirely or partly of screen wire, provision being made somewhere for getting the hop- , pers out. The front is a curved Fig. 17. — Diagram of end of hop- ' t per macnine, showing curved shield _ 1-2 feet high, of shield, t; lip, I, and space below smooth metal or oil cloth, ex- the edge of shield for entrance . . e of hoppers. (Original.) tending to within 2 inches of the bottom of the box. The box is prolonged (Fig. 17) 3 inches in front of the bottom of the shield, a lip projecting upward there and forming the remainder of the front of box. The box is set on runners 2 inches by 4 inches by 4 feet. The hitch is made to ends of a 2x4 running in front of the lip and extending across the ends of the box. In operation (Fig. 12) the hoopers jump up, hit the curved shield and toboggan down into the space between the lip and lower edge of shield. Here they see room and light in back of box (Fig. 16) so crawl and jump for that space. A few may jump out over the lip instead. The Utah Experiment Station (Bui. 138) makes the lip of curved metal so as to form a second minor, toboggan that shoots the hoppers auto- matically past the lower edge of shield into the box behind. In 1913 Mr. P. H. Bailey, in the lower Mesilla Valley, made and operated a machine of this type with the rectangular box 2 feet wide. 1 foot deep and 16 feet long. The catch with it was enormous, the pile of stacked grasshoppers being a huge 26 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL testimony to the efficiency of the machine. In order to unload the catch a wooden piston was made with a head to fit loosely in the box and rod to reach the opposite end. The piston was shoved into the box when the machine was in operation. ‘ The machine full, it was hoisted on to two 3-foot trestles. A sack was then held at the end with the removable door and the door opened. The plunger was pulled out far enough to bring with it hoppers to fill the sack. It was then pushed in, door closed, first sack removed and another put in position and the operation repeated. The space between the lip and shield was stuffed with sacks to prevent hoppers from crawling out there. If the hoppers are not to be sacked, an easy way to unload is to deposit them in a sufficiently large pit in the ground. They may be killed with a very little sprinkling of kerosene. Fig. 18. — Pile of dead hoppers captured by hopper machine. GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 27 In 1915 Mr. J. AM. Knorr, Agriculturist of Eddy County, reported excellent success with machines built after the Utah plans. (Utah Exp. Sta. Bui. 138.) Figure 18 bears witness. The cost of one of the above machines varies with size from $8.00 to $15.00. The operating expense is nothing ex- tra as in case of the hopperdozer where oil must be supplied and extra water as well. The trouble of getting the hoppers out is a little more in the case of the dry machine. On the whole the principal advantage of the latter type over the for- mer is in the possibility of its use over rougher, sloping ground. If either kind of machine is built it should be well made in the first place and then preserved for use in succeeding years. It will then always be ready to meet crises that may come, due usually, to lack of attention to the preventive meas- ures. POISONING Poisoning may be effected by applying the poison directly to the hoppers by a contact spray, to the vegetation, by a stomach spray, or by distribution of poisoned bait. Oftentimes there are conditions where it is possible to kill enormous quantities of young, or sometimes adults as well by spraying with kerosene. If hoppers are found on areas of vegetation that may be killed without loss, then the ap- plication of a spray of kerosene or strong kerosene emulsion will quickly and effectively clear such areas. Weed patches, ditch banks, etc., could be well treated thus. Poisoning the vegetation is often practicable for killing young when they are still localized. Arsenate of lead at the rate of 3 lbs. powder to 50 gallons water is a good spray to use. This strength may injure some foliage but a less strength is apt not to be effective. It is not advisable to spray a forage crop when about ready to cut. Adults are apt to leave poi- soned vegetation and go to food not poisoned. They are also GRASSHOPPER CONTROL more resistant to the poison and if numerous will do permanent injury to crop before enough are killed. Spraying young fruit trees is usually time lost as there is so little foliage that all will be eaten in spite of poison. To get the young, spray considerable areas adjacent to the masses of hoppers. They will then eat of the poison. The means of poisoning by distributing poisoned bait is of wide application and ranks with the bopperdozer and machine as a remedial measure. The old Criddle Mixture — horse droppings, salt, Paris green and water — was modified by the writer in 1915 as fol- lows and with good effect: Three small lemons were grated into 1 gallon of water and to this 1-2 lb. of Paris green and 3-4 lb. salt were added. This was stirred up thoroughly and added at once to 2 pails of horse droppings, half fresh and half partly dried. The mass was stirred up well and left over night. Before sunrise it was placed in teaspoonful heaps near the roosting places of the hoppers. The results were quite sat- isfactory. A gentle shower came a few days after the appli- cation and moistened the bait, increasing the effectiveness. This was tried in 1912 without the fruit, as a protectioin to a cabbage patch, being distributed through the patch in heaps the size of one’s fist. The piles were moistened daily. Dead hoppers accumulated in masses near the piles in a few days. Then came several showers in sultry weather and the grass- hopper fungus practically cleared the field. Kansas in the last few years has improved the old Bran Mash by adding grated oranges or lemons and syrup or mo- lesses. Their formula and modifications have given remark- able results in many sections of the country. The writer used the following formula : GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 29 Wheat bran Paris Green Eemons Sorghum molasses Water . . . 20 pounds 1 pound 6 or 8 fruits .... 3 quarts 3 1-2 gallons The bran and Paris green were mixed dry in small amounts in a big galvanized iron wash tub, these being transferred to a second tub when the mixture was complete. For large quan- tities some mechanical mixer would be necessaary to, hasten the process and to protect the workers from the dust from the Paris green. After the fruits were grated into the water the molasses was stirred in and the resulting mixture stirred thoroughly into the bran so that every part was wet. This was allowed to stand twenty- four hours to start fermentation. This mash was sown broadcast in early morning, before the hoppers started to feed, where they were roosting and in fields where injury from feeding was noted. Results were excellent, masses of hoppers being killed at each application. Even the dried mash was eaten. Whole local swarms were cleared from the fields where trials were made. One trial failed. The application was made in early morn- ing just after a light shower the preceding night. Food was plentiful and hoppers were not present in injurious numbers. Only two dead hoppers were found at any time, even tho the bait stayed moist several days in protected places. Substitution of alfalfa meal for bran has been tried by some experimenters with fair success. County Agriculturists J. W. Rigney and J. W. Knorr of Chaves and Eddy Counties respectively, reported excellent results with the bran mixture where used. (Fig. 19). Note. Experimentation has shown there is no danger to poul- try from eating the bran mash if it is scattered broadcast. The writer has seen no dead wild birds over ground that 30 GRASSHOPPER CONTROL was treated. One season a pan of the prepared bran mash was exposed where chickens could get it if they wished. Only occasionally would one peck at the bran and then only de- sultorily. None showed any signs of poisoning. Reports have come to the writer of chickens dying from eating grasshoppers, both alive and poisoned. Such deaths were evidently due to overeating of a food to which the fowls were not accustomed. Pig. 19. — Orchard separated from alfalfa field by salt cedar hedge. This orchard was protected from ruin in 1915 by the use of the fruit- bran-mash along and on this hedge. US'E OF POULTRY Chickens and turkeys as a factor in grasshopper control rightly come under the head “Preventive”. They are ex- ceedingly effective yearly over smaller areas by eating great quantities of young especially. However, their possibilities should not be overestimated. It is impossible to raise suffi- cient poultry to patrol all the land in New Mexico subject to grasshopper damages. During the years when hoppers are scarce they will be kept down but there is bound to come GRASSHOPPER CONTROL 31 a crisis when the poultry present will be unable to cope with them. The writer has seen alfalfa eaten short by the hop- pers in the face of large flocks of poultry. The most benefit may be derived from the poultry by keep- ing them shut in an enclosure, portable if necessary, and then herding them to feed for a time daily on infested ground. They will thus eat more exclusively of them. Poultry are very good as far as they go, in control work but can not be relied upon to the exclusion of all other means. DRIVING Driving as a temporary relief from invasion by hoppers may be employed in such places as gardens, small orchards, or small plats of various sorts where vegetation is not too dense. The writer has seen such places cleared in short time and imminent danger averted until more final measures could be employed. To drive grasshoppers one must proceed slowly, as they tire easily and then drop to the ground and hide instead of moving on. It is best, thus, to beat back and forth with leafy branches in the rear of the swarm at right angles to the line of advance, giving part resting time while another part is moving. Just after the beginning of the morning feed- ing time is best for driving. PROTECTION OF YOUNG ORCHARDS In many places it is a common practice to grow crops in be- tween rows of young trees. If alfalfa is grown there, trouble is almost sure to follow from grasshoppers unless precau- tions are taken. Trouble is not so great, usually, from crops that are rotated annually or oftener. All preventive means should be employed yearly of course. If the numbers of young seem then to indicate later damage, use the poisoned bran and hopperdozer or hopper machine after the first and second cutting of the alfalfa. This should clear the orchard before the majority become adult and cap- able of serious damage. If hoppers are bad in adjacent fields GRASSHOPPER CONTROL n — and this caution applies to any case — do not cut the field clear, or the hoppers will migrate to the orchard or next field and pc'!- hups do greater injury. When cutting leave a strip of feed for them where they are most numerous and as soon as possible use remedial measures thai are most applicable to kill them. Spraying- young trees is ineffective because there are enough hoppers to eat all the foliage even if some are killed. Covering with mosquito netting is too expensive. This is also too light in weight, as holes are frequently eaten through it. Un- bleached cheesecloth is cheaper and better, but of course small tiees are the only ones that it is practical to cover with cloth. In case of an invasion by adults from without, drive them out at once to prevent immediate damage. Then apply rem- edial measures. Note. — Control will be most effective in any case when based on a full general knowledge of grasshoppers; on accurate observations of the given, particular grasshoppers in need of control; and when the application of control measures is thorough. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgments of favors are due from the author to County Agriculturists J. W. Rigney and J. W. Knorr of Cha- ves and Eddy Counties, respectively, for aid in the loan of data on the control operations in their counties. Mr. Rigney also very kindly lent the photographs from which were made cuts for Figures 10, 11 and 12. Mr. Knorr, in like manner, contributed photographs for Figures 8, 14, 15, 16, 18 and 19. To Mr. M. P. Somes, Entomologist, Mountain Grove (Mis- souri) Fruit Experiment Station, thanks are due for kind as- sistance in identification of several species of grasshoppers. BULLETIN NO. 103 (TECHNICAL) JUNE. 1916 New Mexico College of Agriculture And Mechanic Arts AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STATE COLLEGE, N. M. The Ultilization of Feed by Range Steers of Different Ages II. Alfalfa Hay and Milo Maize Meal By F. W. CHRISTENSEN, H. H. SIMPSON and LUTHER FOSTER RIO ORA NOE PHJBLIOH1NG CO LAS CRUCES, N< M. iste. New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL Board of Regents of the College J. H. PAXTON, President, Las Cruces, N. M. P. F. McCANN A, Secretary and Treasurer, Albuquerque, N. M. C. W. GERBER, Las Cruces, N. M. R. R. LARKIN. East Las Vegas, N. M J. A. MAHONEY, Deming, N. M. Advisory Members HON. W. C. McDONALD, Governor of New Mexico, Santa Fe, N M. HON. A. N. WHITE, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. M. STATION STAFF GEORGE E. LADD, Ph. D FABIAN GARCIA, M. S. A LUTHER FOSTER. M. S. A... F. W. CHRISTENSEN, M. 3.. D. E. MERRILL, M. S L. A. HIGLEY. Ph. D R. L. STEW r A RT, M. S A D. W. A. BLOODGOOD, B. S.. JOSE QUINTERO, B. S J R MEEKS. B. S. A J. W. RIGNEY, B. S. A J. G. HAMILTON, B. S. A E. J. MAYNARD. B. S. A A. B. FITE, B. S. A J. T. BARLOW. B. S. A F. C. WERKENTHIN, M. A... R. B. THOMPSON, B. S. A.... K. B. OGILVIE, B. S H. G. SMITH*. B. S. A FLOY E. FRENCH R. V. WARE C P. WILSON, M S ARETUS H. BRADLEY President of the College Director and Horticulturist Animal Husbandman Nutrition Chemist Biologist Chemist Agronomist Irrigation Engineer Assistant Chemist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Agronomist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Agronomist Assistant Biologist Assistant Poultrvman Assistant in Irrigation ...Assistant in Dry-Land Agriculture Librarian Registrar Editor Station Stenographer •Superintendent of the Tucumcarl, N. M.. Field Station, operated by th« U. P. Department of Agriculture. In cooperation with the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station. CONTENTS Introduction ...... ... 5 Objects and plan ...... 5 Equipment and methods ... 6 Feed lots 6 Digestion stalls 6 Digestion trials ...... 6 Feeding 7 Watering 8 Weighing (... 8 Sampling of feeds and feed residues 8 Sampling of the excreta 9 Chemical analyses 10 Terms used 10 The Experiments . .. ........... 11 Preliminary account 11 Schedules 12 Animals used 13 Conformation, type, and finish of steers 14 Calves, yearlings, two-year-olds, and three-year-olds Feeds and rations 20 Preparation and kinds of feeds used 20 Nature of the rations fed 20 Composition of feeds and feed residues 21 Digestibility of the rations 25 Effect of age and individuality of animal upon digestion coefficients 30 Effect of amount of feed upon digestion coefficients 33 A method of calculating the percentage digestibility of the components of a ration 36 Percentage digestibility of the components of the rations.... 39 Digestible nutrients in feeds 40 Estimated energy values of feeds 40 Gains in live weight 41 Feed consumed for gains made 53 Character of gains indicated by nitrogen balances 56 Net energy, digestible protein and nitrogen consumed, and estimated energy in gains 60 Slaughter tests 65 Weights and percentages of various parts 66 Wholesale cuts 68 Chemical analyses 69 Quality of meat 73 Summary of results and conclusions 75 Acknowledgments 82 Pictures of steers and cuts of meat 83 Appendix Tables of live weights, feed consumed, composition of feed residues, composition of excreta, weights of excreta, etc 89-117 / THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES II. Alfalfa Hay and Milo Maize Meal INTRODUCTION This bulletin presents the results of the second series of experiments on the Utilization of Feed by Range Steers of Different Ages. The results of the first series, in which alfalfa hay alone was fed, were published in Bulletin No. 91 of this Station. The objects of the investigations, as briefly stated in the bulletin just cited, are (1) to study the nutritive effect of our most important feeds for the production of beef with range steers; (2) to study the effect, and uses made, of feed by range steers of different ages; and (3) to study the nutri- tive effect and digestion coefficients during the three dif- ferent stages of fattening. For the purpose of comparing the steers of different ages in these experiments, five steers each of calves, yearlings, two-year-olds and three-year-olds were fed like rations un- der similar conditions during a period of 120 days. The util- ization of the feed is measured by the gains in live weight, feed consumed per unit of gain, degree of finish of the steers, slaughter and block tests, analysis of certain cuts of meat, and a comparison of digestion coefficients at various stages of fattening. In all cases individual records are kept. The rel- ative digestive powers of the various groups of steers are compared by conducting digestion trials at certain intervals during the feeding period, using two steers of each age for this purpose. 6 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY Cattle grown on the ranges in this section of the country are usually subjected to longer or shorter submaintenance periods when the pickings on the ranges become scanty, as during the winter and early spring months. At such times, the cattle are likely to lose weight and weigh less in the spring than in the fall, unless supplied with additional feed by the ranch owner. Incidentally, some observations have been made as to whether or not the digestive powers of the animals have been affected by these conditions, and will be consid- ered later. Equipment and Methods Used. Feed Lots. The feed lots used in this series are the same as those used in the alfalfa hay series, and are described in Bulletin No. 91 of this Experiment Station. The lots are 10 by 36 feet in size, equipped with suitable mangers and stanchions, and fenced with woven wire fencing five feet high. The steers were fed in the open, except while on di- gestion trials; no shelter being provided, other than a natural windbreak of trees and evergreens on two sides of the feed lots. Digestion or Metabolism Stalls. The stalls used in the digestion trials are contained in a house adjoining the feed lots. The stalls are arranged for the use of rubber ducts and funnels in collecting the excreta. These ducts and fun- nels are the same as those so successfully used by Armsby and Fries in the Institute of Animal Nutrition of the Penn- sylvania State College, and therefore will not be d°scribed here . The floors of the stalls were well padded with ex- celsior and heavy matting, for the comfort of the steers. The Digestion Trials. The alfalfa hay for the digestion trials and preliminary periods was carefully mixed, then weighed up into large canvas bags, a day’s ration to the bag. The milo maize meal was similarly mixed and weighed into covered lard cans, a day’s ration to the can. Enough RANGE steers of different ages. 7 rations for the whole of the preliminary and digestion per- iods were weighed out in advance and the samples for chem- ical analysis taken at this time. In conducting the digestion trials a preliminary feeding period of eight days was observed, during which the steers received identically the same rations as during the following ten-day digestion period, but the steers were not placed in the metabolism stalls at the beginning of the period. It has been found impracticable to tame our steers sufficiently to permit of their removal from the stalls for exercise while on the digestion trials. Therefore, in order not to keep the steers in the stalls longer than necessary, they were placed in the stalls only a day or two before the beginning of the digestion period proper, during the series of 1913. As the steers are sometimes disturbed by being removed from the feed lots to the digestion stalls, they were taken to the stalls four to five days before the beginning of the digestion trials in the 1915 series. For the sake of convenience in caring for the samples of excreta in the digestion trials, the experimental day was made to begin and end at 1 o’clock P. M. The feces and urines for 24-hour intervals were collected at this hour for ten successive days, unless interrupted through accident; all receptacles were changed promptly, and the collected excreta weighed, carefully mixed and sampled as soon as practicable. Feeding. The steers were fed regularly at 7 o’clock A. M. and 4:30 P. M. Approximately one-half of the day’s ra- tion was fed in the evening and the other half in the morn- ing. This practice was followed throughout the feeding- periods. The hay and grain were fed together and mixed more or less after being placed in the feed boxes. Any feed residues remaining in the feed boxes were collected from time to time and weighed up at the end of each ten-day period. The feed residues for the ten-day periods, from each steer, were reserved separately until the end of the month; at which 8 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY time the separate portions, if any, were united, mixed and sampled for analysis. Any feed residues collected during the digestion trials were analyzed separately from the other residues. Watering. The steers were watered once each day, at about 9:30 A. M., during- the experiments of 1913. The prac- tice of watering only once each day was unsatisfactory in some respects, and therefore watering troughs were placed in the feed lots so as to allow access to water during the greater part of the day during 1915. The troughs were pro- vided with covers, which were closed at the time of the even- ing feeding and kept closed until after the steers were weighed the next morning at about 9 o’clock. This method of water- ing has been found more satisfactory than the one used here- tofore. Weighing. I n the experiments of 1913 all the steers were weighed for three successive days at the beginning of the experiment and at the end of each thirty days. They were also weighed once every ten days during each month, except when on digestion trials. The steers used in the digestion tests were weighed for three successive days before entering + he stalls, and again for three days after coming out. For various reasons, it was deemed advisable to make weighings every day, and therefore, in the experiments of 1915 the steers were weighed daily, except when on digestion trials. In all cases, — both years, — the steers were weighed sixteen hours or more after drinking. Sampling of Feeds and Feed Residues. At the time of weighing up the rations for the digestion trials a shovelful of the cut hay was put aside for every three or four rations weighed up. When the weighings were completed the portion thus set aside was reduced by quartering to a convenient sized sample, which was then finely chopped with a draw cut meat chopper, and taken to the laboratory, where a weighed portion was dried at about 60° C. The dried samples were allowed RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 9 to cooi and come into equilibrium with atmospheric condi- tions, weighed, ground, and reserved for analysis in seaUd glass stoppered bottles. The milo maize meal was sampled and treated in the same way as the hay, except that it was not run through the meat chopper. In addition to the samples taken for the digestion trials, composite or monthly samples were taken by setting aside portions of hay and meal each day as the rations for the steers in the feed lots were weighed out. / At the end of the month the portions set aside w:re thoroughly mixed and sam- pled. The feed residues collected from time to time, exclusive of digestion trials, were weighed up every ten days. These ten-day residues, if any, were combined at the end of the month and again weighed, and sampled. These samples were treated the same as the hay samples. 'In order to reduce the analytical work as far as possible, the feed residues, exclusive of digestion trials, were composited separately for each steer for the entire feeding period of 1913 according to the method shown in Bulletin 91 of this Station. In the 1915 experiments there were only a few small res- idues >vhich were analyzed separately, except for the first month. Through a misunderstanding, our attendant combin- ed all the feed residues from the feed lots at the end of the first month, instead of simply combining the ten-dav residues for each steer. Sampling the Excreta. The excreta were weighed and sampled once during each twenty-four hours for a period of ten days. As soon as practicable after changing the recep- tacles, the excreta from the various steers were weighed and sampled. The total feces collected during the day from each steer were thoroughly mixed on a zinc covered platform and re- duced to a convenient sized sample by the method of quarter- ing. 10 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY The samples obtained in this way were taken to the labor- atory, where uniform aliquots, usually corresponding to 1-50 or 1-25 of the total feces, were weighed out and placed in zinc cans; one can being provided for each steer. The cans were provided with covers, which were tightly sealed by means of broad rubber bands. During the trials the samples were kept in a well iced refrigerator and further preserved by means of carbon bisulphide. At the end of the digestion trial these aliquots formed a composite sample for the period, which was thoroughly mixed and analyzed by the usual methods. Aliquot samples of the urine were weighed up each day. as in the case of the feces, and at the end of the trial the nitrogen content of the samples was determined. The sam- ples were kept in a well iced refrigerator and preserved with chloroform. Chemical Analyses. All analyses of feeds, feed resi- dues, feces and urines were made according to the methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, except the moisture determinations, and the nitrogen determinations in the fresh feces. The moisture determinations were made by drying in vacuum desiccators in the presence of sulphuric acid, while the nitrogen determinations in the fresh feces were made by digesting to a liquid state 100 grams of the fresh feces, with sulphuric acid and mercury, making the whole up to volume and determining the nitrogen in aliquot portions of this by means of the regular Kjeldahl method, as described in our previous publication. Terms Used. As applied to the feeds and feed residues, the term “protein” refers to “true protein,” excluding the non- protein nitrogenous substances, and is calculated from the protein nitrogen by the conventional factor 6.25. The total nitrogen of the feces and meat samples has been multiplied by 6.25 to obtain the protein. The “non-protein” has been obtained by multiplying the difference between the total nitrogen and the protein nitro- RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 11 gen, as determined by the Stutzer method, by use of the factor 4.7. The unit for energy employed in this bulletin is the “therm,” and is equal to 1,000 large or kilogram calories. THE EXPERIMENTS. Our facilities permit of feeding only ten steers at a time, and therefore to carry out the plan outlined in the introduc- tion, namely, the feeding of four groups of steers, ranging in ages from calves to three-year-olds, with five in each group, necessitates two separate feeding periods. In this experiment we followed the plan of feeding calves and yearlings in 1913 and two-year-olds and three-year-olds in 1915. This arrange- ment is rather unfortunate since the groups fed during the dif- ferent years were fed under different climatic conditions; from different lots of feed, and, as happens in this case, the steers used in 1915 differed in type and breeding from those of 1913. On this account the results for the series as a whole are not as comparable as might be desired. However, aside from the uncontrollable factors and unavoidable differences in the steers and lots of feed, the experiments during the two years were conducted under as nearly like conditions as possible. The feeding period proper extended over 120 days in each case, during which ill feed offered was carefully weigh- ed and sampled for analysis and any feed residues were also weighed and sampled. The steers used in the experiments were received at the Experiment Station from six weeks to two months before the exnerimental feeding was begun. Dur- ing this time the steers were tamed as much as possible and fed enough alfalfa to keep them in good condition without mak- ing appreciable gains. As the time for smarting the feeding period drew near, small amounts of milo maize meal were add- ed to the grain before the experiment was begun. 12 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY As the steers used in the experiments of 1915 had not been dehorned before delivery to the Station, this operation causd considerable delay in starting the experiments that year, as the steers could not be tamed until the wounds from the dehorning had been healed, or nearly so. This explains why the experiments of 1913 began early in January and those of 1915 not until February 25. As the feeding was begun so late in 1915 it was deemed best to omit the third digestion trial in the series, on account of hot weather. The experiments of the two years are really parts of one experiment, and therefore will be considered as such, with such deviations as may seem necessary on account of varia- tions in the conditions. To facilitate the comparison of the feeding periods of the two years, general schedules of the experiments by months as \vell as dates of digestion trials, are given herewith. GENERAL SCHEDULES OF THE EXPERIMENTS Experiments of 1913: Calves and Yearlings. First month or period, January 2 to February 1. Digestion trial I, January 20 to 30. Second month or period, February 1 to March 3. Third month March 3 to April 2. Digestion trial II, March 11 to 21. Fourth month, April 2 to May 2. Digestion trial III, April 15 to 25. Experiments of 1915: Two- and Three-year-olds. First month, February 25 to March 27. Digestion trial I, March 15 to 25. Second month, March 27 to April 26. Third month. April 26 to May 26. Digestion trial II, May 4 to 14. Fourth month. May 26 to June 25. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 13 Animals Used. The animals used in the experiments of 1913 were most- ly high-grade Hereford range steers, representative of the steers grown by the most progressive cattlemen of the South- western range country, and were obtained from the ranges in the vicinity of the College and Station. In selecting the steers an attempt was made to secure animals that were fairly uni- form as to type, weight, age and condition, and at the same time representative of the general run of range steers of their respective ages. Considerable difficulty was experienced in securing the two- and three-ycar-old steers used in the experiments of 1915, owing to the practice of selling the stock off the ranges at an earlier period. Since no steers of these ages could be obtain- ed for feeding in 1914, arrangements were made to secure steers for the completion of this series in 1915. In this, how- ever, we were not especially fortunate, inasmuch as the steers finally secured differed from those used in 1913, in breeding, being largely grade Shorthorn stock; and also in type, condi- tion and uniformity. The lack of uniformity in type and con- dition was especially noticeable in the three-year-olds. These steers were of necessity chosen from “left-overs” brought in from another part of the State, and it was found impossible to get a uniform bunch- of this age or individuals that were really comparable with the other ages of steers used in the tests. The two-year-olds, of course, differed from th. calves and yearlings in breeding, but compared fairly well with them in other respects The designations, calves, yearlings, two-year-olds, and three-year-olds, as employed in this bulletin, are relative terms only. The exact ages of the animals are unknown. What we refer to as “calves” means calves dropped during the spring or summer preceding the feeding period, which occurred during the winter and spring months. Thus the “calves” were probably 14 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY 10 to 12 months of age at the end of the experiment. The year- lings, twos and threes were “long” yearlings, twos and threes, so that at the end of the feeding periods the various groups of steers were practically one-, two-, three- and four-year-olds. For the sake of convenience ancj simplicity in the present- ation and discussion of the data and results, the individual steers will be referred to by {lumber or age groups. The groups and numbers of the steers are as follows: calves, 26 to 30; yearlings 21 to 25; two-year-olds, 36 to 40; three-year- olds, 31 to 35. Conformation, Type and Finish of Steers. Calves. Of the steers composing this group, steer 26 was the poorest in the bunch. He was light boned, rather leggy and his body was narrow and shallow. His top line was fairly good but dropped off somewhat at the rump. He ap- peared delicate in constitution and proved a poor feeder. At the end of the feeding period he lacked finish throughout. Steer 27 was a fairly broad, short-limbed, blocky indi- vidual with staggy head and coarse, heavy neck, with fair shoulders but was “tied in” somewhat around the chest. His hind parts .appeared better than his foreparts. Steers 28, 29, and 30 were good smooth, well balanced steers, having good depth of bodv and showing no undue paunchiness. Steer 28 was o :e of the smoothest steers in the bunch, being well balanced throughout, and having a broad loin, and shapely well covered hips. He showed the best and most uniform finish of any of the calves, and probably better quality than any of the others in 1913. He had a good top line, a smooth well covered shoulder, and well formed hips, but was a little off-type, rather light in the hind parts, and somewhat leggy, but he carried a fairly good smooth finish. Steer 30 was the lightest of the calves. He had a straight back, a smooth shoulder and well developed hind parts. In quality he was just fair, having medium bone, rather thick RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 15 hide, and carried a good amount of flesh. He was a little plain and coarse about the head and appeared a little heavier in front than behind. Yearlings. Steer 21 was well shaped about the shoulders and chest, being rather deep and broad, but was a trifle low in the back. His greatest fault was his paunchiness, although he also lacked symmetry. Compared with the fore parts, he was a little high at the tail head and somewhat light in the hind quarters. He was rather large boned, but was not a coarse steer. At the end of the feeding period he was in good average condition, but not especially fat. Steers 22 and 23 were both well balanced, symmetrical individuals, neither steer showed any excessive paunchiness. Steer 22 appeared a little upstanding, but this was apparently due to depth of body rather than length of legs. He showed good front, middle and hind parts but was a trifle low in the back. At the end of the feeding period he was well filled in the twist and flank, but was not as well fill'd along the back, hip, and rump as might have bem desired. However, he showed more quality than any of the other year- lings. Steer 23 differed from steer 22 chiefly in that he had a better top line, rather short and broad head and neck, and in being particularly smooth in front, that is, over the bris- ket, shoulder and chest. He had somewhat finer bone and a well distributed covering of natural flesh. The ribs were well Sprung and covered with a good layer of flesh. The loins and hips were also well covered, and the hind quarter presented, on the whole, a nice well filled appearance, except for a slight lack of fullness at the rump. Steers 24 and 25 differed noticeably from the other three steers of this group in that they were more upstanding and not so well balanced. Both steers were rather high-cut in the hind flank, but steer 24, although a little rangy, had fairly good depth of chest. Steer 25, on the other hand, lacked in depth of chest. Steer 24 proved to be a poor feeder, made very small gains and 16 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY hence lacked finish at the end of the experiment. Steer 25 had a nice top line, a smooth, well formed shoulder, and in general was a fairly smooth animal. Neck and shoulder blended nicely. As regards finish, his shoulder was well cov- ered but he lacked filling in the loin, rump, and thighs. A lit- tle longer time in the feed lot would probably have made him a well finished and balanced animal. Two-Year-oids. The difference between 36, 39, and 40 was very small as regards type. All three of the steers were desirable in most respects. Steer 36 conformed very closely to the requirements of a beef animal. He had a square, low- set, compact appearance but was a little plain about the shoulders and light in the flank and did not carry down well in the hind quarters; however, he was desirable as a feeder because of his beefy conformation, square head, short neck, and general beef producing characteristics. Steer 39 was a little coarse and rough, showing lack of quality, but possess- ed the characteristic big bone, and square, low-set conforma- tion that is indicative of a good beef animal. His barrel was a little undersize and his hind quarters lacked flesh. The tail head was high, giving him an ungainly, rangy ap- pearance. Steer 40 possessed the desired low-set, compact appearance, but was rough and his barrel not quite large enough. His ribs were not well sprung, and the covering over the loin was rather light. The hind quarters were not well fleshed, but they were large and capable of filling out. He belonged to the class of feeder steers possessing the pe- culiar ability of developing into good beef animals far be- yond the expectation of the feeder. At the close of the feeding experiment steer 36 was one of the leading steers of the lot. While he did not carry his flesh evenly distributed, he was more uniformly finished than any of the others. He was not as well developed in the hind quarters as either 39 or 40, but showed a general symmetrical outline, and in general came nearer to the ideal beef type than any of the others fed this year. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 17 No. 39 was a close rival of bfo. 3 b. While his barrel was smaller and deeper, the ribs were not so well sprung, but his hind quarters were much deeper and broader; in fact, his rear quarters were the most desirable of any steer in the experiment. The chief objections to him were that he was a little rangy and cut-up in the flank. His bone appeared somewhat coarse, yet he showed more quality than No. 40. This animal improved wonderfully the last few days of the feeding trial, and if he had been fed another sixty d ( ays, he probably would have exhibited a very desirable type or a fin- ished beef animal. No. 40 was more evenly fleshed over the back and ribs than No. 39, but his hind quarters did not carry down as well and his rump was irregular, showing a patchy condition of flesh. He possessed a large bone, but he was a little on the rangy type, being cut-up in the flank, giving him a leggy ap- pearance. However, he proved a good feeder. Steers 37 and 38 were off-type and were lacking in qual- ity. Their conformation was such as to suggest dairy type rather than beef type. The body of No. 37 did not show the low-set blocky appearance desired in a beef animal. His head and neck evidenced femininity and his shoulders were coarse. The ribs were not well sprung, but his bac^c, though narrow, was deeply fleshed but patchy. He lacked develop- ment in the hind quarters and size of bone to carry a large amount of flesh. No. 38 had a fairly large bone, but was narrow in the body. His barrel was small and his ribs not well sprung. The hind quarters were light and did not pos- sess the desired conformation for beef production. At the completion of the feeding trial steer 37 had fleshed up fairly well over the back and loin, but he still possessed a lean and rough appearance. His head, neck and fore quarters did not show the width and depth indicative of a finished steer. With steer 38 the most consnicuous defects, aside from his being off-type, were his small middle and irregular top and bottom 18 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY lines. His head and neck were coarse, but his shoulders car- ried their flesh well. His ribs were not well sprung and his back and loin did not carry the desired amount of flesh. He did not fill out sufficiently to overcome his leggy appearance. Three-Year-Olds. Steer 31 was a very large rough in- dividual, evidencing poor feeding qualities. He was a good representative of the extreme rangy type, having a narrow, upstanding body of decidedly poor quality, coarse bone, and general conformation diametrically opposed to good fleshing qualities. At the completion of the feeding trial this animal showed considerable improvement, in that he had fleshed up over the shoulders fairly well, but his back and loin were still deficient in flesh. His barrel was small and his hind quarters were not developed in proportion with his fore quar- ters. If he had been fed another sixty day's he probably would have shown more finish, but he never could have reached the standard of a prime finished steer, because of his off-type. Steer 32 was very similar to 31 in that he was rangy and up- standing, but he was a more desirable type, being a little more symmetrical, large boned, but not so coarse as 31, and his body and hind quarters were not so rough, carrying more flesh and being developed more uniformly. At the end of the feed- ing period this steer evidenced a marked improvement. He had taken on flesh uniformly and had developed in spring of rib, thickness of loin, and width of back. His* hind quarters were still a little light, because the flesh did not carry down well. He still retained some of the rough, ungainly appear- ance he had at the beginning. Steer 33 conformed more nearly to the desirable type of a feeder steer, having a large frame and possessing more of the desirable feeding charac- teristics. He had rather light hind quarters and small barrel, and >vas cut-up in the flank. He lacked the proper width and depth of back and loin, but his general appearance was such as to make him desirable for the feed lot. He evidenced the fact that he was a good feeder at the end of the feeding RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 19 trial, had fleshed up well over the back and loin, had a more desirable spring of rib, and broader back, and his hind quar- ters carried more flesh. The hind quarters were not in pro- portion with the rest of his body, being smaller and not near- ly as well developed as the fore quarters. Steers 34 and 35 were decidely off-type, and were not good subjects for the feed lot. No. 34 was a leggy, narrow-bodied, large, coarse- boned animal. His barrel was small and his back thinly flesh- ed. Steer 35 was very similar to 34, having a narrow body, was leggy and showed very poor quality. He was very light in the middle and cut-up in the flank, dropped off at the tail head and showed poor development of hind quarters. Neither of these steers showed any marked improvement at the finish of the feeding trial. No. 34 had taken on flesh to some extent, but did not develop in the region of the barrel as a good feeder should, and his flesh was patchy. It was especially well placed over the upper part of the shoulders. The hind quarters w. re lacking in flesh. No. 35 filled out a little more than 34 but he, too, was not well fleshed. He had not filled out fully over the back and loin. His arched back, high tail head, and high-cut flank, taken together, made him appear very rough and ungainly. If the two- and thre e-year-old steers were considered from the feeder’s point of view with respect to the most de- sirable finish exhibited bv each steer, they would have ranked as follows : No. 36, first place. No. 39, second place. No. 40, third place. No. 32, fourth place. No. 33, fifth place. No. 37, sixth place. No. 35, seventh place. No. 38, eighth place. No. 34, ninth place No. 31, tenth place 20 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY Feeds and Rations. Feeds; Kinds and Preparation. First cutting alfalfa hay and milo maize meal of good quality constituted the feeds in these experiments. The alfalfa fed in 1913 was a good grade of hay, having good color, together with an abundance of leaves and light to medium sterns, but that fed in 1915 was rather coarse stemmed , although it also had good color and an abundance of leaves. The coarseness of the latter is clearly indicated by its high percentage of crude fiber. All the hay used in the experiments had been grown under irri- gation in the vicinity of the Experiment Station. To facilitate the weighing of the rations, and the sam- pling of the hay, it was chopped into lengths of about one inch by running it through a feed cutter. The whole mass of chip- ped hay was then thoroughly mixed and the rations weighed up from it during the progress of the experiment. The milo maize was purchased on the market, and prob- ably came from the dry farming sections of New Mexico or Texas. The grain was clean, with well tleveloped kernels, and on the whole would be considered a good grade of milo.* It was ground in the mills at the Experiment Station, suf- ficiently fine to insure the cracking of all, or practically all, of the kernels. Some of the smaller kernels occasionally passed through the mill without being crushed, but the amount was small. Rations Fed. Since the various groups of steers, rang- ing in ages from calves to three-year-olds, were to be com- pared as to their ability to utilize feeds, it was necessary that they should receive like rations during corresponding periods of the experiment. It was therefore decided to keep the ratio of hay and grain the same for all the animals during cor- responding intervals of the feeding period, but to allow them all the feed they would consume. Thus during the first month the ratio of alfalfa to mifo maize meal was 2 to 1. Dur- RANGE STEERS OP DIFFERENT AGES. 21 ing the second month, the proportion of grain to hay was in- creased from time to time so as to reach a ratio of 1 to 1 by the twentieth day of the month. This ratio was maintained during the remainder of the experiment, but the amounts fed were determined by the appetites of the steers. The ratio of hay to grain was kept constant throughout the entire first month, for the reason that two steers of each age were used in the digestion trials during the latter part of the month, and therefore required unchanged rations, dur- ing this time; that is, for 18 days. In this way, the steers remaining in the feed lots had no undue advantage over the ones in the digestion stalls, as the rations were not changed except as to quantity, while the digestion trials were in pro- gress. Hence, difference's noted in the rates of gains be- tween the steers in the digestion stalls and those outside must be ascribed to differences in the quantities of food consumed* rather than to differences in the kinds of rations supplied, and also to differences in the conditions surrounding the steers in each case. Of course under this plan, rather more time was allowed in bringing the steers onto full feed than is customary, but for our purpose it seemed the best plan to follow. Composition of the Feeds and Feed Residues. Different lots of feed were used in the experiments of the two years, and it will be noticed that the hay fed in 1915 was inferior to that used in 1913, inasmuch as it contained about 10 per cent more crude fiber and was correspondingly lower in other nutrients, especially protein and nitrogen-free extract. In the case of the milo maize meal the differences are not so marked, although, on the average, the meal of 1915 was a little higher in protein and crude fiber and lower in nitrogen-free extract than that of 1913 22 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 1.— COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA HAY, 1913. Digestion Trial I, per cent First month, per cent Second month, per cent Digestion Trial II, per cent Digestion Trial III, per cent Third month, per cent Fourth month, per cent Average, per cent Dry matter | 89.63 | 89.74 90.31 90.25 92.16 92.52 92.97 91.08 Composition of dry j matter: Ash 1 1 1 9.71 j 9.29 8.05 8.15 9.13 1 | 9.06 9.19 8.94 Protein | 14.31 j 1 14.10 14.48 | 13.88 | | 13.06 | 13.65 13.32 43.83 Non-protein | 2.35 I 2.38 2.25 2.45 2.50 | | 2.51 2.12 2.37 Cru^e fiber 28.07 ] 29.29 28.28 32.00 28.46 | 30.24 31.01 29.62 Ether extract 1.54 | 1.36 1.42 1.38 1.33 | 1.37 1.35 1.39 Nitrogen-free ex- . tract 1 44.02 | 43.58 45.52 42.14 45.52 | 43.17 43.01 43.85 1100.00 | 1100.00 1 [100.00 | 100.00 100.00 1100.00 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen . . . . j 2.789 2.763| 2.7961 2.742 2.622i 2.718 2.583 2.716 Protein nitrogen 2.2901 2.256| 2.317) 2.220 2.090 1 2.184 2.131 2.213 Non-protein nitro- . gen ! 1 1 .499 .507 .479 | .522 .532 | .534 .452 .504 TABLE 2.— COMPOSITION OF MILO MAIZE MEAL, 1913. Digestion Trial I, per cent ij First month, per cent Second month, per cent Digestion Trial II, per cent Digestion Trial III, per cent Third month, per cent | Fourth month, per cent Average, per cent j Dry matter 86.11 | 85.95 | 85.97 | 86.71 87.44 | 86.80 | 88.29 1 86.75 Composition of dry matter: Ash 1 1 1.95 | 2.22 j 1.73 2.03 1.61 i 1.88 2.04 1.92 Protein 1 11.08 1 11.24 | 11.06 j 11.24 | 11.14 | [ 11.24 11.55 11.22 Non -protein j .62 | .50 j | .43 I -55 j | .30 | .65 .59 .52 Crude fiber | 2.35 | 2.23 j 2.09 1.77 | 1.83 [ [ 2.25 2.17 2.10 Ether extract . . . . j 2.81 | 3.31 j 3.42 3.54 1 2.67 J | 2.71 2.47 2.99 Nitrogen-free ex-. . | tract 1 1 81.19 1 80.50 I 81.27 80.87 82.45 - 1 81.27 81.18 81.25 1 100.00 1100.00 | 100. 00~ [100.00 1 I100.00 |Too7oo " 1 100.00 ioo.oo 1 Total nitrogen [ 1.9051 1.904] 1.861 1.914 I. 847 ' | 1.937] 1.973 1.906 Protein nitrogen . . . j 1.7731 1.7981 1.769 1.798 1.783 1 1.799] | 1.848 1.795 Non -protein nitro- . ] gen 1 .132| .106) .092 .116 .064| 1 -138| .125 .110 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGE’S. 23 TABLE 3.— COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA HAY, 1915. Digestion Trial I, per cent First month, | per cent Digestion trial II, per cent Second month, per cent Third month, per cent Fourth month, per cent Average, per cent Dry matter ......... 88.89 92.08 89.73 90.97 91.63 90.82 90.69 Composition of dry matter: Ash 7.69 7.80 8.17 8.07 8.80 7.90 8.07 Protein 10.80 10.12 11.37 11.57 12.35 9.84 11.01 Non-protein ....... 1.91 1.93 1.66 1.87 1.97 1.74 1.85 Crude fiber 38.49 41.06 37.20 38.45 37.36 42.06 39.10 Ether extract ...... 1.44 1.24 1.31 1.41 1.47 1.18 1.34 Nitrogen-free ex-.. tract 39.67 37.85 40.29 38.63 38.05 37.28 38.63 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen 2.134 2.030 2.173 2.249 2.395 1.944 2.154 Protein nitrogen . . 1.728 1.619 1.819 1.851 1.976 1.574 1.761 Non-protein nitro-. gen .406 .411 .354 .398 .419 .370 .393 TABLE 4— COMPOSITION OF MILO MAIZE MEAL, 1915. Digestion Trial I, per cent Digestion Trial II, per cent Second month, per cent Third month, per cent Fourth month, per cent Average, per cent Dry matter Composition of dry matter: 86.25 86.65 87.16 87.63 88.91 87.32 Ash 1.73 1.61 1.38 1.52 1.85 1.62 Protein 12.11 12.49 12.72 12.64 12.49 12.49 Non-protein .27 .46 .32 .33 .32 .3* Crude fiber ..... 2.55 2.67 2.28 2.44 2.84 2.56 Ether extract 3.47 3.05 2.98 2.54 3.27 3.06 Nitrogen- free extract 79.87 79.72 80.32 80.53 79.23 79.93 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen 1.996 2.096 2.104 2.092 2.067 2.071 Protein nitrogen 1.938 1.999 2.035 2.022 1.998 1.998 Non-protein nitrogen .058 .097 .069 .070 .069 .073 24 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY Proportions of Hay and Grain in Feed Residues. The tables giving the composition of the feed residues have been placed in the appendix, where they can readily be referred to, if desired. In this connection it may be well to remark that the wide differences in the composition of the various residues. ! may be traced to the habits or appetites of the various indi- j vi duals. Some of the animals habitually rejected the coarse stems of the hay but cleaned up the fine particles of the ra- tion, whereas others cleaned up all the coarser parts of the ration, leaving only the fine dust; while still others showed j. no decided preference in the matter. Evidently, then, the ! feed residues did not contain hay and grain in the same pro- portions as fed in the rations, and so in order to arrive at a fairly accurate figure for the amounts of alfalfa and milo i maize meal actually consumed, an estimate of the proportions I of each in the residues was made, upon the basis of the crude ; fiber content of the residues and the average crude fiber j content of the feeds, by the method of calculation illustrated below. As an example, the feed residue from steer 22 in digestion trial I in 1913, is chosen. The total residue was 6.5 pounds and contained 27.6 per cent of crude fiber, as determined by analysis. The so-called rectangular* method of calculation was found simple and convenient, and hence was employed as shown below: The average percentages of crude fiber in the alfalfa and milo maize meal are written, respectively, opposite the upper •See Van Nostrand’s Chemical Annual, third issue, 1913, p. 563. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 25 and lower left-hand corners of the rectangle. The percentage of crude fiber in the feed residue under consideration is writ- ten at the intersection of the diagonals. The difference be- tween 27.6 and 29.62 is written at the lower right-hand cor- ner, and the difference between 2.10 and 27.6 at the upper right-hand corner of the rectangle. Reading along the horizon- tal lines of the diagram from left to right it will be found that the figures at the right represent the parts by weight of alfalfa and milo, respectively, which will give a mixture con- taining 27.6 per cent of crude fiber. From this the per- centage of alfalfa in the feed residue is easily calculated to be 92.66 per cent, as follows: 25.5 X 100 = 92.66. 27 52 The remainder, of course, is considered as hfiilo maize. By employing this method, the amounts of alfalfa and milo were calculated in all the feed residues and corrections applied in tables 30 to 33. Of course, objections can be rais- ed against this method of correcting feed residues, but it seemed that for our purpose it answered the need better than any other method we could employ. The above method was employed in calculating the quantities of alfalfa and milo eaten, by months, and was not used in connection with the digestion trials. Digestibility of Rations. Two representative steers of each age were chosen for the digestion trials; that is, so far as possible one steer rep- resenting the better steers in the group was selected, and an- other representing the poorer ones. In making the selections, however, the disposition and tameness of the individuals had much to do with the choice. Three sets of digestion trials were conducted in the ex- periments of 1913. Trial I was conducted from the 18th to 26 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY the 20th days; trial II from the 68th to 78th days, and the third trial from the 103rd to the 113th days of the feeding period. The steers selected were numbers 28 and 30 of the calves, and 22 and 24 of the yearlings. In 1915, on account of the hot weather, only two sets of digestion trials were con- ducted. These two trials correspond to the first and second in the series of 1913. The steers used in the tests were the following: two-year-olds, 36 and 38; and three-year-olds 31 and 33. In trials I and III of 1913, steer 24 was off feed so badly that the results from him will be omitted in considering aver- ages. During these trials his feces appeared very coarse and fibrous, having an odor not unlike that of silage mingled with fecal matter. At times much mucus streaked with blood was voided with the feces. During trial II this steer ate well and appeared normal, so it was thought he would pass through the third trial in good condition. Steer 31 of the 1915 trials passed through the first di- gestion trial very well, but went off feed badly during trial II, refusing more than one-third of the feed offered him. This was evidently due to the bad wire punctures of the stom- ach which were observed when he was slaughtered. In the first set of trials each year alfalfa and milo maize meal were fed in the proportions of 2 of the former to 1 of the latter, but in the second and third trials equal parts of hav and grain were fed. The composition of the feeds used in the digestion trials is given in tables 1 to 4. For reference, the weights of feeds, feed residues, excreta, composition of feeds and feed resi- dues, feces, nitrogen in urine and other data connected with these trials are given in tables 30 to 47 of the appendix. Tlie coefficients of digestibility were determined in the usual manner, by subtracting the average amounts of the various nutrients voided daily by the different individuals from the average daily intake and considering the difference RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 27 as representing the quantities of the nutrients digested in each instance. From the quantities ingested and digested, the per- centage digestibility or coefficients of digestibility were cal- culated. Since metabolic products were not considered, the coefficients here given represent apparent digestibility. Since different lots of feed were used during the two years, the coefficients of one year cannot well be compared directly with those of the other. The results of the various digestion trials during the two years are given in the follow- ing tables : — 28 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 5— PERCENTAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF RATIONS, 1913. Alfalfa Hay and Milo Maize Meal. Dry matter, per cent Ash, per cent Organic matter, per cent Protein, per cent Non-protein, per cent Crude fiber, per cent Nitrogen-free extract, per cent Ether extract, per cent Total nitrogen, per cent Digestion Trial 1. Yearlings. Steer 22 66.15 50.45 67.36 56.69 100.001 i J | 39.61| 79.09 47.55| 1 • 1 63.17 Steer 24 63.08 52.02 63.86 54.72 100.00 -2.84 77.75 48.28 59.48 Average 64.62 51.24 65.61 55.70 100.00 18.39 78.42 47.92 61.33 Calves. Steer 28 . . 71.20 57.94 72.15 58.39 100.00 45.27 82.20 51.08 64.07 Steer 30 65.32 48.88 66.57 54.95 100.00 41.55 77.50 44.57 61.40 Average 68.26 53.41 69.36 56.67 100.00 43.41 79.85 47.83 62.74 Average of all ....... 66.44 52.33 67.49 56.19 100.00 30.90 79.14 47.88 62.04 Average, omitting steer 24 67.56 52.42 68.69 56.68 100.00 42.141 1 79.60 47.73 62.88 Digestion Trial II. Yearlings. Steer 22 69.22 41.96 70.56 55.43 100.00 43.86 | 79.67 61.25 60.78 Steer 24 69.76 39.60 71.35 53.841100.00 50.37 80.42 58.69 59.93 Average 69.49 40.78 70.96 54.64 ilOO.OO 47.12 I 80.04 59.97 I 60.36 Calves. lioo.oo Steer 28 68.45 37.05 70.16 57.91 41.28 1 80.47 59.85 63.73 Steer 30 . 67.85 42.38 69.21 49.97|100.00 51.24 | 77.89 54.82 56.63 Average 68.15 39.72 69.69 53.94 1100 00 46. 26 1 1 79.18 57.34 60.18 Average of all ...... 68.82 40.25 70.33 54.29|100.00 46.691 | 79.61 58.66 60.27 Digestion Trial III. 1 Yearlings. Steer 22 1 | 71.80 41.99 73.18 I 1 56.061100.00 1 1 ! 39.72 ! i | 82.33 I | 51.79 60.47 Steer 24 71.33 41.16 73.11 53.76|100.00 I 36.32 | 84.00 j 42.67 58.98 Average 71.57 41.58 73.15 54.91 1100 00 38.02 | 83.17 1 47.23 i 59.73 Calves. Steer 28 69.03 45.82 70.05 52.831100.00 36.66 1 81.44 49.21 59.20 Steer 30 69.59| 49.02 70.75 | 52.20 tioo.oo 37.81 ! 81.10 45.82 | 57.99 j Average 69.31 \ 47.42 70.40 | 52.52 100:00 37.24 81.27 47.52 | 58.60 j Average of all 70.44! 44.50 71.78 | 53.72 l 100.00 37.63 82.22 47.38 | 59.17 Average, omitting steer 24 I 70.14 1 | 45 61 71.33 1 | 53.70 1100.00 | 38.06 l i I 81.62 1 | ! 48.94 1 59.22 Average, second and^ third trials i | 69.63 42.11 70.74 1 1 1 53.231100.00 l i 1 I 42.54 1 1 I 80.92 1 ! 53.06 1 59 72 ! Average, second a.nd| third trials, omittingl steer 24 in trial TIT... f 1 1 69.40 1 42.55' -3 O Li 1 i i I 54.031100.00 i 1 42.99 t I 80.47 1 1 I 54.49 .59.82 TABLE 6.— PERCENTAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF RATIONS, 1915. Alfalfa Hay and Milo Maize Meal. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 29 luao aad ‘uaSoaiju iejoj, j ■- .. 58.13 60.04; | 59.09 60.11 65.79 62.95 61.02 69.64 62.58 66.11 60.44 60.31 60.38 61.11 luaa aad ‘louiixa aaqia 53.53 56. IS 54.86 60.53 60.74 60.64 57.75 71.42 65.21 68.32 63.54 59.54 61.54 62.76 ?uaa aad ‘joeaixa «»aaj-tia3oa;iN 72.40 | 76.40 | 74.40 | 77.37 80.79 79.08 76.74 82.01 | 78.14 80.08 ! 77.91 77.66 77.79 77.90 *uao aad ‘aaqij apnaQ 33.57 37.59 j 35.58 40.27 39.50 39.89 37.74 31.23 34.90 33.07 34.66 42.95 38.81 37.50 }uaa aad ‘ujajoad-uojvi . 1 100.00 [ 100.00 | 100.00 i 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 | 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 }uaa aad •uja^oa^ ! I 51.29 | 53.59 | * 52.44 | 53.57 60.18 56.88 54.66 66.03 1 58.13 62.08 55.71 55.55 55.63 56.46 luao aad ‘aaiyetu opreSao to o oiio eq to io tooi oo co 1 to ' tt lOOO to iO to iftCO "tf oc oo -h o to th ci ci t- co ooooi. od cq CO CO CO 't' CO CO -C CO -<3" ^co- co co luao aad ‘aawBui Aj(j 57.11 60.79 58.95 62.42 65.03 63.73 ^61.34 68.46 64.96 66.71 k 1 64.59- 1 65.91 65.25 65.15 1 Digestion Trial 1. Three-year-olds. Steer 31 Steer 33 Average Two-year-olds. Steer 36 Steer 38 Average Average of all Digestion Trial II. Three-year-olds. Steer 31 Steer 33 Average Two-year-olds. Steer 36 Steqr 38 . Average Avenge of all omitting cfee* - 31 30 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY Effect of Age and Individuality of Animals on Digestion Co- efficients. To facilitate the consideration of the relative digestive powers of the various individuals and ages of steers with special reference to any influence of age and individ- uality upon the same, the differences between the coeffi- cients obtained with individuals of the same age and the aver- age coefficients of steers of different ages are given in the following tables : — TABLE 7.— DIFFERENCES IN DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS, 1913. Difference above other coefficient or coefficients Calves ^ earlings Steer 28 Steer 30 Steer 22 Steer 24 Calves Yearlings Digestion Trial 1. 1 5.88 3.07 2.11 * Ash 9.06 1.57 Z.96 Organic matter . . Protein 5.58 3.44 3.50 1.97 2.00 .02 Non- protein Crude fiber 3.72 3.80 Nitrogen-free ex- tract 4.70 1.34 .76 Ether extract .... Total nitrogen . . 6.51 2.67 3.69 .73 .28 .43 Digestion T rial II. | I Dry matter .60 4 .54 i 1.34 Ash ... 2. "6 I 1.06 Organic matter . Protein .95 7.94 1.59 .79 1 I 1.27 .70 Non-protein Crude fiber 9.96 6.51 1 '.86 Nitrogen -free ex- tract 2.58 .75 1 1 .86 Ether extract . . . Total nitrogen . . . 5.03 7.10 2.56 .85 1 1 | 2.63 .18 Digestion Trial II | • Dry matter 56 .47 i 2.49 Ash 3.20 .83 | 5.43 2.78 3.54 Organic matter . Protein 63 70 .07 2.30 1 1 Non-protein 1 2.48 Crude fiber 1.15 3.40 1 Nitrogen -free ex- 34 1.67 1 ! 1.06 Ether extract Total nitrogen 3 39 1.21 9.12 1.49 1 1 4.27 1.87 ♦As steer : steer 22 alone are 24 was badly off feed during used in comparisons in tria these trials, the results wrth s T and ITT RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 31 TABLE 8.— -DIFFERENCES IN DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS, 1915. Difference above other coefficient or coefficients Two-year-olds Three-year-olds Two-year- olds Three- year-olds to u 0> O ft o W> ®,G rt be be* S 05 §®a cj-a'g £ 3 ft : £ft u © ft G G © £ ft h ft ^ © ft > o © o © > O < ft Pm a ks ft Digestion Trial 1. 1 Yearlings. Steer 22 745.5 15.979 21.434 Steer 24 739.0 7.684 10.398 Calves. Steer 28 646.0 8.372 15.333 Steer 30 445.0 9.054 20.346 Digestion Trial II. Yearlings. Steer 22 900.6 19.339 21.473 Steer 24 764.7 10.923 14.284 Calves. Steer 28 667.0 10.924 16.376 Steer 30 514.5 8.770 17.046 Digestion Trial III. 1 Yearlings. Steer 22 986.2 16.533 i 16.764 Steer 24 813.7 I 8.712 I 10.707 Calves. [ Steer 28 739.5 12.731 1 17.216 Steer 30 _ 1 575.7 l 9.816 I 17.051 1 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 35 TABLE 10.— DRV MATTER OF ALFALFA HAY AND MILO MAIZE MEAL EATEN IN DIGESTION TRIALS, 1915. Dry matter consumed per d* iy. *o c 3 O . a £ ■O n o bfl oi 111 2 a — p ^ > 3 <3^ ^ O > > a . o e accounted for through differences in the amounts of feed consumed. A METHOD OF CALCULATING THE PERCEN TAGE OIG’ES TI8M.- ITY OF THE COMPONENTS OF t H F. RATIONS. For the energy calculations it was desirable that the di- gestibility of the components of the rations, namely, alfalfa hay and niilo maize meal, should be calculated. Since the di- gestibility of the feeds composing the rations had not been determined, except as fed in combination, the usual method of subtracting the digestible nutrients of one feed from the total nutrients digested in the mixed ration, and considering the re- mainder as being digested from the grain, was not applicable. Attempts to apply some of the average coefficients of digest- ibility of alfalfa as determined in previous experiments proved unsatisfactory, on account of differences in the composition of the hays fed in the various experiments; and it therefore became necessary to resort to another method. In our experiments we had fed alfalfa and milo maize meal in different proportions in at least two trials, and - ' si lice the milo maize apparently was more digestible than the alfalfa, as was indicated by the higher coefficients of digestibility when the proportions of milo were increased, it seemed alto- RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 37 gether feasible that the digestibility of the components of the ration could be calculated by taking into consideration the effect of the varying proportions of the constituents of the ration upon the resulting coefficients. As applied to rations composed of two different feeds, the problem may be stated as follows : To calculate the coef- ficients of digestibility of the components of similar rations from the results of digestion trials in which the components have been fed in combination, but in different proportions. The known quantities are the amounts of feed consumed in each digestion trial and the resulting coefficients; and the -unknown quantities, the percentage digestibility of each of the components. In general terms, the problem may be stat- ed algebraically by representing the unknown quantities by letters x and y and the known quantities by letters a , a\ b, b\ etc., as shown below : Let .r Percentage digestibility of alfalfa. Let y Percentage digestibility of milo maize meal. Let a Grams of alfalfa eaten in digestion trial I. Let b Grams of mi]o maize meal eaten in digestion trial T. Let a' Grams of alfalfa eaten in digestion trial II. Let b 1 Grams of milo maize meal eaten in digestion trial IT. Let c Percentage digestibility as determined in trial I Let c' Percentage digestibility as determined in trial II. From the foregoing statements the following equations were formulated ( 1 ) ax -f- by a +T (2) a l x 4- by ’ — c l a 1 -f- To illustrate the application of the foregoing equations 38 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY to the problem at hand, the calculation of the coefficients of digestibility of the dry matter of the rations fed in the di- gestion trials of 1913 will suffice. In the first set of trials, an average of 3217.3 grams of alfalfa and 1833.6 grams of milo maize meal were eaten on a dry matter basis, and the resulting coefficient for the dry matter of the ration was 67.56. Similarly, in the second set of trials the steers ate on an average 2670.5 grams of alfal- fa and 3098.9 grams of milo maize meal, and the resulting coefficient in this case was 69.40. Substituting these known values in the foregoing equa- tions, the values of * and y are found by solving the equa- tions as shown below. (1) 3217.3* + 1833.6y 5050.9 .6756 (2) 2670.5* + 3098.9? 5769.4 .6940 (1) 3217.3* + 1833.6? = 3412.388 (2) 2670.5* + 3098.9? = 4003.964 (1) (2) 1.755* + ? = 1.8610 .862* + ? = 1.2921 £93* = .5689 x = .6371 y = .7429 From the calculated values of * and 3', then, it appears' that the coefficients of dig't stibility of the dry n alter of the alfalfa and milo maize meal hese trials were 63.71 and 74.29, respectively. The method of uk fciori just com- plicated as it appears at first sight, probably simpler and short* 1 than the hods employ- : Hi RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 39 ed for the purpose. In addition, the method affords a means of calculating the digestibility of the feeds composing the ra- tions in cases where these feeds have been fed in combina- tion but in different proportions in successive digestion trials, and where no determinations on the digestibility of any of the components of the rations have been made separately. In this method of calculation, as in others of this sort, the as- sumption is that the digestibility of the feeds composing the rations remains unchanged, although the proportions of the different feeds in the rations are varied. PERCENTAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE RATIONS. The coefficients of digestibility of the alfalfa and mito maize meal fed in the experiments of 1913 and 1915 were cal- culated in the manner just illustrated and are given in the following table: — TABLE 11.— COEFFICIENTS OF DIGESTI Bl LITY OF THE COMPON- ENTS OF THE RATIONS. Owing to the wide variations i fficients for the ash in the different trials, no satisfactory results could h tained by the foregoing method of cal 1 don, they have been omitted from the tabic 0 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY DIGESTIBLE. NUTRIENTS IN FEEDS ['he percentage of digestible nutrients in the feeds of the two years have been calculated from the average com- position of the feeds as given in tables 1 to 4 by means of the coefficients given in the preceding table. ’ ( ABLE: 12. PERCENTAGES OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN DRY MATTER OF FEEDS. Alfalfa hay, 1913, per cent Milo maize Jmeal, 1913, 1 ! per cent Alfalfa hay. 1915, ,| per cent Milo maize meal, 1915, per cent Dry matter 63.71 74.29 53.81 76.88 Organic matter 58.42 74.60 51.27 75.65 Protein 8.48 5.21 5.59 7.72 Non -protein 2.37 .52 1.85 .34 Crude fiber 12.23 1.42 14.84 .79 Other extract .44 1.89 .54 2.23 Nitrogen -free extract .... 33.77 66.65 28.28 64.21 Total nitrogen 1.850 .942 1.310 1.272 ESTIMATED ENERGY VALUES OF FEEDS Although having previously pointed out that the metab- olizable energy per unit of digestible organic matter in feeds of the same class is remarkably constant, Armsby* has recent- ly published a set of values for the digestible organic matter in feeds of different classes, to be used in estimating the me tabolizable energy where no direct determinations have been made. ; As the hays fed during the two feedings differed con- siderably in composition, it was considered better to calculate the metabolizable energy from the digestible organic matter by means of the factors suggested, rather than using a fixed average value for the two years. The metabolizable energy of the milo maize meal was estimated in the same way. On page 484 of the publication just cited, Armsby gives ♦Armsby, H. P., “Net Energy Values of Feeding Stuffs for Cattle,” in Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. TTI, No. 6, p. 453. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES 41 the net energy values of a number of feeding stuffs, from which it may be calculated that the net energy of alfalfa and maize meal is 39,15 and 56.9 per cents, respectively, < < the metabolizable energy in each case. The energy values of the feeds, calculated in the manner just indicated, are given in table 13 The net energy value of milo maize has been calculated by assuming the same per- centage availability of the metabolizable energy as that caS culated for maize meal, from the publication just cited. 'I ABLE 13.— ESTIMATED ENERGY VALUE OF FEEDS PER POUND OF DRY MATTER. I 1 II Metabolizable j ( energy, therms ii Net energy, therms Alfalfa, 1913 .9275 | .3631 .8140 | 3187 1.3197 j 7509 1.3383 j 7615 Alfalfa, 1915 Milo maize meal, 1913 .... Milo maize meal, 1915 GAINS IN LIVE WEIGHTS The steers used in the experiments of 1913 were de livered at the Experiment Station about the middle of No- vember, 1912, and were put into the individual feed lots on November 26. From this date until the experiments started, January 2, 1913, the steers were fed a light but sufficient ra- tion to keep them in good condition, without making appre ciable gains. About fifteen days before beginning the regular feeding periods small amounts of milo maize meal were fed, so as to accustom the animals to the grain. The quantity of grain was increased as the date for starting the experiment drew near, so that at the time of starting the feeding periods proper, the steers might be con sidered as being in equilibrium with their rations. This pre 42 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY liminary period was necessary in order to tame the steers suf- ficiently to use them in the digestion trials. The steers used in the experiments of 1915 were deliv- red at the Experiment Station during November and the first part of December. They were dehorned December 11, and in order to allow their wounds to heal, no effort was made to tame the steers until after January 6, 1915, when they were removed to the individual feeding lots used in the ex- periments. The wounds of steers 31 and 39 became infested with worms, thus requiring treatment for some time. Owing to the slowness with which the wounds healed, and the fact that these steers were wilder than those fed in 1913, a longer time was required for taming the steers suffi- ciently to begin the experiment. These steers, like those of 1913, were fed only enough to keep them in condition during this preliniinary period. Before considering the actual gains in live weight, it may be well to consider the diagrams showing graphically the gains of the various steers, during the experiments. The points in the diagrams for the calves and yearlings at the beginning of the experiment and at the end of each 30 days, are the results of averages of three weighings on suc- cessive days, whereas the intermediate points are the results of single weighings by 10-day periods; but in the diagrams of the weights for 1915, all points were determined by aver- aging the weights for three successive days. Calves. Considering first the calves, it will be noticed from ti e vgam (Fig. 1) that^steer 26 made but small and v ' ’ t ii regular gains. This was the poorest steer in bu ich, and could not be induced to eat enough to make satisfactory gains. Steer 27 although a better steer, was especially subject ! consequently irregular in his eating. From 110th days he made rather regular gains, but • ; ' ! during the last ten days of the experiment. When RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 43 slaughtered a very noticeable gritty deposit, apparently chiefly inorganic, was found on the leaf like papillae on the inner walls of the paunch. The cause of the deposit and what con- nection it may have had with the tendency of this steer to bloat, we cannot say; but that there is a connection seems certain, as similar deposits, though not so marked, have been observed in other individuals with this same tendency. The remaining steers of this group, although showing considerable irregularity in their gains during the early part of the period, made fairly regular gains later. Steer 28 was found to have a piece of baling wire through the back part of his tongue, when slaughtered, but apparently this had not caused much trouble, as he was one of the best steers in the group. 44 THE UTILIZATION OP FEED BY HANCtK stffks of DIFFERENT AGE’S. 45 Yearlings. A glance at the diagram (Fig. 2) shows at once that steer 24 made very poor gains, tie went off feed during the first and third digestion trials and apparently never really thrived during the whole period. No definite cause can be assigned for this. Steer 21 shows considerable irregularity during the first month, but thereafter gained regularly until the fourth month was reached. During this month he was irregular in his eat- ing and made no gains in weight. This falling off in the rate of gain during the fourth month was evidently due to wire punctures through the walls of the honey-comb, as two punctures were found when the steer was slaughtered. Steer 22 made by far the best gains of any of the steers, being the lightest steer in the group at the start and. finish- ing nearly as heavy as steer 23, the heaviest of the year lings. Steer 23 made fairly regular gains throughout the per- iod, while steer 25 was irregular during the early part of the period and a little irregular toward the end 46 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES 47 Two-year-olds. In this group, as in the others, there is an “off steer the one in this group being steer 37. This steer, like No. 27 of the calves, bloated frequently and there- fore would not eat enough to make satisfactory gains. As in the case of steer 27, a gritty deposit on the inner walls of the paunch was observed, although it was not as marked as in the former case. The most noticeable feature in regard to the other steers is the general parallelism of the gains. Upon close inspec- tion it will be observed that the steers kept in the open feed lots throughout the period made better gains than the ones used in the digestion trials. These greater gains appear to be due to advantage gained through increasing the rations while the other steers were on the digestion trials. 4 S THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY FIGURF 3. \STEER30, RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGEJS 49 Three-year^oids. That this was an unsatisfactory lot of steers for experimental purposes has been commented upon previously, but a glance at the diagram brings this out more clearly. It will be observed that they differed greatly as regards live weights at the start, and the lack of uniformity of type, condition, etc., has already been mentioned. From such a lot of steers one could not expect very satisfactory results, but it was thought they would show up* a little bet- ter than they did. Steer 35 is the “off steer’’ of this lot, so far as gains are concerned. He was the lightest steer of the bunch and never thrived in the feed lot, although he was picking up towards the end of the experiment. When slaughtered it was found that he had some tumors along the digestive tract, but he was not tubercular. This condition, no doubt, ac- counts for the small gains which he made. Steer 31 started out fairly well, but went off feed badly during the second digestion trial. Following this trial, he appeared to be recovering satisfactorily when suddenly he again went off feed and this time he continued to fail to the end of the experiment. Upon examination at the time of slaughtering, a piece of baling wire was found deeply imbedded in the musculature surrounding the orifice between the first and second stomachs, in such a way as to cause irritation and pain. Evidently this was the cause for his poor showing. S’eer 32 dropped off slightly early in the feeding period, Hit soon began gaining and continued to do so satisfactorily, up to the sixtieth day, when he suddenly went off feed. He recovered in a few days and gained fairly well to the end of the lest, but never quite overcame the effects of the “set- back.” Steer 33 gained regularly and satisfactorily up to within ten days of the end of the test. He then suddenly went off feed for a few days, and was just beginning to recover when. 50 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY the test ended. He continued to gain up to the time he was slaughtered, a few days later. Although steer 34 appeared in every respect the poorest steer in the group, he was the only one that made regular and satisfactory gains throughout the period. He was very thin at the start, and was by no means a well finished or well balanced animal at the end, although he had improved con- siderably. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGEJS 51 Comparative Gains of the Various Ages of Steers. For convenience in . comparing the gains made by the various groups of steers, the following table has been prepared. — TABLE 14.- — LIVE WEIGHTS AND GAINS IN LIVE WEIGHT. Average weight, pounds Initial weight, pounds Final weight, pounds Total gain, pounds Average gain per day, pounds Average daily gain per 1,000 pounds live weight, pounds Experiment, 1913. Calves. Steer 26 513.5 482.3 680.3 98.0 .82 1.60 Steer 27 610.1 559.7 663.7 104.0 .87 1.43 Steer 28 653.1 556.7 767.3 210.6 1.76 2.69 Steer 29 572.5 498.7 681.3 182.6 1.52 2.66 Steer 30 501.5 422.3 588.3 166.0 1.38 2.75 Average per steer 570.1 503.9 656.2 152.2 1.27 2.23 Average, omitting steer 27 . . 560.1 490.0 654.3 164.3 1.37 2.43 Average, omitting steers 26 and 27 575.7 492.6 678.9 186.4 1.55 2.70 Yearlings. Steer 21 820.4 720.0 904.7 184.7 1.54 1.88 Steer 22 8G2.2 703.3 999.0 295.7 2.46 2.85 Steer 23 1 888.1 778.3 1005.5 227.4 1.90 2.14 Steer 24 | 773.2 734.0 807.7 73.7 .61 .79 Steer 25 | 828.2 734.3 9310 196.7 | 1.64 1.98 Average per steer | 834.4 | 739.9 929.6 195.6 | | 1.63 1.93 Average, omitting steer 24 .... | 849.7 | | 734.0 960.1 226.1 1 1.89 2.21 Experiment, 1915. • 1 1 1 Two-year-olds. | Steer 36 1018.4 | 911.7 1151.3 239.6 | 2.00 1.96 Steer 37 881.1 | 856.7 920.0 63.3 1 1 .53 .60 Steer 38 | 957.8 | 871.7 1065.0 I 193.3 j 1.61 1.85 Steer 39 » | 1040.1 | 894.7 1190.7 | 296.0 | 2.47 2.76 Steer 40 j 974.6 | 833.3 1119.3 | 286.0 2.38 2.44 Average per steer j 974.4 | 873.6 1089.3 | 215.6 1.80 1.92 Average, omitting steer 37... | 997.7 | 877.9 1131.6 1 253.8 2.12 2.25 Three-year-olds. I Steer 31 | 1033.3 995.0 1023.7 | 28.7 .24| .23 Steer 32 | 1030.6 945.0 11.07.7 | 162.7 1.36| 1.32 Steer 33 | 1160.1 1063.3 1247.7 | 184.4 1.54 1.33 Steer 34 | 947.3 853.3 1071.0 1 217.7 1.81 1.91 Steer 35 | 839.2 | 806.7 896.7 | 90.0 | .75 .89 Average per steer | 1002.1 | 932.6 1069.4 | 136.7 | 1.14 1.14 Average, omitting steers 31 1 1 I I and 35 1 1 1044.5 | 1 953.9 1142.1 | 1 188.3 1 1 1.57| I 1.52 52 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY In considering the gains made by the various groups of steers it is well to remember that the calves and yearlings were fed one year, the two- and three-year-olds another, and that different lots of feed were used each year. The most striking difference in the composition of the feeds is with the alfalfa — that of 1915 being considerably coarser than that of 1913. Also, as previously stated, the steers used in 1913 differed from those of 1915 in reference to breeding, type, condition, etc. Disregarding for the time being the different conditions just mentioned and considering the groups as a whole, it will be seen that the yearlings and two-year-olds made somewhat greater gains per day and head than the calves and three-year - olds, and that the last two made nearly equal gains. This hold:* true whether the average results of all the steers in each group or the averages with doubtful or abnormal steers omitted are considered. Taking the results with doubtful steers omitted, the average gains per day and head were as follows : calves. 1.55; yearlings, 1.89; two-year-olds, 2.12; and three-year- olds, 1.57 pounds. W|hen the gains are calculated to a com- mon basis of gains per 1,000 pounds of live weight, the fig- ures for the respective ages of steers are 2.70, 2.21, 2.25 and 1.52 pounds; which shows that although the calves made about the same gains per day and head as the three-year-olds, and less gains than the yearlings and two-year-olds, they were, nevertheless, gaining at a more rapid rate per unit of body weight. The figures for the gains per 1,000 pounds live weight in the case of the three-year-olds are, no doubt, too low in comparison with the others. Steer 33 made an average daily gain of 2.13 pounds during the first 110 days of the feeding period, which if continued for another ten days, would have raised the rate of gain for these steers considerably. There was also a break in the continuity of the gains by steer 32. which tended to make his gains a little low RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES 53 However, in spite of irregularities, the results in general are in harmony with those obtained in the experiments with alfalfa hay, in showing a decrease in rate of gain per unit of body weight with advancing age. Feed Consumed for Gains Made Although all the steers had been pretty well tamed be- fore starting thd regular feeding period, they were, no doubt, disturbed somewhat by being fastened up in the stanchions, led around with ropes, etc., especially during the first two or three weeks of the feeding period. On this account they probably did not consume as much feed as they would have done without these disturbances, and consequently did not make as large gains as they might have done under different conditions. The amounts of feed consumed by individual steers and groups of steers of different ages, per day, per 1000 pounds live weight and per pound of gain are given in table 15. 54 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 15.— FEED CONSUMED ON BASIS OF DRY MATTER. Experiment, 1913. Calves. Steer 26 Steer 27 Steer 28 Steer 29 Steer 30 Average per steer Average, omitting steer 27 Average, omitting steers 26 and 27 Yearlings. Steer 21 Steer 22 Steer 23 . Steer 24 . Steer 25 . Feed consumed per day Average per steer Average, omitting steer 24 Experiment, 1915. Two-year-olds. Steer 36 Steer 37 Steer 38 Steer 39 Steer 40, Average per steer Average, omitting steer 37 Three-year-olds. Steer 31 Steer 32 Steer 33 Steer 34 Steer 35 Average per steer | Average, omitting steers) 31 and 35 | 5.16 5.17 6.36 6.08 5.58 5.67 5.80 6.01 10.33 | 10.69 | 10.75 6.66 | 8.57 | 9.40 I I 10.09 | 10.29 6.66 | 10.53 | 11.76 | 11.51 | 10.15 j 11.02 I 8.66 10.77 11.43 10.33 7.57 | 9.75 j 10.84 I pounds Total per steer, pounds Per 1,000 pounds average live weight, pounds Food consumed pei pound gain in live weight, pounds 1 3.60 8.76 17.06 10.68 4.20 9.37 15.36 10.77 4.80 11.16 17.09 6.34 4.69 10.77 18.81 7.09 4.70 10.28 20.50 | 7.45 4.40 10.07 17.76 8.47 4.45 10.25 18.37 i 7.89 4 73 10.74 18.80 1 6.96 6.86 17.19 20.95 11.16 9.25 j 19.94 23.12 8.11 8.59 19.34 21.78 ‘ 10.18 5.79 12.45 16.10 20.41 6.03 14.60 17.62 8.90 7.30 16.70 19.91 1 11.75 7.68 17.77 1 20.87 | 1 9.57 8.37 | 18.66 | | 18.32 ! 9.33 5.29 | 11.95 1 13.56 ! 22.55 8.53 | 19.06 ! 19.90 i 11.84 9.52 21.28 | 20.46 ' 8.62 9.28 j 20.79 I 21.33 1 8.73 8.20 1 18.35 1 18.71 1 j 12.21 8.93 19.95 | 20.00 1 1 1 9.63 6.71 15.37 | 14.87 : 64.04 8.53 19.30 | 18.73 ' 14.19 9.09 20.52 17.69 1 13.32 8.32 18.65 19.69 ( 10.30 5.84 | 13.41 15.98 17.88 7.70 17.45 17.59 23.95 8.65 | 19.49 18.70 12.60 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGE’S 55 Considering the averages of all the steers in each group, the various groups of steers per day and head consumed, in pounds, the following amounts of feed: calves, 10.07; year- lings, 16.70; two-year-olds, 18.35; three-year-olds, 17.45; while per 1,000 pounds average live weight the amounts are: 17.76, 19.91, 18.71, and 17.59, respectively. Considered as above the amounts of feed consumed per pound of gain are: calves, 8.47; yearlings, 11.75; two-year-olds, 12.21 ; and three- year-olds, 23.95. If the results from the steers previously mentioned as doubtful or abnormal are omitted, the average amounts of feed consumed per steer and per 1,000 pounds live weight are increased somewhat; but on the other hand, the amounts of feed consumed per pound of gain are decreased and show smaller differences among the different groups. The amounts in pounds of feed consumed per steer, on this basis, are : cal- ves, 10.74; yearlings, 17.77; two-year-olds, 19.95; and three- year-olds, 19.49; whereas, per 1,000 pounds live weight they are: calves, 18.80; yearlings, 20.87; two-year-olds, 20.00; and three-year-olds 18.70. It will be noticed that the calves and three-year-olds ate nearly the same amounts of feed per 1,000 pounds live weight, and less than either the yearlings or two- year-olds. Table 14 shows that the calves and the three-year- olds made practically the same gains per day and head, and that the yearlings and two-year-olds, which, as shown above, consumed relatively more feed, also made greater gains. How- ever, the yearlings ate relatively more feed than the two- year-olds, but made smaller gains. The pounds of feed consumed per pound of gain are as follows: calves, 6.96; yearlings, 9.57; two-year-olds, 9.63; and three-year-olds, 12.60. Although the calves and three- year-olds consumed practically the same quantity of feed per unit of body weight, the three-year-olds required nearly twice as much feed as the former per pound of gain, and the year- lings and two-vear-olds nearly one-third more In this series 56 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY of experiments, as in the alfalfa series previously referred to, there was very little difference between the amounts of feed consumed per unit of gain by the yearlings and two-year-olds, and they occupy an intermediate position, as compared with the calves and three-year-olds. The amounts of feed required by the three-year-olds per pound of gain are probably a little high, owing to the fact that steer 33 went off feed badly, about ten days before the experiment ended, and consequently did not end up in good condition. During the first 110 days of the experiment this steer required only 10.76 pounds of feed per pound of gain, as compared with 13.32 for the whole period. For practical purposes the yearlings and two-year-olds required the same quantities of feed per unit of gain, as the differences observed are too small to be significant; especially in consideration of the differences in the feed, steers used, etc. Character of Gains Indicated by Nitrogen Balances. In connection with the digestion trials the urine was col- lected, weighed, sampled, and its nitrogen content determined. From the nitrogen content of the feeds, feed residues and ex- creta the income and outgo of nitrogen during the several digestion trials has been calculated. In the following tables a correction for the growth of epidermal tissues has been applied, using the average values given by Armsby and Fries* and calculating the amounts in proportion to the two-thirds power of the live weights of the steers : — *Armsby, H. P., and Fries, J. August, “The Influence of Type and Age upon the Utilization of Feed by Cattle,” U. S. Dept, of Agri- culture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bui. 128, p. 198. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES 57 TABLE 16.— NITROGEN BALANCES, 1913. Calves Yearlings Steer 28 Steer 30 Steer 22 Steer 24 1 | Income, , grams Outgo, grams Income, gram s Outgo, grams Income, grams Outgo, grams Income, 1 grams | Outgo, grams Digestion Trial 1. 1 1 Alfalfa hay 107.2 90.5 141.5 136.5 Milo maize meal 35.4 29.7 46.4 44.8 Feed residues 51.3 17.6 7.3 96.4 Feces 32.8 39-.6 66.5 34.4 Urine 41.7 47.1 96.5 59.0 Epidermal tissues . . . 1.3 1.1 1.6 1.6 Gain -f ; loss -- +15.5 + 14.8 +16.0 —10.1 142.6 142.6 120.2 120.2 187.9 187.9 191.4 191.4 Digestion Trial II. Alfalfa hay 69.3 59.4 143.5 74.2 Milo maize meal .... 46.5 39.8 96.3 49.8 Feed residues 6.5 39.9 9.2 Feces 42.6 40.2 78.4 46 0 Urine 56.2 39.3 106.7 67.8 Epidermal tissues . . . 1.5 1.2 1.8 1.6 Gain loss — + 16.1 +12.0 + 13.0 + 9.4 115.8 115.8 99.2 99.2 239.8 239.8 124.0 1240 Digestion Trial III. Alfalfa hay 77.3 72.5 140.2 91.8 Milo maizes meal 51.7 48.5 93.7 61.4 Feed residues .8 ' 21.5 79.1 69.1 Feces 52.3 41.8 61.2 34.5 Urine 62.1 44.2 91.8 60.6 Epidermal tissues . . . 1.6 1.3 1.9 1.7 Gain + ; loss — +12.2 +12.2 — 1 —12.7 129.0 129.0 121.0 121.0 234.0 234.0 165.9 165.9 58 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 17.— NITROGEN BALANCES, 1915. Two-year-olds Three- -year-olds Steer 36 Steer ■ 38 Steer 31 1 Steer 33 Income, grams 1 Outgo, grams Income, grams Outgo, grams j Income, grams Outgo, grams Income, grams Outgo, grams Digestion Trial 1. 1 1 . i I 1 1 Alfalfa hay i J 1 85.4| 91.1 91.0 ! 113.8 Milo maize meal | 38.7| 41.3 41.3 51.6 Feces | 49.5 45.3 55.4 66.1 Urine 77.9 79.8 83.0 107.3 Epidermal tissues . . . 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 Gain + ; loss — — 5.lj +5.5 —8.0 —10.0 129.2 129.2 132.4 132.4 140.3 140.3 175.4 175.4 Digestion Trial II. 1 Alfalfa hay . 97.5 | 97.5 97.5 107.2 Milo maize meal .... 90.8 | 90.8 90.8 99.9 Feed residues .1 71.7 Feces 74.5 74.7 35.4 77.5 Urine 98.5 110.6 73.6 109.4 Epidermal tissues . . . 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.2 Gain + : loss — 1 | +13.3 1 +1.0| +5.6 + 18.0 | 188.3 I | 188.3 | 188.3 188.3 | 188.3 188.3 207.1 207.1 For convenience in considering the data, the average live weights of the steers during the digestion trials, the gains or losses of nitrogen and the equivalent protein per head and per 1.000 pounds live weight are given in table 18. The factor 6.0 was used in calculating the equivalent protein. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 59 TABLE 18.— GAINS OF NITROGEN AND PROTEIN, 1913 AND 1915. Average live weight. pounds. Gain of nitrogen. grams. Equivalent s live weight, ° grams £• Experiment 1913. Calves. Steer 28. Digestion trial I 546.0 + 15.5 I + 93.0 | + 170.3 Digestion trial II. . . 667.0 +16.1 + 96.6 | + 144.8 Digestion trial III. . . 739.5 +12.2 + 73.2 | + 99.0 Steer 30 Digestion trial 1 445.0 +14.8 ■ 1 + 88.8 | + 199.5 Digestion trial II 514.5 +12.0 + 72.0 | + 139.9 Digestion trial III. . 575.7 • +12.2 + 73.2 | + 127.1 Yearlings. Steer 22 Digestion trial 1 745.5 + 16.0 + 96.0 | | + 128.8 Digestion trial II 900.6 +13.0 + 78.0 | + 86.6 Digestion trial III 986.2 —0.1 —0 6 i -.6 Steer 24 Digestion trial 1 739.0 -10.1 —60.6 — 82.0 Digestion trial II. . . 764.7 + 9.4 + 56.4 i | + 73.8 Digestion trial III ... 813 7 —12 7 —76.2 ! —93.6 Experiment, 1915. Two-year-olds. Steer 36 Digestion trial I 922.1 —5.1 30.6 I ! —33.2 Digestion trial II . 1028.5 + 18.3 + 79.8 i +77.6 Steer 38 Digestion trial I 880.0 + 5.5 + 33.0 ! ! +37.5 Digestion trial 11 ... 972.7 + 1.0 + 6.0 1 +6-2 Three-year-olds. Steer 31 Digestion trial I 999.1 8.0 —48.0 j I —48.0 Digestion trial II ... . 1068.1 + 5 6 + 33.6 ! +31.8 Steer 33 Digestion trial 1 1080.1 —10.0 —60.0 I ' 1 — 55.5 Digestion trial II ... . 1191.7 | +18.0 j +108.0 i +90.6 60 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY Although the results are irregular and in some instances fluctuate greatly from one trial to the next, with the same individual, it is obvious from the data in the last column of the table that the calves were gaining in protein at a much more rapid rate than the others. While there is an indication that the yearlings were gaining in protein a little more rapidly than the older steers, the irregularity of the results preclude any definite statement to that effect. Owing to a number of ac- cidents, resulting in losses of urine during the experiments of 1915, some of the irregularities observed may possibly be due to that. Net Energy, Digestible Protein and Nitrogen Consumed, and Esti mated Energy in Gains. The average net energy values of the rations consumed by the steers by months and for the entire feeding period were calculated for all the steers by means of the values given in table 13. Estimations of the maintenance requirements, the energy available for gains and the energy in each pound of gain were also made for the various steers by months, as well as for the entire feeding period. The maintenance require- ment was calculated in proportion to the two-thirds power of the average live weights, on the basis of 6.16* therms per 1,000 pounds live weight. In estimating the maintenance re- quirements in this way we are aware that a variety of con- ditions affect these requirements, among which may be men- tioned, muscular activity, time spent standing and lying, age, individuality, condition, etc. Armsby** has pointed out that the maintenance requirements of young cattle appear to be relatively higher than for older ones, and this has been con- firmed in the experiments of Trowbridge, Mbulton and Haight *Armsby, H. P., “The Maintenance Rations of Farm Animals/* U S. Dept, of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bui. 143, p. 47 **Same bulletin, pp. 64-74. tTrowbridge, P. F., Moulton, C. R., and Haigh, L. D., “The Maintenance Requirement of Cattle/’ Missouri Agricultural Experi ment Station Research Bulletin No 18. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES 61 at the Missouri Experiment Station. Other things being equal, then, our estimates for the maintenance of the calves and yearlings are relatively too low, as compared with the older steers. On the other hand, the calves and yearlings, as a rule, are more easily tamed and in general are more quiet in the feed lots; which would have a tendency to offset the higher maintenance requirements as compared with the older steers As we have no direct determinations of the maintenance re- quirements of the various individuals, nor any data on the relative muscular activity, time spent standing and lying, etc., it seems likely that for comparative purposes the estimates already made are, perhaps, as satisfactory as any 62 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 19.— NET ENERGY, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN AND NITROGEN CONSUMED, AND ESTIMATED ENERGY IN GAINS. Digestible nitrogen per day, pounds Digestible protein per day, pounds N' CO m 0) c <2 5 C 5 et energy s . CD CO s i r z) '5 P cf 1*1 £ 0) p $ a is H a ** •a Available for gam, ® therms & p . . . — V! Estimated energy in one pound of gain therms Experiment, 1913. | | | | Calves. | | Steer 26 .13 .60 4.58 3.95 .63 .77 Steer 27 . .14 .65 5.03 4.43 .60 .69 Steer 28 .16 .79 5.92 4.54 1.38 .78 Steer 29 .14 75 5.73 4.25 1.48 .97 Steer 30 .14 .71 5.55 3.89 | 1.66 1.20 Average | .14 .70 | 5.36 4.21 1.15 .88 Average, omitting i 1 , steers 26 and 27 | .15 I * .75 5.73 4.23 1.51 .98 Yearlings. 1 1 Steer 21 | .31 | 1.20 8.90 5.40 , 3.50 2.27 Steer 22 | .29 1 1.38 10.82 5.58 5.24 2.13 Steei* 23 1 .28 1 1.34 10.35 5.69 4.66 2.45 Steer 24 | .18 | .86 6.76 5.19 1.57 2.57 Steer 25 1 -21 | 1.02 7.64 5.43 2.21 1.35 Average | ■ .25 | 1.16 8.89 5.46 3.44 2.15 1 Average, omitting 1 1 1 ! 1 steer 24 | .27 | 1.24 9.43 5.53 3.90 2.05 Experiment, 1915. 1 1 Two-year-olds. I 1 ' ; 1 Steer 36 1 -24 | 1.22 | 9.65 6.24 3.41 1.71 Steer 37 1 .15 | .78 1 6.15 5.66 .49 .92 Steer 38 | .25 | 1.25 1 9.85 5.99 3.86 2.40 Steer 39 | .28 | 1.39 1 11.00 6.32 4.68 1.8j Steer 40 | .27 | 1.36 | 10.74 6.06 4.68 1.97 Average ) | .24 | 1.20 | 9.48 1 6.05 3.42 1.78 Average, omitting ! 1 1 1 steer 37 | .26 | 1.31 I 10.31 6.15 4.16 | 1.99 . Three-year-olds 1 1 I Steer 31 | .20 | 1.00 | 7.87 6.30 1.57 | 6.54 Steer 32 | .25 I 1.26 1 9.93 1 6.29 3.64 i 2.68 Steer 33 I .27 | 1.34 i 10.57 6.81 3.76 I 2.44 Steer 34 1 .24 ! 1.22 | 9.63 5.94 3.69 | 2.04 Steer 35 . . . 1 L | .87 | 6.86 5.45 1.41 | 1.88 1 Average, omitting 1 | 1 steer 31 | .23 | 1.17 | 9.25 6.12 3.13 | 2.26 1 Average, omitting 1 1 1 1 ! steers 31 and 35 -! .25 | 1.27 I 10 04 6.35 3.70 1 2.39 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGE’S 63 Protein. Considering first the amounts of digestible pro- tein consumed by the various groups of steers, omitting the ab- normal individuals in each group, it will be seen that the calves, yearlings, two-year-olds, and three-year-olds consumed .75, 1.24, 1.31. and 1.27 pound, respectively, of digestible true protein per day. A comparison of these data with the stand- ards of Armsby*, in. connection with the average live weights of the steers as given in table 14, shows that in every instance mere protein was consumed than was necessary for mainten- ance, but on the other hand, none of the steers received as much protein as Armsby recommends for growing cattle. As might be expected, the discrepancy in respect to protein is greatest with the calves, as no provision was made to meet the l datively greater demand for protein on the part of the \\ nnger animals. However, the amounts of protein consum- ed by the steers are smaller than it was intended they should be, as the steers consumed less feed than anticipated. Net Energy of Rations. From a consideration of the estimated energy values of the rations, it appears that the cal; es received more than enough energy for maintenance, but not as much as Armsby allows for growing cattle. The other steers, apparently, received an ample allowance of en- ergy for maintenance and growth, with a surplus for fatten- ing purposes. The relatively small gains made by the calves in this series of experiments are no doubt due to the lack of sufficient pro- tein and energy in the rations consumed, on account of the relatively small amount of feed eaten Relative Energy Content of Gains. The data regarding the estimated energy content per unit of gain, taken as they stand, indicate that the yearlings and two-year-olds stored approximately twice as much energy per unit of gain, and ♦Armsby, H. P., United States Department of Agriculture, “The Computation of Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of Em ergy Values;” Farmers' Bulletin No 346, pp. 16-18 64 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY the three-year-olds nearly two and a half times as much as the calves. In other words, with increasing age of the animals, and consequent decrease in rate of growth, there is an increase in the energy stored per unit of gain. If the maintenance re- quirements of the younger animals are relatively greater than the requirements of the older ones, other things being equal, the differences just noted should be larger. With reference to the energy stored per unit of gain dur- ing the different months of the feeding period by the various steers, it should be stated that wide variations were observed among the individuals of the same group, as well as with the same individuals, during the different months. In general, however, the steers consumed more and more energy above the maintenance requirements as the feeding period advanced, and also more energy was stored per unit of gain. To bring out the latter point more clearly, the average amounts of energy stored by the various groups of steers have been tab- ulated by months, and are given in table 20. In preparing the averages the diagrams of the live weights were referred to and only those steers showing fairly regular and uniform gains for a given month were considered. For instance, the data regarding steer 32 are included in the averages for the first, second and fourth months, with the third month omitted, as he was ‘off feed for several days during the month. The averages are intended to indicate the nature of the gains of the different groups of steers by months, while making fairly uniform gains; and therefore those steers showing any great irregularity for any cause have been left out of considera- tion in this connection. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGE’S. 65 TABLE 20.— ESTIMATED ENERGY IN GAi’nS BY MONTHS Estimated energy in one pound of gain, therms First month Second month Third month Foui’.h month Calves 1 | 1.04 .53 1.09 | 1.24 Yearlings 1 . 1-95 1.75 1.76 1 i 3.68 Two-year-olds . . . | : .70 1.49 2.34 . 3 16 Three-year-olds.. | 2.15 1 1.52 2.44 | 2.79 The estimated energy per unit of gain for the first month shows considerable irregularity among the groups and also averages noticeably higher than during the following month, except in the case of the two-year-olds. A glance at the dia- gram of the live weights reveals greater irregularities in the gains of the individuals during the first month than during the later months of the periods, and possibly this may account, in part, for the irregularities noted. Aside from the high values during the first month, the general tendency is toward a greater storage of energy per unit of gain as the feeding; period advances. SLAUGHTER TESTS. All the steers fed in these experiments were slaughtered shortly after the feeding period ended. As there are no facil- ities for slaughtering at the Experiment Station, this was done under difficulties at a privately owned slaughter house near by. However, the tests were conducted as carefully as possible under the conditions. The evening preceding the slaughter, the steers were tak- en to the yards at the slaughter house, where they received enough alfalfa to keep them quiet and contented until they were slaughtered in the morning. The steers, in each case, were weighed immediately before going to the slaughter house but as the scale was some distance from the killing room, oc 66 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY casionally losses of -feces and urine occurred, which make it impossible to tell just what the fill of the animal was at the time of weighing. The results of the slaughter tests are given in detail in tables 50 to 55 of the appendix. The average results for the steers of different ages are summarized in the following table: TABLE 21.— RESULTS OF SLAUGHTER TESTS, AVERAGE PERCENT- AGES, 1913 AND 1915. Calves, average per cent. Yearlings, average per cent. Two -year -olds,, average per cent. Three -year-olds, average per cent. Dressed beef, warm 57.08 59.24 58.72 57.59 Right half carcass 28.35 29.44 29.23 28.75 Left half carcass 28.73 29.80 29.49 28.82 Hide 7.85 7.48 6.51 6.67 Tail .26 .21 .23 .23 Head 2.86 l | 2.51 2.47 2.57 Tongue and trimmings 1 .63 1 .57 .51* .56 Feet 1.88 1.71 1.68 1.88 Heart . ; . . } | .45 .41 .40 .44 Lungs and windpipe 1.45 1.42 1.35 1.44 Liver . 1.07 1.08 1.13. 1.05 Fat, Total 1.85 2.83 2.86 2.28 Caul 1.15 1.65 1.36 1.07 Intestinal and pluck .70 | 1.18 1.49 1.20 Stomachs with contents 13.87 | 12.52 11.88 13.06 Stomachs empty 3.15 i 3.30 3.10 3.13 Intestines empty 1.97 | 1.88 2.02 2.00 Spleen 1 | .... 1 21 .24 Internal organs and trimmings not in- 1 cluded above 1.42 1 i 1.50 I 1.17 1.10 ♦Average results from four steers only owing to a doubtful weight In the case of steer 37. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES 67 On the average, the calves yielded a lower percentage of dressed beef than the yearlings or two-year-olds, and nearly the same as the three-year-olds. Reference to tables 51 and 53 of the appendix shows that steers 26 and 27 dressed 53.28 and 52.37 per cents, respectively. Since these were “off steers” throughout the experiment, it may be well to consider the average with these omitted, in which event the average per- centage of dressed beef for this group is 59.92 ; which compares favorably with the yearlings and two-year-olds. If steer 35 of the three-year-olds, which averaged about 3 per cent lower than the lowest of the others, is omitted, the aver- age for the remaining three-year-olds is 58.42, an average pretty close to the two-year-olds. Considering the small num- ber of steers in each lot. there are, apparently, no really signifi- cant differences in the percentages of dressed beef yielded in favor of one age or group of steers over another. However, a comparison of the percentages of dressed beef in this series of experiments with those of the alfalfa hay series, is of interest in this connection. TABLE 22.— AVERAGE PERCENTAGES OF DRESSED BEEF IN AL FALFA HAY AND MILO MAIZE MEAL EXPERIMENTS. Calves, per cent Yearlings, per cent Two-year-olds, per cent Three-year-olds, per cent Dressed beef, alfalfa experiment 52.75 50.32 51.10 57.30 Dressed beef, milo maize experiment 57.08 59.24 58.72 57.59 Difference in favor of alfalfa and milo maize meal 4.33 1 8.92 | 7.62 29 With the exception of the three-year-olds, the steers fed on alfalfa and milo maize dressed a considerably higher per 68 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY cent of beef than the steers of corresponding ages in the al- falfa hay series. This, of course, is in harmony with the bet- ter finish possessed by the former at the end of the tests. wholesale Cuts of Beef. The right halves of the car- casses of two steers from each group were taken to the re- frigerator at the Experiment Station, where they were thor- oughly chilled, and at the end of forty-eight hours, cut up into the regular “wholesale cuts.” The latter part of the fore- going statement requires qualification, however. Meat cut- ters were employed to do the cutting up of the carcasses, with instructions to- divide them into the usual wholesale cuts. We have since learned that in this section of the country the carcasses are not divided in accordance with the methods in use in the packing houses of the larger cities, and on this ac- count these data are not strictly comparable with similar data where the packing house methods have been followed. In separating the fore and hind quarters, the practice in this locality is to leave two ribs on the hind quarter, instead of one, so that our hind quarters are relatively .heavier than the front quarters as compared with carcasses divided ac- cording to the usual method. We have, of necessity, employed different persons to do the meat cutting, from year to year, and as a result we find that the different individuals do not make the cuts in exactly the same way. In other words, such meat cutters as we have been able to secure, apparently have not been trained to cut meat according to any standardized method. On this account, too much importance should not be attached to minor varia- tions of the data. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 69 TABLE 23.— AVERAGE PERCENTAGES OF FORE AND HIND QUAR- TERS AND OF WHOLESALE CUTS IN RIGHT HALF CAR- CASS, 1913 AND 1915. * Calves, per cent Yearlings. per cent Two-year-olds, per cent Three-year- olds, per cent Fore quarter 49.93 49.64 51.23 51.23 Hind quarter 50.07 50.36 48.77 48.77 Right half carcass | 100.00 | 100.00 100.00 | i 100.00 Chuck 24.14 24.71 20.61 19.50 Prime rib 11.77 12.62 13.86 13.84 Plate and shank 14.03 12.29 16.83 17.91 Loin 18.53 22.04 19.76 20.13 Rump 7.47 6.16 7.65 9.18 Round and shank 20.23 19.07 19.31 18.34 Flank 3.83 3.11 2.09 1.99 Perhaps the most striking differences in the data of the foregoing table are the differences in the percentages of the fore and hind quarters in the case of the calves and yearlings, on the one hand, and the older steers on the other. The averages for the calves and yearlings show but little difference be- tween the fore and hind quarters, although the hind quarters average a little higher, whereas with the two-year-olds and three-year-olds the fore quarters average nearly 2.5 per cent higher than the hind quarters. By a strange coincidence, the average percentages of fore and hind quarters for the two- vear-olds and three-year-olds are identical. The differences in the percentages of fore and hind quar- ters may possibly be ascribed to differences in the type and breeding of the steers used during the two years ; but the dif- ferences observed in the percentages of chuck, prime rib, etc., are no doubt due in part to differences in the cutting up of the carcasses, since different persons did the cutting each year. Chemical Analysis of Meats. From the two half carcasses of each age of steers that 70 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY were taken to the Experiment Station refrigerator, four sam- ple cuts were taken and analyzed for water, protein, and fat. These cuts were from the round, loin, rib, and sfroulder. The fifth cut of the round was made in as nearly the same place as possible and taken for analysis.. The loin cut was the first of the “flat bone” cuts, in cutting from the rear end of the loin. From the ribs the second prime rib from the rear was taken, which is the 10th rib from the front. The cut from the shoul- der was the first cut after removing the plate and shank and was what is termed locally “arm steak.” Obviously, it 'is impossible to make some of these cuts exactly comparable in every case, but it seems probable that the errors between in- dividuals and groups of individuals are not likely to be all in the same direction. The samples for chemical analysis were taken imme- diately after the quarters had been divided into the cuts. These sample cuts were put into tared friction top pails and weighed when taken to the laboratory. Before the samples were chop- ped up for chemical analysis, the bone, lean, and visible fat were separated and weighed. After weighing, the bone was discarded and the fat and lean samples were combined and finely chopped with a meat chopper. The chopped meat was returned to the friction top pail, where any remaining meat juices were thoroughly incorporated with it before portions were taken for analysis. The slight, unavoidable losses at- tending the chopping of the samples have been considered as representing moisture. The average percentage of bone, lean, and fat. in the various cuts of meat are shown in table 24 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 71 TABLE 24— AVERAGE PERCENTAGES OF BONE, LEAN AND VISIBLE FAT IN THE VARIOUS CUTS OF BEEF, 1913 AND 1915. Calves, average per cent. Yearlings, average per cent. Two-year-olds, average per cent Three-year-olds, average per cent. ! In, Total Cut. Rib. 1 1 1 I 1 Bone 16.15 13.39 15.57 16.88 Lean 54.97 49.15 55.94 55.84 Fat 28.89 37.47 28.49 27.29 Shoulder. Bone 14.15 11.20 7.78 9.30 Lean 70.78 74.42 74.99 75.62 Fat 15.08 14.39 17.23 15.08 Round. «. Bone 3.00 3.62 . 2.97 3.10 . Lean 83.97 84.87 88.73 86.44 Fat 13.03 11.77 8.30 10.46 Loin. Bone 11.61 10.30 13.21 12.18 Lean 59.41 56.85 59.16 61.67 Fat , 28.91 32.86 27.63 26.15 In Bone-Free Portion. Rib. | ! Lean 65.55 56.73 66.27 | 67.17 Fat 34.45 43.27 33.73 | 32.84 Shoulder. Lean 82.47 83.77 81.34 i 1 I 83.31 Fat 17.54 16.23 18.66 i | 16.69 Round. Lean 86.57 87.81 91.46 89.21 Fat 13.44 12.19 8.54 10.79 Loin. Lean 67.32 63.56 68.16 70.22 Fat 32.69 36.45 31.84 | | 29 78_ No certain or characteristic differences appear in the per- centages of lean and visible fat that might be ascribed to dif- ferences in the ages of the animals. A comparison of the data of this series with those of the alfalfa hay series, how- ever, shows a noticeably higher percentage of fat in the rib, round and loin of the former. 72 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 25.— AVERAGE PERCENTAGES OF WATER, PROTEIN AND FAT IN BONE-FREE CUTS OF BEEF, 1913 AND 1915. Calves, average per cent. Yearlings, average per cent. Two-year-olds, . average per cent. Three-year-olds, average per cent. Rib. Water 49.79 45.34 47.58 51.05 a Protein 14.35 13.00 14.00 12.97 a Fat 35.42 41.18 37.53 34.08 a Shoulder. Water 67.64 67.16 65.17 66.64 Protein 17.88 17.82 17.72 17.94 Fat 14.11 13.67 16.27 14.56 Round. Water 68.70 69.01 71.01 a 68.67 Protein 18.88 19.22 21.75 a 19.57 Fat 11.09 10.91 8.32 a 10.41 Loin. Water 56.33 55.15 57.09 56.83 Protein 15.26 14.72 15.71 16.23 Fat 27.53 28.97 27.11 26.36 1_ (a) Results from one steer only. From the results in the foregoing table it appears that the yearlings were, on the average, a little fatter than the other steers ; as judged by the fat of the rib and loin cuts. The calves and the two-year-olds, judged in the same man- ner, compare favorably with each other; while the three-year- olds show less fat than any of the other groups. Since the averages are the results of averaging figures that do not agree especially well with each other, it is possible that no particular significance should be attached to the small differences just noted. However, a comparison of the data from these steers with those of the alfalfa hay experiments shows appreciably higher percentages of fat in the rib and loin cuts of the former, but no marked differences in the .round and shoulder cuts. For comparison, the percentages of fat in the bone-free cuts of meat in the alfalfa hay experiments are given below. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 73 TABLE 26.— AVERAGE PERCENTAGES OF FAT IN BONE-FREE CUTS OF MEAT; ALFALFA HAY EXPERIMENT* Calves Yearlings 3 . O * oj * o £ H n 2 o ctf as * as .c Rib 1 1 15.91 (20.00) 20.09 36.79 Shoulder 14.65 14.81 10. ',4 24.15 Round 4.92 6.85 5.19 8.07 Loin 13.09 1 20.04 16.59 24.04 *From Bulletin No. 91 of this Experiment Station. On the whole, then, there appears to be no striking dif- ference between the steers of various ages, so far as fatness is concerned, as judged from the analysis of the cuts of meat; but the steers fed on alfalfa and milo maize meal showed no- ticeably more fat in the rib and loin cuts than the steers of corresponding ages fed on alfalfa alone, excepting the three- year-olds. In the alfalfa hay experiments there was an in- crease in the percentage of fat, especially in the rib and loin cuts, with increasing age of animals ; but no such relation ap- pears in the data of the alfalfa and milo maize experiments. This is no doubt due, in a large measure, to the better fatten- ing qualities of the alfalfa and milo maize rations, although the steers as a whole were also in better condition’ of flesh at the beginning of the experiments. \ Quality of Meat. Calves anH Yearlings. Calves 28 and 29 and yearlings 22 and 23 were the steers selected for the comparison of the two ages, of steers in regard to quality of the meat. No dis- tinctive difference in the color of the meat of the two ages of steers was apparent. The meat from steer 28, a calf, was much lighter than that of 23, a yearling; but on the other hand, the meat from calf number 29 was darker than that of 74 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY yearling 22. In other words, the differences in color appeared to be individual differences rather than age differences. In general, the meat of the yearlings appeared a little firmer than that of the calves and showed a greater abun- dance of fat, both external and internal ; as well as a better distribution of the same through the lean. The meat of both lots of steers was tender and juicy and of good flavor, al- though there was nothing about the flavor that could be attributed to the particular feeds used. The meat of the calves and yearlings was in every re- spect equal, if not superior, to that of the older steers, and had the advantage of being a little more tender. Two- and Three-year-olds, 1915. Steers 36 and 40 of the two-year-olds and 32 and 33 of the three-year-olds, were the ones from which the sample cuts of meat were taken, and were also the ones considered more in detail as regards quality of meat. No striking differences were observed between the cuts of meats of the two-year-olds and three-year-olds in reference to color. Steer 40 appeared, in general, better than any of the other three ; with number 36 a close second. The cuts from these steers were, in general, more plump and finished in appearance than those of the three-year-olds. As regards relative thickness of cuts, steers 36 and 40 appeared the best, although in thickness of loin, steer 33 was a little better than 36. The distribution of the fat through the lean, producing the so called marbled effect, was most noticeable in steer 40; with number 33 next. Taken as a whole, the marbling of the flesh was decidedly more pronounced in these steers than in the ones fed only alfalfa hay. The fat was a clear white in all the cuts. The flavor of the meat was good, but suggested nothing distinctive. Aside from the slightly coarser grain of the meat from the three- year-olds and the fatness of the cuts from the two-year-olds, there was not much difference in the appearance of the meat RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 75 from the two lots of steers. The meat was not quite as ten- der as that of the younger steers, although that from steers 36 and 40 was very good. Such differences as were observed between the two ages of steers might easily be individual dif ferences and not necessarily due to the differences in the ages of the animals. Messrs. O. A. Danielson and W. J. Ritz of El Paso, both experienced in the marketing of beef, expressed the opinion that in reference to quality of meat, the steers would be rank- ed as follows: first, 40; second, 36; third, 33; and fourth, 32. They stated that the meat would probably be classed as grade 2 on the market. Summary and Conclusions Five range steers each of calves, yearlings, two-year-olds and three-year-olds were fed for a period of 120 days; dur- ing which all feeds and feed residues were weighed, sampled and analyzed, and individual records were kept of feeds con- sumed, gains in live weights and the condition or finish of the steers. Slaughter tests were made at the end of the feeding period and certain cuts of meat from representative steers of each age were analyzed. The digestibility of the ra- tions fed was also determined, using two representative steers from each group for this purpose. Three sets of digestion trials were conducted in the series of experiments with the calves and yearlings, as follows : one near the end of' the first month; the second about the middle of the third month and the third during the latter part of the fourth month. In the experiments with the two- and three- year-olds, only the first two sets of digestion trials were con- ducted. The coefficients of digestibility of the rations, as deter- mined in the various trials, are given, and the effects of age of animal^ individuality and amount of feed consumed upon the same are considered. The results of the digestion trials indicate no appreciable or certain superiority of one age of animals over another as 76 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY regards digestive powers, nor do they show that any particular individual or individuals consistently digested their rations bet- ter than others. Apparently the steers used in the tests di- gested their rations about equally well. The variations noticed in the digestion coefficients among the several steers from one trial to the next and on the same trials, apparently, are not due to differences in the amounts of feed consumed, as no direct relation between the amounts of feed consumed and the resulting coefficients was ob- served. However, the rations consumed were not especially heavy at any time. A method is given for calculating the digestibility of the components of a ration composed of two or more feeds from the coefficients of digestibility of the feeds when fed in com- bination, but in different proportions, in two or more trials, and when no separate determinations of digestibility of any of the components of the ration have been made. The coefficients of digestibility of the alfalfa and milo maize meal fed each year were calculated by the foregoing method and are given in the text of the bulletin. The digestible nutrients in the alfalfa and milo maize meal, as given in the bulletin, w:re calculated from the aver- age composition of the feeds by means of the calculated coef- ficients of digestibility of the feeds. The energy values of the feeds were obtained by calcu- lating the metabolizable energy from the digestible organic matter by means of the factors proposed by Armsby (pre- viously cited) and from this the net energy, upon the assump- tion that the percentage availability of the metabolizable en- ergy was the same as given by Armsby for alfalfa and maize meal The average daily gains made by the different groups of steers, per head, omitting the abnormal or doubtful ones, are as follows: calves, 1.55; yearlings, 1.89; two-year-olds, 2.12; and three-year-olds, 1.57 pounds. When ,the gains are calculated to a common basis of gains per day and head per 1,000 pounds RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 77 live weight, they become: calves, 2.70; yearlings, 2.21; two- year-olds, 2.25; and three-year-olds, 1.52 pounds. Wlhile the calves and three-year-olds made practically the same gains per day and head, the calves gained much more rapidly pir unit of body weight. Per unit of body weight, the yearlings and two-year-olds made nearly equal gains, and in respect to rate of gains they are about midway between the calves and three-year-olds. The various groups of steers consumed, on the average, the following amounts of feed, per day dnd head : calves, 10.74; yearlings, 17.77; two-ycar-olds, 19.95; and three-year- olds, 19.49 pounds; whereas, per 1,000 pounds live weight the amounts are 18.80, 20.87, 20.00, and 18.70 pounds, res- pectively. The amounts of feed consumed for each pound of gain are : calves, 6.96; yearlings, 9.57 ; two-year-olds, 9.63 ; and three-year-olds, 12.60 pounds. Although the calves and three-year-olds consumed nearly the same quantities of feed per unit of body weight, the former required only a little more than half as much feed per pound of gain as the latter, and about two-thirds as much as the yearlings or two-year-olds. The nitrogen balances show considerable irregularities with the same individuals in successive trials and between the groups of different ages, but it is evident that the calves were gaining in protein at a much more rapid rate than the other steers. The data suggest that the yearlings were gaining in protein somewhat more rapidly than the older steers, but owing to the irregularities in the results, this is not clearly shown. The average amount of energy stored in each pound of gain was estimated for the various individuals and groups of steers,, and the results indicate that it was least among the calves and highest among the three-year-olds. The estimated energy stor- ed per unit of gain by the latter was two and a half times that of the former; and the yearlings and two-year-olds stored about twice as much energy per unit of gain as the calves. These results, taken in conjunction with the nitrogen bal- THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY ances and the amounts of feed consumed per unit of gain, indicate a relatively greater production of fat by the older steers ; especially as compared with the calves. Estimations of the energy content of the gains by months during the feeding period show— with the .exception of the first month — a tendency towards an increasing energy con- tent of gains from month to month. So far as percentages of dressed beef are concerned, no really significant differences that can be ascribed to differ- ences in ages appear amomg the different groups of steers. However, the steers fed in the series on alfalfa and milo maize meal, excepting the three-year-olds, yielded considerably high- er percentages of dressed beef than the corresponding groups of steers in the alfalfa hay experiments. This is, no doubt, largely due to the better balanced ration fed in these experi- ments. No distinctive differences are apparent in reference to the wholesale cuts from the various steers. The average results of the chemical analysis of the cuts of meat from the different groups of steers show no decided differences among them, but the percentages of fat in the rib and loin cuts are, in general, about twice as great as in the corresponding cuts and ages of steers in the alfalfa hay experiments. The fat content of the round and shoulder cuts is about the same for the different ages of steers and in the two series of experiments. In quality of meat, the yearlings surpassed the calves, chiefly on account of the larger amount and better distribu- tion of the fat through the lean and in the firmness of the meat. The meat of the calves and yearlings appeared a little finer in grain and was more tender than that of the two- and three-year-olds. All the meat was of good quality, showing more fat than the corresponding cuts and ages of steers in the alfalfa hav experiments; but no distinctive flavor was noticeable. A tabulated summary of the main data of the experiments is given in the following tables : — TABLE 27.— GENERAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS, 79 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES ss 734.3 931.0 196.7 1.64 1.98 1028.16 1 723.00 ! 1751.16 1 8.57 6.03 14.60 5.23 ! 3,7 1 8.90 1 557.50 1 56.71 U J991S 734.0 807.7 73.7 .61 .79 798.59 694.39 1492.98 6.66 5.79 12.45 • ' 1 10.92| 9.491 ; 20.411 502.00| 58.24| rH -H t-H ^ . . _ 1 ZZ 703.3 999.0 295.7 2.46 2.85 1282.58 1109.84 2392.42 10.69 9.25 19.94 4.35| 3.76 8.11 607.00 55.84| | 12 J381S 720.0 904.7 184.7 1.54 1.88 1238.86 823.26 2062.12 1 10.33 1 6.86 17.19 6.7‘l| | 4.45 11.16 535.50| 63.52| OF J©9^S 422.3 588.3 166.0 1.38 2.75 669.63 5C3.43 1233.06 5.58 4.70 10.28 4.04! 3.41 7.45| 352.501 ' 1 60.461 62 ^«^SS?S3S§Sr-Ssg§£ 8 S 8 J ” i ll " ’ S " “ 8 S 82 LZ ; ,-*.«i2S3SgS8SSSSiS 1 s 1 § 1 “ ^ d “ 5 “ T: ~ o s 3 a s fa s s s~a a s"s ill ' J | 1 S “ * * “' * * I s 1 « S' 3 I | MS in t % l ; !. - I ill 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 i I I I § i it. 1 1 i I II I i t IS ! ! 1 1 1 ? 1 1 1 1 1 ! I i of feeds in the above table are all .—GENERAL SUMMARY OF RESULTS, 80 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY f I r ss H J091S 806.7 ! 896.7 1 90.0 .75 .89 908.93 700.49 ! 1609.42 1 7.57 I 5.84 13.41 1 1 10.09 1 7.79 17.88 482.50 54.21 a j s s s 1 5 1 s s s g s s 1 1 28 1 1063.3 I 1 H247.7 184.4 I 1.54 1.33 [1371.81 1090.60 2462.41 11.43 9.09 20.52 ! 7.42 , 9 0 13.32 1 712.50 1 58.40 ZS 945.0 1107.7 162.7 1.36 1.32 slgS-S — SgE -1 7-1 > tn c$ s TJ A W 1 o bp "<3 £ 2 1 > fee S-. £ M c bo >> A £ 4 <0 ' "a! j a TJ 2 CD O 5-- > d s 'C s: d v-l ■ o be 'S c 3 bo t* c be 0> e s D o d n £ CG a 3 ' g be £ fo ' F 1 & Steer 31. Alfalfa hay fed .... 10 10 10 48.000 24.000 25 oo on AO O 4,266.7 Milo maize meal fed oo.oy 86.25 *±^,00 i .4 90 700 O Uneaten residues U\Jy ( UU.II 2 070 0 2^3 22,6 Feces 10 If) 115 220 23.54 27 122 g Feces from duct <2.7 2,712.3 4 8 Total feces Steer 33. Alfalfa hay fed 10 10 1 10 60,000 30,000 155,390 88.89 86.25 19.93 53.334.0 25.875.0 1 30,969.2 5.333.4 2.587.5 | 3,096.9 Milo maize meal fed Feces Feces from duct i 15 87.5 1 l 5.8 Feces spilled in stalls I 10 ! 26.6 1 2.7 Total feces | i | | | 3,105.4 Steer 36. | , 1 Alfalfa hay fed 10 1 10 1 45,000 22,500 88.89 | 86.25 | 40,000.5 i 19,406.3 | 4,000.1 1,940.6 Milo maize meal fed | Feces | 10 | 107.060 20.82 J 22.289.9 | 2.229,0 Feces from duct | 15 | 55.4 ] 3.7 Total feces 1 | | 1 2,232.7 Steer 38. 1 I I Alfalfa hay fed | 10 I 48,000 88.89 42,667.2 4,266.7 Milo maize meal fed | 10 ! 24,000 86.25 20,700.0 1 2,070.0 Feces 10 -| 112,437 19.55 1 21,981.4 | 50.9 1 2,198.1 :8.5 Feces from duct 6 I Feces from duct 9 1 47.6 1 -5.3 Feces spilled in stall | 1 ° ,1 1 37.5 1 3.8 Total feces I __J. 1 _ 1 1 1 1 1 2,015.7 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 10L TABLE 40.— FEED, FEED RESIDUES, AND FECES, DIGESTION TRIAL II, 1915. ■ Number of days Fresh weight, grams Per cent Dry matt £ aJ Sc o s-t CP . Per day, grams Steer 31. ! 1 I Alfalfa hay fed 10 | 50,000 89.73 44,865.0 4,486.5 Milo maize meal fed 10 | 50,000 86.65 43,325.0 4,332.5 Uneaten residues 10 j 36,525 87.68 32,025.1 3,202.5 Feces 10 | 84,025 21.01 1 17,653.7 i 1,765.4 Feces from duct 15 | 93.5 6.2 Total feces ! 1,771.6 Steer 33. j Alfalfa hay fed 10 | 55,000 89.73 49,351.5 | 4,935.2 Milo maize meal fed 10 I 55,000 86.65 47,657.5 | 4,765.8 Feces 10 |178,245 18.95 33,777.4 | 3,377.7 Feces from duct 15 | I 207.9 1 13.9 Feces spilled in stall 10 ! | 80.5 | 8.1 Total feces | 1 ' 1 1 1 I 3,399.7 Steer 36. | Alfalfa hay fed 1 10 | 50,000 | 89.73 | 44,865.0 1 4,486.5 Milo maize meal fed I 10 | 50,000 86.65 43,325.0 j 4,332.5 Feces | 10 ’143.390 21.71 | 31,129.9 | 3,113.0 Feces from duct ! I 15 1 ! 119.8 1 8.0 Feces spilled in stall | io ; ! 19.2 | 1.9 Total feces 1 1 i | 3,122.9 Steer 38. 1 1 1 Alfalfa hay fed | 10 1 50,000 ] | 89.73 | 44,865.0 | 4,486.5 Milo maize meal fed [ 10 | 50,000 | 86.65 1 1 43,325.0 | 4,332.5 Uneaten residues | 10 1 60 I | 90.28 | 54.2 1 5.4 Feces I | 10 1138,615 | 20.80 1 28,831.9 2,883.2 Feces from duct 1 1 13 1 139.7 10.7 Feces from duct 1 ! 2 : i 205.0 102.5 Feces spilled in stall I ! 10 ! ! 85.4 8.5 Total feces | 1 1 1 I - J 3,004.9 102 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 41.— COMPOSITION OF FEED RESIDUES AND FECES, 1913. Percentages of dry matter and nutrients In dry matter. Feed residues Fece9 Steer 22, per cent Steer 24, per cent Steer 28, per cent Steer 30, per cent Steer 22, per cent Steer 24, per cent Steer 28, per cent Steer 30, per cent Digestion Trial 1. 1 Dry matter 88.71 87.97 88.46 87.30 21.41 23.16 23.14 24.69 Composition of Dry matter: Ash 8.86 7.75 8.18 8.04 10.44 8.56 9.76 10.39 Protein 14.09 12.93 13.80 12.55 16.93 16.71 18.77 17.39 Non-protein 2.50 2.33 2.27 2.43 Crude fiber 27.60 27.14 26.98 23.59 34.69 32.66 30.44 32.15 Ether extract . . . 1.52 1.68 1.73 1.71 3.05 3.15 3.51 3.19 Nitrogen- free ex- tract 45.43 48.17 47.04 51.68 34.89 38.92 37.52 36.88 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 | 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen . . 2.786 2.564 2.691 2.526 2.709 2.673 3.003 2.783 Protein nitrogen. 2.254 2.069 2.208 2.008 Non-protein nit- rogen i | .532 .495 .483 .518 Digestion Trial 1 1. | Dry matter | 90.54 90.48 , 90.41 22.19 20.84 23.82 22.18 Composition of Dry matter: Ash 7.93 7.33 6.66 8.82 9.98 10.28 9.05 Protein 12.99 12.79 12.03 18.13 19.19. 16.79 19.64 Non-protein . . . . i 2.79 2.52 2.38 Crude fiber 28.14 24.01 23.09 27.95 27.41 31.99 25.46 Ether extract 1.71 1.98 1.89 3.08 3.38 3.10 3.48 Nitrogen-free ex- tract | 46.44 51.37 53.95 42.02 4u.04 37.84 42.37 100.00 Too. 00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen . . 2.673 2.584 2.431 2.902 3.071 2.687 3.142 Protein nitrogen. 2.079 2.047 1.925 Non-protein nit- rogen .594 1 .537 .506 Digestion Trial III. Dry matter 91.91 90.17 92.73 91.19 21.17 15.54 21.40 23.52 Composition of Dry matter: Ash 8.27 5.33 11.82 5.93 9.01 11.43 9.42 9.00 Protein 13.44 12.57 13.96 11.41 18.10 19.03 18.28 19.29 Non-protein 2.63 1.85 2.28 2.23 Crude fiber 23.57 19.00 18.99 25.91 26.41 28.76 31.35 27.21 Ether extract . . . 1.91 2.31 1.87 1.72 3.44 3.49 3.22 3.63 Nitrogen-free ex- tract 50.18 58.94 51.08 52.80 43.04 37.29 37.73 40.87 1100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen . . 1 2.710 2.405 2.718 2.300 2.896 3.044 2.925 3.087 Protein nitrogen.. 1 1 2.150] 2.011| 2.233| 1.826 1 1 Non-protein nit- 1 I rogen .560 .394 | .485 .474 1 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 103 TABLE 42.— COMPOSITION OF FEED RESIDUES AND FECES, 1915. Percentages of dry matter and nutrients In dry matter. Feed residues Feces Steer 31, per cent Steer 33, per cent Steer 36, per cent ' Steer 38, per cent Steer 31, per cent Steer 33, per cent Steer 36. per cent Steer 38, per cent Digestion Trial 1. Dry matter 23.54 19.93 20.82 19.55 Composition of dry matter: Ash 9.56 9.99 9.68 9.56 Protein 12.75 13.29 13.87 12.79 Non- protein . Crude fiber . . 41.43 42.58 42.51 46.29 Ether extract 2.28 2.35 2.21 2.36 Nitrogen-free ex- tract 33.98 31.79 31.73 29.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen 2.040 2.127 2.219 2.046 Protein nitrogen . Non-protein ni- trogen Digestion T rial 1 1. Dry matter 87.68 90.28 21.01 18.95 21.71 20.80 Composition of dry matter: Ash . . ; 4.68 5.40 8.12 8.81 8.30 8.95 Protein 12.48 11.16 12.49 14.24 14.91 15.54 Non- protein 1.13 1.25 Crude fiber . 21.14 22.49 43.00 37.59 37.34 33.86 Ether extract 2.20 1.85 1.94 2.15 2.23 2.57 Nitrogen -free ex- tract 58.37 67.85 34.45 37.21 37.22 39.08 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Total nitrogen . . 2.238 2.051 1.999 2.279 2.386 2.486 Protein nitrogen 1.997 1.786 Non-protein ni- trogen .241 .265 104 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 43.— WEIGHTS OF EXCRETA, 1913. Steer 22 Steer 24 Steer 28 Steer 30 Date <3 1 be- Urine, grams Feces, grams Urine, grams Feces, grams Urine, • grams Feces, grams Urine, grams Digestion Trial 1. January 21 10,180 5,805 9,640 4,585 3,960 2,025 4,790 3,565 January 22 10,100 5,130 4,400 2,500 4,135 2,160 5,100 2,965 January 23 11,785 6,525 6,890 5,265 4,530 2,415 4,300 3,210 January 24 11,775 9,870 3,970 2,070 3,375 2,865 6,825 3,620 January 25 12,710 7,670 6,635 7,475 4,590 2,830 4,505 3,365 January 26 13,545 12,800 4,115 2,570 5,130 2,475 5,520 3,540 January 27 11,280 14,770 3,980 2,885 4,390 3,010 6,360 3,250 January 28 10,185 12,095 4,550 4,380 4,845 2,825 6,775 3,615 January 29 11,895 14,545 3,690 3,345 5,620 3,460 6,455 4,130 January 30 10,500 13,200 7,265 3,920 6,515 4,075 6,925 4,185 Total 1 |113,955 102,410 ] ; i j55, 135|38, 995|47,090|28, 140 1 1 1 57,555 35,445 1 Digestion Trial II. March 12 | 1 10,155 8,060 | 6,330 1 2,605 I 5, 780| 3,715 5,190 2,440 March 13 . . . . 10.630 7,000 6,445 2,865 8, 645| 3,620 4,515 2,170 March 14 12,325 10,315 6,400 3,460 5, 705| 3,365 5,125 2,860 March 15 14,720 11,135 7,050 3,595 7, 050| 3,635 4,670 2,810 March 16 12,375 10,195 5,835 3,745 5,995| 4,325 5,585 2,615 March 17 13,485 8,010 6,660 3,695 6,245] 3,610 5,950 2,685 March 18 1 11,305 8,650 6,695 3,485 6,270| 3,715 7,340 2,465 March 19 j 13,005 13,785 6,120 | 3,650 5, 695| 3,625 5,855 3,025 March 20 | 11,955 9,075 9,3351 3,475 6, 440| 3,950 7,095 3,785 March 21 | 10,855| | 9,805 9,950| 4,405 7,350| 3,335 | 5,875 3,540 Total | 120,810| 96,030 | 1 70,820^4,980! _L J 65,175136,895 1 57,200 28,395 1 Digestion Trial III. April 16 ! 6, 390j l 4,410 i 1 5,340 1 s ! 2,735 ! - I 7,6101 3,605 5,860 2,755 April 17 9,380| 7,170 ! 5,380 | 2,940 7,370| 3,830 5,265 2,385 April 18 10,930 5,010 i ! 6,850 | 4,755 7, 000| 4,265 4,460 2,365 April 19 10,965 10,210 8,115 | 3,140 8,910| 4,165 4,340 2,370 April 20 8,320 10,250 7,030 | 3,265 7,8001 4,275 4,235 2,720 April 21 9,420 [6,325]* 14,120 | 2,525 6,705| 4,105 5,600 3,130 Api^il 22 8,085 7,450 6,245 | 2,560! 8,560| 5,070 3,675 2,750 ApUl 23 13.255 12,830 7,350 1 2,315110,0501 5,2101 8,170 3,415 April 24 10,330 5,780 4,170 1 2, 805| 9,080| 3.970| ! 7,005 3,525 April 25 11,720 7,125 7,375 2, 685| 9, 270| 3,580! 8,225 3,715 Total 98,795 70,235 71, 975|29, 725|82, 355|42,075| III! 56,835 29,130 (*) A considerable amount of urine spilled, on account of a broken urine tube. No sample taken. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 105 TABLE 44,— WEIGHTS OF EXCRETA, 1915. Steer 31 Steer 33 Steer 36 Steer 38 Date Feces, grams a? 2 C I 5 & Feces, grams Urine, grams Feces, grams Urine. grams Feces, grams Urine, grams Digestion Trial 1. March 16 ... .10,935 [5,3453 1 14,790 [5,630]* 9,665 [5,175] t 11,950 [5,070] * March 17 ... 11,995 6,020 16,270 [6,110]* 10,350 5,000 9,240 5,650 March 18 ... 11,070 4,815 15,770 [6,370]* 9,460 5,100 12,015 6,570 March 19 ... 11,720 6,675 15,030 7,135 10,815 6,770 11,090 [5,655]* March 20 ... 13,635 6,780 18,240 7,380 11,100 6,130 5,285 13,685 9,255 March 21 ... 10,265 [4,270] * 11,510 6,970 15,160 7,670 5,915 March 22 ... 12,315 6,665 17,530 6,435 11,180 5,640 12,600 [6,215]* March 23 9,745 5,745 13,250 6,610 9,095 5,795 10,970 7,005 March 24 ... 10,335 5,470 17,220 7,990 8,350 7,985 11,705 7,1^5 March 25 ... 13,205| 7,885 | 15,780 8,550 11,885 5,575 11,515 7,035 Total 1 !115,220|50,055 | 1 ! 155,390 51,070 107,060 53,280 112,440 48,55 > Digestion Trial II.! May 5 ! 8, 235| 5,240 17,070 7,720 14,505 8,525 15,320 5,730 May 6 1 11,840| 4,815 19,550 [5,950]* 14,280 5,780 12,555 7,825 May 7 1 9,360! 4,855 19,360 [4,220]* 14,630 6,370 15,295 6,975 May 8 | | 7, 135| 4,060 16,480 [5,910]* 14,415 6,535 12,850 6,370 May 9 ! 9,2801 7,095 20,090 9,110 13,110 7,370 12,425 b,445 May 10 | 5,545 3,700 15,760 6,240 14,915 7,165 15,820 8,040 May 11 1 8,3301 3,835 18,810 6,950 14,640 7,670 14,915 9,505 May 12 | 6,7851 4,360 21,930 6,980 12,565 7,425 11,210 [5,360]* May 13 ! 8,880|[3,7951* 13,490 7,020 14,990 7,240 13,505 9,945 May 14 j 8,6351 6,495 15,705 6,905 15,340 7,690 14,720 7,670 Total I 1 84,025144,455 I 1 1 178,245150,925 1 143,390 71,770 138,615 68,505 (*) Considerable amounts of urine spilled. No samples taken, (t) Through a misunderstanding, no samples were taken. 106 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 45.— NITROGEN IN URINES. Experiment, 1913 Experiment, 1915 Steer 22, per cent Steer 24, per cent Steer 28, per cent Steer 30, per cent Steer 31, per cent Steer 33, per cent Steer 36, per cent Steer 38, per cent Digestion Trial I .942 1.512| 1.481 1.329 1.327 1.471 1.316 1.150 Digestion Trial II Digestion Trial III | 1.111 1.176 1.652] 1.524 2.038| 1.476] 1.383 1.516 1.491 1 , 1.504 1.373 1.453 TABLE 46.— WATER DRUNK DURING DIGESTION TRIALS, 1913. jj Steer 22, kilos Steer 24, kilos Steer 28, kilos' o' I O- wS Digestion Trial I. January 20 25.68 15.70 3.69 8.33 January 21 7.82 7.35 8.35 4.58 January 22 20.89 9.52 5.50 10.47 January 23 26.57 5.02 8.64 11.55 January 24 21.81 11.55 8.57 9.04 January 25 22.60 3.90 4.95 8.54 January 26 22.62 9.55 5.70 9.88 January 27 30.65 2.20 9.80 14.06 January 28 28.09 5.91 10.05 7.94 January 29 25.69 8.33 14.02 13.74 January 30 28.90 10.32 7.16 10.00 Digestion Trial II. March 11 14.31 5.36 12.32 8.21 March 12 27.30 14.51 8.44 7.19 March 13 15.57 6.44 3.05 9.12 March 14 22.32 12.62 7.87 8.73 March 15 24.17 9.20 10.84 9.65 March 16 23.92 9.78 8.81 9.93 March 17 20.71 8.85 10.43 8.51 March 18 28.07 13.06 8.90 10.58 March 19 26.29 20.01 14.73 14.20 March 20 19.39 4.79 9.30 | 10.32 March 21 24.64 12.89 13.76 | 7.68 Digestion Trial III. April 15 7.53 7.17 9.76 5.30 April 16 27.84 15.38 17.00 10.52 April 17 17.72 16.39 18.70 9.95 April 18 25.39 7.99 17.23 11.10 April 19 22.43 10.49 14.87 10.43 April 20 29.67 21.68 19.26 17.51 April 21 15.64 5.13 15.82 8.15 April 22 17.49 8.59 14.52 9.68 April 23 23.03 7.99 8.52 11.87 April 24 19.95 9.43 10.57 13.26 April 25 19.52 10.56 12.74 11.25 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 107 TABLE 47.— WATER DRUNK DURING DIGESTION TRIALS, 1915. ®g Steer 33, kilos Steer 36, kilos 1 Steer 38, kilos Digestion Trial I. March 15 17.70 18.40 18.78 18.50 March 16 15.06 24.41 19.80 15.35 March 17 16.65 20.87 18.05 21.82 March 18 31.35 37.00 28.85 27.40 March 19 37.18 49.64 37.40 22.21 March 20 18.30 25.86 28.52 17.50 March 21 29.10 23.45 20.70 28.82 March 22 18.20 29.50 29.80 29.02 March 23 17.41 | 33.32 23.70 20.13 March 24 18.88 I 21.80 20.84 | 23.49 March 25 31.43 | 31.70 29.62 35.77 Digestion Trial II. 1 May 4 15.26 28.20 | 30.11 | 1 17.37 May 5 V 18.22 32.65 1 33.21 | 33.42 May 6 20.11 33.24 1 30.69 | 17.67 May 7 16.25 27.90 1 27.91 I 26.81 May 8 22.79 35.38 1 1 29.61 | 1 28.22 May 9 14.00 33.76 1 30.45 1 29.93 May 10 19.58 | 39.70 I 28.90 1 29.23 May 11 15.19 i 37.85 | 30.28 22.62 May 12 22.30 36.00 I 33.03 31.67 May 13 10.78 | 40.16 i 41.73 37.79 May 14 | 29.70 | 33.18 I 47.40 47.00 108 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 48.— LIVE WEIGHTS OF STEERS BY MONTHS. 1913. Steer 21, pounds I Steer 22, pounds Steer 23, pounds Steer 24, pounds Steer 25, 1 pounds Steer 26, pounds Steer 27, j pounds Steer 28, pounds Steer 29, pounds Steer 30, pounds January 1 .. 723 708 784 725 736 487 565 558 498 418 January 2 .. 720 702 774 730 724 473 555 556 500 425 January 3 . 717 700 777 747 743 487 559 556 498 424 Average 720.0 703.3 778.3 734.0 734.3 482.3 559.7 556.7 498.7 422.3 January 31 . 753 752 832 723 754 461 590 581 542 461 February 1 . 746 754 804 735 766 453 567 585 523 440 February 2 . . 755 760 826 738 760 458 580 584 533 450 Average 751.3 755.3 820.7 732.0 760.0 457.3 579.0 583.3 532.7 450.3 March 2 813 885 880 771 817 515 602 641 560 507 March 3 827 887 877 762 817 509 605 651 554 505 March 4 821 890 882 763 807 506 600 651 558 507 Average 820.3 887.3 879.7 765.3 814.0 510.0 602.3 647.7 557.3 506.3 April 1 910 968 960 828 902 530 658 709 600 540 April 2 904 965 958 830 904 526 653 705 598 538 April 3 900 965 950 823 900 557 627 718 580 542 Average 904.7 966.0 956.0 827.0 902.0 537.7 646.0 710.7 592.7 540. 0 May 1 . 887 985 996 804 923 559 645 758 670 585 May 2 . 932 1007 1013 810 938 602 686 779 691 593 May 3 . . 895 1005 1008 809 932 580 660 765 683 587 Average 904.7 999.0 1005.7 807.7 931.0 580.3 663.7 767.3 681.3 588.3 RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 109 TABLE 49.— LIVE WEIGHTS OF STEERS BY MONTHS.. 1915. Steer 31, pounds Steer 32, pounds Steer 33, pounds Steer 34, pounds Steer 35, pounds Steer 36, pounds Steer 37, pounds Steer 38, pounds Steer 39, pounds Steer 40, pounds i February 24 ... 995 950 1065 850 810 915 850 870 895 835 February 25 ... 990 925 1065 855 800 900 860 865 894 830 February 26 ... 1000 960 1060 855 810 920 860 880 895 835 Average 995.0 945.0 1063.3 853.3* 806.7 911.7 856.7 871.7 894.7 833.3 March 26 990 980 1087 860 809 930 845 875 955 890 March 27 1000 990 1086 873 808 935 850 873 960 900 March 28 1012 980 1080 870 810 933 854 875 963 900 Average 1000.7 983.3 1084.3 867.7 809.0 932.7 849.7 874.3 959.3 896.7 April 25 1095 1049 1180 935 822 1015 875 960 1046 960 April 26 1093 1050 1175 937 823 1023 875 965 1039 960 April 27 1095 1056 1179 939 820 1020 870 967 1040 965 Average 1094.3 1051.7 1178.0 937.0 821.7 1019.3 873.3 964.0 1041.7 961.7 May 25 1044 1073 1219 1010 856 1061 897 1007 1116 1050 May 26 1055 1068 1230 1003 867 1085 915 1017 1107 1061 May 27 1060 1056 1233 1010 864 1085 905 1018 1120 1075 Average 1053.0 1065.7 1227.3 1007.7 862.3 1077.0 905.7 1014,0 1114.3 1062.0 June 24 1020 1105 1253 1066 890 1149 925 1066 1179 1120 June 25 1015 1098 1246 1075 900 1155 920 1061 1198 1123 June 26 1036 1120 1244 1072 900 1150 915 1068 1195 1123 Average 1023.7 1107 7 1247.7 1071.0 896.7 1151.3 920.0 1065,0 1190,7 1119.8 •Average February 23, 25 and 27. 110 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 51.— RESULTS OF SLAUGHTER TESTS, PERCENTAGES, 1913. RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGE'S. Ill 112 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY spunod ‘S2 jaa;s spunod ‘IS J891S spunod ‘82 spunod ‘28 J391S spunod ‘18 JaaiS spunod ‘01 J991S spunod ‘62 aoais sSSSSSSSZSSSZS SSSSggfJ s ISlPT lllll|s-s sliHIsIisssss ssssssa' 'a gasgsss-s“^“sa sssssssr a ]iiippii§ mm 'fllppplTPiPT IfsflsSsflssF illiss^^s-as aa: 353$: spunod ‘82 J»*»S ISipppI JIIPIHWI T sfssa "s ssss- a ^zlssss spunod ‘IS J991S lapiw sssssss £ spunod ‘92 J®«1S -JSsffssfp|l5| m f TABLE 53.— RESULTS OF SLAUGHTER TESTS, PERCENTAGES, 1915, RANGE STEERS OF DIFFERENT AGES. 113 HOWWlOCDCOOilOOWlNr }U3D J9(I ^COMCOMN ‘ci ‘£2 J831S oioa^tcr t»0Hl<5rl O US £ 0> 0> , S- £ tJ £ dHOi Qoipsj JtUE-iUEHfcW J JEl I ® ® 1 ‘C ac 114 THE UTILIZATION OF FEED BY TABLE 54— WEIGHTS OF FORE AND HIND QUARTERS AND OF WHOLESALE CUTS IN RIGHT HALF CARCASS, 1913 AND 1915. Calves i | Yearlings . Two-year-olds Three-year-olds 1 i « . CO o' CO +-> O' -!-> CvT +5 nC C e§ g ■ ^ c CO C eo C Sh o U O Sh o Sh O Sh O s- o u o u O a> J 4.00 1.66 .75* | .98 1.59 .22 .40 - .00 1.49 Trace Trace .29 IQ O) aaqo^oo OiH00C-00 t* ■ T-i E-I 1.06 xequia^dog Oe000«'3U5 05 U5«0'»2<iOeot-©r-icq®eooo OlM10^Ot-fflHTj<0)H01 ^TfNMNHNM M M 2.71 aunf 1 2.50 ] .46 1 3.36 | .44 1 2.42 | .26 1.13 | 1.57 | 2.80 | 2.81 l ' 71 | .63 1.59 AUJ\[ io©©T*c-«o s CO t- 05 CO © g 05 CO - 1—1 joquioooa S LO CQ xt< CO CO xt' CO t- CO CO CO s xf CO CO CO jaquiOAON be C CO xt' £? Csl kO kO 00 xf o kO 05 05 CO xf -HI- 00 Xt< jaqoioo t- ko t> LO o d 05 LG o CO CO kO o CO xf kO 00 kC 03 m Irt •H- 00 kO jLaquia^das s p s - p kO t- CO CO CO CO © 05 CO t- IsnSny 00 t- kO o 00 t> t- 05 t- 03 c- 05 l> CO g CO t- Ainf CO kO 05 00 - o x^ kO o kO itaanaqa^ s o 05 xt< 3 o 1—1 CO CO o CQ 50 S Aaanu'ef kO xf xr CO 3 t- xf 00 CO co X* S CO * YEAR b a ; 0 3 kO cc o a > c 0( c > 05 C > O v 5 T- ■ n to - kO CO i er. 05 4 t> 5 J r-l 1 - < • Incomplete. $ Eleven -year average. Records to and including 1912 are from the U. S. Weather Bureau records; those after 1912 are from observa- tions made at the Field Station. DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 43 Table III gives the highest and the lowest tempera- tures recorded for each of the years given in the table. The lowest temperature for the period was 11 degrees below zero in 1905, while the highest temperature is shown to be 105 degrees, which was reached in each of the years 1909, 1910, 1911, 1913 and 1915. On account of the dry- ness of the atmosphere and elevation of the country these high temperatures are kept from being very oppressive. TABLE III.— HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURES, TUCUMCARI, NEW MEXICO. Year Highest Tempera- ture; degrees Date Lowest Tempera- ture; degrees Date 1905 101 July 12 —11 February 13 1906 100 June 30 — 1 November 20 1907 104 June 29 11 December 18 1908 103 June 21 10 January 16 1909 105 July 11 — 3 December 18 1910 105 June 8 — 3 February 17 1911 105 August 21 — 8 1 January 3 1912 104 July 9 — 3 | January 2 1913 105 July 13 - 7 January 8 1914 99 June 26 4 February 6 1915 105 July 11 0 January 16 1916 104 July 3 3 November 13 Records to and including 1912 from U. S. Weather Bureau records; those after 1912 were made at the Field Station. Table IV gives the date of the last spring frost and the first fall frost, also the number of days between frosts for each year included in the table. The year 1908 con- tained 168 frost-free days, while the year 1912 had a frost- free period of 204 days. These two years cover the ex- tremes for the longest and the shortest “frost-free 44 DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. periods” for the years indicated in the table. The aver- age length of the frost-free period is 188 days. This table TABLE IV.— FROST DATES, TUCUMCARI, NEW MEXICO. Year Last Spring Frost First Fall Frost Frost-free Period; days. 1 1905 April 24 October . .15 174 1906 April . 2 October . .22 203 v 1907 April .30 (Lacking) * 1908 May , 6 | October . .21 168 1909 May 1 1 | November . . . . .16 199 1910 April . 5 October . .21 199 1911 April .15 October . .21 189 1912 April . 2 October . .23 204 1913 April .24 October . .19 178 1914 April .18 October . .13 178 1915 May , 6 | November . . . ..10 188 1916 April v I .14 | October . .19 188 Average length of frost-free period, 188+ * Incomplete. t Average of eleven years. Records tp and including 1912 from U. S. Weather Bureau records; those after 1912 were made at the Field Station. shows that, while in most years the last frost comes dur- ing April, it lias been recorded as late as May 6. This makes it apparent that planting of crops before the month of May is rather a risky proposition. The first frost recorded in the fall occurred on October 13, 1914. The two dates of May 6 and October 13 mark the minimum possible growing period for the district, based on the frost records. Evaporation: At the Tucumcari Field Station a steel tank two feet deep and six feet in diameter is kept filled with water, within three or four inches of the top. Daily measurements from April to September, inclusive, are made of the, amount of evaporation from this free water surface. DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 45 The dryness of the air, the high summer temperature and the almost incessant winds all cause a relatively high monthly and seasonal evaporation in the Tucumcari dis- trict. Table V gives the monthly evaporation from April 1 to October 1, for the years 1913 to 1916, inclusive. This table also shows that the evaporation ranges from 49.9 inches to 58.9 inches, with an average for the six months included in each year of record of 54 inches, or 3% times the normal yearly rainfall. TABLE V.— EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACE, TUCUMCARI, NEW MEXICO. Year April May June July August September Total Inches Inches | Inches Inches | Inches 1 | Inches | Inches 1913 7.216 10.345 8.716 11.833 ! 10.138 | 6.438 54.686 1914 | 7.046 | 7.286 9.875 8.078 I 8.962 | 8.673 49.920 1915 | 5.554 | 9.912 11.239 10.023 j 8.406 | 7.369 j 52.503 1916 i 6.853 1 | 11.317 12.729 j 11.506 8.879 j 7.617' | 58.901 1 Average | 6.667 JL j| 9.715 10.640 j 10.360 9.096 | 7.524 i | 54.003 1 All records taken at the Field Station. Were it not for the fact that the evaporation of moist- ure from the soil is much less than from the free water surface, growing of crops in this region would be an im- possibility. Most of the evaporation occurs from the first few inches of the soil, and while the soil is still wet after rains the evaporation is very rapid on hot day& during the summer. During periods when evaporation is high, heavy de- mand is made upon the growing plants for moisture. In order to meet this requirement the crops planted should be hardy and adapted to such conditions ; therefore, such crops as milo, kafir, sorghum, feterita and Sudan grass 46 DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. are recommended for this section. These crops have the ability to suspend or stop growth for a short period of time, though they may seem to burn badly. If rain is not delayed for too long a time the crops will spring into new growth after a few good showers, and if not burned too severely will often produce fair yields. This is what makes them valuable crops for eastern New Mexico. Wind Velocity: The eastern part of New Mexico, as well as other parts of the State, has considerable wind movement. This movement is so great at times that fre- quently sandy soils blow badly and in the spring of the year serious damage is often done to the young crops. The plants may be either cut off at the surface of the ground, covered badly, or blown completely out. As has been stated, the wind plays an important part in causing rapid evaporation from the surface of the soil during the early spring and summer. Transpiration from the leaves of the plants during warm and windy periods is no doubt very heavy. TABLE VI.— AVERAGE HOURLY WIND VELOCITY, TUCUMCARI, NEW MEXICO. Year April May .Tune July August September Average Miles Miles Miles Miles Miles Miles Miles 1913 6.7 7.3 7.2 6.6 5.2 5.5 6.4 1914 9.3 7.4 7.1 3.2 3.9 5.0 6.0 1915 6.3 7.1 7.1 6.1 4.3 5.6 6.1 1916 1 7.6 7.8 7.6 5.5 5.5 4.9 6.5 Average] 7.5 1 7.4 7.3 5.4 4.7 5.3 6.3 All records taken at the Field Station. The months of March, April, and May include the part of the year having the greatest wind movement, al- though this windy period may sometimes extend to the DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 47 middle of June. Often the soil is dried out so rapidly after planting that a good germination and stand is not secured, necessitating a replanting of the crop. Table VI gives the average wind velocity in miles per hour for each of the months from April 1 to September 30, in- clusive. The anemometer or wind gauge used in taking the wind velocity is placed at a height of two feet above the ground in an unsheltered place. CROP DATA. In the following tables presenting yields of crops un- der various tests at the Tucumcari Field Station, kafirs are given in bushels (60 lbs.) per acre; milo and all other grain sorghums in bushels of 58 pounds per acre ; forage sorghums, Sudan grass, millet and cowpeas are given in pounds of hay per acre; broomcorn yields are totals of “cleaned brush” per acre in pounds; beans are given in pounds of beans per acre; cotton is given in pounds of seed-cotton per acre, and corn, potatoes, wheat, oats, barley and rye are given in bushels (U. S. Standard) per acre. Table VII is a presentation of the yields per acre of crops obtained under the various cultural methods in use at the Tucumcari Field Station. In this table it is shown that the highest yields were secured on the summer tilled plats with all crops except cotton and cowpeas. It should be remembered, however, that the increases in yields are small and not high enough to pay for the increased cost of production under this method. As has already been stated, summer tillage or alternate cropping has not proven to be the most profitable with any crop at the Dry Land Field Stations. Fall plowing has given higher yields than spring plowing, subsoiling or listing, except with sorghum, broomcorn, corn, spring wheat and oats. In some cases the difference is so small as to make it immaterial, so far 48 DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. as yields are concerned, as to whether spring or fall plowing is used. TABLE VII.— YIEL DS OF CROPS, IN POUNDS OR BUSHELS PER ACRE, OBTAINED UNDER DIFFERENT CULTURAL METHODS AT THE TUCUMCARI FIELD STATION, FOR THE YEARS 1914 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE. Crop Cultural Method Av’ge* Fall Plowed Spring Plowed Subsoiled T3 0) +J CQ 3 Disked Summer Tilled Manured Tillage Milo 40.1 34.5 28.2 23.2 45.4 t 43.2 37.9 Kafir 30.8 29.9 32.1 28.9 39.1 31.6 Sorgo (d) 5300 5520 4887 4245 6040 5108 Broom - corn (e) . . . 534 588 550 568 628 573 Sudan grass | 2360a 2360a Millet ‘ I 2254 2254 Cowpeas | 3587b | 3004c 3340a 3049 Beans | 601 655 655 Cotton | 558 439 400 517 593 520 Corn ! | 22.2 *| 23.5 1 1 1 | 26.9 1 | 23.2 Win. Wheat(f ) 2.7 2.3 3.1 2.7 Winter Rye..| 3.5 a 3.5a Spring Wheat 7.5 8.2 6.8 8.6 7.9 Oats 11.9 13.8 11.9 17.1 13.1 Barley 1 5.7 5.4 5.6 * The final averages given are not necessarily the averages of the other figures given in the table, but are the averages of the yearly averages for each year that the various crops were grown, t 6 plats in 1914-15; 7 in 1916. a 1 year’s record, 1916. b 1 plat each 1914-15; 2 in 1916. c 7 plats 1914-15; 11 in 1916. d Freed in 1914-15; Red Amber in 1916. e Dwarf in 1914-15; Dwarf Standard in 1916. f Kharkov in 1915; Turkey Red in 1914 and 1916. Subsoiling has not proven profitable when compared with other cultural methods used, kafir being the only DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 49 crop to show an increased yield over either spring or fall plowing. Fairly good yields with all crops have been obtained on listed land. The results with broomcorn show a slightly higher yield on fall plowed than on listed land, but the difference in yield is small. In summing up the yields with the various crops under the different cultural methods used at this Field Station, subsoiling and summer fallowing have not proven rela- tively profitable. Fall and spring plowing and listing are indicated as the methods to use in preparing the land. Which one to use will depend on the plan of cropping to be followed, the nature of the land, and the seasonal con- ditions existing during the fall, winter and spring. The figures given in the last column are the average yields from all plats of each crop grown at the Field Station. They are not the averages of the average yields as shown in the table. The question often arises as to the advisability of planting sorghum in drilled rows or rows closer together TABLE VIII.— YIELDS OF SORGO PLANTED IN ROWS OF VARYING WIDTHS, 1914 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE. Width Rows; inches Year Average 1914 | 1915 | 1916 Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds 8 5100 3820 840 3253 16 4300 4980 840 3373 24 4840 5400 1160 3860 32 5020 4700 JU 3081 44 | 5093 a* 4600 1400 | ' 3698 a Average of rotations and tillage plats. Freed sorgo grown in 1914 and 1915. Red Amber sorgo grown in 1916. 50 DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. than the ordinary width used. In 1914 an experiment was started with sorghum planted in rows 8 inches, 16 inches, 24 inches, 32 inches and 44 inches apart, respectively. In 1914 and 1915 Freed sorghum was used for this work. In 1916 Red Amber sorghum was used. Table VIII, giving the results ef these tests, shows that the yields vary with the different methods in certain years. The results in- dicate that the highest yields have been obtained with the crops planted in 24-, 32- and 44-inch rows. Table IX shows the yield obtained with Mexican June Corn planted at different dates. While corn is not con- sidered one of the staple crops in the Tucumcari district, the results obtained show that probably the best yields can be obtained by planting this variety of corn between May 1 and June 10. TABLE IX.— YIELDS OF MEXICAN JUNE CORN OBTAINED UNDER SEVERAL DATES OF PLANTING, 1914 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE. YEAR 1914 j 1915 1916 Yield 1 Yield Yield Date | Date Date Stover Grain Stover | Grain Stover J Grain Pounds Bush’ls Pounds ^ jBush’ls Pounds Bush’ls April 3 1240 25.7 April 6 520 dodder 1 April 15 920 ] Fodder April 21 1 1840 | 33.6 April 29 | 1360 j dodder May 4 3662* 32.4* May 13 1660 30.2 May 13 1020 11.7 May 27 790 8.7 June 8 4640 25.8 June 4 4440 32.0 June 10 1240 6.9 June 18 4480 29.7 June 24 2755 8.6 July 7 5960 15.6 * Average of tillage and rotation plats. Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the best time for planting such crops as dwarf milo. Table X gives the yields secured with this crop when planted on different dates. From the work done it is believed that DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 51 the average date of planting this crop should range be- tween May 10 and June 10, the time depending to some extent upon the seasonal conditions. TABLE X— YIELDS OF DWARF YELLOW MILO OBTAINED UNDER SEVERAL DATES OF PLANTING, 1915 AND 1916. YEAR 1915 1916 Date Yield Date Yield Stover j Grain Stover j Grain Pounds Bushels | 1 1 1 Pounds | 1 Bushels 1 April 6 965 8.9 April 15 1380 9.3 1 April 29 1500 12.8 May 7 | 2045 j 23.4 May 13 1715 10.4 May 21 2133 | 23.9 May 27 2540 18.3 June 4 2368 25.4 June 10 1820 14.1 I June 24 2850 16.4 Table XI shows the effect of the previous crop on the yields of the several crops obtained on land cropped con- tinuously and on land where the crops have been grown in rotation with other crops. It is noted from the table that milo grown after milo and sorghum after sorghum have made lighter yields than where these crops have been included in a rotation. Milo made higher yields when grown after cowpeas than after cotton. Sorghum made higher yields after cow- peas than on land continuously cropped. Millet after sorghum made higher yields than following beans or win- ter wheat. Cowpeas made higher yields following cotton and milo than after millet. Cotton grown after milo made higher yields than following cowpeas or cotton. The yields with corn show that very little difference was obtained on plats where corn followed corn and on FIELD STATION TO 1916, INC 52 DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. O) £L DC « OC O 0- < < 9 w (fll 1 " LU > D < h 9SBJ8AV 37.9 31.6 5108 573 2360a | 2254 3049 655 | 520 23.2 2.7 | 3.5a 7.9 13.1 5.6 paini asuiumg ‘paanu^H 43.2 1 | 593 peilli aeuirang 45.4b 39.1 6040 | 628 | I 1 3340a 1 1 | 517 26.9 3.1 8.6 17.1 itaia^a 1 1 ' 22.9 |12.8 s^-eo 1 1 1 22.6 8.6 | ! 5.7 | }i3atiAl Suiadg O ZD tH co zooi OQ r— 1 -iaiuiAl ! 1 j 2360a | , v' 1 I- i -I9WA1 |2047 | 679| 2.5 uaoo 1 1 |22.8 [ 8.1 1 13.3 5 ' 4 i uo^oq 2 si CO co eg S138dA10Q 38.6 6353 1 3880a] 1 | 499 | 3.&a| 1 laniH b-co OO <£> eg ss'BJ'O trepng o aJ o o uaoouiooaa eg ZD ID ogaog 4673 2500 1 1 30.2 ; i 1310ac OUH T GO c- c- oo io er acr e. German 3820* 980* 3773* 3420 1041 5 2607 Common | 640 2520 2880 980 4 1755 Siberian 2220 2940 2 2580 Turkestan 2040 1 2040 Kursk 1750 2400 381 3 1510 Japanese 2280 1 2280 Pearl 3780 4600 2 4190 White Proso 2720 720 1740 2000 4 1795 Black Proso 920 460 1360 1740 4 1120 Cowpeas — yields in lbs. ha; 1 y per j icre. New Era 1150 2560 3000 3 2237 Taylor 2040 2760 2 2400 Monetta 2040 2660 2 2350 Early Buff 2840 2160 1380 3 2127 Groit 1200 3000 2060 2781 4 2260 Blackeyed 992 3180 2700 3 2291 Logan 2500 1 2500 Iron 3168 2140 3181 3 2830 Brabham 1960 1200 3420 2000 3561 5 2428 Whippoorwill 2010 2500 3298* 2598* 3861 5 2853 Average of rotation and tillage plats for that year. DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 55 TABLE XII, CONTINUED.— YIELDS PER ACRE OBTAINED ON PLATS DEVOTED TO VARIETY TESTING FROM 1912 TO 1916, INCLUSIVE. CROP YEAR | No. f Aver- 1912 1913 | 1914 | 1916 | 191* | Years I i age Broomcorn — yields in pounds cleaned brush per acre. Dwarf 400 215 666* 628* 400 5 I 462 Dwarf- Standard 500 90 770 820 500 5 1 536 Standard 240 1 240 Beans — yields in lbs. beans per at ;re. White Tepary 1 1200 | 860 1 2 1 1030 Brown Tepary 1010 | 933 1 2 972 W T hite Navy | 538 | 143 1 2 | 341 New Mexico Pinto 860* 13*| 976*| 633*| 354*1 5 1 667 California Pinks | 63 ! 45 1 2 1 64 Red Kidney | 425 1 73 1 2 I 249 Bayo | I 300 | 1 33 | 1 1, 2 1 l i 167 1 Cotton — yields in lbs. “seed-cotton” per 1 acre. l_ 1 1 1 1 1 1 Durango 320 50 318 180 4 217 Mitchell’s Improved King 125 543 413 3 860 Columbia 100 100 294 118 4 163 Early King 338 280 826* 388* 342* 5 435 Trice 850 160 574 515 4 522 Lewis 125 338 2 232 Acala 200 113 2 167 Burnett '. . 730 150 2 440 Triumph 550 25 2 288 Shankhigh 600 25 2 313 Lanquin 400 50 2 225 Corn — yields in bu. corn p< er acre . (U. S. Stai idard.) Mexican June 26.1 0.0 32.4* 30.2 5.5* 5 18.8 Reid’s Yellow Dent .3 0.0 20.5 33.2 4 13.5 Hickory King 15.2 22.5 2 18.9 Silver Mine 23.7 21.6 2 22.7 Pima 29.5 28.4 2 29.0 Hopi 0.0 20.5 31.2 3 17.2 Stockton 0.0 22.8 31.9 3 18.2 Navajo 19.6 20.8 2 20.2 Australian White Flint.. 0.0 0.0 18.8 18.1 4 9.2 Chinese 10.0 12.5 2 11.3 Peanuts — yields in lbs. per acre. Valencia 1 1135 | 1333 2 | 1234 Virginia Bunch 1 1095 | 1425 2 ! 1260 Spanish 500 I 1 1160 1 1358 3 | 1006 Irish Potatoes — (Ordinary .reatment) yields in bu. (6( lbs.) 1 per acre [' Early Ohio 10.0 95.0 1.7 3 ' 35.6 Irish Cobbler 11.1 60.0 7.5 3 26.2 Green Mountain 7.8 29.2 10.8 3 15.9 Rural N. Y. No. 2 2.8 37.5 15.0 3 18.4 Pearl 5.0 68.4 11.7 1 3 28.4 Early Six Weeks 19.2 1 19.2 Burbank 13.3 1 13.3 Triumph 29.2 2.9 2 16.1 Irish Potatoes — (Covered at ; emerg ;ence w r ith ab< )ut 6 in. of st raw.) yields in bu. (60 lbs.) per acre. Early Ohio 133.4 13.3 2 73.4 Irish Cobbler 47.5 18.3 2 32.9 Green Mountain 53.4 30.8 2 42.1 Rural N. Y. No. 2 59.2 21.7 2 40.5 Pearl 50.0 5.8 2 27.9 Triumph 1 12.5 .4 2 6.5 Average of rotation and tillage plats for that year. 56 DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. GRAIN SORGHUMS. The average yields obtained with the varieties of grain sorghums show that dwarf milo, white milo, dwarf blackhull kafir, feterita, and pos- sibly red kafir are the leading grain sorghums that can be recommended for eastern New Mexico. Of these va- rieties it is probable that dwarf milo, dwarf blackhull kafir and feterita are the most dependable. Fig. 12. — “Heading” Dwarf Yellow Milo in 1915, Tucumcari Field Station; showing common method of harvesting for grain. Requires only pocket- knives, barge and team. Average in fair years, about a ton a day per man. FORAGE SORGHUMS. Nineteen varieties of for- age sorghums have been grown and tested from one to five years. The yields secured show that honey and sumac have made the highest average yields during a three-year test. Red Amber, Freed and Black Amber have been tried from three to five years and while the yields with these va lie ties have not been high they have produced fair crops and are among the most dependable varieties. Some of the va- rieties have been tried only one year ; therefore, sufficient time has not elapsed to tell what the average yields for these varieties will be. Sudan grass, while not giving a DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 57 high average yield for the three years tested, is the best crop to grow for hay. Early blackhull kafir, on account of the quality of the forage and amount of grain produced, is a valuable crop to grow, especially for silage. MILLETS. The yields secured with the nine varie- ties tested indicate that some of them will produce good yields during favorable seasons and are valuable as catch crops. COWPEAS. Ten varieties of cowpeas have been tested at the Station. From the yields secured it is noted that the Whippoorwill, Iron, Brabham and Taylor have produced the highest average yields. Fig. 13. — Homemade Cowpea-Bean Harvester. In use at Tucumcari Field Station. (The blocks behind are only for holding the implement off the ground to show knives.) BROOM CORN. Broomcorn is ranked among the im- portant cash crops for the eastern part of New Mexico. The dwarf and dwarf standard have produced the highest yields in variety tests and are probably the best varieties to grow in this section. 58 DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. BEANS. Of the varieties tested at the Station the New Mexico Pinto beans and the White and Brown Tepary beans have produced the highest average yields. The New Mexico Pinto bean is the most important va- riety grown in the State. COTTON. Several varieties of cotton have been tested each year since the Station was started. Though cotton is not generally grown in eastern New Mexico at the present time, some idea may be had by a study of the yields obtained as to the possibilities of the crop for this section. CORN. While some of the varieties of corn have made fair yields for two or more years, it is not believed that corn will rank in importance with milo and kafir through a series of years when both the grain and the stover produced are taken into consideration. Fig. 14. — Red Amber Sorgo from 1-10 Acre. Whippoorwill Cowpeas to left. Alfalfa in cocks at back. Corn and Milo further back. Other shocks Red Amber Sorgo to right and rear. Tucumcari Field Station, 1916. PEANUTS. Results secured with two years’ testing indicate that peanuts will probably do fairly well on the DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 59 sandy soils in this region. The greatest difficulty in pro- ducing a crop will be the depredations of rabbits. Unless the crop is protected by a rabbit-proof fence or unless they are grown on a large scale, peanuts will not be a profitable crop to grow. POTATOES. Several varieties of Irish potatoes have been grown at the Station. One lot received the or- dinary treatment of planting and cultivating while the other was covered with straw about the time the plants were coming up. Some difference in yields was obtained with the two methods, but it is indicated that more work will have to be done before definite conclusions can be drawn. It is generally considered, and these results seem to indicate, that potatoes are not a profitable crop to grow. A small area should be planted, however, for home use each year. Successful Dry Farming To make a success of dry farming the farmer should make free use of all reliable literature on the subject; he should study the methods of successful farmers, and then govern his own farming practices accordingly. In eastern New Mexico good grain crops even of milo and kafir are by no means always certain. Past ex- perience has shown that in the best years large grain crops and good feed crops may be raised by almost any method of farming. During the worst years nothing but a fodder crop may usually be grown, while in normal years profit- able crops are assured only by practicing the best known adaptable methods of farming. Dry farming, as practically every other type of farm- ing nowadays, usually requires, for best results, consider- able capital; for the purchase of the necessary farming implements, stock, and sufficient of the necessities of life not only for the first year, but also to tide over at least another year. Without at least sufficient capital or credit to tide over the first two years, the chances for success will be very materially reduced. A survey of the methods practiced by successful set- tlers will show that in almost every case livestock has been the basis of their success. This is a stock farming country and although an occasional successful crop farmer may be found he is the exception rather than the rule. Many well informed persons state that there is no better stock breeding section than this. Due to our comparative- ly mild climate and open winters, a very high percentage of calves and other young stock are raised. No prospect- ive settler will go wrong if he follows the lead of other successful settlers and uses livestock as the nucleus around which to build all other farming operations. DRY FARMING IN EASTERN NEW MEXICO. 61 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Acknowledgments are due Professors E. C. Chilcott, Agriculturist in Charge, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture ; and J. S. Cole, Agriculturist, Office of Dry-Land Agri- culture, for assistance in the preparation of the manu- script of this bulletin ; also to the Division of Publications of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, for the photo- graph from which Figure 1 was made. * 1 iU UNIVERSITY or RJUM08 UDO: BULLETIN No. 105 MARCH, 1917 New Mexico College of Agriculture And Mechanic Arts AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STATE COLLEGE, N. M. NEW MEXICO PINTO BEAN FIELD, SAN MIGUEL COUNTY. New Mexico Beans By FABIAN GARCIA CITIZEN PRESS Las Cruces, N. M. NEW MEXICO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BOARD OF CONTROL Board of Regents of the College C. L. HILL, President, Hill, N. M. R. E. PUTNEY, Secretary and Treasurer, Albuquerque, N. M. E. C. CRAMPTON, Raton, N. M. M. Y. MONICAL, Dexter, N. M. J. S. QUESENBERRY, Las Cruces, N. M. Advisory Members HON. W. E. LINDSEY, Governor of New Mexico, Santa Fe, N. M. HON. J. H. WAGNER, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. M. STATION STAFF GEO. E. LADD, Ph. D FABIAN GARCIA, M. S. A.... LUTHER FOSTER, M. S. A.. . D. E. MERRILL, M. S L. A. HIGLEY, Ph. D R. L. STEWART, M. S. A D. W. A. BLOODGOOD, B. S.. J. D. HUNGERFORD, B. S.. JOSE QUINTERO, B. S J. R. MEEKS, B. S. A J. W. RIGNEY, B. S. A E. J. MAYNARD, B. S. A A. B. FITE, B. S. A J. T. BARLOW, B. S. A F. C. WERKENTHIN, M. A.. R. B. THOMPSON, B. S. A,... K. B. OGILVIE, B. S H. G. SMITH* B. S. A FLOY E. FRENCH R. V. WARE C. P. WILSON, M. S President of the College Director and Horticulturist Animal Husbandman Biologist Chemist Agronomist Irrigation Engineer Nutrition Chemist Assistant Chemist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant' Horticulturist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant' Agronomist Assistant Biologist ' Assistant Poultryman Assistant in Irrigation Assistant in Dry-Land Agriculture Librarian Registrar Secretary and Editor ‘Superintendent of the Tucumcari, N. M., Field Station, operated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the New Mexico Agricul- tural Experiment Station. NEW MEXICO BEANS Introduction In this bulletin will be found articles written by a number of the county agricultural agents of their respec- tive counties : Bernalillo, Torrance, San Miguel, Colfax, and Union. These articles give information regarding bean culture in the counties mentioned, local conditions taken into consideration. While beans have been grown in New Mexico for probably the past three centuries, not until the past few years has much interest been taken in this crop. The bean has been, and is at the present time, one of the most staple foods of the native population. This crop is get- ting to be an important one in the irrigated as well as in the dry-farming communities. According to the United States Census Report for 1910,* 5,147,580 pounds of beans were raised in New Mexico in 1909, valued at $232,023. During the past four years the output has been very materially increased and for 1916, New Mexico was reported as fourth among the States in the production of beans. According to the United States Department of Agriculture Crop Report for December, 1916,** New Mexico produced in 1914, 1915, and 1916, 16,320,000, 22,080,000, and 22,500,000 pounds, valued at $615,000, $828,000, and $1,488,000, respectively. From this it will be seen that the increase in production, as well as in value, of the New Mexico bean crop, since 1910, has been marked. About 90 per cent to 95 per cent of the crop is of the New Mexico Pinto variety. Freeman of Arizona, in Bulletin No. 68, speaking of the economic value of the bean in the United States, ‘United States Census Report for 1910. “These figures have been computed from the United States Department of Agriculture Monthly Crop Report for December, 1916, 4 NEW MEXICO BEANS. quotes Tracy* as follows: 4 ‘Next to the potato the bean is by far the most important vegetable of this country. Being sold in the United States under more than 400 varietal names and having at least 185 distinct types, it easily stands first among the vegetables in the number of varieties.” The New Mexico varieties of beans are among the most drouth resistant vegetables grown in the State, being well adapted to our dry, hot climate. Pew of the introduced varieties which have been tried have been so well adapted to the New Mexico conditions, par- ticularly in the drier and warmer valleys. This agrees with Professor Thornber** of Arizona, who is authority for the statement that “only a small percentage of the species or varieties developed in sections having decid- edly different climates from that of Arizona may be suc- cessfully cultivated here.” This may be applied to New Mexico, as well, since the climates of both States are quite similar. This suggests the importance of utilizing and im- proving many of our native varieties of vegetables, in- stead of trying to adapt varieties of other origin. We find in the cultivated districts of New Mexico a number of varieties* not only of vegetables but of grains and other crops, which, through the course of cultivation and unconscious selection by the growers, have become adapt- ed to our dry, hot conditions. If these varieties were improved, no doubt they would produce, in many cases, crops considerably larger and of better quality than at present. “The Mexican Frijole Bean.” We frequently see articles printed in newspapers, and sometimes even in semi-scientific literature, and hear people— especially those from the East— discussing the Mexican “frijole” bean. From information obtained ‘American Varieties of Garden Beans, W. W. Tracy, Jr., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 109 (1907). **G. F. Freeman, Arizona Bulletin No. 68. NEW MEXICO BEANS. 5 from such sources, it would appear that this so-called Mexican “frijole” bean was some new species or some extraordinary vegetable. There seems to be an erroneous idea of what this bean is. “Frijole,” no doubt, has been derived from the Spanish word frijol, which is the term used for the botanical species of the Phaseolus (Linn.) ; just as in English the word bean is used for the different species of the same genus. We speak of “ frijol ama- rillo” or “ frijol bianco,” meaning yellow or white bean. Varieties. While in the past this crop was not raised on a suf- ficiently large scale to be, shipped out, it has always been grown for home use. No doubt, in the course of so many years of cultivation and through unconscious selection, varieties which have adapted themselves to New Mexico conditions have been produced ; and today, when the bean crop in the State is assuming such important proportions, there are one or two important native varieties. The New Mexico Pinto bean has been known to the native bean growers and to the first settlers as the Rosillo bean, and this is today the principal commercial variety that is being grown in New Mexico. It is very drouth resistant, requiring a comparatively small amount of moisture to mature it ; it is of large size, a good yielder, and very palatable. In the Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station this variety is mentioned as the Rosillo bean and as being of a white and grayish color. It is the largest of the native varieties now being grown and is peculiarly marked. While the name Pinto has now been adopted, its markings, are of a splotchy nature ; in other words, the outlines be- tween the two colors are very irregular. It is irregularly marked with olive drab to greenish etches. The cream ground color has a slight pinkish tinge. Strictly speak- ing, the Spanish word “ pinto” gives the idea of mark- ings of more regular outline than those on this bean. NEW MEXICO BEANS. £ FIG. 1. — Beans in Exhibit at New Mexico State Fair, 1916. 1, New Mexico Pinto; 2, Mixed Seed; 3, Ancient Yellow; 4, Garden Brown; 5, Bolita; 6, Navy. NEW MEXICO BEANS. 7 The other variety that has been generally planted and is at the present time of more or less importance is the Bayo. This is slightly earlier than the New Mexico Pinto and seems to be preferred by many of the native farmers for irrigated land. It is almost as large as the New Mexico Pinto, but is of a more solid color, being almost a tan, though varying to a light yellowish. A larger variation of the Bayo is found in some of the northern counties. Another variety that was formerly used quite extensively is the one that we now propose to name the “ Ancient Yellow. ” This is of a solid yellow color and is a little smaller than the Bayo. It is, on the whole, a little earlier than the other two varieties. In the lower and warmer valleys two crops from this variety are often raised during the year. A fourth variety, which has been grown to some extent during recent years, is the one known as the Cali- fornia Pink; this being one of the commercial varieties raised in California. This is slightly larger than the Ancient Yellow and a little smaller than the Bayo. It resembles the latter somewhat, but is of a dark pinkish color. This bean is not quite so well adapted to New Mexico conditions, particularly for the irrigated districts. It is considerably later in ripening, frequently makes too much vine and the yields have been rather small. Be- cause of its tendency to produce a rather large vine and ripen late, sometimes the bean beetle reduces the crop. The Tepary, which is a comparatively new variety in New Mexico, is now attracting some attention. It is an exceedingly hardy bean and will stand considerable drouth. It produces a larger vine and yields well, but shatters badly. The bean as yet has not been used very extensively for culinary purposes and does not cook quite as readily as the other varieties. The vines are very prolific, producing a large number of small pods filled with quite small white beans. The Tepary is a little smaller than the navy bean and is of the same color. NEW MEXICO BEANS. At the Experiment Station many of the large number of introduced beans tried last year gave results that were not very satisfactory. The navy variety did fairly, well. Apparently, the temperature was too high and the rela- tive humidity too low. It is the intention to eliminate FIG. 2. — Plants Selected for Improvement Work with the Ancient Yellow Bean. such of the varieties as do not appear to be well adapted to New Mexico conditions and select seed from the more promising ones. The following table will give an idea as to the com- parative number of pods and beans that the Tepary, New Mexico Pinto, Ancient Yellow and Bayo varieties pro- duced:— TAFJE 1. 1 1 1 Number 1 Tot 1 1 | Average I To VI i Tot 1 Average VARIETY lot Vines! Number | Number | Number | Weight Number lObservedl of lods of rods lof Eeanslof Bems; of Beans. 1 1 per Vine| 1 | ' ozs. per Pod Tepary 1 5 | 430 86 | 14S1 ! 9 3.4 Ancient Yellow i 3 | 216 1 1 917 I 8 1 4.2 New Mexico Pinto — 188 37 661 7 1 3.5 Bayo 1 5 | 1 166 1 33 630 7 1 1 3.8 NEW MEXICO BEANS. 9 It will be noted that the Tepary produced a larger number of pods and beans than any of the other varieties. The Ancient Yellow also produced a large number of pods. The New Mexico Pinto was third and the Bayo was last. Sails. Beans, like many other vegetables, can be grown on almost any kind of soil, provided special care is taken in the germination of the seed and cultivation of the crop. However, the best soil for this vegetable is of a light character, from a loam to a sandy loam. The adobe or hard clay soil is not so well suited to beans. If the crop is to be grown on the tighter soil it will require more care to get a good stand and in the cultivation of it. Beans belong to the leguminous or nitrogen gathering plants and may be grown on poorer soils than many other vegetables. Methods of Planting. It is very important to get a good stand, if a large yield is to be expected. Therefore, practically every bean planted should germinate. Under irrigation, fre- quently bean growers fail to get a good germination, while under dry farming conditions, lack of sufficient moisture often gives a similar result. Under irrigation, at the present time, there are two methods of planting beans that are generally practiced: the native, or wet method, and the new, or dry method. There is a third method, which is not general and which might be called the furrow method. New, or Dry, Method. This method consists first in thoroughly plowing, harrowing and preparing the seed bed, then in drilling or planting the seed; next, in irrigating (usually flood- ing) to produce germination of the seed. In using this method in irrigated districts the seed may be planted with a drill, with a bean or corn planter, with a lister, or plowed in furrows. The important feature, however, 10 NEW MEXICO BEANS. is the irrigation to produce germination. Care should be taken that the beans are not put in too deeply, or else a large percentage of them will not be able to break through the crust which is formed on the surface by the irrigation water. It has been observed during the bean experiments which have been conducted at the Station that in addition to the crusting of the surface soil, as a rule, many weeds begin to germinate immediately after the ground is irri- gated, and in most cases a large percentage of them will sprout ahead of the beans. By the time the latter FIG.3. — Planting New Mexico Pinto Beans with a Corn Planter, Under Dry-farming Conditions. are up so that the row can be seen the whole surface between the rows will be pretty well grown up with weeds ; particularly if the ground has been allowed to be- come foul with them in previous years. This will make it necessary to begin cultivating the weeds out immediately ; if allowed to grow for some time they will interfere with the proper development of the bean plant. It has been observed that, as a rule, it takes more hoeing and culti- vating to produce the crop when it has been irrigated up, and usually it becomes necessary to irrigate the field NEW MEXICO BEANS. 11 very soon after germination lias' taken place. This in- creases the number of irrigations to mature the crop. This method can be used under dry-farming condi- tions, except that the moisture for the germination of the seed will have to come from the rains. Native, or Wet, Method. This method consists first in preparing the land for irrigation. The preparation consists in breaking down the old weeds, raking them up in piles and burning them, and in plowing up borders for the control of the water while irrigating the land. After this is done the land is irrigated to add the moisture necessary to produce ger- mination when the seed is planted. As soon as the soil is dry enough so that the plow will scour, the land is plowed, usually with a small plow. The beans are planted in furrows and covered as the land is being plowed. The method usually followed in planting the seed is to have a man or boy follow behind the plow and drop the seed in the furrow. See Fig. 4. FIG. 4. — Planting by the Native, or Wet, Method. 12 NEW MEXICO BEANS. The seed may be dropped in hills or in a continuous row. The practice by the native farmers is to drop it in hills about a foot apart and, as a rule, the distance or width between the rows is three or four furrows. In practice it is found that the width between the rows varies considerably. This is due in part to the fact that those who do the plowing do not pay particular attention to this point. It is also found that the rows are not very straight. Due to the unevenness of the distance between the rows, it is somewhat difficult to cultivate the crop with bean cultivators. An improvement along this line can be made by being more careful, having the rows straighter and the distance between uniform. The Station is at present investigating a gang plow that will plow the necessary width between the rows at one time and drop the seed in the furrow. This will perform the operation of plowing the land, dropping the seed and covering it at the same time, thus reducing the expense of the crop, for the reason that one man and team can do the work of three teams and four men. It will also tend to plant the seed at a more uniform depth, because all of the land will be plowed the same depth. After the beans have been plowed under in the moist soil, the land is dragged with any kind of smoothing drag or an Acme harrow. The old practice is to use some sort of drag to smooth the soil and pack it. It is believed that the Acme harrow will perform the same functions as a drag and at the same time leave a mulch on the sur- face which should, to a large degree, reduce the evapora- tion from the moist soil. In plowing the beans in, better germination may be had if they are not over 3 to 4 inches in depth, though fair results may be expected from a 5-inch depth. If planted over 5 inches deep, or as shallow as 1 inch, the germination may be poor. The crop may be planted in NEW MEXICO BEANS. 13 rows 2 to 3 feet apart, and the seed should be dropped from 6 to 12 inches in the row. In the experiments con- ducted at the Station, the plats which were planted with beans 6 inches apart in the row gave the largest yields. (See Table 3.) FIG. 5 . — Planting Beans wilfr a Single row Planter. In many ways the native, or wet, method, has advan- tages over the dry method. If the land is properly irri- gated and plowed and the beans are put in in the right way, one may be able to get an almost perfect stand. Also fewer weeds come up, because the weed seeds which start to germinate when the land is irrigated will be de- stroyed when the beans are being plowed under. When the beans are planted in this way they seem to withstand considerable drouth, and do not need irrigation for a long time after they have come up. As a rule, they require less cultivation, hoeing, and irrigation than when planted by the dry method. 14 NEW MEXICO BEANS. The native, or wet, method can be used under dry- farming conditions, and will usually give satisfactory results, if there is sufficient moisture in the soil for proper germination. Furrow Method. This method is not generally practiced, but if prop- erly used it js quite likely that a good stand can be had. After the beans are planted in the dry soil, furrows are made between the rows with any kind of a furrower and the water is applied through these furrows. The moist- ure reaches the seed through percolation. In this way not much of a crust will form over the seed. It would take longer to irrigate, because the irrigating would have to be done very carefully and slowly. Alkali. While beans are very resistant to drouth and heat they are not so to alkali, and if the soil is heavily laden with any of the soluble salts, the stand is likely to be poor, though all of the other factors may have been favor- able for germination. Figure 8 shows a strip in the middle of the plat with very few plants. This seems to be due to the excess of soluble salts in the soil. Preparation of the Seed Bed. Under dry-farming conditions, where there is no water for irrigation and where the farmer is dependent on the rainfall, bean growers should exert every effort to conserve all of the moisture possible, taking advantage of all of the natural conditions and planting the beans at the time when they can get the most good out of the moisture in the soil ; provided, of course, it is not too late for the crop to mature. This being the case it can readily be seen that, under dry-farming conditions, it is of the utmost importance to catch and conserve all the moisture possible in the winter and spring. Therefore, the dry farmer should give this matter his undivided attention. The practice NEW MEXICO BEANS. 15 should be, wherever the soil and climatic conditions are favorable, for the land to be plowed in the fall, winter, or early spring, in order to catch as much of the moisture as possible. It is considered at the present time that the fall or early winter plowing should be quite deep, probably from 8 to 10 inches, while the spring plowing should, as a rule, be somewhat shallower. Some farmers practice disking fall plowed land and leaving ‘it in that condition through the winter. Others simply leave it in the rough condi- tion. In the spring, the land, whether fall or spring plowed, should be disked and harrowed. It may also be smoothed before planting. Considerable care should be exercised in all of these operations in districts where the soil tends to drift and blow. In some of the dry farming districts bean growers list their beans in the spring. Planting. This crop may be planted with a lister, bean or corn planter, grain drill, or may be dropped by hand in the furrow. In a number of the bean growing sections, par ticularly among the native farmers, the beans are plowed in; that is to say, they are dropped in the furrow and covered over with a plow as the land is being plowed. Up to the present time there is considerable difference of opinion as to the best distance to plant, and because of this fact the planting is being done in rows 2, 2 y 2 , 3, 3 y 2 > and even 4 feet apart. Under dry farming, where the moisture is somewhat limited, it is well not to plant too thickly. Until more experimental work is done along this line it would be a difficult matter to say just what is the best distance to plant, but probably from 3 to 3 y 2 feet between the rows and from 10 to 20 pounds of seed per acre, would give as good results as any distance in most of the dry-farming districts. Under irrigation, thicker planting can be practiced, and the amount of seed that may be planted per acre varies from 25 to 35 pounds. 16 NEW MEXICO BEANS. Time to Plant. The date of planting varies with the locality and the altitude, and also with the moisture in the soil. For this reason, beans are being planted from early in the spring to late in July. The thing to keep in mind is that they must he planted early enough so that they will mature the crop. As a rule, under normal conditions, it will take about 90 days for most of the native varieties to ripen properly. By knowing about when the first killing frost may be expected in the fall, the grower will be able to know the approximate latest date that the planting may safely be done. However, everything considered, it would be better, if all the factors remain favorable, for the beans to be planted early. Aside from the earlier maturing of the crop, much of the damage that is often caused by the bean beetle, rust and fungus to the later plantings may be avoided. In the northeastern dry- farming districts of the State, the beans are planted from the 8th of May to about the 15th of July. In some of the north central districts, where the altitude varies from 4,400 to 8,000 feet, they are planted from the 15th of April to about the middle of July. Irrigation. Beans grown under irrigation will have to be irri- gated to produce germination, either before or after they are planted. In practically all cases an additional irriga- tion will be required to mature the crop, and occasionally even two or three irrigations ; depending on whether it is a dry or rainy season, and to some extent, upon the soil in which they are planted. As has already been stated, when the beans are irrigated up, it will usually be neces- sary to irrigate more frequently than when they have been planted according to the wet method. The irrigation of the fields may be given in plats or furrows ; the better plan is to cultivate first, setting the shovels of the cultivator so as to ridge the rows a little, thus leaving a furrow between the rows and running the NEW MEXICO BEANS. 17 water down through these furrows. It is not necessary to apply large quantities of water; in fact, oftentimes a large amount of water at an irrigation may be detrimental to the plant. FIG. 6. — Irrigating New Mexico Pinto Ccans Planned by the Native Method. Depth of Planting. The matter of the germination of the seed is con- sidered of great importance and of first consideration with all agricultural crops. Even the bean, with its great vitality, if not properly planted may give a poor germina- tion. The question of the best methods to be used in growing beans must be considered. The Experiment Sta- tion has carried on investigations along the line of ascer- taining at what depths under the different methods of growing beans the best germination may be had. In a general way, there are two methods of growing beans, as considered from the soil moisture factor. They are either planted in moist soil or in dry soil. If planted in dry soil, under irrigation they must be irrigated up. Un- der dry-farming conditions if there is not enough moist- ure in the soil, they must depend upon subsequent rain to bring them up. If planted in moist soil and if every- 18 NEW MEXICO BEANS. Summary sajnimj inoL 193 64 51 49 70 93 82 95 307 197 ' 127 : 85 92 93 184 11 ss 193 175 55 74 78 uotibuiuijoo mox gSislgliS”llllSSIll^g| 811 llsgs 8iBUTRIJ0£) OJ , P8IIBJ *0M 1 P0JBUIUI -J90 -OM 30 162 188 187 181 155 155 158 97 43 59 134 190 194 187 132 143 168 . 75 65 27 50 179 168 181 123 162 1 P01UBH SUB8g iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 0 jBuimj 09 oi P9IIBJ 'OM §5Sg§SSSgJ5S'ggSS^SSSg|S|§SSS9gfeS53g 1 P91BUIUI -J09 ‘OM 157 154 141 144 129 132 113 127 61 30 124 119 105 91 100 64 62 44 1 160 155 \n 121 83 86 68 40 34 P91UBIR SUBOg I 1 S0UOUI ip81UBId md9Q IIOS Aj<3 JO 10A\ UI P91UEH SSSSiS^bbbbSSSSSbbbbb^^Sbbbbb ^^^QQCQQ^^^QOCaa^^^QCCCQ •om m.oh VARIETY Colleg-e Yellow . . . B ‘7° N. M. Pinto TABLE 2— (Continued). 2STEW MEXICO BEANS, 19 Summary uoiiBuimaao 0SBlU90J9d t^«OC?)eDOO^t^OO>iftOOOl^— <0 — OvCcD«0 i>QOOOJ>iO*i50inOOiCcc v «t , foo50cocooo ooioi>osioiXNiooc^.'^i>T-^cor^oo^H TH^T -T* T- CN SO UOI1BUTOIJ0O IB101 vj*ir3 0o>T»io«5irt(N«ot^eo — or'-i>e* c.?!- r /j«omj)THu;rtomoOcoinoO!© C* CO CO G* G* G< G< G< -rH G^COCOCOC^G^GJG) 1915 01BUIUIJ0O 01 P9IIBd ‘ON 00G505Vj<^l>^Ci'rHC5^OCi s ^C0^L0l>V}l^H o(NO)^THOioii:(NhC5^ co co c* io o ^ i> paiBuim -jay 'ON Oth^OCOMM^OthO^-hOMWlOCOOOS CO^hi.OOOCO^yf^G'IOiOOOOO^COiO^ P91UBTd SUB0g oooooooooooooooooooo = ~ - ooooooooooooooooo ©* g* g* g* g* g< g< g* g* g< g« g^ g.* g* g< Gt g* g* ot g< 1914 01EUIUIJ0O 01 P9IIEJ 'ON (»O-i>J)00NOt'lSOr0<'!l'OOOi'<-*(Neovj oo *> co ■ 'O PdtS9AJI?H 9i«a 8-26 8-26 8-26 8-26 8-26 8-26 8-26 8-26 •sqi :p91UT?H P99S JO pinornv ^ ^ ^ O'* v}< v}< CN (N CO (N g Acre i. Planted May 13 •sqi • 9J0V Jad PI9TA P9induioo 760 | 1200 | 672 | 560 776 | 680 | 880 | 480 •sqi :pi9iA O5iO00t^O500-<-«<£> £ pojsoA jrg 1 9P3(Ij ooobobooooobooob •soi ipoiueul P99S jo pinouiy ^ ;$» a* ^ ecioooc^coc^vucj y-ilz i ITOS Aj(i jo! 18AY UI paiueidj Wet | Wet | Wet | 1 Dry 1 Wet | Wet Wet Dry — sgqoui Hardy! ooucisia 12x24 . 6x24 12x24 1 12x24 6x24 12x24 | ISBopeojg JO savou ui 9job leojy •OM Pdcl ~ e« « oo - ^ Variety Bayo Bayo Bayo Bayo 1 N. M. Pinto. N. M. Pinto. N. M. Pinto. N. M. Pinto. i Per acre ..j 26 NEW MEXICO BEANS. and leveled, furrows 3 to 5 inches in depth were made with a small plow and the seed dropped in the bottoms of them. The furrows were covered by running the Acme harrow over them. The beans in plats 2 and 6 were dropped closer to- gether in the furrow and it took from 4 to 5% pounds to the plat. All the beans were harvested from August 9th to 12th. Plats 2 and 6 produced considerably more than any of the others. Plat 2 produced at the rate of 1200 pounds to the acre. It will be noticed that plats 7 and 8, planted in the dry soil, gave the smallest crop. The eight plats in Acre II were planted the same as those in Acre I. Plats 1, 2, 5, and 6 were plowed in accord- ing to the native method, while 7 and 8 were planted in the dry soil, and 3 and 4 were broadcast and plowed under. All of the plats were harvested on the 26th of August. The yield of the plats in this acre was a little less than that from the first acre. This was due, to some degree, to the fact that when the six wet plats were plant- ed the soil had dried a little too much to produce the best germination possible. The plats were irrigated on May 20, and the beans were plowed under May 24. Plats 7 and 8 were irrigated on May 27. Aside from the soil having been a little too dry in the wet plats when the seed was planted, a heavy wind shortly after germination killed many of the plants. There was also a streak of alkali soil running through this strip, reducing the ger- mination. (See Figure 8.) Plats 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 in Acre III were irrigated May 29 and the beans plowed in June 3. Plats 7 and 8 were irrigated on June 6. The yield from all of the wet plats in this acre was quite good, while that from plats 7 and 8 was very small. The wet plats in Acre IV were irrigated on June 10, and the beans planted on June 13. Plats 7 and 8 were irrigated on June 19. It will be no- NEW MEXICO BEANS. 27 ticed that the yield from this acre was just a little higher than that produced from Acre II, though plats 7 and 8 gave the lowest yields. The yield results in this table show that the wet plats planted 6 x 24 inches gave, in all cases but one, the largest yield; while in the majority of cases the wet plats planted 12 x 24 inches gave a larger yield than the dry plats planted at the same distance. All of these plats were more or less affected by alkali salts, which tended to reduce the yield somewhat. On the 20th of July the Bayo, New Mexico Pinto and Ancient Yellow were planted, to see how late beans could be planted and yet mature. These were harvested on October 8. The beans were not as plump nor as large as those from earlier plantings. During August and Sep- tember there was considerable rain and the mildew af- fected many of the plants. The beans tried in 1916 were planted on a piece of land that had grown a crop of corn in 1915. The corn received very little care and the middles grew up in weeds and grass. The soil, however, was of a good bean type. After the corn was harvested in the fall of 1915> the corn stalks were broken down, raked, and burned. On the last of April .97 inch of rain fell and this mois- tened the soil considerably. However, by the time the plats were laid off and prepared for planting, most of the moisture had evaporated. On May 11, plats 8 and 10 (see Table 4) were irrigated, to add moisture to the soil for germination of the seed. In five days the soil had dried enough so that it could be properly plowed. May 17 plats 8 and 10 were planted according to the native or wet method, to the Bayo and New Mexico Pinto beans, respectively. The beans were plowed under to a depth of from 3 to 5 inches. The soil had dried a little too much in spots and the germination in these dry spots was not very satisfactory. The beans were planted in furrows, 30 inches apart by 4 to 8 inches in the row. 28 NEW MEXICO BEANS. On April 28 plats 1, 4, 7, and 9 were plowed, as a good many weeds were coming up. On May 18 the beans were planted 2 to 3 inches deep in these plats, with a garden hand drill (Planet Junior), in rows 30 inches apart and about 6 inches in the row. The soil was very dry and on May 23 the plats were flooded to produce germination. On June 9 plats 2, 3, 5, and 6 were irrigated to add moisture to the soil for germination. On June 13 plats 2 and 5 were planted according to the wet method and the beans were plowed in 4 inches deep. Plats 3 and 6 were planted on the same date by drilling the beans in the moist soil about 2 to 3 inches in depth. Before drilling the beans an Acme harrow was run over the irri- gated soil to destroy the little weeds that had started to germinate, and to make a mulch over the field. On June 14 plat 11 was irrigated and the New Mex- ico Pinto beans were plowed in on the 17th. The seed was covered about 4 inches deep. The soil in plats 2, 3, 5, 6, and 11 was in excellent moisture condition at the time of planting the seed and the germination was good. The following table will give the data on the time and method of planting, amount of seed used per plat, actual yield per plat and computed yield per acre. (Page 29.) On May 18, the next day after plats 8 and 10 were planted, an Acme harrow was run over the plowed soil to level and mulch it. The same operation was per- formed in the cases of plats 2, 5 and 11 the next day after planting them. The beans in plats 8 and 10 were up by the 27th of May, ten days after planting, while those in plats 1, 4, 7, and 9 were coming up by June 1, though the germination in plats 7 and 9 was noticeably slower. On June 20 the beans in plats 2, 3, 5, and 6 were coming up nicely, although 5 and 6 were about a day ahead of 2 and 3. At this time no material difference TABLE 4.— SHOWING YIELDS AND DATES OF HARVESTING UNDER DIFFERENT METHODS AND DATES OF PLANTING. NEW MEXICO BEANS. 29 Yield in Pounds Computed per Acre 920 1333 952 1707 2032 1825 897 1048 960 968 1111 Actual T- TH T- T« TH rl Date Harvested Aug. 26 Sept. 1 Sept. 1 Sept. 1 Sept. 6 Sept. 6 Aug. 29 Aug. 29 Sept. 1 Sept. 1 Sept. 9 Beans Planted; lbs. CO-rH-rHCO^-rHCOCOCO^r-H Date Planted May 18 June 13 June 13 May 18 June 13 June 13 May 18 May 17 May 18 May 17 June 17 Planted in Wet or Dry Soil Dry | Wet Wet Dry Wet | Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Wet Method of Planting Drilled Plowed in Drilled Drilled Plowed in Drilled Drilled Plowed in Drilled Plowed in Plowed in Area; acre 1 .* .063 .063 .126 .003 .063 .126 .126 .126 .063 .063 Number of Plat -r-cC*CO^lft!Oi>00050-*-H VARIETY College Yellow . J Tepary Bayo N. M. Pinto 30 NEW MEXICO BEANS. was observed in the stand between the plats plowed un- der and those drilled after irrigation. On June 22, the vines in plats 1, 4, 7, and 9 were needing water and were irrigated the second time. They were again irrigated on August 2. These plats, which were planted in the dry soil, were irrigated three times ; once to produce germination of the seed and twice to mature the crop. Plats 8 and 10, which were planted according to the wet method, were irrigated but once, on August 1, to mature the crop. The same thing was true of plats 2, 3, 5, 6, and 11, which were irrigated once, on August 2, to mature the crop. The Ancient Yellow in plat 1 started to bloom July 5 and by the 18th there were many pods large enough to gather as green beans. The Tepary, in plat 5, and the Bayo in plats 7 and 8, were blooming by July 6, and these had pods large enough to pick by the 19th; while the New Mexico Pinto in plats 9 and 10 was starting to bloom by July 8, and the pods were large enough to pick by the 22nd. On July 24 the Ancient Yellow in plats 2 and 3 were starting to bloom and by August 8 it had pods large enough to pick. The Tepary in plats 5 and 6 did not start to bloom until July 26 and the beans were large enough to pick by August 8. The New Mexico Pinto in plat 11 was blooming by July 29 and by the 11th of August it had pods large enough to pick. On the whole, the Ancient Yellow was a little earlier than the other varieties. It took from 11 to 15 days for the pods to become large enough for use as green beans. The method of planting had no material effect on the blooming of the plants, the maturing of the pods, or the ripening of the crop, but it did have on the yield. By referring to the columns on actual and estimated yields, given in the table, it will be noticed that the plats planted according to the native or wet method gave the largest crop, while the plats drilled in the moist soil gave NEW MEXICO BEANS. 31 also a better yield than the plats in which the beans were planted in the dry soil and irrigated to produce germina- tion. It was also noticed that, on the whole, the stand was not quite as good on the plats planted in the dry soil and then irrigated up. These plats also required more irrigation, cultivation and hoeings, because more weeds came up in the middles than was the case with the plats in which the beans were plowed under after irrigation. The plats in which the beans were drilled nf the moist soil had more weeds than those in which the seed was plowed under, though they required no more irrigation. The results of these experiments indicate that the best way to plant beans under irrigation is to irrigate the land first and either plow them in or drill them in the moist soil. Planting in the dry soil and irrigating the beans up tends to pack the soil and thus prevent the best germination possible, encourages weeds to come up immediately, and requires more frequent subsequent irri- gations, hoeings and cultivations. If the beans are planted in the dry soil and have to be irrigated up, great care should be taken not to plant them too deeply ; other- wise, many of them will not be able to break through the crust formed by the flooding of the land. If they are to be irrigated up, the best germination can be had when the planting is done from 1 to 3 inches in depth. Plant- ing deeper than this will reduce the stand very ma- terially. The young bean plant cannot come through a hard soil very easily, if it is planted too deeply. It comes up in a doubled-up shape, as is shown in Figure 10. Even if the seed is not buried too deeply, if the soil is hard, the cotyledons may occasionally break off and remain below the surface. If the plant does this it is not very likely that it will grow. If the ground has been irrigated to get it moistened for germination of the seed, the beans can be covered 32 NEW MEXICO BEANS. FIG. 10. — Illustrating Habit of Germination. 1, Breaking through the hard soil. 2, Just through the soil. 3, Plant well started. 4, A plant that has been seriously injured by the baking of the surface soil. NEW MEXICO BEANS. 33 3 to 4, or even 5, inches deep, if planted according to the native or wet method ; and 2 to 3 inches if they are drilled in. It is not advisable to cover them too shallow, as the top soil soon loses its moisture, and the seed may not even germinate, or if they do the plants will soon begin to suffer for the lack of water. The deeper they are, the better, provided they can come through the soil. The plants will develop a good deep root system and will require less irrigation and less moisture, either under irrigation or dry farming. Approximate Cost of Growing Beans per Acre by the Wet Method. Preparing the land for irrigation $ .40 Irrigating before planting 15 Plowing at planting 2.00 Dropping seed 70 Dragging land after plowing 20 One cultivation 50 One hoeing 1.65 One irrigation 20 Pulling beans by hand 1.80 Total $7.60 In this estimate the cost of the seed, the threshing r the sacking, and grading of the crop are not included. In case an extra cultivation, hoeing or irrigation is given the field, it will add that much to the cost of production. In planting according to the dry method the cost of preparing the land for irrigation, plowing, irrigating, planting the seed, and pulling the beans by hand will be about the same as with the wet method. The cost of hoeing, cultivations, and the irrigating of the field will be greater. Under dry farming conditions, where the bean grow- er will not have to prepare his land for irrigation or irrigate it for germination of the seed, and where there is no subsequent irrigation for the crop and very little hoeing, the cost of production is, no doubt, less than under irrigation. 34 NEW MEXICO BEANS. Seed Selection. The matter of seed selection cannot be too strongly emphasized. Good seed is one of the most important factors in the production of a good, profitable crop. New Mexico farmers, as a rule, have not given this feature as much consideration as it deserves, and until more attention is devoted to this point, mixed and inferior crops may be expected. At this time, when the farmers have so much competition on the market, the question of seed selection is of still greater importance, in order to produce strictly pure products of standard varieties. The New Mexico farmer is not exempt from the necessity of practicing seed selection. * This is not only true of all agricultural crops, but of the bean crop as well. The New Mexico Pinto bean, which is so well adapted to the climatic and soil conditions of the State, has been grown for so many years under dry farming and under irrigation without the proper selection of seed, that there FIG. 11. — Selecting New Mexico Pinto Bean Seed for Planting. are found rather marked differences as regards size and color markings. The bean growers , therefore, should give considerable attention to the elimination of varia- tions which do not come up to the best standard of the NEW MEXICO BEANS. 35 Pinto bean. The planting of this bean without paying any attention to the careful selection of the seed should be discouraged. In all cases good plump beans of uni- form size and color of the type should be selected and planted. Nutritive Value. The bean is a leguminous plant and is, therefore, quite rich in protein. The native varieties— Bayo, An- cient Yellow, and New Mexico Pinto— are rich in proteid, cook easily, and are very palatable. The Tepary bean is not quite as rich in proteid, does not cook quite as readily as the native varieties, and is hardly so palatable. The following figures show the percentages of proteid obtained by analyses made recently by Dr. L. A. Higley of the Department of Chemistry:— Ancient Yellow 21.88% proteid New Mexico Pinto 21.88% proteid Bayo 23.19% proteid Tepary 19.69% proteid Navy 21.44% proteid Black Eye 19.69% proteid These figures are on the wet basis. Consumption. The consumption of the New Mexico beans has in- creased very materially during the past two or three years. While this is true, very few, if any, of the res- taurants and hotels have beans on their bills of fare. If these establishments could be induced to use more of them, putting them on their bills of fare, the consump- tion of the New Mexico beans would increase consider- ably more. There are many ways of cooking the native beans. The following is a good method, used by the Spanish- Americans, of cocking the New Mexico Pinto bean:— Take 1 pint of the New Mexico Pinto beans. Wash clean. Put them in a graniteware or other suitable cook- ing vessel. Pour 3 pints of boiling water over them and place on the stove to cook. Get them to boiling as soon 36 NEW MEXICO BEANS. as possible, and keep boiling until done. Do not let the water boil below the surface of the beans, but keep it above by adding hot water to the vessel from time to time, possibly every three-quarters of an hour to an hour, depending on the heat. If the water boils down the beans are liable to burn. Keep the vessel covered while boiling, but allow escape for the steam. Never add cold water to the vessel while the beans are cooking. Keep up a steady heat until they are boiled soft. It will take about two and a half to three and a fourth hours to cook them well; the older the beans the longer it will take them to cook. When about done, add the necessary amount of salt. When the beans are done they may be served imme- diately, or they can be partially mashed and fried in a small amount of lard, the lard being as hot as possible before the beans are poured into it. The frying makes them more palatable. PESTS. Perhaps the bean beetle is the most common pest that the bean grower has to fight, though some trouble is experienced from the cutworms, also from rust and mildew. Professor Merrill of the Biological Department has prepared the following article on the bean pests “The Bean Lady-Bird, or Bean Beetle, as it is commonly called, is the most important insect enemy of the bean in New Mexico. It is about one-fourth inch in length, hemispherical in shape, orange brown in color, with sixteen black spots on the wing covers. The other members of this family of beetles are beneficial and should be recognized as such. “The adult bean beetles hibernate, emerging late in spring and laying clusters of eggs on the under side of the bean leaf. Several hundred, eggs may be laid by one female. In a few days the yellow, spiny larvae hatch and begin to eat the tissue from the under side of the leaf, leaving only the* white skeleton of the leaf. Most of the damage is done by the adult beetles in eating holes in the leaves. “Beans planted as early as possible in the season usually mature a crop before the beetles get very numerous. Late plant- NEW MEXICO BEANS. 37 ings suffer greatly from the attacks of the increased numbers in the later generations. Early planting is better, also, in regard to prevention of bean rust. “Spraying for the bean beetle may be practiced successfully as a preventive measure. Experiments indicate that the adults will pass sprayed fields and lay their eggs upon fields unsprayed. The spraying, then, should be done first before the eggs are laid. The farmer will have to decide for himself the exact date. A first spraying is not effective if done when already a full brood of young are hatched. If the first spray is put on at the time suggested, usually there is no need for a second. Care should be taken to spray the under side of the leaf, for there the eggs are laid and there the young hatch and begin to eat. For large fields a sprayer with row attachment throwing a fine spray should be used. “As a spray, use powdered arsenate of lead at the rate of 2 to 2 V 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. As a partial preventive of rust, at a small cost, bordeaux mixture may be substituted for the water.” Cutworms. “Cutworms are the naked, greenish or dusky larvae of a number of species of dusky-winged moths that fly at night for the most part. In the spring of 1914 there was a great number of one species of moth of this group prevalent very generally over New Mexico. “The usual life history is as follows: The eggs laid .by the moths in late summer hatch into small caterpillars, or ‘cutworms,’ which lie concealed just beneath the surface of the ground near tender parts of plants. They feed mostly at night. Later cold weather and lack of food necessitate hibernation in the soil or under rubbish, weed piles, etc. In the spring, feeding is resumed again. The damage is more noticeable at that time for the cut- worms are fair sized, hungry, and vegetation is scarce. After a time the caterpillars reach their full size, go into the soil to pupate, and later emerge as moths to lay more eggs for later generations. Alfalfa fields harbor enormous numbers of these cutworms. “Control: Many moths may be caught at night by placing a light above a tub of water. This will not reduce the number of cutworms much, as the females do not fly far before laying the eggs. It will reduce the nuisance of having the moths in such numbers about the house. Water standing 6 or 8 hours on an irrigated field should kill many of the cutworms in the soil. A reliable remedy is the poisoned bait made as follows: Mix 1 pound of Paris green with 25 pounds of dry bran. Add 2 or 3 quarts of molasses to 5 or 6 gallons of water and stir the mixture thor- 38 NEW MEXICO BEANS. oughly into the poisoned bran. Let this stand for several hours' before using. In infested fields scatter broadcast, in the evening, pieces of this bait the size of two or three fingers together. In gardens, ' strew the pieces along the bases of the plants being at- tacked. In this dry climate the application may have to be repeated to give best results.” Rust of Beans. “This fungous disease of the bean is marked, first, by a ten- dency toward yellowing of the leaves and, later, by the production of spots on the under sides of the leaves yielding the dusty red rust. The destruction of the foliage by this disease is apt to cause a too early maturing of the beans and a consequent loss in yield. The rust usually appears late in the season and is most injurious if the season be moist. “The old leaves and vines hold the fungus over from one year to the next. Such should be burned after the crop is off, so as to reduce the chances for infection the next year. “Among varieties of beans there is difference as to the sus- ceptibility to the rust. From observations the New Mexico Pinto bean, Tepary, and navy beans are less affected by the rust than most others grown in the State. “Aside from trying to get resistant varieties, control of the disease is mostly along preventive, lines. Early planting tends ta mature the crop before the rust may become injurious. If bor- deaux mixture is used in combination with the lead arsenate for the bean beetle, it will help some to prevent infection. When once the rust appears there is as yet no remedy for the affected plants.” Powdery Mildew of Beans. “This disease appears first on the leaves as whitish spots of the dense threads of the fungus. The spots may run together in some cases and cover the leaf, and even stem and pods. It is more apt to be injurious late in the season in moist weather. Attack by this disease is not as often disastrous as is attack by the rust. The same recommendations apply, in general, as to prevention. Dusting the plants thoroughly with flowers of sulphur will usually control this fungus if applied promptly on appearance of spots. “It is well, as a matter of precaution against all bean diseases,, to insist, when buying, on getting seed from disease free fields, if possible, and to select seed from disease free plants when using home grown seed.” The following articles were prepared by the county agricultural agents in several of the principal bean grow- ing counties of New Mexico:— NEW MEXICO BEANS. 39 BERNALILLO COUNTY. Introduction. Beans have been grown in this County, which is slightly north and west of the central part of the State, since its early history, and are one of the principal foods of the Spanish-Ameri- can people. However, it has never been considered a money crop. They are grown in both the valley and mountainous districts, principally the latter. The New Mexico Pinto bean is the leading variety, though the Bayo is sometimes grown, because of its quick maturing habit. The area devoted to bean culture in this County would probably not exceed one thousand acres. They are grown on a majority of the farms, on small areas. Seed selection is seldom or never practiced, and as a consequence the varieties are very badly mixed. Seasonal Conditions. The elevation of the Rio Grande Valley in the County is ap- proximately 4,950 feet. The mountainous districts, in the eastern portion of the County, are considerably higher. The average date of the last killing frost, in the spring, is April 18; an occasional killing frost has occurred as late as May 15. The average date of the first killing frost in the fall is October 19. Some have been reported as early .as September 17. The annual rainfall averages 7.51 inches, nearly fifty per cent of which occurs during June, July and August; the remainder being equally distributed through- out the other nine months. The readings from which these data were compiled were taken in the vicinity of Albuquerque, and will hardly apply to the higher altitudes, where much winter snow falls. The table below shows the monthly and seasonal temperatures and precipitations. Planting. Very little attention is given to the preparation of a proper seed bed. The most successful planters fall plow, and harrow several times during the' winter and spring. A good seed bed for the catching and holding of winter moisture is necessary in the dry farming districts, but is not considered so essential where irrigation is practiced. The land on which beans are to be grown is generally irrigated a few days in advance of the planting season, and as soon as it is ready to plow the seed is scattered broadcast by hand or dropped in the furrows. Thus at one operation the seed bed is prepared and the seed planted. The field is then gone over with a heavy log or drag, which tends to firm and smooth the soil. Borders are laid out with a plow and reinforced with 40 NEW MEXICO BEANS. NORMAL MONTHLY, SEASONAL, AND ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND PRE- CIPITATION AT ALBUQUERQUE, BERNALILLO COUNTY, N. M. TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION MONTH Mean Absolute Maximum Absolute Minimum Mean Total Amount for the Driest Year Total Amount for the Wettest Year Snow, Averag-e Depth |Deg. F. Deg..F. Deg. F. Inches Inches Inches Inches December 1 34.4 69 3 0.40 0.84 2.93 1.8 January 1 33.8 70 —4 0.40 0.32 1.00 2.0 February | 39.3 | 78 j -10 | 0.24 Trace Trace 1.7 Winter | 35.8 | 1 , ^ 1.04 | 1 1.16 | 3.93 5.5 March 47.2 1 | 89 12 0.21 Trace Trace 0.7 April 55.7 89 13 0.53 .00 4.20 Trace May 64.7 | | 95 30 0.39 | 0.23 .00 0.0 Spring- * | 55.9 1 1 1 1.13 | 0.23 4.20 0.7 June | 73.4 | ! 104 37 1 0.76 Trace 1.37 0.0 July 1 77.1 | 104 44 1.16 1.20 0.22 0.0 August | 75.3 | 99 45 1.30 0.70 0.72 0.0 Summer | '75.3 1 1 1 3.22 1.90 2.31 0.0 September 1 i 67.8 97 30 0.88 0.55 0.59 0.0 October | 56.6 85 24 0.73 Trace .00 0.4 November | 43.3 76 7 0.51 1.10 4.70 0.6 Fall | ^ 55.9 | , 1 , 1 2.12 | ^ 1.65 | 1 5.29 | 1.0 1 Year 1 55.7 | I 104 | 1 ' -10 | 1 ! 7.51 1 j 4.94 15.73 7.2 the hoe. The seed is generally covered four to six inches deep. Seldom are the fields watered before the beans germinate, as this packs the soil and causes a poor stand. In the dry-farming districts in the County the methods of planting are the same as previously described, excepting that they do not irrigate or make borders. The .seeding rate is not definitely known, but varies between twenty and forty pounds to the acre, according to the ideas of the planter. The principal planting dates are early spring and midsummer. Much of the acreage is planted from June 1 to July 15. Cultivation. Seldom are horse tools used for cultivating beans, as few of the bean growers possess such implements; this would also be NEW MEXICO BEANS. 41 impossible where the beans are planted broadcast. The fields are usually gone over twice and the weeds pulled by hand or chopped with the hoe: This is all the cultivation that is given. They are irrigated one to three times, according to the seasonal conditions, but generally when the vines are about half grown and again when in full bloom. They are always flooded, and if the water is very silty they are either not irrigated at all or a very light application is made. This is because the vines are often killed by being covered or allowed to stand for any considerable length of time in muddy water. Harvesting and Threshing. The harvesting is all done by hand, in this County. Usually the plants are pulled in the early morning, when wet with dew, as the beans do not shatter badly excepting when very dry. Sel- dom are they pulled until all the pods are well matured; they are then thrown in small piles about the field. The next day they are hauled to the threshing yards and piled. This yard is a hard spot of earth from which has been swept all the loose dirt. If there is any considerable quantity the beans are tramped out with animals, principally horses and goats. If the acreage is small they are beaten out with a flail. They are cleaned by winding, and sacked. No fanning machines are used. An occasional field is threshed and cleaned with a small grain thresher. During the past few years great damage has resulted to the crop from the work of the bean beetle. H. C. STEWART, County Agricultural Agent, Albuquerque, N. M. COLFAX COUNTY. At the present time the New Mexico Pinto bean is not grown very extensively in Colfax County, but it is reasonably safe to predict that it will become one of the most important crops in a surprisingly short time. The growing demand for this variety of bean, together with its excellent adaptability here, due to its drouth resistant and high yielding qualities, is attracting the active interest of many farmers. In addition to the advantages referred to above, it is a very profitable money crop, and at the same time fits in well with the crops grown in the County, as a part of a crop rotation. This crop is grown on both irrigated and dry land, on lands which are classified as plains lands. The plains areas of this County vary in altitude from 5,700 to 7,000 feet. The crop is usually planted the last of May to the middle of June. This usually insures against damage from the last killing 42 NEW MEXICO BEANS. frost, which seldom comes later than the 15th of May. In some instances, however, killing frosts have come as late as the 6th of June. The first killing frost in the fall usually occurs about the first of October, but may occur any time after the 20th of Sep- tember. This crop is planted on spring plowed land by most of the farmers, which practice is attributable to the fact that late plant- ing allows the farmers ample time to prepare the seed bed, the fall plowed land being used for other crops which require earlier planting. So far it is not definitely known which is the better, spring plowed or fall plowed land. On account of their drouth resistance, beans are often planted on sod land; in which case no cultivation is practiced. However, much better yields are obtained on older land, where cultivation is possible. In plowing land for beans, most of the farmers plow from four to six inches deep. It is difficult to say what depth of plowing is best, as no tests have been made. However, land which has been seeded to small grain crops the preceding year should be plowed at least six inches deep preparatory to the planting of beans. The land should be plowed as early as possible in the spring, in order to assure the formation of a good seed bed. The land plowed each day should be harrowed the same day, in order to conserve the moisture and because the soil works up much better than if allowed to dry. If rains pack the soil sufficiently to form a crust the field should be harrowed to form a mulch; thus conserving the moisture. The amount of seed planted per acre varies from 12 to 75 pounds. Twelve to fifteen pounds per acre is ample on dry land, and from 15 to 20 pounds is being planted on irrigated land in this County. Observations made in a great many fields indicate that a large proportion of the farmers are seeding too heavily, which usually results in lower yields, poorer quality and waste of seed. Beans are planted by means of bean or corn planters, at a depth of from 3 to 4 inches in rows from 24 to 36 inches apart. Where the proper amount of seed is sown, plants are from 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows. The bean crop responds very readily to cultivation, but many of the farmers do not practice cultivation thoroughly enough. The effect of thorough cultivation was very apparent in 1916. On account of the dry weather, many farmers became discouraged and discontinued the cultivation of bean fields. In many cases where cultivation was discontinued, absolute failure resulted, or NEW MEXICO BEANS. 43 ■else very low yields were obtained. Where cultivation was per- sistently practiced yields from three to six times as large were obtained. Bean fields should be cultivated from three to five times, depending upon conditions of rainfall, soil, and weed growth. Harvesting usually begins about the first week in September, but the greater portion of the crop is harvested after the 15th of September. The bean crop in Colfax County has not been very large up to the present time, and but few of the farmers have harvesting machinery. Most of the growers pull the beans by hand and thresh them by tramping out with stock. But the acreage of this crop is rapidly increasing and modern harvesting machinery will soon be in use. The bean lady-bird beetle does considerable damage to the bean crop here. Up to the present time but very little has been done toward its control. V. L. MARTINEAU, County Agricultural Agent, Raton, N. M. SAN MIGUEL COUNTY. The farmers of San Miguel County have realized that the best and most profitable cash crop to be grown at present, under dry- farming conditions, is beans. About half of the entire area of the dry-farming land under cultivation is being planted to beans; or in other words, half of • all crops in the dry-farming district is beans. Altitude. The altitude at which beans are grown in the County ranges from 4,400 feet in the low lands to 8,000 feet in the mountain districts. They seem to do best at an altitude of about 5,500 feet. Rainfall. The rainfall in the County varies from 14 inches, on the low lands, to 22 inches in the mountains. The precipitation comes during the fall and winter in the form of snow and in the form of rain about the middle of spring. The rainy season .starts again about the 15th of July. Fortunately for the bean grower, the rain comes during the growing period of the Crop. Soils. There are many kinds of soil in which beans can be grown, but the most common are loam, sandy loam, clay and sandy clay. The best yields have been secured from the sandy clay soil. Such soil can be plowed from ten to twelve inches deep very suc- cessfully. It is rich and has the power of retaining the moisture for long periods. Seed Bed. The preparation of the seed bed is one, of the most- important determining factors in the production of a good crop of 44 NEW MEXICO BEANS. beans. It has been clearly demonstrated that the best crops are raised where the seed bed has been prepared most thoroughly. There are farmers who have different methods of preparing the seed bed for beans, but the following is the one from which they have had best results in dry farming in this County: — 1st. Fall plow from eight to ten inches deep. 2nd. Disk and leave the land open through the winter. 3rd. Double disk in the spring about four inches deep. 4th. Smooth with tooth harrow. Allow the land to settle ‘for about three weeks; the longer the better, provided the time of planting is not retarded. The same method of preparing the seed bed is followed by those who do their first plowing in the spring, except that they do not plow over 6 inches deep. Disk about 4 inches deep, smooth with tooth harrow and allow the land to settle until planting time. This method is not as good as the first, but at present is the one prac- ticed by the majority of the farmers. Time to Plant. The time of planting varies in the County with the different altitudes. Usually in the higher altitudes the best time to plant is about the last of April, as soon as the danger of spring frost is over. Care should be taken not to plant too early. If the beans are nipped by frost, they will be stunted and the chances for a good yield will be poor. In the lower altitudes beans are planted from the 15th of April to about the middle of July; or sometimes even a little later. Planting. Two methods of planting are practiced: hand and machine planting. The former is the system that the majority of the native farmers have followed heretofore. It consists of having a boy or man follow the first furrow, dropping two or three beans about every ten or fifteen inches. The same plow goes over a second time, covering the beans in the furrow. Two more rounds with the plow and another row of beans is planted. The distance at which the beans are planted varies with the size of the plow that is used. The average distance between the rows is from twenty-four to thirty-six inches, and about twelve inches in the row. There are two methods of planting with the machine. One is drilling the beans from eight to twelve inches in the row, the rows being from thirty-six to forty-two inches apart. The other is the check method, which consists in adjusting the corn planter so as to drop from three to six beans every thirty-six inches -in the row, the rows being thirty-six inches apart. In this way the beans are planted at the same distance each way. The cultiva- tor can be used both ways and no hand hoeing is necessary. NEW MEXICO BEANS. 45 Seeding. As a general rule, farmers have planted twice as much seed as they should. The native farmers, particularly, plant a com- paratively large amount of seed per acre, because they use no machine in planting and the distance between the rows varies FIG 12. — Selected New Mexico Pinto Beans for Seed. with the size of plow used. However, much less seed is being planted at the present time than has been in the past. It takes from twenty-five to thirty pounds of beans per acre when planted by hand; from fifteen to eighteen pounds are used in drilling with a corn planter, and about twelve pounds per acre when the ^planting is done by the check method. Seed Selection is one of the very important factors in im- proving the quality of the beans raised in San Miguel County. If beans of uniform type and color are desired, seed with the same uniformity must be planted. To do this, if one does not have pure seed, the common New Mexico Pinto beans may be sorted, leaving only those of uniform type and color. Splendid results have been attained by selecting the seed. Varieties. There are three predominating varieties of beans grown in this. County. Mixed with these varieties, sixteen dif- ferent kinds of beans are found. Mexican Beans. The term “Mexican bean” is very indefinite, and should never be used without a modifier. If we say Mexican Bayo beans, Yellow Mexican beans, or Pinto Mexican beans, a particular kind of bean is identified and all who know the bean will understand the term. In the past, considerable confusion has been caused by buyers’ not stating which variety of Mexican bean was desired. 46 NEW MEXICO BEANS. New Mexico Pinto Beans. This is now the recognized com - ' mercial name for the so-called Mexican Pintos or Rosillos. It should be borne in mind that there is a vast difference between the New Mexico Pintos and the Mexican Pintos. The latter may be of two or three colors: mottled, black and white, yellow and: white, pink, purple, tan, blue, red or any other color. New Mex- ico Pinto beans are of a cream ground color, mottled with dark tan or olive drab. Beans with stripes, half white and black, almost entirely dark, or red, should never be classed as New- Mexico Pintos; which latter are a native production of the State. It is a heavy yielder and drouth resistant. Over 95% of all beans grown on the dry farms of San Miguel County are of this type. Other Beans. The other 5% of beans raised in this County are the Bayo, the Little Navy, the Large Navy and the Lady White; also the Ancient Yellow. The California Pinks are be- ginning to be raised. These beans grow almost as well as the New Mexico Pintos, but are considered hardly so desirable for dry farming. Harvesting begins about the 20th of September and ceases- after the first frost, about the latter part of October. Most of the beans are pulled by hand. A man can pull aboiyt an acre a day. Many of the farmers are beginning to use the bean cutter, which is similar to a cultivator, having two sharp knives which run about two inches under the surface of the ground, at an angle with the rows of about 45 degrees. The beans remain standing until they are gathered in small shocks, which afterward are- hauled to the stack. Land from which beans have been cut by machine remains in very good condition for fall plowing, since- a good mulch has been formed on top of the soil by the cutter. A man and team should be able to cut not less than five acres- per day. Threshing. About 95% of the beans threshed in San Miguel: County at present are threshed by horses or mules. The common, way is to build a yard consisting of a level floor, especially pre- pared by puddling and leveling. On this yard the beans are- stacked four or five feet high and two or more horses are driven over the beans until the threshing is completed, The cleaning is done by the wind. Another way is by piling up the beans and riding over them with a disc harrow. Another method is by the use of a machine having cylinders especially made for beans and peas. There are very few of these machines in the County at present. Yields. The average yield per acre is about 400 pounds, in a good year; however, it is not uncommon to find farmers who are NEW MEXICO BEANS. 47 FIG. 13. — Old, Native Method of Threshing Beans, which is Giving Way to the Modern Threshing Machine. averaging from 800 to 1,000 pounds per acre. Some of these farmers have not only done this one year, but for the past several years: They plow in the fall, and do not spare horse flesh in the preparation of the seed bed. The following is the approximate cost of production per acre, with an average yield, on a 40-acre basis: — Cost of Producing an Acre of Beans under Dry-Farming Conditions. Non- selected Selected Fall plowing . $110 $2.00 Double Disking .70 .70 Double Disking in spring, three times 1.50 Smoothing, harrowed : .50 .50 Seed, 15 lbs., at 7c 1.05 1.05 Planting .50 .50 Cultivations, two 1.00 Three 1.50 Weeding, one .50 Two 1.00 Cutting or pulling .75 1.00 Threshing, 10 cts. per hundredweight .40 .80 Sacks, 4, at 15 cts .60 8 at 15c 1.20 Interest and taxes, $10 per acre 1.00 1.00 $8.50 $12.75 Gross returns, 400 lbs., at 4 cts 16.00 800 lbs, at 4c 32.00 Profit $ 7.50 $19.25 Insects. The most troublesome insect that the bean growers have in San Miguel County is the spotted bean beetle. They seem 48 NEW MEXICO BEANS. to appear on old land first. Small areas are infested the first year, and they gradually spread over the entire field. Fortunately, we have had no great losses from this insect, so far. M. R. GONZALEZ, County Agricultural Agent, East Las Vegas, N. M. TORRANCE COUNTY. This County is near the center of the State. The altitude where beans are grown averages about 6,500 feet, and the average annual precipitation for the County is approximately 16.5 inches. The average precipitation for April is 1.35 inch; May, .69 inch; June, 1.12 inch; July, 3.33 inches; August, 2.52 inches; Septem- ber, 1.39 inch: or a total of 10.40 inches for the growing season. The average date of the last killing frost in the spring is May 10; of the first killing frost in the fall, October 4; the average length •of the growing season being 147 days. The southwesterly winds, which are common during the months of March and April, are perhaps the most discouraging feature of the climate. Comparatively high velocities are reached, resulting in the loss of soil moisture and at times in serious drifting of the surface soil, where best cultural methods are not employed. Inasmuch as the moisture in the ground, rather than timely rains, is depended on to germinate the seed, these winds become a pertinent reason for the adoption of good tillage prac- tices. Preparation of Seed Bed and Planting Methods. Experience in Torrance County has shown that flat breaking of the ground in the fall is preferable to the same operation in the spring or to spring listing. The land being left in the rough, opportunity is afforded for the storage of all possible winter moisture. This also prevents, to a very marked degree, the spring drifting of the soil; and seems to be the only practical method of controlling the cutworm, the losses from which are great. Listing in the early spring has the advantage of checking drifting of the soil, but fails in the matter of insect control and winter conservation of moisture. Fall listing has decided advantage over spring listing, but approximately only one-third of the ground is covered and from the point of cutworm control is not altogether desirable. Insofar as area is concerned, the three methods are at present about equally represented. Shortly before planting, the ground is either disked or har- rowed down to a plain surface. The seed is then planted with either a lister planter or corn planter. Where spring listing is NEW MEXICO BEANS. 49 ’ practiced, the seed is dropped in the bottom of the furrow, either at the time of listing or later. There is little choice beween the lister planter and the corn planter, except that the former permits of a subsequent covering of the weeds in the row with greater facility. The practice of harrowing one or more times after plant- ing is very desirable in destroying weeds before the crop appears above the surface of the ground. This is more practical where the crop has been planted on a smooth surface. Time and Method of Planting and Amount of Seed Used. The seed is usually planted about May 10, as the danger of frost is then not serious and advantage must be taken of the moisture in the ground, for germination. If plantings are made later, the advantage of less danger of frost is offset by moisture losses. The depth of planting depends on the nearness of germinating moisture to the surface. It is seldom possible or desirable to plant at a less depth than four inches, and successful plantings have been reported at a depth of eight inches. It is hardly likely that extremely deep planting is desirable, except where abso- lutely necessary. There is also great danger that poor germina- tion will result where the seed is planted at a depth under four inches, in this County. Ordinarily, from 12 to 20 pounds of seed per acre is used. Best results are usually obtained by planting about 16 pounds in 36- to 40-inch rows. Cultivations and Implements. In ordinary practice, the crop is given four cultivations with a shovel cultivator. This seems to be about the proper number for weed control and for moisture conservation. The first, cultivations, which approximate two inches, are later gradually extended to- a depth of four to five inches. These cultivations are usually periodic until the first real moisture is received. The date of this first beneficial rainfall varies from about July 1 to July 25. Subsequent cultivations follow irregularly and as conditions permit. In the early culti- vations the sweep, which skims near the surface, is largely used, and is only replaced by the shovel when the size of the weeds will no longer permit of its use. Ordinarily one hoeing is given the crop towards the end of the growing season. This operation is usually light and consists in eradicating an occasional large weed, if prior cultivations have been improperly carried out. Date and Method of Harvesting. Harvesting usually occurs between the latter part of August and the middle of September, and the time for this operation is largely determined by the date of planting. In this operation, the regular bean harvester is used to a limited extent, and for the most part, the farmers depend 50 NEW MEXICO BEANS. upon homemade sweeps, which they use in connection with culti- vators, corn planters or sleds. The capacity of these machines varies from one to two rows, and in most cases they have a pulling action, rather than a cutting one. The blades of these machines operate at about two inches beneath the surface. Some little hand pulling is still practiced, but this method is seldom followed in Torrance County, except where weeds have made the use of harvesting implements impossible. Where machinery is not avail- able, the moldboard is sometimes removed from a turning plow and this implement used. Unless care is exercised in harvesting, the vines become filled with dirt, which is difficult to remove from the seed and in addition, makes threshing disagreeable work. Preparation for Market. Two machines are ordinarily used in the threshing operation. A special bean huller, which has as a feature a slow moving cylinder followed by a faster moving one, has proved generally satisfactory. In other cases, the regular small grain threshing machine is slowed down and part of the teeth removed from the concaves, to avoid cracking. Some little threshing by the use of animals is still practiced in the mountain districts. Following the use of any of these methods, it has been found necessary to reclean, by passing the beans through a fan- ning mill. These fanning mills are usually located near a railroad at the larger centers, where the final operation of weighing and sacking to an even hundred pounds and of loading on the cars are carried out. No grading, except that performed by the fan- ning mill, is at present practiced, though there is no question about the desirability of such an operation. Markets. Several local buyers are found within the County who make the marketing of beans their chief occupation following the harvesting season. They deal directly with the farmer and assume any further risks of transporting the beans to commis- sion merchants, who are located principally in the following cen- ters: Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, Joplin, Memphis, New Orleans, Dallas, Fort Worth, and El Paso. In the case of one or two of these commission merchants, representatives have been sent to deal directly with either the local buyers or the farmers. In ordinary practice, the local buyer assumes the cost of re-cleaning and proper bagging. Where this work is contracted, the farmer pays five cents per hundredweight for re-cleaning and bagging, furnishes the sacks and loses the weight of the inferior beans, dust and chaff resulting from the operation. Yields, Prices Received and Cost of Production. The highest yield thus far reported, on a fair sized area, in Torrance County, is 1900 pounds per acre. Yields between 1,000 and 1,400 pounds NEW MEXICO BEANS. 51 are not uncommon, under dry-farming conditions; but the average is much less, as' shown by the table below:— be 2-0 0'S Ph > 0) a> ... S.2 1915 400 lbs. $4.00 per cwt. $8.15 10,000 4,000,000 1916 533 lbs. 6.50 per cwt. 9.00 15,000 8,000,000 ROLAND HARWELL, County Agricultural Agent, Estancia, N. M. UNION COUNTY. Union County lies in the northeastern corner of the State, Colfax and San Miguel Counties being contiguous on the west and southwest, respectively. It is a high rolling plateau, sloping grad- ually to the east; the altitude varying from 4,000 to 6,500 feet above sea level. The average annual precipitation is about 16 inches, and falls mostly during the growing season, April, May, June, July, August and September; the months of heaviest rain- fall being July and August. The growing season is usually from about May 1 to October 1. The soils are mainly of the heavy clay, clay loam, silt, sandy loam and sandy types. High winds are of frequent occurrence, and soil blowing is quite general, at times. Beans grow on all the different types of soil and from the lowest to the highest elevations.* However, they are more gen- erally grown at the lower altitudes, as the season is longer and late frosts are less frequent. Here they are one of the principal crops grown, and are, at the present time, the main money crop for the farmer. They work in well as a rotation crop, and the acreage is being rapidly increased. During 1915 there were 100 carloads shipped from the County, and about 150 carloads were sold in 1916. Soil. While beans do well on all the different types of soil in Union County, the sandy loam soils, with the general methods of farming, give the best results. However, the heavier or “tight” lands give just as large a yield where the land is plowed deep in the fall, winter or early spring, and a good firm seed bed estab- lished. 52 NEW MEXICO BEANS. Preparation of Land. The land should be thoroughly pre- pared, by plowing or listing. Fall preparation of land is prefer- able and should be done to a good depth, 6 to 10 inches, and left rough through the winter. If plowed or listed in the spring, the plowing or listing should be done as early as possible. Double listing is to be recommended over single listing. The ground should be harrowed as early in the spring as possible, to level it* fill the air spaces and form a soil mulch. If the soil is cloddy and does not work into a fine firm seed bed, a weighted disk harrow with the blades set straight should be run over it. The ground should be harrowed often enough to maintain the soil mulch and keep the weeds in check, until time of planting. Planting. Beans may be planted with a lister, a two-row corn planter or a grain drill. The two-row planter with special plates is the popular machine for planting beans in this County. The rows are usually from three to three and a half feet apart, the seeding being done at the rate of from 10 to 18 pounds per acre. On new or sod land the practice of double rowing, planting the rows twenty-one inches apart, is followed to some extent. This makes cultivating and harvesting difficult, necessitating hand labor to a large extent. It is doubtful if the yields justify the increased labor and cost of production. The planting is usually done from two to three inches deep. The deep planting in moist soil, so that germination will take place promptly, is the best practice. Where the planting is shallow* the soil dries out around the beans and they must lie in the ground until there is rain to bring them up. The season for planting extends over a long period, from May 1 to July 15. As frost sometimes occurs as late in the spring as May 15 and as early in the fall as October 1, and as it takes from 80 to 90 days for ‘the crop to mature, the medium dates for planting— May 15 to June 15 — are to be recommended. Cultural Methods. After the beans have been planted three or four days and before they are up, the ground should be harrowed with a spike tooth harrow to kill any weeds that may be starting. Harrowing should not be done when the beans are breaking through the ground, as many of them would be broken off and killed. They should be harrowed once or twice more while they are small. After they are too tall to harrow — five or six inches in height — they should be cultivated shallow, with a small shovel or sweep cultivator. The last cultivation should not be close to the plants, as they are easily injured. The cultivations should be given often enough to maintain a soil mulch and keep the weeds in check. NEW MEXICO BEANS. 53 Harvesting. Beans are harvested by hand pulling, by plowing them out and with the bean harvester. The last method is the one generally used in this County, and is the best method. The harvesters are home and factory made, and harvest two rows at once, raking them together. Some machines have a buncher at- tachment and bunch the two rows in small piles at the same operation. The cutting part of the harvester consists of a long blade set at an angle to the row and run about an inch and a half under the surface of the ground, cutting off the roots. Beans should be harvested when a majority of the pods are ripe. If harvest is delayed for all the pods to ripen, many of those that were first to mature will shatter and be lost. On account of the different dates of seeding, harvesting extends over a long period; usually beginning the last of August and continu- ing well into the middle of October. The beans are generally stacked in long narrow stacks, and covered with bundles of sor- ghum or grass to keep them dry. They are threshed with a bean thresher, in nearly every case; though a few flail them out, where the distance from threshers is too great to bring them in. FIG. 14. — A Type of Bean Harvester Used Extensively in the Dry- farming Sections, 54 NEW MEXICO BEANS. Yields. The yields vary from 250 to 1,000 pounds to the acre; the average yield for the County being about 400 pounds. The low yields are due to poor preparation of seed beds, poor stands, lack of proper cultivation, and to insufficient moisture. Beans do not require a large supply of moisture to make good yields. They withstand drouth very well, but a drouth during the blos- soming period lowers the yield by blighting the blossoms. Variety. The New Mexico Pinto is the principal bean grown in Union County, about 99% of the beans grown being of this variety. Some navy, Tepary, Red Kidney and California Pinks are grown and fair yields obtained. Diseases and Insects. The bean is free from disease, with the exception of a rust that has occurred to a small extent some years. There are several insects that do considerable damage to the crop: the cutworm, black and spotted beetles and some worm that works in the stem. It enters the stem near the surface of the ground and kills the plant. Price. The price of beans varies from 3 to 7 cents per pound ; the average for the past five years being about 3 V 2 cents. The beans are usually sold to local warehouse men and merchants. ORREN BEATY, County Agricultural Agent, Clayton, N. M. SUMMARY. 1. Beans have been grown in New Mexico, probably, , since the first European explorers settled in this terri- tory. 2. Due, no doubt, to the long period of cultivation and the unconscious selection by the growers, varieties have been produced which are well adapted to New Mex- ico conditions. Some of these are the New Mexico Pinto, the Bayo and the “Ancient Yellow. ” 3. At the present time the New Mexico Pinto is being grown in almost all of the agricultural districts where beans are grown; both under irrigation and dry- farming conditions. Probably ninety to ninety-five per cent of the 22,500,000 pounds raised in 1916 were of this variety. 4. Beans can he grown successfully under irriga- tion and under dry-farming conditions, provided atten- NEW MEXICO BEANS. ‘55 tion is given to the proper cultivation and the proper amount of moisture for the crop. 5. The planting may be done in either dry or moist soil. The moisture in the soil may be had by irrigating the ground, under irrigation, or by conserving the winter or spring moisture, under dry farming. Under dry- farming conditions, if there is not sufficient moisture in the soil when the seed is planted, the grower must depend upon subsequent rains for the germination of the seed. 6. Under irrigation, according to the experimental data secured at the Station, it seems that better germina- tion, and consequently, better stands, can be had by first irrigating the ground and planting the seed in moist soil, than by planting in dry soil and “irrigating up.” 7. The results at the Experiment Station from the different depths of planting indicate that if the beans are planted in moist soil, best germination can be had at three to four inches, but that satisfactory germination can also be had from a 2- or 5-inch depth. A very poor germination was obtained from a depth of 1 inch. 8. When the beans were planted in dry soil and irri- gated up, the best germination was obtained from 1- to 3-inch depths ; very poor germination was obtained from the 4- and 5-inch depths. 9. The yield was larger from the plats that were planted in moist soil than from those planted in dry soil and then irrigated to produce germination. 10. It is advisable, wherever the local conditions favor the practice, to start the preparation of the seed bed in the fall. This will not only help materially in conserving the winter and spring moisture, under dry- farming conditions, but in destroying many eggs, larvae and insects that may become injurious to the plants in summer. 11. New Mexico bean growers need to pay consid- erably more attention to the matter of seed selection. In the varieties that are now being planted, many variations 56 NEW MEXICO BEANS. are to be found. These variations are noted in the differ- ence in size, and particularly in the coloring and mark- ings of the individual beans. Good seed is fundamental in the growing of any crop, and too much emphasis cannot be placed at this time on the use of better seed beans in New Mexico. 12. All of the native varieties are quite drouth re- sistant, good yielders, palatable and nutritious. The little Tepary bean— judging from preliminary experi- mental work— does not seem to cook quite so readily as the New Mexico varieties; and on the whole, does not appear to be quite so palatable. Comparison of the analyses made also shows that it is a little lower in pro- teid than the New Mexico varieties. However, this bean has some excellent qualities that might be taken advan- tage of in plowing under as a fertilizing crop. 13 The New Mexico varieties tried at the Station will mature, in southern New Mexico, in eighty to ninety days. 14. The bean beetle, cutworms, and mildew are some of the pests that the bean grower may have to fight during the growing season. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Much credit is due to Messrs. A. B. Fite, for assisting with the experiments with beans, and C. P. Wilson, for aid given in the compilation of the data; to Professor Merrill for the article on bean pests; and to Dr. L. A. Higley for furnishing analyses of the different varieties of beans. Credit is due to the Extension Division for the arti- cles furnished by County Agricultural Agents H. C. Stewart, V. L. Martineau, M. R. Gonzalez, Roland Har- well and Orren Beaty. Acknowledgment is also due Messrs. M. R. Gonzalez for cuts Nos. 1, 3, 9, 11, 12 and 13 ; and Orren Beaty for cut No. 14. BULLETIN No. 106 April, 1917 New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts Agricultural Experiment Station State College, N. M. Fig. 1. ADULT BEAN BEETLE. Line at right shows natural size. (Original). THE BEAN BEETLE (Epilachna corrupta Muls.) By D. E. MERRILL Rio Grande Publishing Company Las Cruces, N. M. 1917 . New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station BOARD OF CONTROL Board of Regents of the College C. L. HILL, President, Hill, N. M. R. E. PUTNEY, Secretary and Treasurer, Albuquerque, N. M. E. C. CRAMPTON, Raton, N. M. M. Y. MONICAL, Dexter, N. M. J. S. QUESENBERRY, Las Cruces, N. M. Advisory Members HON. W. E. LINDSEY, Governor of New Mexico, Santa Fe, N. M. HON. J. H. WAGNER, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe, N. M. STATION STAFF A. D. CRILE, Ph. D FABIAN GARCIA, M. S. A.__ LUTHER FOSTER, M. S. A._ D. E. MERRILL, M. S L. A. HIGLEY, Ph. D R. L. STEWART, M. S. A D. W. A. BLOODGOOD, B. S. J. D. HUNGERFORD, B. S.__. JOSE QUINTERO, B. S J. R. MEEKS, B. S. A J. W. RIGNEY, B. S. A E. J. MAYNARD, B. S. A A. B. FITE, B. S. A J. T. BARLOW, B. S. A F. C. WERKENTHIN, M. A._ R. B. THOMPSON, B. S. A._. K. B. OGILVIE, B. S H. G. SMITH*, B. S. A FLOY E. FRENCH R. V. WARE C. P. WILSON, M. S President of the College Director and Horticulturist Animal Husbandman Biologist Chemist : Agronomist Irrigation Engineer Nutrition Chemist Assistant Chemist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Animal' Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Agronomist issztant Biologist Assistant Poultryman Assistant in Irrigation Assistant in Dry-Land Agriculture Librarian Registrar Secretary and Editor ♦Superintendent of the Tucumcari, N. M., Field Station, operated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN NO. 106. THE BEAN BEETLE ( Epilachna corrupta Muls.) By D. E. Merrill SUMMARY. 1. The bean beetle, Epilachna corrupta Mills., is the most in- jurious insect attacking the bean in New Mexico. Yearly damage is estimated in various localities from 5% to 100% of the crop. A conservative estimate puts the dam- age at close to 10% on the average. This species confines its attack to the bean. 2. Injury may be reduced to a minimum by cooperation in the use of preventive methods of control, firstly, and of remedial methods, secondly. 3. There are two broods of the bean beetle each year in the southern part of New Mexico where studies of the life history were made. The adults hibernate. In all stages the insect may be found upon the bean plant. On an aver- age, the time, necessary for the development from egg to adults is 25 days, approximately. 4. This species is definitely reported from New Mexico, Ari- zona, Colorado, Texas, Utah, and Mexico. 4 THE BEAN BEETLE INTRODUCTION. The bean beetle, (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2a) as the bean lady- bird is commonly called in New Mexico, has proven to be the most serious specific pest of the bean in the State. Since not much effort had been put forth previously to attempt its con- trol, investigations were begun in 1913, .at the Experiment Station, to learn the life history of this species and possibilities of control. Most of the life history work was done in 1914. Data obtained from personal observation of the bean beetle in many parts of the State by the writer serve to supplement some of the findings of the investigation proper. Since the bean is one of the most important crops in the State, it is well for the grower to be acquainted with this pest so a probable source of damage may be avoided. This beetle, as far as can be learned, confines its attacks to the bean. For this reason its control should be made easier. The following pages set forth a consideration of the bean beetle as to habits and control, and give, also, the details of its life his- tory as worked out at the Experiment Station. Notes are appended on the history and distribution of the species. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ADULTS AND YOUNG. The members of the lady-bird family, to which the bean beetle belongs, are, as a rule, very beneficial in that they de- stroy quantities of plant lice, scale insects, and soft bodied larvae of many kinds. They are sub-hemispherical in shape, variously colored and often spotted, so the casual observer often fails to distinguish this injurious species from the bene- ficial members of the family. Or, the latter may be confused with the former and so be held wrongly in disfavor. It should be remembered that the former is the only plant-eating mem- ber of the family in New Mexico. The ground color of the bean beetle is brownish-orange. Eight black spots are found on each wing cover, three in a broken row across the front of the wing cover, a second row of three across the center, and a row of two, nearly parallel a c d b Fig. 2. Full Grown Larva at a; Pupae at b; Adult at c; Egg Cluster at d. Natural Size. (Original). Fig. 3. Bean Plant De- stroyed by Larvae of the Bean Beetle. (Original). THE BEAN BEETLE 0 to these, toward the tip. The length of the adult averages about one-fourth of an inch, this being larger than other mem- bers of the family common in the State. The tough outer wings cover and protect a delicate inner pair by means of which these insects fly very readily. The larvae (Fig. 2a) or young, of the bean beetle are spiny, yellow, worm-like creatures, varying in size from less than 1-16 of an inch, when first hatched, to about 5-16 of an inch when growth is completed. Unless one has taken care to learn the facts, the adult beetle will not be noted in the bean patch as being the parent of these “worms” that eat so voraciously. The larvae have no wings at all so have to travel altogether on foot. When full grown the larva undergoes a further change into the pupa (Fig. 2b). The pupa is attached by one end to some object, is non-feeding, yellow in color, about the size of the adult, oval in outline, the free end being devoid of spines, the remains of the last larval skin being seen about the attached end. From this pupa comes the adult later. NATURE AND EXTENT OF INJURY. Injury to the bean plant occurs through having its leaves eaten outright or skeletonized (Fig. 3) by the adult beetles or their larvae. The adult beetles are not responsible for nearly as great a share of the injury as are their young. They usually feed by eating holes here and there entirely through the leaves, rarely the whole leaf being destroyed by them. As a rule they cling to the under side of the leaf and eat through to the upper side. The voracious larvae feed on the under side of the leaf, in colonies when they are young, but scattered later. (Fig. 6). When at all numerous they eat off the lower epidermis and all the green substance of the central layers of the leaf. In this way the upper epidermis and the veins remain as a whitish skeleton of the leaf. Part or all of the leaves on a plant may be damaged in this way and the feeding surface be so reduced that growth is too severely checked or stopped altogether. The young pods may be at- tacked, holes being scraped in their sides, or an occasional 6 THE BEAN BEETLE flower eaten. Injury of this nature is not ,as a rule, usual or very great. The effect of the checking or stopping of the growth will vary with the age of the plant attacked. If the pods are well set at the beginning of the injury, the result is apt to be a hastening of maturity and a reduction in yield. If no pods are set; the plant may fail to yield at all. It may die at once or linger a While in a vain attempt to start new growth from the top, and still fail to recuperate or produce pods. The extent of damage to the bean crop in any one year depends largely upon several conditions. It appears that late planted beans suffer most, the number of larvae increasing as the season advances. Usually a more severe infestation may be expected where the chances for hibernation of the adults have been made better by allowing weeds, crop remnants, or piles of rubbish to remain in or close to the field. Damage seems to be greater where beans have followed beans on the same ground year after year, there being a direct ratio be- tween age of the field and extent of injury. In severe cases destruction of the crop may be total. A likely average esti- mate of damage is placed close to ten per cent of the annual crop. In Torrance County, in 1916, the bean crop was estimated at 7,000,000 pounds, with a value of $420,000. The annual loss caused by the bean beetle previous to this season was placed at $26,000. Considering the 1916 crop at the advanced prices obtained, the loss by the previous estimate would be six and one-half per cent. Figuring at the prices formerly ob- tained for the crop, the per cent of loss would run much higher. Other bean growing localities suffer in like manner, in some the growing of beans being discouraged on account of the certain loss from the beetle. TIME OF APPEARANCE. Adult individuals of the bean beetle that have passed the winter successfully appear on the bean plants rather late. In the Mesilla Valley one finds them in small numbers after the first week in June. A week or so later they begin laying THE BEAN BEETLE 7 eggs and the larvae appear soon after from these eggs. Ser- ious damage may be expected in from three to four weeks after the beetles appear in the fields. Regardless of locality, inquiries from over the State seem to show that the maximum damage occurs between the first week in July and the first week in August. During this time the first brood of larvae reaches its maximum in numbers and size of the individuals and the second brood gets well started. Control measures should be applied, then, relatively early, for as we shall see, they are preventive rather than remedial in nature. A single female has been observed to produce 754 eggs in 40 days, and it is this rapid rate of increase that has to be forestalled. HIBERNATION HABITS. Reproduction continues in fall until failure of food sup- ply or until sufficiently cold weather comes to prohibit egg- laying and destroy the larvae that are too immature to pupate. As a rule the individuals that have pupated will emerge, the cold not being suddenly severe enough to kill them. Such adults as are left when the food supply is gone and cold weather is come, scatter to find suitable places for pass- ing the winter in hibernation. If bunches of old vines, weeds, rubbish, or such be left in the field, the beetles will crawl down under them and perhaps partly bury themselves in the soft soil beneath. If such places are not handy the adults will fly to some other suitable and similar places where they may hide themselves away and remain dormant until late spring. They will hide usually as near as possible to the fields in which they found themselves at close of sum- mer. They are late sleepers and do not emerge from hiding until assured that warm weather is certainly come to stay. Cleaning up the fields in fall and winter, then, prevents hibernation there or kills the hibernating individuals. FOOD PLANTS AND FEEDING HABITS. So far as has been observed or reported, the bean beetle confines its feeding to the true beans. It has been taken on other plants but never found feeding. The writer conducted a 8 THE BEAN BEETLE series of experiments in an attempt to get this insect to eat of other plants. A number of larvae and adults were confined in cages and given in succession fresh leaves of potato, tomato, chile pepper, lettuce, celery, cabbage, and cauliflower. None of the leaves were eaten and many of the insects died of starva- tion rather than eat. No variety of field or garden bean has been found to be free from attack, nor any particular differ- ence observed as to susceptibility to attack. Damage to morning glories and sweet potatoes by the bean beetle has been reported by casual observers. Where op- portunity was given for judgment in such cases, the damage was found to be done by species of Chelymorpha or Cassida, which bear considerable superficial resemblance to the bean beetle and feed naturally on plants of the morning glory tribe. The bean beetles do not appear to attack the very young bean plants to any considerable extent. Probably this is due in great measure to the smallness of the number of hibernat- ing individuals. Moreover, they wander from plant to plant considerably, thus the damage is made less noticeable. The adults are not, however, very heavy feeders actually. The per cent of injury from them is small as compared to that from an equal number of larvae. When infesting new feed- ing grounds in summer the adults will fly to bean fields where the plants are older rather than to those where the plants are young. The extra cover for hiding among the larger plants may have something to do with their choice. Although the adults usually eat entirely through the leaf they may occasionally merely scrape the surface as do the larvae. When the upper side of a leaf is turned down or when there is no other place to eat, the larvae will feed on the upper surface of the leaf. CONTROL MEASURES. PREVENTIVE. From a study of the habits and life history of the bean beetle, there appear certain openings whereby damage may be THE BEAN BEETLE 9 prevented in great measure by employment of cultural methods without dependence upon sprays, etc. Clean Fields. Since the adults hibernate under piles of old vines, rubbish, etc., it follows' that cleaning up and plow- ing deeply the fields, in fall and winter, will lessen the num- bers that will survive hibernation. Rotation. Since the hibernation will take place in the old fields, or as near to them as possible, rotation of crops, so as to remove the new fields as far as possible from the old, will lessen the chances of the adults finding the new fields in spring. It should be remembered that areas that have been in beans year after year are noted to be most damaged, re- gardless of planting time. Planting Time. Much can be done in the way of preven- tion by attention to the time of planting. Climatic condi- tions influencing time of planting for various localities will have to be considered by each locality, as that is out of the scope of this bulletin. Under irrigation the planting time is not influenced by moisture needs. The hibernated beetles begin to feed very late. By planting the beans as early as possible in the spring, the crop will set and mature before the time of maximum injury, due to overlapping of the broods in midsummer and later. See Scheme I. If it were a ques- tion of smaller yield, possibly, from very early planting or of no crop from beetle injury, the choice would go to early plant- ing Again, very late planting, if practiced uniformly , in a community, would so prolong the fasting period of the beetles that many would die before finding plants for egg-laying. However, late planted beans are more susceptible to bean rust and are liable to very serious reduction in yield from this, even if they escape the beetles. By uniformly varying the planting time from early, over a series of years, to late, in one year next succeeding the series, the balance of the life cycle of the beetles may be up- set and the increase of the beetles for that year lessened. The early planting would then be resorted to again. 10 THE BEAN BEETLE From data secured from the County Agents of New Mexico and from Mr. A. G. Graham, County Agent of El Paso County, Texas, the following dates are given concern- ing the bean crop in relation to the bean beetle. TABLE I.— DATES CONCERNING BEAN CROP IN RELATION TO THE BEAN BEETLE. County Earliest Date for Planting 1 Average Date for Planting Average Date of Maximum Damage 1 Stage of Crop j when Attacked Average Date Maturing Per Cent Injury Bernalillo 4-1 5-1 to 15 7-15 ** 8-1 30 to 70 Chaves | No dat a reported Colfax 1 5-1 5-10 to 6-10| In 7 1 t 9-10 to 10-1 Small to 100 Dona Ana * ... 1 4-1 5-10 7-15 to 8-15 t 8-1 10 Eddy f 1 5-1 7-1 9-late El Paso | 4-15 5-15 to 6-1 8-1 tt 8-15 20 San Miguel \ 5-20 i 6-20 8-25 § 9-20 90 Torrance 1 5-1 | 5-15 8-1 §§ 8-lst wk. 10 Union 1 No data reported *Data obtained from Experiment Station. fAcreage very small, so data scanty. ** Approximately full grown. t Pods forming. tt Past blooming. §No definite stage. §§ Last flowers to string beans. From the table above it is seen that the date of plant- ing may be made from one. to two weeks earlier at least. A gain of that much time at the crucial point of the infesta- tion means a great deal, as shown by the rapidity of increase in the number of the insects at this time, as well as the rapid increase in size of the young, necessitating voracious feeding. Trap Crop. Although opportunity has not been present- ed for any experiment with a trap crop in control of this species, it seems very reasonable to expect excellent results from using a late trap crop, consisting of a small patch of beans, to attract the adult beetles in late summer after the main crop of beans is harvested. When congregated on such THE BEAN BEETLE 11 a patch the beetles could be killed in any convenient way, burning with straw, spraying with kerosene, etc. Hand Picking. On a small patch of beans damage may be prevented by picking the adult beetles and eggs off the vines as they appear. In a large field this method would hardly be practicable. Natural Enemies. The natural enemies of this species seem to be very few. They are protected from attack in the adult state by the repellent fluid secreted at the leg joints. In the summer’s work on the life history of this speci-s no parasites were found in any stages of the large number of insects handled. On a few occasions the writer has noted Hippodarnia convergens, the convergent lady-bird, eating spar- ingly of the eggs. Dr. Gillette, of Colorado, reports “coccin- ellids eating eggs.” Dr. Morrill, of Arizona, reports “an ant observed eating the eggs on one occasion.” REMEDIAL MEASURES. ' Various sprays were tested on plats of beans of different areas. “Small plats” were approximately two rods square; “large plats” were approximately two rods by twenty rods. A few remedies were tried on areas of only a small number of plants. Right angle, mist producing nozzles were used and the under sides of the leaves carefully reached. Lead Arsenate Spray. On July 25, when adult beetles were first noted in the field powdered lead arsenate was ap- plied on two large, plats. On one it was< used at the rate of 2 pounds to -50 gallons of water, on the other at the rate of 2]/ 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. Three-fourths of the leaves had both sides fully covered, the remaining one-fourth being partly covered in varying degrees. No damage was noted from the sprays. Most of the beetles left these plats at once. A few eggs were found de- posited before spraying. If hatched on sprayed leaves the young were killed on first feeding. If on unsprayed leaves they fed safely. Where such food was sufficient to rear them 12 THE BEAN BEETLE to the third or fourth stage, the young would refuse to eat of sprayed leaves and would hunt widely for unsprayed leaves. A number of adults and larvae of later stages were confined several days in a cage and kept supplied with fresh leaves taken from sprayed plants in the field. A few individuals died of starvation. Only one leaf showed any indication of being eaten and that had only one or two bites taken from its surface. A few vines were sprayed with powdered lead arsenate at the rate of 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water. There was no damage to the plants but the protection afforded was no more effective. Check Plat. A large plat adjacent to the plats above, left unsprayed, was badly injured by the beetles. Being at- tacked late, however, the beans matured a fair crop in spite of the injury. Lead Arsenate — Dust. Powdered lead arsenate, 1 part, to 4 parts of powdered sulphur, was applied to a small plat with a hand dusting machine. The dust stuck well and was easily applied, somewhat more surface being covered with a given amount of arsenate than with the spray. Results, as far as control of the beetles was concerned, were about the same as with the spray. Zinc Arsenite. A small plat was sprayed with zinc ar- senite at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water, with 2 pounds of stone lime added. Results were practically as in the first case above. There was a trifle more trouble in keep- ing the zinc arsenite in suspension and it- did not seem to stick quite as well to the leaves as did the lead arsenate. Sodium Arsenite. Sodium arsenite, 1 pound to 65 gal- lons of water plus 2 pints of sorghum molasses, was applied to a small plat. Every plant was either killed or damaged so it would not produce pods. Blackleaf 40.' Blackleaf 40, 1 pint to 100 gallons water plus 4 pounds of soap, was tried to test its effect on the larvae. Most of the larvae in the very young stages were killed if hit. Older larvae and adults were apparently uninjured. Fig. 4. Attachment for Spraying Row Crops. THE B£AN BEETLE 13 Combined Arsenate of Lead and Lime Sulphur. Tests were made on small areas as to the effect of a combined spray of commercial lime sulphur and arsenate of lead paste. The former was diluted at the rate of 1 part to 64 parts of water; the latter used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The two solutions were mixed half and half. On mixing, the resulting solution turned a bile green then almost black. Later it became a light yellow again. The bean leaves were spotted a dark green by the spray but no other effects were noted. The plants remained free from infestation for two w^eks among others badly infested. Then the spray seemed to lose its power, for the beetles then attacked these plants. Apparatus for Spraying. For a small area of beans almost any type of sprayer or duster will suffice. A fine spray is necessary for economical use of material and for effi- cient covering of the leaves. Angle nozzles should be used so the under sides of the leaves may be reached and thor- oughly coated. For larger fields, row attachments, after the nature of the one in Figure 4 may be used. Such an attachment may be combined with hand or power machines. The nozzles should be set so as to spray inward and upward on each side of a row. The angle type of nozzle makes this easily done. 14 THE BEAN BEETLE Studies of the Life History INTRODUCTORY. Before egg-laying could be noted in the field the hiber- nated adults used in these studies were secured. They were paired and kept for a few days in the laboratory on bean plants under chimney cages. When egg-laying began the pair were transferred each to a field cage of the type shown in Fig. 5. These cages were 12x12x16 inches. One type had a glass door, the top and other sides being of fine mesh wire. A second type had cheese cloth for the top, all the sides being of 16-mesh wire. These cages provided practically nor- mal conditions for the adults and for the eggs and larvae until hatched. Records on egg-laying, moults, etc., were made daily * about nine o’clock in the morning. W|hen a cluster of eggs was deposited, it was recorded by number and the same num- ber was marked on the leaf bearing the eggs. This made taking of data on incubation possible without confusion. A few clusters at first were placed, leaf and all, singly, in 4-inch petri dishes for hatching. A small bit of cotton was kept moi$t in the dish to prevent excessive drying. For individual records, larvae were placed singly, when hatched, in 4-inch petri dishes. Bean leaves were provided for food. They were kept fresh longer by a bit of moist cot- ton on the petiole. These leaves were changed as soon as unfit for food. Usually they lasted 24 hours and sometimes longer. Where records only of the total developmental period were desired, large numbers of the same date transformations were kept in larger dishes. Supplementary data were secured from the field. The term “hibernated” is used in reference to adults that have passed the previous winter in hibernation. The term Fig. 5. Cages Used in Life History Studies, in Place Over Bean Plants in the Field. (Original). THE BEAN BEETLE 15 “brood” is used to refer to eggs, larvae, pupae, or adults of any generation, e. g., “first-brood eggs” means the eggs laid by the “hibernated” adults, and producing the “first brood” of larvae, pupae and adults; “second brood” would be used to refer to members of the second generation in the same way. THE ADULT. Description. The adult (Fig. 1) of Epilachna corrupta Mills, is oval in outline; orange brown, shining; pubescence very short, rather abundant. Elytra have each eight black spots ; one humeral, one sutural sub-basal, one median sub-basal, three median, two sub-apical. Sterna and ventral surfaces of abdo- men blackish. Length 7 to 8 mm. Female averages slightly larger than male. Prof. H. F. Wickham cites the original description of this species in “Species des Coleopteres trimeres securipalpes, Part II (No. 90), p. 815, 1851. Described from Mexico, collection of Chevrolat.” The color of fresh individuals is slightly lighter than nor- mal, while individuals that have hibernated are much darker. There is considerable variation in the proportionate sizes of the black spots, so much that one can say, in general, only that the anterior spots average smaller. Some individuals show a coalescence of the sub-apical spots into one large spot. The adult emerges through a longitudinal crack that appears in the mid-dorsal line of the pupal skin, extending from the under side of the anterior end back to the abdominal region. The head is first freed, then the feet, which are used to draw the emerging adult from the pupal skin. When first emerged the adult is a uniform light straw color, very soft, with wings and wing covers in crumpled masses against the thorax. It stands and crawls by turn, trying the while to move the wings. The latter gradually dry and expand, as they dry, to their final shape. The wings project backward at first fronvunder the elytra. As they dry more completely they lose the yellow color, becoming nearly translucent with a yellowish brown tinge. Finally they fold under the elytra. 16 THE BEAN BEETLE The anterior spots usually come out first on the elytra, then the median, and lastly the posterior, the ground color by then being the normal orange brown. The order yf appear- ance of the spots may vary. Usually the adults do not feed until about 24 hours after emergence. They begin to copulate the second day, and eggs may be produced in from four to six days after copulation. From Table VI it will be seen that out of 169 adults reared from eggs, 45 were males and 124 females, a ratio of 1 to 2.75. This excess in numbers of the females is another factor in the rapid multiplication of this species. TABLE II.— SHOWING LENGTH OF LIFE OF ADULTS. Hibernated Adults | First Brood Adults Of the first brood adults, Pairs I and II and female of Pair III were reared from first-brood larvae taken in the field; Pairs Ila and IV and male of III were reared from eggs secured from hibernated females used in the experiment. * Probably August of previous year. t Not recorded. Reference to Table II shows the three hibernated adults dying between July 10 and August 12. As adults they had lived, then, between 11 and 12 months, at the least. The first-brood adults that were kept in captivity died, without Fig. 6. Cluster of Eggs and Larvae of Bean Beetle in First Stage, Showing Tendency to Feed in “Nerds". Slightly Enlarged. (Original). THE BEAN BEETLE 17 hibernating, from 20 to 43 days after emerging. This does not mean necessarily that none of the first-brood adults hiber- nate. Fuller data would be needed to determine this point, but since none of these adults lived longer, indications are that probably most of the hibernating individuals are from the second brood. CONCERNING EGGS AND EGG-LAYING. Manner of Oviposition. To deposit the eggs, the female seeks a suitable spot on the under side of a leaf, stops and begins to work the tip of the abdomen up and down vigorously. In a few seconds the short ovipositor is protruded. This is then worked up and down, the egg being forced at the same time down the tube. Finally the tip of the egg touches the leaf, sticks firmly, the abdomen is raised high, freeing the egg from the ovipositor and leaving it attached to the leaf. A few preliminary movements are then made with the tip of the abdomen, to ascertain if nothing is in the way, and the process is repeated. The deposition of one egg requires from 30 to 70 seconds. Thus a large sized mass of 60 eggs would take 30 minutes to 1 hour and 10 minutes for placing. Description of the Egg. An egg is light, clouded, yellow in color and of an oval shape, the attached end being slightly larger than the free end. In size it is 1.2 mm. long by .6 mm. wide. The surface is delicately sculptured. Infertile eggs may be told by their shrivelled appearance soon after being deposited. Number of Eggs. As a rule the eggs are not placed con- tiguously in the mass, although in some instances they may touch each other. There is no definite arrangement of the eggs in a cluster, nor any definite shape to a cluster. (Figs. 2d and 6). Table III shows that the number of eggs in a cluster is not constant. For 39 clusters counted, the average was 46 eggs per cluster. The lowest number was 7 and the highest 76. Among eight females observed in the life history studies, the maximum egg production for one female was 754 eggs- 18 THE BEAN BEETLE in 14 clusters ; the lowest was 93 eggs in 2 clusters. The aver- age per female was 291 eggs. The hibernated adults averaged higher in egg production than those of the first brood. The better protection afforded the individuals in captivity would probably balance any loss of productiveness through the slightly abnormal conditions under which the females were kept, so the above figures are fairly representative. Length of the Egg-laying Period. Among the hibernated females whose egg records were kept, one produced her quota of 754 eggs, 14 clusters, in 40 days — 1 cluster each 2.85 days. Reference to Table III shows the time elapsing between clus- ters varies from 1 to 10 days. A second female deposited 8 clusters in 17 days; a third 8 clusters in 28 days. Among the first-brood females, one laid 6 clusters in 16 days; a second 3 clusters in 3 days ;a third 4 in 13 days; a fourth 4 in 6 days ; a fifth 2 in 2 days. Probably the egg- laying period for the first-brood females is longer than these figures show, under entirely natural conditions. The earliest of these females could begin to lay by the third week in July. The last record for eggs at the Experiment Station Horticul- tural Farm was on October 3. Larvae from eggs laid so late would likely not mature. This would give a possible 10 weeks period for egg laying by the first-brood females. However, the egg-laying period for any given female individual in this total time may be short. Scarcity of food in the latter part of the above time would restrict oviposition and shorten the average period, because most of the beans are harvested in this region before September. The great length of the egg-laying period of the females of both broods causes an overlapping of the broods and a con- sequently huge number of the larvae are present in midsum- mer. Incubation. The average time necessary for hatching is 5.8 days; the shortest time being 4 days and the longest time 9 days. (Table III). Reference to Table III shows that of the eggs recorded approximately 75% hatched. In some cases every egg in a THE BEAN BEETLE 19 cluster hatched ; one record showed only 18% hatching. Ev- erything considered, normally the per cent hatching is high. There was no discernible difference in the numbers hatching as between clusters on leaves in the field cages and on excised leaves in the laboratory. TABLE III— EGG AND INCUBATION RECORD. Hibernated Female No. I. No. of Cluster Z o 45 37 60 48 6-22 6-23 6-25 6-29 6- 30 7- 4 7-6|7 Q K 6-26 6-28 7- 3 £ w No. Days Incubation P-i 56 94+ 83 + Destroyed by accident 2 | 18 + 6 | 60 46 I 7-11 | 8 11 7- 9 Destroyed by ; 1 accident 1 Total 237 Ave. 30— 1 59 5.9 Hibernated Female No. II. 1 1 1 1 63 | 6-24 I 1 1 1 Destroyed by accident 2 1 62 | 6-27 | Destroyed by accident 3 1 61 | 6-29 ! 7- 5 | 45 | 74— 6 4 | 50 | 7- 6 | 7-12 | 50 | 100 5.5 5 i ; 56 | 7- 8 7-13 55 98 + 5 6 60 1 7-13 7-22 20 33 + 9 7 56 7-16 7-23 56 100 7 8 1 58 1 7-22 7-27 50 88— 5 Total | 466 | I | Ave. ^ | 1 I 82 + 6.2 Hibernated Female No. IV. 1 1 ' 1 59 | 6-21 I 1 6-29 1 | 4* 2 I 55 1 6-22 6-27 1 30 54 5 3 1 60 | 6-25 I Destroyed by accident 4 1 61 6-27 7- 3 | 50 | 82 6 5 1 67 6-29 7- 5 | 35 | 52 5.5 6 1 57 7- 3 7- 7 ! 57 ! 100 4 7 58 7- 6 7-12 56 98 + 6 8 1 60 7- 9 7-15 | 55 I 91 6 9 | 58 7-14 7-18 1 58 1 100 4 10 | 51 1 7-13 | Destroyed by accident 11 1 7 | 7-14 | 7-19 1 5 1 71 + 5 12 | 50 1 7-16 | 7-23 | 50 | 100 13 | 50 | 7-21 1 7-27 1 45 1 90 1 6 14 | 1 62 | 1 1 7-31 | 1 Destroyed by accident 1 1 1 1 Total [ I 754 1 1 1 ! 1 1 Ave. 1 • 54— ! ! 1 1 1 1 83 ! - 1 Ri 1 ♦Allowed to stand in direct sun in dish, tion and hatching averages. Not counted in incuba- 20 THE BEAN BEETLE TABLE III. (Cont’d) EGG AND INCUBATION RECORD. First Brood Female No. I. No. of Cluster * No. in Cluster Date Laid 1 rO A V V ft ft 7-23 7- 25 8- 2 8- 2 8- 2 8- 9 No. j Hatched ! I Per Cent , Hatched 1 No. Days Incubation 1 2 3 4 5 6 61 62 20 58 10 58 | 42 58 15 56 6 50 | 70— 93 + 75 96 + 60 88— 1 5 1 5 6 5 5 6 Total Ave. 269 45— 80 5.3 First Brood Female No. II. 1 76 7-19 7-25 | 60 79— 6 2 50 7-21 7-28 | 40 80 7 3 45 7-22 7-27 | 40 89— 5 Total i 171 1 1 1 Ave. | 57 | 1 83— 1 1 6 First Brood Female No. 1 la. 1 | 32 1 2 31 1 Not kept for incubation record ' 3 39 i 4 42 1 Total | 144 i Ave. | 36 1 First Brood Female No. III. 1 | 40 2 1 45 3 56 Not kept for incubation record 4 1 59 Total | 200 ] Ave. | 50 1 First Brood Female No. IV. 1 i 53 Not kept for incubation record 2 40 Total | 93 1 Ave. ! 46 + 1 Computation from Total Record. No Eggs No Eggs 1 Fer Cent 1 Period Days in Cluster per Female | Hatching Incubation Maximum | 76 ! 754 | 100 | 9 Minimum j 7 I 93 I 18 | 4 Average | 46 ! 291 I 75 | 5.8 THE LARVA. Hatching.. When the larva is ready to emerge it first chips out a hole in the free end of the egg. The head is forced through this opening. By more or less regular contraction and expansion of the whole body and by wrigglings of the anterior part of the body, the front legs are next withdrawn from the egg, as the body is forced upward. Once out, the front legs THE BEAN BEETLE 21 are used for grasping the side of the egg or any nearby sur- face, thus aiding in drawing the body out. As the other legs come out in turn they are used in like manner. The time consumed in this entire process varies from an hour and a half to two hours. First Stage. When the yellowish larva first frees itself from the egg the spines are closely appressed. As the chitin dries, the spines become erect and are seen to be branched at and near the tip. Later the tips of the branches become darker. The larva is about 1.3 mm. long by .6 mm. wide. The body tapers sharply in the abdominal region and is recurved down- ward. There is a row of four spines across the front of the rather pronounced pro-thorax. On the rest of the body there are six longitudinal dorso-lateral rows, the spines of the outside rows being very small and very few. The larvae remain for some hours congregated on the egg cluster after hatching before they go to feed. Then they move down to the surface of the leaf and feed together (Fig. 6) outward from the egg mass without leaving this leaf, if it is in condition to be eaten. Within 10 minutes after the larvae begin to feed the green color may be noticed in the digestive canal. By 20 minutes excreta were noted. When about ready for the first moult the larvae scatter and wander apart somewhat. The first stage of the first-brood larvae averaged 4.3 days in duration; of the second brood the period was 3 days for all the larvae used (Tables IV, V). The maximum time was 7 days and the minimum 3 days for first brood. 22 THE BEAN BEETLE TABLE IV— TRANSFORMATION RECORD OF FIRST BROOD LARVAE. Sh o £2 B 'O d M s » Larval Nu Date Eggs Deposited O d X d Q 1st Moult 2nd Moult 3rd Moult \ 4th (Pupat 1 Moult 5th (Emeri Moult Sex Larval Pei days Developme Period; da 1 6-22 6-26 6-29 1 1 i 2 1 ** | ** | 7- 2 | 7- 4 | 7- 8 | 7-13 | 7-18 | Male 17 26 3 ** 6-28 7- 3 * 1 4 *♦ ** 6-30 ♦ | 7- 7 | 7-13 j 5 ** ** 7- 3 7- 6 7-10 | 7-15 1 7-20 1 Female 19 28 6 ** ** 7- 2 7- 4 7-8 1 7-13 | 7-18 | Female 17 26 7 | ** | ** | 7- 2 | 7- 4 7- 8 1 7-13 1 7-18 | Female 17 26 8 ** ** 7-2y Ki lied accidentally 9 ** 6-30 7- 4 7- 7 7-13 7-17 Male 17 25 10 ** ** 6-29 7- 3 7- 6 7-13 7-17 Female 17 25 11 ** ** 6-29 7- 2 7- 6 7-12 7-17 Female 16 25 12 ** ** 6-29 7- 4 7- 7 7-13 7-18 Female 17 26 13 ** ** 7- 2 7- 5 7-10 7-17 7-20 Male 21 28 14 ** ** 7- 2 7- 5 7- 9 7-14 7-19 Male 18 27 15 ** ** * 16 ** ** * 17 ** ** 6-30 1 7- 3 7- 6 1 7-12 7-17 Male 16 25 18 ** ** 6-29 | 7- 3 7- 6 | 7-12 7-16 Female 16 24 19 ** ** 6-29 | 7- 4 1 7- 7 | 7-13 7-17 Male 17 25 20 ** ** * ! I • | 21 ** ** 6-30 1 7-^4 1 7- 7 | 7-13 7-17 | Male 17 25 22 ** ** 6-30 I 23 ** ** * 1 24 ** ** 6-30 7- 4 | 7- 7 1 7-13 7-18 Female 17 26 25 6-27 7- 3 7- 7 j 7-10 | 7-13 | 7-19 7-24 Female 16 27 26 tt 1 tt | 7- 7 | 7- 9 | 7-12 | 7-19 | * j 16 27 27 tt 1 tt '7- 7 7- 9 1 7-12 1 7-18 7-23 Female 15 26 28 ti tt 7- 7 7- 9 7-12 | 7-18 7-23 Female 15 26 29 tt 1 tt 7- 8 7-11 7-14 1 * 30 tt i 1 tt 1 1 7- 6 7- 9 1 7-12 | 7-18 1 7-23 Female 15 26 be d m 0) be d m be d m be d m d w B 'O A a 3 tH