THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN Issued Weekly Vol. XXVII October 1, 1929 No. 5 [Entered as second-class matter December 11, 1912. at the post office at Urbana, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of post- age provided for in section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 31, 1918.] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CIRCULAR No. 54 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH COLLEGE OF EDUCATION A PROGRAM OF EDUCATIONAL GUID ANCE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS By E. O. BOTTENFIELD PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS URBANA 5500 7 29 6829 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS :: PRESS :: PREFACE The importance of educational guidance on the high- school level is generally recognized and many of the larger schools have made provision for fulfilling this function. Much less has been done in the medium-sized high schools. In this circular the need for guidance in such schools is shown, and recommendations are made for meeting this need. Although the investigation was confined to the state of Illinois, it is likely that the conditions are not greatly different from those existing elsewhere. Consequently, this report should prove helpful to the principals and teachers in medium-sized high schools who are interested in provid- ing efficient educational guidance for their pupils. Walter S. Monroe, Director July 19, 1929 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign http://www.archive.org/details/programofeducati54bott TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Chapter I. Introduction 7 Chapter II. The Students and the Curriculum .... 10 Chapter III. A Tentative Program 16 Chapter IV. The Application of the Educational Guid- ance Program to Smaller and to Larger High Schools 25 Bibliography 28 LIST OF TABLES PAGE Table I. Summary of Data for the Twenty-five Illinois High Schools Included in this Study 8 Table II. Growth of Twenty-five Illinois High Schools Included in this Study 11 Table III. Twenty-five Illinois High Schools Ranked on the Basis of the Number of Entrance Credits Granted by the University of Illinois, 1926-1929 12 Table IV. Twenty-five Illinois High Schools Ranked on the Basis of the Number of Free Choices Offered Students in the Selection of Subjects 14 Table V. Twenty-five Illinois High Schools Ranked on the Basis of the Pupil-Teacher Ratio, 1926-1927 20 A PROGRAM OF EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Under the old regime of limited curriculum offerings, and a highly selected group of students whose careers in life were already largely determined, the high school needed to give but slight attention to edu- cational guidance. A vast increase in the number of students, varying widely in types and interests, and a corresponding enrichment of the curriculum are making it imperative that the high schools provide some means by which students may be directed into subjects suited to their needs and capacities. What was formerly cared for automatically is now becoming a problem of increasing importance. The purpose and the scope of this bulletin. The purposes of this bulletin are (1) to present a study of conditions and needs for guidance in a group of secondary schools of medium size; (2) to suggest a desirable educational guidance program to meet these conditions ; and (3) to indicate the adaptation of this program to larger schools and to smaller ones than those selected for study. • The limited curriculum offerings of the small rural high school make guidance a relatively simple matter so that a special program is unnecessary. On the other hand, the large urban high schools, in in- creasing numbers, are already making ample provision for the per- formance of this important function through the adoption of a com- prehensive guidance program. The "in-between" schools present a prob- lem all their own ; one that is peculiar to the sources from which they draw their students. Most of these schools are situated in thriving smaller cities, the centers in which the actual change from rural to urban life is taking place. There are two factors that tend to accen- tuate the need for guidance in these schools. First, the movement toward consolidation and the organization of community and township high schools are adding students from the one-room rural schools in constantly increasing numbers. Second, many large manufacturing concerns are locating plants in these smaller cities where production costs may be materially reduced and better living conditions obtained. These general facts indicate that students of widely varying types may be found in the high schools of these communities. 8 Circular No. 54 Table I. — Summary of Data for the Twenty-Five Illinois High Schools Included in This Study School Number of Number of Number Units Work Teachers Employed Students Enrolled Credited by U. of I. "A" 28 538 40.0 "B" 29 597 40.5 "C" 22 552 36.0 "D" 24 456 26.5 "E" 18 483 25.5 "F" 17 402 29.5 "G" 18 516 29.5 "H" 26 587 37.5 "I" 20 420 39.0 "J" 25 530 38.0 "K" 23 588 34.5 "L" 27 582 32.0 "M" 17 418 29.0 "N" 29 584 42.0 "0" 22 520 34.0 "P" 23 451 37.0 "Q" 25 521 38.5 "R" 28 568 38.0 "S" 20 463 38.0 "T" 20 435 31.5 "U" 21 440 37.5 "V 28 526 39.5 "W" 21 533 40.5 "X" 17 448 30.5 "Y" 20 420 36.0 Definition of terms. The term "educational guidance" is used here to refer to the directions given students in the making of satisfactory adjustments to all school conditions, especially in the selection of pro- grams of study. The term 'Vocational guidance" refers to the guid- ance given students relative to choosing a vocation. The "guidance program" refers to every activity connected with the guidance func- tion in its relation to the school and the students. A guidance pro- gram, therefore, includes the director, counselors, committees, organi- zations, plans, policies, and records ; in fact, everything that has to do with guidance. The data. A study including all high schools of medium size in the country as a whole would be far beyond the possibilities of this report. Reliable data from so large a number would be difficult if not impossible to secure within the time available. For a number of rea- sons, high schools accredited by the North Central x\ssociation of Col- leges and Secondary Schools seemed to offer the most promising basis for the study. By limiting the study to high schools within the State of Illinois, other sources of data became available: namely, the official report of the High School Visitor of the University of Illinois, the factual material on file in the office of the High School Visitor, and the Illinois State School Directory, issued by the State Department of Ed- ucation. Accordingly, a group of Illinois high schools accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools is used as the basis of this study. {See Table I.) The list includes all public A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 9 high schools in the state enrolling from four hundred to six hundred students, as shown by the official report of the Association published in June, 1927. The data relating to the number of students enrolled and the number of teachers employed were taken from the official reports of these schools as published in the North Central Association Quarterly} Although there is nothing in this report in any way derog- atory, the identity of the schools is not revealed in the body of the study. A key letter was assigned to each of the schools, and any prin- cipal wishing to identify his own school may secure the key letter by making application to the Bureau of Educational Research, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. The data concerning the number of entrance units credited to each of these schools by the University of Illinois were taken from the offi- cial report of the High School Visitor 2 at that institution. The report states that the credits granted are correct to June 30, 1926. The data relative to the number of subjects required for graduation were se- cured from material on file in the office of the High School Visitor. Data concerning the restrictions placed upon students registering for elective subjects were gleaned from published and mimeographed ma- terial furnished by individual schools. Part of this material was se- cured through the cooperation of the principals of the schools and part of it from the High School Visitor. 1 North Central Association Quarterly, 2:63-70, June, 1927. 2 "Report of the High School Visitor," University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 47. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926, p. 8-30. CHAPTER II THE STUDENTS AND THE CURRICULUM The increase in student population in the schools studied. The United States Bureau of Education 1 reports that in 1890 the free pub- lic high schools enrolled 202,968 students and that by 1926 the enroll- ment had reached 3,757,466; an increase of 1751.26 per cent. The schools listed in this study are receiving their share of this great influx of students as Table II reveals. The official reports of the North Central Association show that in 1917-18 the total number of students enrolled in twenty-four 2 of them was 7,112. With the excep- tion of School a L," which included the junior high school in its report, only two enrolled more than 400 students, the lowest number of the group as it now stands. The average enrollment was 296. In 1921-22, the twenty- four schools enrolled 9,980, fourteen being over the 400 mark and six over the 500 mark. The average enrollment was 416. The total enrollment at present is 12,578 for twenty-five schools; the smallest school enrolling 402, and the largest 597. The average enroll- ment is 503 and the median is 520. This represents an increase of 77 per cent in nine years. The significance of the increase in the number of students. The significance of this enormous increase in the number of secondary- school students is indicated both by the comments of educational writ- ers and by a number of studies relative to the intelligence of secondary- school students. Monroe's 3 comment is typical: "As the number entering high school has increased, the average general intelligence of each age group has been lowered because of the fact that more children on the lower levels of intelligence than on the higher have been ad- mitted. The decrease in the average of general intelligence is, however, not as significant as the increase in the range of intelligence. Instead of having a group which is relatively homogeneous with reference to capacity to learn we now have to deal with pupils ranging from the very bright to the slow and dull." It happens that students from slightly more than one-half of the twenty-five schools listed in Table II were included in Odell's 4 study relative to the intelligence of Illinois high-school students. This report ^'Biennial Survey of Education," U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1926, No. 23. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1926, p. 800. 2 School "E" was organized later. 3 Monroe, W. S. "Educational Guidance in High Schools," University of Illinois Bul- letin, Vol. 21, No. 15, Educational Research Circular No. 23. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1923, p. 4. 4 Odell, C. W. "Conservation of Intelligence in Illinois High Schools," University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 25, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 22. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925, p. 22-23. 10 A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 11 Table II. — Growth of Twenty-Five Illinois High Schools Included in This Study School Number of teachers employed Number of students enrolled 1917-18 1921-22 1926-27 1917-18 1921-22 1926-27 "A" "B" *tr-\tr "D" "E" "F" "G" "H" "I" "J" "K" "L" "M" "N" "O" • «p" "Q" "R" "S" • **ptf "U" "V" "W" "X" ,. Y „ Totals 21 15 15 8 *8* 18 16 12 14 12* 30 13 12 10 20 18 16 14 12 15 14 20 13 12 358 26 17 14 8 ii* 19 25 16 20 21 24 14 19 20 19 21 16 15 15 18 20 19 15 16 431 28 29 22 24 18 17 18 26 20 25 23 27 17 29 22 23 25 28 20 20 21 28 21 17 20 568 318 211 224 150 222* 353 358 251 297 300* 515 292 267 246 434 468 312 123 275 293 332 361 263 257 7,112 444 363 310 108 328* 541 556 388 501 501 540 465 502 425 470 475 410 259 355 386 422 452 384 395 9,980 538 597 552 456 483 402 516 587 420 530 588 582 418 584 520 451 521 568 463 435 440 526 533 448 420 12,578 ♦Data taken from High School Visitor's Report. Central Association later. Schools approved for membership in North showed the distribution of the intelligence quotients of 11,321 seniors to be as follows: Intelligence Quotient Boys Girls Totals 60-70 6 38 277 1,214 1,826 1,145 415 34 4,955 105 9 65 540 1,878 2,364 1,227 266 17 6,366 103 15 70-80 80-90 90-100 103 817 3,092 100-110 4,190 110-120 2,372 120-130 681 130-up 51 Total 11,321 Median 104 If intelligence quotients of 110 and above are considered high, those below 90 as low, and those between as medium, then 935 or 8.25 per cent of these high-school seniors will be classified as of low intelligence, 7,282 or 64.33 per cent as of medium intelligence, and 3,104 or 27.42 per cent as of high intelligence. Studies by Dickson, Proctor, and Thorndike indicate substantially the same distribution of intellectual abilities among high-school students. 12 Circular No. 54 Table III. — Twenty-Five Illinois High Schools Ranked on the Basis of the Number of Entrance Credits Granted by the University of Illinois. 1926-1929 School Number of Units Credit School Xumber of Units Credit "E" 25.5 "P" 37.0 "D" 26.5 "H" 37.5 "M" 29.0 "U" 37.5 .. F ., 29.5 "J" 38.0 "G" 29.5 "R" 38.0 "X" 30.5 "S" 38.0 "W" 31.5 "Q" 38.5 "T" 31.5 "I" 39.0 "L" 32.0 "V" 39.5 "O" 34.0 "A" 40.0 "K" 34.5 "B" 40.5 "Y" 36.0 "X" 42.0 "C" 36.0 Median. Average . .36.0 .34.8 Units for which the University of Illinois grants entrance credit. The extent to which the schools listed in this study are attempting to respond to the demand for more varied courses is indicated by the number of units which the University of Illinois accepts for entrance. The number of such entrance credits, granted to each of these schools as shown in Table III, was secured from the "Report of the High School Visitor." 5 Other data indicate clearly that the number of sub- jects for which entrance credit is granted do not include all the cur- riculum offerings in many of these schools. The catalogs and bulletins available from certain schools list the following: education, psychol- ogy, public speaking, industrial subjects, shop courses, band, orchestra, glee clubs, printing, and physical training. With the exception of physical training, these subjects are not required in any of the schools, yet it is evident that students in considerable numbers are taking them. 6 Number of units offered in each of the twenty-five schools. Ac- cording to the facts presented in Table III, the school offering the least number of acceptable units is School "E" with twenty-five and one- half, which is ten and one-half more than the number required for entrance to the University. School "L," the median school, offers thirty-six units, more than twice the number required, and School "N" with forty-two, the largest number of accepted units of the group, lacks but three of exceeding the requirements three times. It must not be inferred that the number of subjects accepted for credit in any given school represents the number of free electives or that the individual student is whollv unrestricted in the selection of 5 "Report of the High School Visitor," University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, Xo. 47. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 6 The large number of extra-curricular activities maintained in all schools of the group complicate the situation still further. A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 13 his program of study. The specific requirements range from three units in School "F" and School "G" to nine and one-half units in School "C" and School "R." In some of the schools the selection must be made from certain groups classified in much the same manner as the class A, class B, and class C units in the entrance requirements of the University of Illinois ; in others there must be an arrangement of majors and minors acceptable to the administration of the school, the usual arrangement being two majors of three units each and two minors of two units each. Four of the schools offer the students a choice of four or five courses, such as the college-entrance course, the commercial course, and the scientific course. Even here, however, some opportunity is given for variation in the subjects. For example, in the college- entrance course, a student may elect four years of Latin, or two years of Latin and two years of French or of Spanish, or he may select two years of science in place of either Latin or modern language in his third and fourth year of school. While the major portion of the curriculum offerings of the schools in question is in the form of whole units representing the work of an entire year in the subject, in each school about one-third of the offer- ings are in half-units or credits, representing the work of one semester in the subject. Number of choices that the student is called upon to make. An individual student, in making up his course of study for the opening semester, must first satisfy the specific requirements of his school for the grade in which he is registering. He may then choose the re- mainder of his course from the electives, some of which may extend over the entire year, and some for the semester only. If he succeeds in his work, his selection at the beginning of the second semester will be limited to the half-units only. The student is called upon to exercise the right of choice quite as much in the selection of the half-units as of whole units. The number of such choices that a student in any of the twenty-five listed schools is permitted to make during his four-year course may be determined approximately in the following manner. If from the num- ber of "whole units" offered, the number of units specifically required for graduation is taken, the remainder will represent the number of whole units from which he may make free choice. The sum of this remainder and the number of "half-units" offered will represent the total number of free choices that he may make. For example, School "T" offers twenty-seven "whole units" of work and six units are re- 14 Circular No. 54 Table IV. — Twenty-Five Illinois High Schools Ranked on the Basis of the Number of Free Choices Offered Students in the Selection of Subjects SrVinnl Number subjects offered Number units specifically Subjects from vJV^ilVJ \J1 which choice Year Half-Year required may be made "D" 24 5 7 22 "E" 21 9 4 26 "M" 24 10 8 26 "X" 26 9 9 26 "W" 27 9 8 28 "G" 26 7 3 30 «4'-pf t 27 9 6 30 "L" 26 12 7 31 .. F .. 24 11 3 32 "K" 30 9 7 32 "P" 33 8 9 32 •«C" 30 12 9.5 32.5 "0" 29 10 6 33 "R" 33 10 9.5 33.5 ..y» 31 10 7 34 "A" 35 10 9 36 "S" 33 10 9 34 "J" 33 10 8 35 "U" 33 9 7 35 ••V" 36 7 8 35 "Q" 33 11 8 36 "B" 37 7 7 37 "I" 34 10 6 38 "H" 33 9 4 38 "N" 36 12 8 40 quired. There is therefore a free choice from twenty-one units of work; add to the twenty-one units the nine "one-half" units offered and the total number of free choices is found to be thirty. It is pos- sible that in a few instances the units required for graduation may be made up of two half-units ; in such instances the number of free choices will be reduced by one. Table IV shows the number of whole units offered, the number of half-units offered, the number of units required for graduation, and the approximate number of free choices that are possible for the stu- dents in each of the twenty-five schools to make. As suggested on page 12 of this study, this is not the whole story. It is certain that many, and possibly all, of the tw r enty-five schools offer courses for which entrance credit is not granted. Conclusions. From the discussion and from the facts presented in Tables III and IV of this chapter, it appears that the students of the group of schools studied are forced to make a large number of choices in the selection of their programs of study. The number of free choices listed in Table IV indicates that in some instances indi- vidual students must elect as much as three-fourths of their programs, A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 15 and in a majority of the schools the students elect one-half or more of their programs. In order to understand the full significance of the situation, there must be added to the above list the courses offered in the twenty-five schools for which no entrance credit is allowed but which must be considered in the selection of a course of study. There- fore it appears that some form of guidance service is imperative. CHAPTER III A TENTATIVE PROGRAM The chief objective of a program of educational guidance. The first step to be taken in formulating a guidance program in a school system is to define the purpose that it is expected to fulfill. The most important objective for such a program in this particular group of schools should be to supply the students with the fullest possible in- formation and wise counsel relative to the selection of their courses of study and to the making of other necessary and desirable adjustments. The policy of educational guidance. A review of the literature on the subject of guidance indicates that the prevailing policies may be classified into three types: namely, "enlightenment," "monitory," and "pigeon-hole." The chief functions of the "enlightenment" policy are to acquaint the student with the educational-vocational advantages, op- portunities, and possibilities that a given course or subject offers and to awaken his interest in other courses, institutions, and activities. The final choice is left to the student himself. The "monitory" policy embodies the essential features of the en- lightenment policy and, in addition, involves a sufficiently complete record of the personal history, past achievement, and intellectual ability of the student to offer him pertinent advice or warning as to the prob- ability of his success or failure in a particular subject or institution. Again, the final choice is left with the student. The "pigeon-hole" policy differs radically in its method of applica- tion from either of the above policies in that the student is assigned to certain courses and subjects, definitely selected by the school, on the basis of the data suggested in connection with the monitory policy. The writer believes that of the three, the monitory policy gives promise of the largest returns and offers opportunity for rendering the most effective service. Information concerning the student needed by the counselor. In order that the guidance program may function properly, n those in charge of it should have for each student as complete a personal his- tory as possible. The more elaborate the program attempted, the more detailed the information must be. It appears, however, that medium- sized schools should collect data on the items suggested in the para- graphs that follow. 16 A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 17 Knowledge of the family history has an important bearing on the work of the counselor. The influence of the vocational setting of the parents of the student upon the probability of his successful completion of his high-school course is indicated in a recent study by Counts. 1 There should be a complete record of the student's elementary- school career, including his attendance. Teachers' estimates of his ability are quite as essential as his school marks, since frequently the latter may represent absence, illness, favoritism, punishment, or even prejudice. Likewise there should be available the results of his per- formance on all achievement and intelligence tests taken previously. In the event such records are not obtainable, appropriate tests should be administered as early as possible. Of equal importance is a progressive study of the personality of the student during the various stages of his high-school career. Spe- cial attention should be given to the development of attitudes, interests, moral reactions, and to the formulation of plans for the future. Fre- quently such a study will result in a different interpretation of the attitude of the student, and hence will afford a new basis on which to give future advice. Health may be an important factor in the adjustment of the stu- dent. Hence a physical examination is desirable. Since the recrea- tional habits of the student are so closelv related to his health, the records should indicate specifically the sports in which he has vital interest as well as those in which he is an active participant. Knowledge of the school policies and of the community needed by the counselor. It is evident that even full knowledge of the indi- vidual student will be inadequate unless the counselor possesses an equally thorough understanding of the plan under which the school is organized. He needs to know the various courses offered, the general and specific requirements for graduation, what courses are free elec- tives, and what ones are restricted in one way or another, as in the formation of major and minor sequences, or as prerequisites to other courses. Since under the instruction of different teachers the content, or the emphasis on the content in a given subject, varies considerably, the counselor needs information in regard to the subject as taught in the particular school and by a particular teacher. A knowledge of the entrance requirements and offerings of colleges and technical schools is essential in order that the counselor may prop- erly advise students expecting to continue their education beyond the high school. The counselor needs to have at hand a wealth of infor- 1 Counts, G. S. "The Selective Principle in Secondary Education," School Review, 30:95-109, February, 1922. 18 Circular No. 54 mation concerning the opportunities that various vocations promise for advancement. Since in many instances the student cannot be properly understood or wisely directed apart from the conditions under which he has lived and to which he will probably return, the counselor needs a thorough understanding of the social, economic, and industrial setting of the community in which the school is situated. Duties of the counselor. The specific duties of the counselor will be governed in large measure by the type of guidance program adopted and by the particular service that the school proposes to render. In medium-sized schools, it appears that the entire guidance program should be in charge of a chief counselor who is responsible to the prin- cipal. Under such an arrangement the major duties of the counselor are: (1) Gathering the data concerning each individual student as indicated on pages 16 and 17, and also data relating to the community in its social and vocational setting. The securing of these data will involve the use of surveys, tests of various kinds, many personal in- vestigations, visits, and conferences, and the taking of a school census. (2) Recording data in such a form that a complete history of each student may be available to the principal, counselor, or teacher without loss of time. For each individual student there should be a card of sufficient size on which to record all data previously mentioned, and also space for notations concerning his after-school career. (3) Actual work of counseling by means of personal and group conferences, inter- views, assembly talks, publications, student activities, and perhaps by devoting a limited amount of time each week to class instruction in "try-out" courses and "vocations." (4) Cooperating with the principal and teachers in making curriculum changes, as well as in the classifi- cation of students. (5) Conducting follow-up work in the adjustment of graduates and former students. (6) Conducting and assisting in such educational research problems as time and the financial resources will permit, particularly in making available the results of educational research conducted in other institutions. 2 Occasions under which counsel should be available. In all schools, large as well as small, the most effective guidance service is rendered at registration times. Perhaps this is because the students are more keenly aware of the need then than at other times. But there are other occasions in the life of the student, quite as critical, in which the need 2 Those desiring a more comprehensive list of the duties that counselors are likely to be called upon to perform under varying local conditions are referred to Edgerton's study of guidance and counseling in 143 cities. Edgerton, A. H. Vocational Guidance and Counseling. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926, p. 49-50. A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 19 for wise counsel is as clearly recognized. Guidance service should be available to the student when he is engaged in the following: 1. Choosing attendance or non-attendance at high school 2. Selecting a curriculum 3. Selecting elective subjects within the curriculum 4. Considering the dropping of a subject on account of low marks 5. Considering the taking of an additional subject or the under- taking of a special project for extra credit 6. Considering the changing of curricula 7. Determining the sequence of subjects 8. Determining whether to repeat elective subjects in which he has failed 9. Making adjustments in the curricula in order to meet specific graduation requirements 10. Considering leaving school for any reason 11. Transferring to another school 12. Seeking part-time work out of or within school hours 13. Seeking temporary employment 14. Considering attendance at a higher institution 15. Making selection of the particular higher institution An adequate teaching staff essential to the adoption of a guidance program. A guidance program of any type must necessarily be de- pendent in large measure upon the adequacy of the teaching force. In a small school where the entire time of the teachers, including the prin- cipal, is absorbed in the preparation of numerous lesson plans and the hearing of recitations, there is no time available to study the needs of individual students or to give them assistance and advice in the de- cisions that they are called upon to make. The teacher's contact with the student is limited to the recitation period, during which the ma- terials of instruction, rather than the subject of instruction, hold the right of way. Unless there is time for individual study and personal conference, little can be accomplished in the way of guidance. The need may exist, but an adequate teaching staff will be one of the first requisites in meeting the need. Before an attempt is made to introduce a guidance program, the teaching staff should be of such size, in pro- portion to the number of students, that one or more teachers would have time available for the study of individual student problems and for consultation whenever the necessity demands. The pupil-teacher ratio in the twenty-five Illinois high schools enrolling 400 to 600 students. Table V shows that all twenty-five of the schools studied are within the pupil-teacher ratio of 30 to 1, and 20 Circular No. 54 Table V. — Twenty-Five Illinois High Schools Ranked on the Basis of the Pupil-Teacher Ratio, 1926-1927 School Pupil-Teacher Ratio School | Pupil-Teacher Ratio "A" 19:1 "T" 22:1 "D" 19 1 "H" 23:1 "V 19 1 "S" 23:1 ..p.. 20 1 "O" 24:1 "N" 20 1 "F" 24:1 "R" 20 1 "M" 25:1 "B" 21:1 "C" 25:1 "Q" 21 1 "W" 25:1 "U" 21 1 "K" 26:1 T 21 1 "X" 26:1 "I" 21 1 "E" 27:1 "J" 21 1 "G" 29:1 "L" 22 1 Median 22 :1 that three-fourths of them are within the ratio of 25 to 1, the standards recommended by the North Central Association. It will be observed that Schools "A," "D," and "V" have the lowest ratio of the group, 19 to 1, and that School "G" has the highest ratio, 29 to 1. School "L," the median, has a ratio of 22 to 1. There are data from only a few of the schools which show the exact number of subjects and classes for which each teacher is respon- sible. The same is true of the data regarding the actual assignment of students to teachers in respect to advisory groups, home-rooms, and study halls. The reports indicate, however, that the schools use both home-rooms and study halls to care for students during periods be- tween classes. The number of study halls in these schools ranges from one to four, in which number the assembly room and the library read- ing room are frequently included. The number of home-rooms is not given for any school. Hence it appears that from the standpoint of the pupil-teacher ratio, all schools of the group have a teaching force sufficiently adequate to enable them to seriously consider the adoption of a guidance program. Other data indicate that the internal organiza- tion furnishes an equally satisfactory basis for the service. General organization of a guidance program. There are certain features that are essential to the successful operation of any guidance program whether it is established in a large city or in a small rural high school. First, the guidance program should be under the direc- tion of a trained counselor or director who understands thoroughly the aims, purposes, and technique of guidance procedures. Training for counseling also requires certain personal qualifications relative to dealing with students, teachers, and administrators. Tact and sympa- A Program of Educational Guidaisxe for High Schools 21 thetic understanding are necessary in order to inspire confidence on the part of students, and cooperation on the part of school officials. Briefly, "it is a task that demands the very best in personality, in vision, in training." Second, the counselor should have the assistance of a small group of judiciously selected teachers, who, with the counselor, will constitute the educational guidance council. The teachers may be organized into committees to each of which is assigned a definite task for study, such as home conditions, citizenship and ethical attitudes, recreations, health, vocational and educational opportunities. Because of their close con- tacts, the teachers are the best possible source of information concern- ing the general conduct and personal attitudes of the students. Like- wise the teachers supply the medium through which much of the guid- ance program may function. Work on the guidance committees will give the teachers valuable training in guidance procedures. Third, in order to give permanency and definiteness to the program, there must be an adequate system of recording and filing of the data relating to each student. The forms selected should be so designed that the counselor or principal may readily obtain the complete history of any student. Fourth, there should be sufficient clerical help provided to care for all minor routine duties in the collection and recording of data, secur- ing of bulletins, and the like, so that the counselor may devote his time and attention to more important matters. An educational guidance program adaptable to the medium-sized high school. In the light of the needs presented in the preceding chapter and of the apparently favorable conditions relative to the fac- ulty in this, the following tentative guidance program is suggested. In medium-sized schools, having an enrollment of less than five hundred students, the principal should have general charge of the guid- ance program. The data indicate that the principals in the majority of these schools are not required to teach, and of those that do, only a few of them are responsible for more than one class per day. The principals, therefore, have time to devote to administrative and super- visory duties of which guidance is now coming to be recognized as a very real and necessary responsibility. The adoption of a specific guid- ance program will enable the principal to render this service to his students most efficiently. In order to do effective counseling, however, it is important that the principal should qualify himself through special study of educational and vocational guidance procedures. Medium-sized schools enrolling five hundred or more students may well consider the employment of a special educational guidance direc- 22 Circular No. 54 tor. The administrative and supervisory duties of the principal will increase in direct proportion to the enrollment, and the amount of time available for directing a guidance program and for counseling with the students will decrease in the same proportion. As a result the principal will need the assistance of a director in order that the work may re- ceive adequate attention. Moreover, if the program calls for a con- tinuous study of all of the students and involves considerable research relative to curriculum adjustments, additional assistants will be needed as the scope of the work expands. If it is found that part-time service will be adequate, two schools may cooperate in the employment of a director, or it may be possible for the principal to delegate the responsi- bility for the direction of the work to a vice principal, trained for counseling, or to a teacher so qualified. In respect to the organization of a guidance program from the standpoint of the function that the teachers are expected to perform, the schools in this group appear to be equally well adapted. The home- room organization, maintained in a number of these schools, furnishes an excellent basis on which to establish a guidance system. No radical changes in the system will be necessary; in many cases there need be none at all. In addition to her regular duties, the home-room teacher will be called upon to observe the individual students closely and report regularly to the director or chief counselor in order to supplement and check the information relative to the school attitudes, conduct, and gen- eral progress of the students in her group. On the other hand, she frequently will act as the medium through whom many of the features of the guidance system may function, particularly in the giving of directions and information to student groups. A guidance program may be adjusted equally well to schools oper- ating under other forms of organization. The functions noted above can be performed quite as efficiently by appointing each member of the faculty as the advisor of twenty-five or thirty students ; in fact, this plan is sometimes used as a supplement to the home-room organi- zation. Minor changes may be necessary under any plan in order to provide for regular meetings in which all members of the various home-rooms or advisory groups may be present. Whenever possible, it is desirable that the same teacher be assigned to the same group from term to term, so that the advisory relationships may become increas- ingly intimate as the student progresses through his high-school course. The adoption of a guidance program under either of the above con- ditions will involve the making of provision for the other features pre- viously mentioned as essential to all such programs: (1) The forma- A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 23 tion of an educational guidance council composed of a small number of carefully selected teachers; whenever possible preference should be given to those teachers in charge of home-rooms or advisory groups ; (2) The installation of an adequate filing system by means of which the records of individual students may be readily accessable to coun- selor, teachers, and principal ; the record forms should be so devised that the counselor may easily get a complete picture of the capacities and characteristics of the student; (3) The employment of sufficient clerical help to care for the extra routine duties entailed by the system. The La Salle-Peru Township High School is a good example of what is actually being accomplished in educational guidance by a medium-sized secondary school. The school has in operation a com- plete guidance program, known as the Bureau of Educational Counsel. There is a full-time director, an assistant director, and a secretary on the staff. In order that expert service may be available, the Bureau maintains an advisory relationship with the Illinois Institute of Juve- nile Research. As a means of comparison, attention should be called to the fact that the student enrollment in this school is 587 and that there is a faculty of 26 members. Therefore the pupil-teacher ratio is 23 to 1, which is only slightly greater than that of the median school. Educational guidance programs in operation. The data available from the twenty- five schools show that a limited number of them are making definite attempts to meet in some measure the guidance needs of their students. School "H" has made ample provision through a complete organization. School "A" also has a guidance system in oper- ation although it differs from School "H" in that the chief emphasis is placed on vocational guidance. Bulletins and letters from the schools indicate that in several instances there are faculty committees cooperat- ing with the principal for guidance purposes. As would be expected, in the majority of the schools particular stress is placed upon guidance at registration times. The following selected letters are representative of what the principals say their schools are doing with respect to guid- ance. The principal of School "G" writes: "I make talks before the high-school and the junior high-school students, relative to choosing their courses of study. These talks are made as a rule dur- ing the month of April ; the election cards for the following year being released during the latter part of the month. Teachers and group advisors also en- courage pupils to come to them and talk over their courses." The principal of School "P" says: "We rely very largely on our method of registration for student guidance. We take four days for this purpose in the beginning of the year when the entire faculty is divided into committees and well organized to give students every help 24 Circular No. 54 in the selection of their programs. We do not have mid-year promotions in this town so the registration problem in the middle of the year is not serious. At this time, however, the entire list of students is gone over in faculty meetings and cases which need readjustment are taken under advisement by the entire faculty. Such committees as are needed consult with individuals to give them proper guidance." CHAPTER IV THE APPLICATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE PROGRAM TO SMALLER AND TO LARGER HIGH SCHOOLS The adaptation of the guidance program to schools smaller than those included in the study. In adapting a guidance program to con- ditions in the small school, only minor changes will be necessary in some cases. Usually a simpler form of organization will be adequate. As in the case of the medium-sized schools, the amount of time avail- able to the principal and the teachers will be a large factor in determin- ing the type of program that can be introduced. It is evident that the small school will be unable to secure the services of a special director who can devote even part time to the management of a program and the counseling with students. The principal is the one school official most likely to be capable of functioning as a director, and he is the one to whom the students are accustomed to go most frequently for direc- tion and advice. The many administrative and supervisory duties, to which some teaching and clerical work are frequently added, leave to the principal but little time to devote to the management of a guidance program. He has the advantage, however, of knowing personally his students and many of their parents, and thus with the assistance of the teachers may do very effective guidance work. Special training in counseling will enable him to find and use to advantage the many op- portunities for meeting this need. There are schools in which scarcity of funds makes it necessary for the guidance program to be incorporated as an integral part of the regular work of instruction. For example, the English and civics classes, through themes, projects, and reading assignments, provide a ready medium for acquainting students with educational opportunities. A series of assembly programs may be devoted to the dissemination of similar information. The adaptation of the guidance program to the school system of large cities. The school system of a large city affords the best oppor- tunity for the introduction and development of a complete guidance program. Here the many features of the program appear in special- ized form as a result of the division of the work into several depart- ments over each of which a special counselor or director is in charge. For cities in which there is but one high school and no central guid- ance and research bureau for the entire system, elementary and sec- 25 26 Circular No. 54 ondary, the guidance organization suggested for medium-sized high schools enrolling five hundred or more students will furnish a good pattern. There should be a chief director who is responsible to the principal and one or more assistant directors, depending upon the size of the school. The director, as in the above organization, will be re- sponsible for the direction of the program, for the collection and eval- uation of the data, and for as much of the counseling as time will permit. Counselors should be added to the staff in numbers sufficient to care adequately for the students. The assignment of the teachers to student groups, the formation of the educational guidance council, and the other features of the program will likewise need to be arranged and adjusted to the administrative organization of the particular school. The plan of the guidance organization used in the Senior High School of 2,000 students in Berkeley, California, is suggestive. The staff consists of a chief counselor and six "teaching counselors." The teaching counselors devote two periods each day to regular classroom instruction, and the remainder of the time to counseling duties. Miss Elsie Martens, 1 the Assistant Director, reports that four of the six teaching counselors are each assigned to the guidance of the students of a given class. For example, all the "low-X" students are directed by the "low-X" teaching counselor. Likewise, the "high-X," the "low- IX," and the "high-XI" are each under the care of a teaching coun- selor. The "low-XII" and the "high-XII" students are under the guidance of the chief counselor, the group advisors, and the assistants in the principal's office. The other two of the six teaching counselors have charge of the attendance, a man being responsible for the boys' attendance and a woman for that of the girls. Attendance problems are considered inseparable from counseling problems because the at- tendance of a student has an important bearing on his scholarship and high-school plans. Accordingly, there is the closest possible coopera- tion between the two types of counselors. Cities in which there are several large high schools will require the services of a central bureau from which the guidance programs in all of the schools are directed. A director, or chief counselor, who is re- sponsible to the superintendent of schools, should have charge of the entire organization. It is generally desirable to divide the work of the bureau into several departments of which the following are the most common: educational guidance, vocational guidance, and educational research. The work in some cities is divided on a basis that provides for departments of attendance, scholarship, psychology, and placement, 1 Martens. E. H. "A High School Counseling System in Operation," Journal of Educa- tional Research, 11:17-24, January, 1925. A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools 27 these departments either supplementing or replacing the ones named above. In any case the elaborateness of the organization depends upon the amount and the character of the service to be rendered. The chief director and the heads of the various departments constitute the guid- ance staff, to which, in an increasing number of cities, the full-time services of a specially trained psychologist, and frequently those of a psychiatrist are added. The central bureau is responsible for the collection, evaluation, and preparation of all factual material and sees that it is made available to the principals, counselors, and teachers in the several schools. The central bureau assigns the counselors and directs their work in the various high schools of the city. The number of counselors placed in a given school is determined by the enrollment, the type of service to be rendered, and the special needs of the particular community in which the school is situated. At times it will be necessary for the cen- tral bureau to function as a training agency for the counselors new to the system as well as for prospective counselors. The counselor has immediate charge of the counseling program in the school to which he is assigned ; he is expected to give to the principal expert assistance relative to guidance functions, and to devote the major part of his time to the actual work of counseling. The official relationship of the counselor to the principal is usually placed on the same basis as that of the general and special supervisors working out of the office of the superintendent of schools. The prin- cipal is the recognized executive head of his school, and thus the work, the daily schedule, and all individual and group conferences called by the counselor are subject to his approval. The work of the educational guidance councils in each of the schools will be limited largely to the consideration of the personal prob- lems of the students. Frequently the councils may act as mediums or clearing houses for the reception and transmission of information rela- tive to individual and community needs. All matters pertaining to the administration of the guidance program in large cities will be the con- cern of the central bureau and the superintendent of schools, rather than of the councils. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, R. D. 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Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1911, No. 14. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1911. 92 p. Viteles, M. S. "Psychological Tests in Guidance: Their Use and Abuse," School and Society, 22:350-56, September 19, 1925. CIRCULARS OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILLINOIS (Circulars out of print not listed) No. 13. Monroe, Walter S. Definitions of the Terminology of Educational Measurements. No. 22. Odell, Charles W. Provisions for the Individual Differences of High School Pupils. No. 23. Monroe, Walter S. Educational Guidance in High Schools. No. 24. Nolan, Aretas W. The Project in Education with Special Reference to Teaching Agriculture. No. 25. Monroe, Walter S. and Clark, John A. Measuring Teaching Efficiency. No. 27. Streitz, Ruth. Educational Diagnosis. No. 30. Odell, Charles W. The Evaluation and Improvement of School Build- ings, Grounds, and Equipment. No. 31. Monroe, Walter S. The Planning of Teaching. No. 32. Miller, F. J., Flickinger, R. C, Sargent, Rachel L., Luke, Ethel ]., Thompson, Glenna D., and others. Latin in High Schools. No. 34. Odell, Charles W. Educational Tests for Use in High Schools, Revised. No. 36. Reagan, George W. Principles Relating to the Engendering of Specific Habits. No. 37. Herriott, M. E. How to Make a Course of Study in Arithmetic. No. 39. Prescott, H. W, Flickinger, R. C, Woodruff, L. B., Whaley, I. G., and others. Appreciation of Latin. No. 40. Orata, Pedro T. Adaptation of Subject-Matter and Instruction to Indi- vidual Differences in the Elementary School. No. 41. Herriott, M. E. Modifying Technique of Instruction for Gifted Children. No. 42. Herriott, M. E. How to Make a Course of Study in Reading. No. 43. Monroe, Walter S. Projects and the Project Method. No. 44. Odell, Charles W. Objective Measurement of Information. No. 45. Monroe, Walter S. Teachers' Objectives. No. 46. Herriott, M. E. How to Make Courses of Study in the Social Studies. No. 47. Alter, Donald R., Duguid, Genevieve, Kukets, Walter R., McHarry, Liesette J., Taylor, S. Helen, and Thomsen, Anne. Instructional Ac- tivities in the University High School. No. 48. Odell, Charles W. Educational Tests for Use in High Schools, Second Revision. No. 49. Odell, Charles W. Educational Tests for Use in Elementary Schools, Second Revision. No. 50. Williams, Lewis W. Supply and Demand as Applied to High-School Teachers. No. 51. Odell, C. W. The Comparison of Pupils' Achievement with Their Ca- pacity. No. 52. Nolan, Aretas W. Techniques Used in Dealing with Certain Problems of College Teaching. No. 53. Odell, C. W. Educational Tests for Use in High Schools, Third Re- vision. No. 54. Bottenfield, E. O. A Program of Educational Guidance for High Schools. A limited number of copies of these educational circulars are available for free distri- bution to superintendents and teachers in Illinois. We shall be glad to add to our mailing list for these circulars the names of any teachers or superintendents who care to receive them regularly. We shall be glad also to send additional copies of any circular to super- intendents or principals for distribution among their teachers. Address all communications to the Bureau of Educational Research, University of Illinois. .