THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 598.Z srosy A \S te " ^ c: CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES HON. CHARLES STIWABT, MINISTER; CHARLES CAIISELL, DEPUTY MINISTEB GEOLOGICAL SURVEY W. H. COLLINS, DIRECTOR MEMOIR 104 No. 3, BIOLOGICAL SERIK- Birds of Eastern Canada (SECOND EDITION) BY P. A. Taverner OTTAWA F. A. ACLAND PRINTER TO THE KING'S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY 1922 No. 1563 TIEUUUIYIFTK MAR1VM4 MffiliiTY feed. CONTENTS. Introduction 1 Acknowledgments 4 Classification 5 Geographical distribution Migration 10 Protection 11 Means of attracting birds 12 Ornithological literature 13 Key to the birds of eastern Canada . 16 Explanation 16 Key 18 Systematic index 29 Descriptive ornithology (See Index) 41 Index... 285 Illustrations. PIATK I. A. Pied-billed Grebe 236 B. Common Loon 236 II. A. Herring Gull 23 B. Common Tern ' 238 III. A. Red-breasted Merganser 237 B. Mallard Duck 237 IV. A. Black Duck 238 B. Blue-winged Teal 238 V. A. Wood Duck '. 239 B. Canada Goose 239 VI. A. American Bittern 240 B. Great Blue Heron 240 VII. A. Sora Rail 241 B. American Woodcock 241 VIII. A. Wilson's Snipe 242 B. Spotted Sandpiper 242 IX. A. Killdeer 243 B. Bob-white 243 X. A. Spruce Grouse 244 B. Ruffed Grouse 244 XI. A. Mourning Dove and Passenger Pigeon 245 B . Marsh Hawk 245 XII. A. Sharp-shinned Hawk 246 B. American Goshawk 246 Xin. A. Red-tailed Hawk 247 B. Red-shouldered Hawk 247 XIV. A. Duck Hawk 248 B. American Sparrow Hawk 248 XV. A. Osprey 249 B. Barred Owl 249 XVI. A. Screech Owl 250 B. Great Horned Owl 250 XVII. A. Black-billed Cuckoo; Yellow-billed Cuckoo 251 B. Belted Kingfisher 251 XVIII. A. Downy Woodpecker 252 B. Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker 252 28587 1J 540388 Birds of Eastern Canada. INTRODUCTION. OBJECT OF THE BOOK. Of late years there has been a great awakening of interest in the subject of natural history. More and more people are beginning to realize the pleasure and profit that can be derived from observation of common natural objects. In this growing field of nature study, few subjects have attracted so much popular attention as birds and few forms of life appeal so strongly to the sesthetic sense. They are beautiful; they arouse curiosity; their elusiveness piques the imagination; and by presenting constantly new aspects they never become commonplace. The ornithological side is one from which the problems of nature can be successfully attacked from so many standpoints and in so many ways that there is interesting and valuable work for all to accomplish according to individual taste or opportunity. Those who incline towards systematic work can split their definitions as finely as human powers of observation permit. The animal psychologist can develop his problems as far as ingenuity can devise methods for experimentation. The ordinary nature lover can observe and note as painstakingly as opportunity permits; he can record information of scientific as well as popular interest, take pleasure in observing passing beauties, train his powers of observation, and acquire a knowledge that greatly increases his capacity for appreciation of nature. Even the unsentimental, practical man, who has little outward sympathy with abstract beauty, has his attention attracted by the evident economic value of birds. The "Birds of Eastern Canada" has been written to awaken and, where it already exists, to stimulate an interest, both sesthetic and practical, in the study of Canadian birds and to suggest the sentimental, scientific, and economic value of that study; to assist in the identification of native species; and to furnish the economist with a ready means of determining bird friend from bird foe that he may act intelligently towards them and in the best interest of himself and the country at large; to present in a readily accessible form reliable data upon which measures of protective legislation may be based; to point out some of the pitfalls that have caught the inexperienced in the past; and to suggest methods for their future avoidance. SCOPE OF THE BOOK. This work covers all the birds that the ordinary observer is likely to meet with between the Atlantic coast and the prairies north of the Inter- national Boundary. This region forms a natural zoological area (See Distribution, page 8), including what may be called the eastern woodlands of Canada, a fairly homogeneous section, physically, geographically, and zoologically. The prairies are radically different in character and, con- sequently, exhibit an entirely different aspect of bird life. The birds of the open are naturally different from those of the woodlands; hence Manitoba has been taken as the western boundary of the zoological area dealt with in this book. Although not a scientifically complete check-list of the birds of eastern Canada, this book is nearly so. A few species whose Canadian status is doubtful, and some of extreme rarity or of accidental occurrence, have been disregarded. The utmost freedom has been used in this respect and species have been admitted freely upon the basis of expediency; some as being of probable occurrence and to be looked for, others as illustrating some point of general interest more plainly than regular native species, and some because in the past they have been confused with commoner forms. PLAN OF THE BOOK. The systematic arrangement (See Classification, page 5, and Nomen- clature, page 7) used is that of the Check-list of the American Ornitholo- gists' Union, third edition, 1910, with supplements of 1912 and 1920. Though this arrangement is acknowledged to be somewhat imperfect and its details tentative, it is that upon which most of the recent American bird literature is founded and is the one in common use in North America. In the treatment of subspecies a departure has been made from cur- rent practice, that the writer believes to represent more accurately the facts of nature and modern concepts. Species have been treated as aggregations of subspecies, each of equal rank and importance, and not, as is customary, as species with subordinate subspecies dependent upon them. The species is first given as a whole, including its sub- specific races, and under a subhead mention is made of the special subspecies that occur within the geographical scope of the work. This has caused no confusion or change except in the use of vernacular names in which the reader will find a few departures from those given and authorized by the American Ornithologists' Union. In the scientific nomenclature the true relative importance of species and subspecies has been expressed; but heretofore the common names have not always reflected this conception of subordination and this fact in many cases has caused the use of definite subspecific terms when it was by the very nature of the case impossible to determine their correctness or when it was inadvisable to recognize them. Thus there has been a tendency to attach unwarranted importance to these minor distinctions in popular as well as scientific estimation. In the correction of this condition certain adaptations of common names have been necessary, but as little change as possible from accepted practice has been made. Older terms have been revived wherever possible, but as current names have also been given no confusion should result. It has, in some cases, been necessary to apply the recognized type subspecific name to the whole species and to adopt a new one for the form so robbed. In doing this it was advisable that as little change should be made in current usage as was consistent with the end in view. Therefore, except where good reasons prevented, the new subspecific name was formed by prefixing an adjective to the specific term hitherto applied. Each departure from accepted practice has been decided upon its own merits. Though there can be little doubt as to the advisability of the principle of the reform, the manner of carrying it out has been the subject of much thought, con- siderable consultation with others, and some hesitation in individual cases. 3 The Horned Lark is one example of this problem. The type subspecies Otocoris alpestris alpestris has generally been known as the Horned Lark regardless of the fact that any one of the fourteen or more other geogra- phical races has an equal claim to the name and that it is the only name for for the species as a whole. The obvious course is to call the typical subspecies Otocoris alpestris alpestris (which although being described first has not any taxonomic superiority to other forms), Eastern Horned Lark and to apply the name Horned Lark to the whole collection of co-ordinate sub- species, making it synonymous with the scientific binomial Otocoris alpestris. The Migrant Shrike offered other difficulties. The logical proceeding would be to call the whole species Louisiana Shrike, from its scientific name ludovicianus. This would, however, introduce an unfamiliar name recog- nizable by only a few. The species has, therefore, been called here the Loggerhead Shrike, and the form of eastern Canada, the Migrant Logger- head, on the assumption that the form hitherto designated Loggerhead can be called, logically, Southern Loggerhead. It would be too much to expect that the result attained will satisfy everyone; the writer hopes, however, that it will be accepted until the American Ornithologists' Union committee takes the matter up and makes authoritative decisions. In the following pa^es the number and vernacular name, with as little modification as possible, have been taken from the American Ornith- ologists' Union Check-list and appear first as a specific heading in heavy type. Following, in smaller type, are the more common local names by which the species has been or is known in various localities. The French equivalent is then given, preceded by the contraction, "Fr.". These formal French names have been adapted from Dionne's "Les Oiseaux de la Province de Quebec" and are followed when possible by vernacular terms in current use in French-speaking sections. Many of them were furnished by Dr. C. W. Townsend who has had considerable ornithological experience in the eastern provinces. Where French terms are missing, there is as far as the writer is aware no accepted French name. The latin specific name follows in italics and is always binomial. Preceded by the initial "L" the length of the species is next given in inches and decimals of an inch. The length of a bird is determined by measuring it, in the flesh, in a straight line from the tip of thj bill to the end of the longest tail feather, the bird being stretched only enough to straighten the neck curves. The measurements given are those of the average adult male and indicate the comparative size of the species under consideration. They are not for specific identification, as in most species there is more or less individual and sexual variation. Only an outline description of species is given and where there are illustrations, the description is omitted and the reader is referred to the illustration. Under "Distinctions," an attempt is made to bring out the salient points by which the species, when in hand, may be separated from other similar forms, and the work of other authorities has been freely drawn upon to supplement the writer's observations. Many of the distinctive points are naturally only superficial, but all are, as far as possible, reliable. Under the heading "Field Marks," the features by which the species may be recognized in life are mentioned. In these the writer has been guided largely by his own experience and has stated the points that seem to him most characteristic. In species with which he has had little experi- ence in life he has relied upon other writers. Under "Discussion," as many facts of general interest relating to the species have been included as the importance of the species warrants. Scattered among the various species, where applicable under this head, numerous matters are discussed and general laws governing zoological life are stated. Many of 'these apply to a number of species and some might well be repeated under each specific heading were it not for the constant repetition that it would necessitate. An attempt has been made to encourage a wholesome protective attitude from an aesthetic viewpoint. "Nesting" is merely a brief description of the nest and its situation. Much of this is drawn from other authors, especially from the invaluable "Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America." Under "Economic Status" is given a summary of present knowledge of the species in their relation to man. Most of this is drawn from the admirable work done by the United States Biological Survey. Of necessity only a brief outline of the data upon which conclusions are founded can be given and the reader is referred to ornithological literature, on page 13, for greater details. Under "Distribution," it has been deemed best to give the distri- bution in such general and well understood terms that all can get at least a general conception of the ranges of the species. The result may be a little vague owing to the lack of sharply-defined boundaries of the ranges, but the centres of distribution are made clear. For definite ranges the reader is referred to the "Catalogue of Canadian Birds" by John and James M. Macoun, issued by this department in 1909. Throughout it has been the endeavour to avoid the use of technical terms, substituting familiar words wherever possible. Some technical terms, however, have no general vernacular equivalent and a glossary of these is given on page 232. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The writer wishes to acknowledge valuable assistance received in the course of his work from the following sources: Mr. Frank M. Chapman, whose "Handbook" has been invaluable in filling in gaps in the writer's personal experience; in suggesting ideas of construction, and plan and methods of execution. The United States Biological Survey for data on the economic relations of birds. Mr. J. H. Fleming, of Toronto, and Mr. W. E. Saunders, of London, who have been untiring in giving advice and assistance from the time of the inception of this work until its completion. Frank C. Hennessey, of Ottawa, and Claude E. Johnson, of this depart- ment, who are responsible for the illustrations; the former for the coloured pictures and the latter for the line details of the key. The late James M. Macoun, of this department, who was a constant source of helpful advice, and who assisted in preparing the following pages for the printer's hands. c: CLASSIFICATION. The first step in any science is that of classification. The present system of generic grouping of species was first advanced by Linnaeus in his epoch-making "Systema Naturae" and has since been followed con- sistently by zoologists. By this, species are grouped together in genera according to fundamental structural relationships and not accidental resemblances. The fact that upon the discovery of the laws of evolution these relationships were found to agree with lines of descent proved the logic of the system and gave it an added meaning. Thus the various specific members of a genus can be conceived as having descended from a common specific ancestor; the genera of a family from a common generic one, etc. Dealing only with existing North American birds, they may be divided into a number of Orders, which are the largest groups with which the Canadian ornithologist has direct concern. Orders are divided into Families, Families into Genera, and Genera into Species. These divisions may be again subdivided into Suborders, Subfamilies, Subgenera, and Subspecies whose positions in the scheme are evident from their titles. Though the limitations of book construction necessitate the presenta- tion of the classification scheme as a linear succession of forms following one another in single file, it should be borne in mind that the system is not linear in conception. The component species instead of following a single line of relationship and sequence from the lowest to the highest present many parallel or divergent lines of equal or subordinate rank. The class A ves or Birds may be represented by a tree, the height of the tree representing time in geological ages from the earliest at the bottom to the present near the top. The trunk should be shown as double at the base; one stem would be a short dead stump and would represent the fossil, toothed birds which became extinct before present geological time; the other, large and thrifty, would represent the modern untoothed forms. This in turn would divide into two main branches a short way from the base and would represent the two subclasses, the Raft-breasted and the Keel-breasted birds. The former would be represented by much the smaller branch, whereas the latter would divide and subdivide into branches representing first, orders; next, families; then, genera; and finally, species. The value of these divisions, that is, the amount of differentiation sufficient to raise a group of genera to a family, or a collection of families to an order, is a matter for experienced individual decision as there is no authoritative ruling upon the subject. However, there has gradually grown up an approximate agreement on this subject, though the constant tendency among specialists has been to make finer and finer distinctions and to multiply the number of the various groups. The smallest division generally accepted is the Species. Though everyone has a more or less accurate conception as to what a species is, whether it be called by that name or another, no satisfactory definition has ever been constructed for it. It is what is commonly known as a "kind of an animal." Thus the horse is a different "kind" or species from a donkey, a bluebird from a robin. They are sharply marked off from 6 each other, regularly breeding together within the species only and pro- ducing like species as offspring. Distinct species do not commonly inter- breed, but, when they do so, they form crosses or hybrids that are usually sterile. Up to comparatively recent years no smaller division was recog- nized, but with intensive study of material it has become evident to advanced students that within the species there is considerable individual and geographical variation. Individual variation is the natural difference that may occur at any time between members of common parentage such as amongst full brothers and sisters. Just as like begets like, so within certain limits like begets unlike, for no two creatures are ever exact duplicates. This individual variation, usually small and irregular in appearance and direction, but sometimes persisting progressively generation after generation in one direc- tion, forms the successive steps by which present day evolutionists explain the origin of new species. Individual variation, however, is disregarded in classification unless it has proceeded far enough to produce marked and constant differentiation over a definable natural group of a species. Geographical variation can be regarded as the result of a common tendency to individual variation acting over a whole community of indi- viduals tending towards a common goal and is held to be induced and directed by local climatic and other conditions. Thus we often find that within a widespread species all individuals inhabiting certain localities have characteristics that separate them from those of the surrounding areas. Individuals in a dry desert country are apt to be smaller and lighter in coloration, whereas those in a warm, moist country are usually larger and darker. These differences are sometimes marked and obvious; at other times they are so slight as to be noticeable only by comparing large numbers of specimens and can be detected only by averages. Thus there is every degree of differentiation, due to geographical habitat, from pro- nounced departures from type, of almost specific value, to the finest shades of differentiation that skilled specialists can distinguish and which are inappreciable to the ordinary eye. The outstanding fac', however, that prevents the most marked geographical variation from full specific standing is that these minor forms intergrade and in intermediate localities every shade of differentiation between the extremes can be found. Between species this gradual merging of character is not supposed to occur, and however fine the distinctions may be, the divisions should be sharp and defined. We, therefore, recognize these intergrading variations due to or based upon geographical distribution as Geographical Races, Varieties, or Subspecies, the last term being now the most usual, and we regard them as species in the making before the connecting stages binding them to the original stock have disappeared, owing to the increasing sterility between the extreme variants. Except in such rare cases of physical isolation, as where an oceanic island habitat precludes continuous distribution, we take, in practice, the existence of intergrades as the evidence of sub- specific status. Besides these divisions of taxonomic value there are a few other variants that, owing to their erratic occurrence, cannot be recognized in our classification. These are "Albinos," "Melanos," and "Dichromatic Forms." Every North American bird has a common or vernacular name author- ized by usage and recognized by the leading ornithologists and there is seldom necessity for using the scientific nomenclature. However, it is well for all who are interested in birds to familiarize themselves with as many of the scientific names as possible, as they are not only necessary in more advanced work, but they are of practical use in grasping the general relationships between various species. The present binomial system of nomenclature was introduced by Linnaeus, the great Swedish botanist, and embodied in his "Systema Naturae," tenth edition, 1758, which is the authority accepted by American ornithologists. In this system each species is given a double name, the first term being that of the genus to which it belongs, the second that of the species. Generic names are not duplicated within the sphere of zoology nor are specific names within the genus. Thus, the American Robin is Planesticus migratorius; that is, that species of the genus Planesticus which is named migratorius. Other species of Planesticus have other specific names. The three objects of scientific nomenclature are exactitude, univer- sality, and permanence. To this end the naming of zoological material is subject to strict laws whose principles are universally accepted and applied according to strict codes. Under these laws the scientific name of a species is not a matter of personal preference, but is fixed, so that few or none can dispute it, and no changes can be made in scientific nomenclature except such as are necessary to correct current mistakes in the application of the laws of the code. With increased knowledge it has become neces- sary to depart slightly in letter, though not in spirit, from the strict binomial system of Linnaeus, and by adding a third term as name of the subspecies to make it a trinomial one. Wherever a three-term name is used, it is that of a subspecies of the original binomial form. The first specimen described, or the first specimen to which a name has been attached, is regarded as the so-called "Type" form. Therefore, in dividing a species into subspecies the form which was first named as a species is naturally given precedence and its subspecific name is formed by a repetition of its specific name. Thus the American Robin that was first described and specifically named by Linnaeus in 1766 as migratorius when mentioned subspecifically in distinction from the Southern Robin or the Western one becomes Planesticus migratorius migratorius. The Western Robin, first separated from it by Ridgway in 1877, was named by him as Planesticus migratorius propinquus, and the Southern Robin by Batchelder in 1900, is Planesticus migratorius achrusterus. In practice, where the generic or specific names are evident from the context, it is customary to indicate them by initial, as P. migratorius, or P. m. migratorius. Subspecific varieties are divisions of the species and, except in special lines of work, or where special exactitude is necessary, are of minor import- ance. As these subspecies are also often based upon points of difference perceptible to only the most experienced observers, they are mainly outside the sphere of interest of the average amateur observer. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The broader facts of the geographical distribution of life are patent to the most casual observer. The primary divisions of distribution, the Tropics, Temperate, and Arctic zones are obvious, but closer study shows that within these broad divisions minor and less obvious ones can be detected. In America, north of the gulf of Mexico, there are three life regions, roughly following the above, called the Tropic, the Austral, and the Boreal. These are subdivided into life zones each characterized by its own peculiar assemblages of plants and animals. The Tropic region is sufficiently characterized by name and need be only mentioned. The Austral region corresponds roughly to the popular geographical conception of the Temperate zone. It is divided into three life zones, the Lower Austral, the Upper Austral, and the Transition. The Lower Austral might be designated as subtropic and extends north including the gulf of Mexico and the south Atlantic states, but does not reach Canada. The Upper Austral is the first zone in which we are directly interested in eastern Canada, and it merely crosses the border at Lake Erie shore and includes the famous Niagara fruit belt. The frequent or regular occurrence of numerous southern species on Pelee point in Essex county, Ontario, marks the strongest development of this zone in the Dominion. It touches our southern boundary again in Saskatchewan and perhaps includes some of the warmer valleys running into southern British Columbia. The northernmost Austral or Temperate life zone is the Trans- ition zone, which includes the greater part of the more highly cultivated areas of Canada. It occupies the shores of the bay of Fundy, the upper St. Lawrence river, southern Quebec and Ontario, the lower sections of the prairie provinces, and a strip of sea-coast in southern British Columbia and marks the limit of extensive cultivation. The Boreal region is divided into the Canadian, Hudsonian, and the Arctic zones. The Canadian includes the remainder of the forested land north of the Transition and is mostly coniferous, continuing across the continent to the northern limit of general cultivation. The Hudsonian zone is in the more northern country of small shrubs or stunted tree growth unsuited to agriculture, and the Arctic zone extends across the barren grounds north to the pole. These life zones based upon temperature and roughly following the lines of latitude, are, however, deflected from their natural east and west sweep by varying local conditions, the vicinity of cold or warm ocean currents, the presence of large bodies of water, elevation above the sea, the prevalence of cold or warm winds, mountain barriers, and other causes. Thus instead of being regular belts they are irregular and only roughly follow parallels of latitude. Elevation is an important factor in the distribution of life depending upon temperature. In the tropics in ascending a high mountain, repre- sentatives of each zone between that of the surrounding lowland and the Arctic of the snow-covered peak, may be met with and appropriate assem blages of species will be found inhabiting each. The meeting of Arctic and Hudsonian zones at the strait of Belle Isle, in the same latitude as 9 Lands End in England, illustrates the enormous effect of the cold Arctic current, coming down from Davis strait, in contrast with the influence of the warm Gulf stream that dies against the English shores. We can also observe minor groupings that are based upon conditions other than temperature, these determining factors being mostly variations of humidity. Thus the life of the eastern woodlands is plainly different from that of the more arid plains of the prairie provinces and both are strikingly different from that of the moist Pacific slope. Taking the eastern forms as typical in the ordinary acceptance of the word, comparable birds of the prairie are slightly smaller and considerably paler in coloration, whereas on the humid Pacific coast they are larger and much darker in colour. Through these influences, therefore, we find in the west many subspecies of eastern forms. Comparatively few species range unmodified across the continent, many are represented east and west by two or more subspecies showing greater or less differentiation, and in other cases they are replaced by closely allied species or are absent altogether. In noting these faunal divisions, however, it must be remembered that as far as birds are concerned, these associations have to be based entirely upon breeding individuals. Birds travel so widely and along so many devious routes in their migration, that they may pass through several faunal areas in spring and autumn though breeding in only one. Therefore, in determining the faunal zone to which any given area should be referred, such transients must be disregarded. Though the distributions given under the following specific headings are rather vague, many tend to follow similar general lines. Thus some are given as "the lower Great Lakes region"; these are probably Upper Austral forms. "Southern Ontario and Quebec" refers to Transition species, whereas "beyond dense settlement or to the limit of cultivation" refers, naturally, to species of the Canadian zone. The following species are given as representative of what birds are to be expected in each zone : Upper Austral Canadian Arctic Cardinal Hudsonian Chickadee Ptarmigan Orchard Oriole Red-breasted Nuthatch Snowy Owl Carolina Wren Olive-backed Thrush Snow Bunting Grasshopper Sparrow Three^toed Woodpecker Gyrfalcon Blue-grey Gnatcatcher Hermit Thrush. Longspur Dickcissel White-throated Sparrow Canada Jay Transition 1 Grey-cheeked Thrush Bobolink Slate-coloured Junco Wood Thrush Yellow-throated Vireo Hudsonian Baltimore Oriole Rough-legged Hawk Towhee Fox Sparrow Cuckoo Northern Shrike Field Sparrow White-crowned Sparrow Bluebird Pine Grosbeak Catbird American Pipit i Most of the species of this one also occur in the Upper Austral, but reach their northern limit here. The rence of these with the absence of the species of bordering tones are the most marked characteristics of the T: tion lone. 10 MIGRATION. The migration of birds, their periodical and seasonal appearance and disappearance, is one of the most obvious phenomena of nature. The fact that many birds disappear in winter is common knowledge and nas attracted attention for ages. Though once regarded as a mystery, and still far from being thoroughly understood in many of its details, we are begin- ning to wonder less but admire more as accurate knowledge replaces vague speculation. Today, where most of our northern species spend the winter is known and many of the routes by which they come and go have been mapped out. We know that on the whole they are governed by ordinary and well known, though perhaps highly developed, senses and common every-day influences, and not by the mysterious powers and instincts once ascribed to them. The fundamental cause of migration is obviously the waxing and the waning of the food supply. Birds leave the northern land of their birth because there is no other way by which to avoid starvation. Many species can withstand extreme cold but none can go long without food, and though some bird food still remains in Canada throughout the winter, its amount is small and sufficient for only a limited population and even that supply rapidly decreases, or, to the north, is buried under deep snow. The cause of the southward migration in the autumn then is obvious, but why should a bird leave the soft climate and plentiful food supply in the south to brave dangerous travel and finally find itself in a land where retiring winter still lingers and the danger of starvation is imminent? Many ingenious explan- ations have been advanced to account for this: longing or homesickness for the land of birth, hereditary memories of an ancient home enduring through geological ages, the seeking of special food for nestlings, and insufficiency of nesting sites in the southern areas, have all been given as possible reasons. However, it is unnecessary to advance a complicated or far-fetched explanation when a simple and direct one exists. If we remem- ber that in the nesting season the bird population is increased many times by the birth of young; that though in winter there may be room for a considerable number of birds in the southern stations, the natural spring increase of population outgrows the supporting power of the land; and that just at this critical time the whole northern temperate region is thrown open to occupation with an abundance of food, the subject is mysterious no longer. In fact, it is only by migration that it is possible to use the supporting power of the temperate regions unless the birds fast or hibernate through the winters, to neither of which the avian nature takes kindly. Though food supply is the fundamental or originating cause of migra- tion we must look for other and more immediate impulses for an explanation of its methods today. Originally forced to and fro by hunger, the annual movements now have become instinctive and take place before the situation becomes acute, the actual hunger pinch is felt, or the physical system is weakened by want. The extent of the migrations of the different species varies. A very few species do not, in the true sense of the word, migrate at all. In other species only the more northern individuals recede from their stations, the southern remaining practically stationary, though in the majority of Canadian species the whole body moves south. The bird of greatest / n length of migration is doubtless the Arctic Tern, a bird that nests from the gulf of St. Lawrence to the polar regions and winters as far south as the Antarctic continent. The methods of migration are nearly as varied as their extent. Some species drift along throughout the day from treetop to treetop, from wood patch to wood patch, gradually working their way in the desired direction. Others take long flights, some high in the air, others lower. Some travel altogether by day ; others travel at night and we are aware of their passage only through accidental opportunities, their faint voices coming down to us from overhead in the darkness, or by their sudden appearance about us in the morning. They travel in flocks of single or mixed species, scattered groups, or as individuals. Many species, if not all, follow more or less definite routes to and from their breeding grounds and some go and return by altogether different paths. Comparatively small bodies of water deflect some species from their course, others unhesitatingly cross vast reaches of sea, indifferent to nearby and convenient land passages that are made use of by closely allied species. In some species the older birds precede; and in others the males precede the females. How birds find their way is still only vaguely understood, and indi- viduals far out of their natural range and course show as clear evidence of being as hopelessly lost as any other animal would be on unfamiliar ground. Certainly experience has much to do with it and undoubtedly young birds are largely guided by the movements of their elders who, it can be assumed, through previous experience, already know and can lead the way. We can understand how birds can follow great landmarks large river systems, mountain ranges, or sea-coasts in their journey, but no sense with which we are familiar explains how some species return unerringly to lonely oceanic islands over wastes of monotonous sea. It may be that they have a special sense which aids them in orienting them- selves. PROTECTION. In food habits, birds are eminently adaptable; seeds, plants, fruit, insects, flesh, or fish are all acceptable to various species and, consequently, nearly all regions have their quota of appropriate birds. A bird lives fast, its heart beats more rapidly than that of other animals, the blood temper- ature is higher, and it consumes an enormous amount of energy in flight. This feverish heat and strenuous exertion require a correspondingly large amount of food; consequently the bird as an economic factor is one to be regarded seriously. Though it may be an exaggeration to say, as some writers have inferred, that the whole balance of nature depends upon birds and that without them the country would be a barren waste with no life other than insects, yet birds cannot be seriously reduced in number without the gravest results. The destruction of tons of weed seeds and millions of insects must necessarily have a great influence upon human welfare and neglect of this fact must seriously react upon any community that fails to give proper protection to its birds. However, the problem of the status of individual species of birds is not the simple thing that it superficially appears to be. More than a cursory examination is necessary and many things must be considered in 285872 12 order to arrive at the truth. Sometimes birds work in harmony with human welfare and sometimes against it. They may be directly beneficial at one season and harmful at another, or their indirect influence may alter the sum of their direct effects in a most surprising manner. General impressions then as to whether a bird is beneficial or harmful require careful checking. Mere casual observation in life is never sufficient to determine even its food supply. Modern practice bases such conclusions almost entirely upon the examination of the stomach contents of wild birds taken throughout the year, which is the only evidence that is not subject to question. In this work the United States Biological Survey has examined and passed upon thousands of bird stomachs and the results of its researches are available to those who care to study and use them. As one of the factors in the delicate balance of nature birds should be respected. There are certain birds which from their size, habits, and general food value are regarded as legitimate game. The pursuit of these is invigorating sport and tends to the healthful welfare of the sportsman, teaching wood- craft, hardihood, out-of-door adaptability, and marksmanship. The true sportsman has a code of ethics of his own founded upon economic as well as humanitarian principles. He shoots nothing without giving it a fair chance and little that cannot be used as food. He is also careful not to deplete the game upon which his future sport depends. True sports- manship, however, has not been universal, and its too-common absence has resulted in a gradual but steady depletion of our game. Restrictive measures have been enacted but have usually followed rather than pre- ceded the results that have made them necessary, the regulations that are enacted today should have been adopted yesterday and the consequence is that, over much of the country, game is a thing of the past. MEANS OF ATTRACTING BIRDS. To anyone interested in birds, the pleasure of having them about the house and garden, where they can be observed at leisure, is very great. A small garden patch can be made attractive to many species by proper methods. The effects of strict protection are well illustrated in some of the larger parks where the shyest waterfowl, finding there is nothing to fear from man, become almost as confiding as barnyard poultry. This is the case also with the smaller garden species. Next to freedom from disturb- ance by human inhabitants protection from the domestic cat is necessary. The supplying of food in winter is also important. Shrubs carrying fruit, suet hung in trees, and grain, broken nuts, and small fragments of dried meat sheltered from the snow, never fail to attract birds in the winter time. In summer, when natural supplies are plentiful, food seldom has to be supplied, though a row of fruiting sunflowers or the seed heads of many garden flowers well repay the trouble they may cost. A shallow pool of clean water is a never failing source of pleasure to nearly all the common garden birds. They both bathe in it and drink it and on a hot day it is no uncommon sight to see several birds awaiting their turns to enjoy the grateful coolness. The simplest form of bird bath is a shallow pan, set well 13 out in the open and away from cover as a protection from cats. In cities where the trees are well cared for and dead wood is promptly removed, certain species of birds are always hard pressed to find suitable nesting sites. There are at least half a dozen species naturally nesting in hollow limbs, that readily come to bird boxes of various kinds and a number of other birds can be occasionally induced to do so. Suitable boxes are described in some of the books listed on page 16. In many schools where manual training is taught the boys are encouraged to build bird houses. Scope is thus given to their natural inventive genius, and at the same time they become interested in the birds that occupy the houses. ORNITHOLOGICAL LITERATURE North American ornithological literature is rich and varied, and per- haps no natural science can be studied with such efficient written aids either to beginner or advanced student as that relating to birds. A publi- cation can be found to suit all stages of knowledge and almost any purse. The following list of books on the subject is recommended, the first named being specially suited to the requirements of the beginner. Bird Guides, by Chester K. Reed: Part I, Water and Game Birds East of the Rockies (Including the Hawks and Owls) ; Part II, Land Birds East of the Rockies. Doubleday, Page and Co., Garden City, N.Y., price each, $1 in cloth, $1.25 in leather These are small, almost vest-pocket editions in limp bindings, 3J by 5J inches, very convenient for carrying in the pocket in the field. They contain small, easily recognized, coloured illustrations of all the birds in both sexes, and brief descriptions. Colour Key, North American Birds, by Frank M. Chapman and Chester K. Reed: 8vo., Doubleday, Page, N.Y., price $2.50. Similar in plan to above but more detailed and instructive. A Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New York, by Ralph Hoffman: 8vo., Houghton, Mifflin and Co., price $1.50. A most desirable book: though dealing with an extralimital area it includes most of the birds of eastern Canada. It contains keys for the birds of each season based upon colour, detailed descriptions, also many illustrations in black and white showing specific details, and gives much information of various kinds. Birds of Ontario, by Thomas McDwraith: 2nd edition, 1894, 8vo., Wm. Briggs, Toronto. An annotated list of all the birds known to the writer to occur in Ontario at that date, with descriptions and much information regarding habits, etc. Unfortunately it is now out of print and can be obtained only through second-hand book dealers who make a specialty of ornithological literature. Handbook of the Birds of Eastern North America, by Frank M. Chapman: 12mo., D. Appleton & Co., price $3.50. This is an almost complete text book on the birds of eastern North America and is invaluable for the advanced student as well as for the beginner. It contains detailed accurate descriptions of all plumages, measurements, and migration dates, and an immense amount of interesting and valuable detail with a most valuable introduction on birds and bird study. As soon as a student is familiar with the rudiments of orni- thology, he should supply himself with this handbook. Key to the Birds of North America, by Elliot Coues: 5th edition, 1903, vols. 2, large 8vo., Dana Estes & Co., price $12.50. ThL> is perhaps the most generally accepted authority upon American birds. It is primarily intended for the advanced student but it contains a mass of information that can be found nowhere else and is a final court of appeal to the majority of orni- thologists. 28587 2} 14 Catalogue of Canadian Birds, by John and James M. Macoun: 8vo., published by the Department of Mines, Geological Survey Branch, Ottawa, 1909. This is a complete list of all the species and subspecies of birds known to occur in Canada, Greenland, and Newfoundland, with their ranges both breeding and migra- tory as thoroughly stated as the condition of knowledge at the time of publication permitted. It is based largely upon the explorations and experiences of the authors, supplemented by knowledge from all available sources and contains considerable information regarding breeding habits but little else of popular interest. The original English version is now out of print but the French translation is still available for distribution and can be obtained from the Department. Birds of North and Middle America, by Robt. Ridgway: Bulletin No. 50, 8vo., United States National Museum. This is a monumental work planned in eight volumes but later extended to ten or more, of which seven are in print, the remainder to follow as rapidly as the work can be prepared. It is the latest and most detailed and scientific work on the subject but contains nothing on life histories or allied popular subjects. It is not for general sale but may be procured from second-hand book dealers or through the Department of Public Documents at Washington. Besides these general works, the following, dealing with special divisions of birds, are recommended : The Warblers of North America, by Frank M. Chapman: D. Appleton & Company, price $3. The Water-fowl Family, by Sanford, Bishop, and Van Dyke: Macmillan Co., price $2. North American Land Birds by Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway: Little, Brown & Co., 3 vols. Reprint of the original. The water-birds of the series was originally published in Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, 1884, but is now out of print and very difficult to obtain. For general reading the following can be recommended: How to Study Birds, by Herbert K. Job: Outing Publishing Co., price $1.50. The Sport of Bird Study, by Herbert K. Job: Outing Publishing Co., price $2. Wild Wings, by Herbert K. Job: Outing Publishing Co., price $3. These are all intensely interesting books and contain a wonderful collection of photographs of birds from life. Bird Craft, by Mabel Osgood Wright: Macmillan Co., price $2.50. Many full page illustrations. Rambles of a Canadian Naturalist, by S. T. Wood: Illustrated, J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London and Toronto, 1916, price $1.50. This is a series of short sketches and observations on the nature life about Toronto. They are well and sympathetically written many, though not all of them, refer to birds. The Bird, its Form and Function, by C. William Beebe: Henry Holt and Co., N.Y This list could be extended indefinitely but probably sufficient has been mentioned. On economic ornithological subjects the reader's attention is directed towards the immense amount of valuable literature published by the United States Biological Survey in their many bulletins, circulars, and reports. Though these were prepared primarily for use in the United States they apply to Canadian birds almost equally well. A complete list of them with prices can be obtained from the Superintendent of Public Documents, Washington. The prices are merely nominal. 15 Of Canadian publications of this nature, the following may be men- tioned : The Birds of Ontario in Relation to Agriculture, by Chas. W. Nash: Ontario Dept. of Agriculture, Toronto, Bulletin 173. Of literature of local application in Canada only a few of many can be mentioned, for their name is legion, but they are scattered throughout many publications. Ontario: Birds of Ontario, by Thomas McDwraith, 2nd edition, 1894, 8 vols., Wm. Briggs, Toronto. Birds of Toronto, by J. H. Fleming: Auk, vol. XXIII, pp. 437-453; vol. XXIV, pp. 71-89. The Natural History of the Toronto Region. Birds by J. H. Fleming: Published by Canadian Institute, Toronto, 1913, price $2, or $2.50. Quebec: Les Oiseaux de la Province de Quebec, par C. E. Dionne: Dussault & Proulx, 1906. The Birds of Montreal, by E. D. Wintle: Drysdale & Co., Montreal, 1908. Nova Scotia: Birds of Nova Scotia, by A. Downs, edited by Harry Piers: Proc. and Trans., Nova Scotia Inst. Sc., vol. VII, pp. 142-178. New Brunswick: A Catalogue of the Birds of New Brunswick, by M. A. Chamberlain: Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc., New Brunswick, No. 1, pp. 23-68. Ornithology, like all other branches of science, has its own periodicals. The chief of these in North America is the "Auk," a quarterly magazine, the official organ of the American Ornithologists' Union. In addition to purely scientific papers, it contains hundreds of articles of interest to Canadians, including local lists copiously annotated with life-history notes from all over the Dominion and descriptions of habits popularly discussed. Subscription $3 a year. Editor, beginning 1912, Witmer Stone, Academy of Science, Philadelphia, Pa. The Wilson Bulletin, a bi-monthly magazine, is the official organ of the Wilson Ornithological Club and is devoted to the interests of the middle west. Subscription $1 a year, edited by Lynds Jones, Oberlin, Ohio. Address, The Treasurer, P. B. Coffin, 3232 Groveland ave., Chicago, 111. This is a less pretentious publication than the "Auk," but contains much of interest to the general reader and publishes some of the most popular interesting articles on birds and their habits. "Bird-lore" is a popular, monthly magazine notable for its beautiful make-up and illustrations. It is the official organ of the National Audubon Societies and is devoted to the popular study and protection of birds. It is now in its eighteenth volume and is edited by Frank Chapman. Sub- scription in Canada SI. 75 a year. Address, Bird-lore, Crescent and Mulberry streets, Harrisburg, Pa. The Canadian Field Naturalist, the continuation of the Ottawa Naturalist, is a monthly (nine numbers a year) published by the Ottawa Field Naturalists Club, Editor, D. Jenness, Victoria Memorial Museum, Ottawa, Ont. Subscription $1.50 a year. Address C. L. Patch, Victoria Memorial Museum, Ottawa, Ont. This publication represents numerous Natural History Societies of the Dominion and contains a great deal of interesting zoological material and numerous notes and articles on the birds of Canada. 16 On the subject of protection and attraction of birds about the home, among the great mass of literature available, the following can be specially recommended : How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds, by Martin Hiesmann: Witherby & Co., London, Is. 6d. This is an extended account of the methods pursued by Baron von Berlepsoh in Germany and gives numerous methods by which the end can be obtained on both large and small estates. Wild Bird Guests, by Harold Baynes: E. P. Dutton & Co., New York, 1915, $2. This gives a most interesting and readable account of the method pursued by the writer and his friends whereby they made Meriden, New Hampshire, a veritable model bird village, where the birds became as familiar and friendly as household pets, coming when called and alighting freely upon the person. It is beautifully illustrated with numerous photographs showing both methods and results. The Domestic Cat, by Edward H. Forbush, State Ornithologist, Mass.: State Board of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 2, 1916. This is an exhaustive treatment of the house cat in its relation to wild-bird life. Bird Houses and How to Build Them, by Ned Dearborn: United States Department of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin No. 609. Address, Department of Public Documents, Washington, D.C. Cost about ten cents. On the subject of the English Sparrow as a pest the following can be recommended : The English Sparrow in North America, by Walter B. Barrows: Bull. No. 1, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1889, pp. 405. How to Destroy the English Sparrow, by Ned Dearborn: Farmer's Bulletin No. 383, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910. The English Sparrow as a Pest, by Ned Dearborn : Farmer's Bulletin No. 493, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1912. These reports give the English Sparrow a fair trial and an honest conviction, and suggest various means of keeping its number under control. KEY TO THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CANADA. Explanation. In zoological descriptions a "key" is a device by which a specimen can be gradually referred from larger to smaller groups by picking out salient characters and thus finally fixing its specific identity. The key here published is a modification of one originated by Mr. Frank M. Chapman and Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton and published in the former's "Handbook to the Birds of Eastern North America." It is hoped that it will be found of great assistance to the beginner. One advantage of this key is that it is independent of the varying characters of age, sex, or season, and may be used in regard to juveniles and females as well as to adult male specimens. The method of its use is as follows. Given a bird of unknown species, to determine its name, it is first compared with the first heading in black type numbered in Roman numerals I, Feet Fully Webbed. If this description does not fit the bird, the next roman numeral heading is referred to II, Feet Partly Webbed, or III, Feet Without Pronounced Web. Assuming that the last correctly describes the bird, we refer to the 17 headings of next lower rank, which are numbered alphabetically with capital letters, where we find the alternatives -F, legs long, and G, legs short. Sometimes it may be difficult to decide whether a leg should be regarded as long or short, and the following pictured details may then assist deter- mination. In this case the legs we decide are not remarkably long, no longer in comparison with the size of the bird than are the legs of a Chicken or Sparrow; we, therefore, under G, refer to a number of subordinate alternatives, distinguished by small initial letters k, feet chicken-like, strong and compact for scratching; 1, feet strongly clawed for holding prey; m, feet small and weak; n, feet small or medium-sized, solidly made, and legs covered with horny scales or plates. Glancesat various feet shown under each heading will assist in determination. Assuming a decision in favour of the last, we compare our specimen with the next alternatives, numbered with arabic numerals 19, two toes in front; 20, three toes in front. There can be little confusion here and we assume that our speci- men having three front toes is one of the great body of perching birds. We, therefore, compare it with the following line detail drawings to see with which it agrees most closely. The bill is not wide and flat; it is, therefore, not a Flycatcher; there are no ear-tufts or long hind toe and the nostril is not covered with feather tufts, therefore it cannot be either a Horned Lark, a Crow, or a Jay. The next picture, the Bobolink's bill, catches our eye and the Sparrow bill in the next lot. A glance through the remainder shows that our bird must be either a Bobolink or one of the Spar- rows. The picture p. 259, and description of the former, is nothing like it; therefore, we turn to the Sparrows, read the general Sparrow description, and remarks on p. 170, and then work through the pictures. After looking at all the illustrations we find that our specimen agrees with that of the Song Sparrow, and on reading over the distinctive characters our opinion is confirmed. The bird has the sharply-striped breast aggregated in the centre, and is without either the yellow stripe over the eye of the Savannah Sparrow or the white outer feathers of the tail, as in the Vesper. We are, therefore, confident that, starting with no other ornithological knowledge than that the specimen was an eastern Canadian bird, we have been able to refer it to its proper species. Fig. 1 PLUMAGE AREAS OF A TYPICAL BIRD I. Feet Fully Webbed Two or three complete webs to each foot. A, Toes, four. a, Tarsus flattened. Fig. 2 LOON Loons p. 44. Fig. 3 JAEOER Fig. 4 GULL Fig. 5 TERN b, Closed wing longer than tail, except in some Jaegers (Fig. 3) and Terns (Fig. 5), in which the rule holds only if the greatly elongated central tail feathers of the former or the outer ones of the latter are disregarded. Bills as shown. Long-winged Swimmers Gulls, Terns, Jaegers p. 48. 19 c, Webs between all toes (3 webs) Fig. 6 GANNBT Full-webbed Swimmers Gannets, Cormorants, etc., p. 61. Fig. 7 MERGANSER (a) Side of bill (6) Top of bill Fig. 8 DUCK (a) Side of bill (6) Top of bill Fig. SURF SCOTIR Fig. 10 GOOSE d, Bill toothed or flattened (Duck-like). Sieve-bitted Swimmers Mergansers, Ducks, Geese, and Swans . p. 64. e, Nostrils in tubes on top of bill. Tube-nosed Swimmers Petrels, etc . Fig. 11 PETREL ... p. 58. 20 B, Toes three (no hind toe), except Kittiwake (p. 51). Auks, Murres, etc. Fig. 12 MURRE p. 45. II. Feet Partly Webbed Webs reduced to scallops, bordering flaps, or small webs at base of toes. Toes four, except as otherwise noted. C, Tarsus much flattened; webs as shown. Fig. 13 GREBE Grebes p. 42. D, Bill extending on forehead and forming frontal plate. Coot. Fig. 14 COOT p. 93. E, Small birds; bill long and slender; toes three or four. f , Bill without hard terminal enlargement ; toes four, except Sanderling (p. 101). Fig. 15 WADER Shore Birds Phalaropes, Snipe, Sandpipers, Plover p. 94. g, Bill with hard terminal enlargement; toes three, except Black-bellied Plover (p. 107). Plover. Fig. 16 KILLDKER PLOVER p. 107. 21 HI. Feet Without Pronounced Web. F, Legs long, for wading hi water or mud ; toes long, slender, and flexible at joints. Fig. 17 HKBON h, Bill stout and horny; bare space about eyes. Fig. 18 HERON 1, Middle toe with comb (pectinated). Herons Fig. 19 PECTINATED CLAW p. 83. 2, Forehead bare. Fig. 20 CHANT Cranes p. 88. i, Bills long, flex- ible, and even- ly tapered. Fig. 21 SNIPE Fig. 22 SANDPIPER 3, Bill rather slender, not markedly deeper at base than tip. Toes four, except Sanderling (p. 101). Phalaropes, Snipe, Sandpipers p. 94. 22 4, Bill rather decidedly heavier at base than at tip. Rails (King and Virginia) Fig. 23 LONQBILLED RAILS p. 89. j, Bills short. 5, Bill soft at base ending in hard terminal enlargement. Toes three, except Black-bellied Plover (p. 107). Plover Fig. 24 PLOVER p. 107. 6, Bill quite stout. Rails (Sora and Yellow) Fig. 25 SHOKTBILLED RAILS p. 90. 7, Bill stout with frontal shield extending on forehead. Gallinules . Fig. 26 GALLINULE p. 92. 8, Bill horny to base, wedge-shaped in profile, and appearing to be slightly turned up. Turnstones . G, Legs short for perching, walking, climbing, and living in trees or on land, k, Feet chicken-like, strong and compact; toes less flexible; claws strong and blunt for scratching. Tarsus feathered or bare. With or without comb-like appendages on toes. Fig. 28 GROUSE 23 9, Bill rather conical; feathered to or about nostril. Fig. 29 GBOCBC Grouse and Quail p. 111. 10, Bill hooked; neck and head bare. Vultures . Fig. 30 VULTUBB p. 120. 1, Feet powerful for hold- ing prey; claws long, strong, sharp, and curved, tarsus feather- ed or bare. Figs. 31 and 32 HAWK AND OWL Birds of Prey p. 119. 11, Naked cere at base of bill. Tarsus always (ex- cept Roughleg Hawk and Golden Eagle) bare. Toes always bare (Fig. 31). Fig. 33 (a) FALCON (i>) HAWK OB EAGLE Hawks and Eagles p. 122. 24 12, Cere hidden in feathers; eye in centre of more or le&s circu- lar feather disks. Tarsus and toes feathered (Fig. 32). Owls. Fig. 34 OWL m, Feet small and weak. 13, Nostrils opening in a soft and some- what swollen base. .p. 135. Pigeons . Fig. 35 PIGEON p. 116. 14, Two outer toes joined together for half their length. Kingfisher . Fig. 36 KINGFISHER p. 141. 15, Two toes directed forward, two backward (see also Woodpeckers). Cuckoos . Fig. 37 CUCKOO p. 141. 16, Bill very small; mouth enor- mous, opening to below eyes. Goatsuckers, Whip-poor-wills, Nighthawks . Fig. 38 GOATSUCKEB p. 149. 25 17, Tail feathers ending in sharp spines. Chimney Swift . Fig. 39 SWUT p. 152. 18, Bill very slender and awl-shaped. Exceedingly minute birds. Hummingbird n, Feet, medium-sized or small, but not noticeably weak, flabby, or loose- jointed. Legs covered with scales or plates. 19, Two toes in front, either one or two directed backwards. Bill chisel-shaped at tip. Fig. 40 HUMMINGBIRD p. 153. Woodpeckers . Fig. 41 WOODPBCKIR p. 144. 20, Three toes in front; hind toe as well developed and as long as middle toe, claw on hind toe usually as long as or longer than that on middle toe. Fig. 42 PIECHEB Perchers P- 154. Recognition of Details of the Perchers. Bill wider than high at base; tip slightly hooked. Fig. 43 FLTCATCHIB (a) Side of bill (5) Top of bill Flycatchers p. 154. Note ear-tufts and long hind toe-nail. Longspur and Pipit only other species having latter feature. a b Fig. 44 HORNED LABK Horned Lark p. 160. 26 Bill stout, nostrils covered by bristly tufts. Fig. 45 BLUE JAY Crows, Jays, etc p. 160. Keel of bill us- ually extending more or less up on forehead. Cowbird and Bobolink (Fig. 46) have bills resembling those of Spar- rows. See spe- cies. Fig. 46 BOBOLINK Fig. 47 MEADOWLARK Fig. 48 BALTIMORE ORIOLE Fig. 49 BRONZED CRACKLE Starlings p. 164. VH;J .*>* w Fig. 50 ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK Fig. 51 SONO SPARROW Fig. 52 WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL Bill conical, stout for seed cracking. (Bills of Bobolink and Cowbird superficially similar, see descriptions.) Sparrows p. 170. Slight or marked tooth on cutting side of upper mandible. Tanagers Fig. 53 SCARLET TANAOBR p. 191. 27 Bill very small, wide, and flattened at base. Fig. 54 Curt SWALLOW (a) Top of bill (6) Side of bill Swallows p. 193. A Crest and black eye-band most conspicuous. Waxmngs. Fig. 55 WAXWINOS p. 196. Tooth near tip of upper mandible. Fig. 56 SHBIKI Vireos and Shrikes pp. 197, 199. Small, brightly coloured birds. Olive- greens and yellows are perhaps the commonest colours, but blues, reds, and other colours are often present. Figs. 57, 58, and 50 TENNESSEE WAHBLER, MYRTLE WABBLEB, AND WATER THRUSH Wood Warblers p. 202. Fine sharp bill and long claw on hind toe. Pipit. Fig. 60 AMERICAN PIPIT 28587-3 p. 217. 28 Fig. 61 BROWN THRASHER Fig. 62 CATBIRD Bills as shown. Thrasher large red-brown and white bird; Catbird even slate-grey. Thrasher and Catbird p. 218. Small birds coloured in shades of wood-brown. Wrens. Fig. 63 HOUSE WHEN p. 220. Small birds in wood-brown colours. Tail long and stiff, feathers pointed at end. Creepers . Fig. 64 BROWN CREEPER p. 222. Bill pointing slightly upwards. Nuthatches Fig. 65 WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH p. 223. Very small birds coloured in grey, white, and black. Titmice . Fi. 66 BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE p. 224. 29 Very small birds, olive-coloured. Males with small, brightly coloured crown patch. Fig. 67 GOLDIN-CBOWNID KlNOLBT Kinglets .................................................... p. 226. Medium-sized birds, coloured usually, except Robin and Bluebird, in soft browns with more or less spotted breast. Fig. 68 WILSON'S THBUSH Thrushes p. 228. SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Titles given in small capitals have special sections or paragraphs de- voted to them; those in italics are mentioned incidentally in the text. Starred species are illustrated in colours. PAGB. Class AVES, birds 41 Subclass RAT1T&, Raft-breasted birds 41 Subclass .... CABINAT^!, Keel-breagted birds 41 Order PYGOPODES, Divers 41 Suborder COLYMBI, Grebes 42 Family COLYMBID.E, Grebes 42 Western Grebe 42 HOLB, American Quail Ill BOB-WHITE 112 Virginia Bob^white 112 Family TETRAONIDJB, Grouse 113 *SPRUCE PARTRIDGE* 113 Hudsonian Spruce Partridge 113 Canada Spruce Partridge 113 RUFFED GROUSE. 113 Canada Ruffed Grouse 113 Genus LAGOPUS, Ptarmigan 114 WILLOW PTARMIGAN 115 Willow Ptarmigan 115 Allen's Ptarmigan 115 ROCK PTARMIGAN 115 Arctic Ptarmigan 115 Reinhardts Ptarmigan 115 Welsh's Ptarmigan 115 PRAIRIE CHICKEN 115 Northern Prairie Chicken 115 SHARP-TAILED GROUSE 116 Northern Sharp-tail 116 Prairie Sharp-tail 116 Family MELEAGRID.E, Turkeys 116 WILD TURKEY 116 Northern Wild Turkey 116 Order COLOMBO, Pigeons and Doves 116 Family COLUMBID.*:, True Pigeons and Doves 117 PASSENGER PIGEON 117 MOURNING DOVE 118 Carolina Mourning Dove 118 Order RAPTORES, Birds o/ Prey 119 Suborder SARCORHAMPHI, American Vultures 120 Family CATHARUDa;, Turkey Vultures 120 TURKEY VULTURE 121 Northern Turkey Vulture 121 BLACK VULTURE 121 Suborder FALCONES, Diurnal Birds of Prey 121 Family BUTEONID.S:, Buzzards and Eagles 122 Genera ELAXOIDES and CIRCUS, Kites and Harriers 122 SWALLOW-TAILED KITE 122 MARSH HAWK 122 Genera ACCIPITER and ASTUR, Short-winged Hawks 123 SHARP-SHINNED HAWK 123 COOPER'S HAWK 124 AMERICAN GOSHAWK 125 Eastern Goshawk 125 Genera BUTEO and ARCHIBUTEO, True Buzzards 125 RED-TAILED HAWK 126 Eastern Red-tail 126 RED-SHOULDERED HAWK 127 Eastern Red-shouldered Hawk 127 SWADJSON'S HAWK 127 BROAD-WINGED HAWK 128 ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK 128 American Rough-legged Hawk 128 34 PAGE. Genera AQUILA and HALI^EETUS, Eagles 129 GOLDEN EAGLE 129 BALD EAGLE 129 Northern Bald Eagle 130 Family FALCONHWE, Falcons and Caracaras 130 Subfamily FALCONING, True Falcons 131 GTBFALCON8 131 WHITE GYKFALCON 131 GYKFALCON 132 Grey Gyrfalcon 132 Black Gyrfalcon 132 *PEBEGRINE FALCON 132 Duck Hawk 132 PIGEON HAWK 132 Eastern Pigeon Hawk 133 'AMERICAN SPARKOW HAWK 133 Eastern Sparrow Hawk 133 Subfamily POLYBORINJE, CARACARAS 130 Family PANDIONIDJB, Fish-hawks, Ospreys 134 'OSPREY 134 American Osprey 134 Suborder STRIGES, Nocturnal Birds of Prey 135 Family ALUCONDXS:, Barn Owls 135 AMERICAN BARN OWL 135 Family STRIGID^E, Horned or Eared Owls 135 AMERICAN LONG-EARED OWL 136 AMERICAN SHORT-EARED OWL 136 'BARRED OWL 137 Eastern Barred Owl 137 CINEREOUS OWL 137 Great Grey Owl 137 ARCTIC SAW-WHET OWL 138 Richardson's Owl 138 SAW-WHET OWL 138 Acadian Owl 138 SCREECH OWL 139 Eastern Screech Owl 139 'GREAT HORNED OWL 139 Eastern Horned Owl 139 Western Horned Owl 139 Arctic Horned Owl 139 Labrador Horned Owl 139 BNOWT OWL 140 HAWK OWL 140 American Hawk Owl 141 Order COCCYGES, Cuckoos and Kingfishers 141 Suborder CUCULI, Cuckoos 141 Family CUCULUXE, American Cuckoos 141 Subfamily COCCYZIN^E, American Tree Cuckoos 141 'YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO 142 'BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO 142 Suborder ALCYONES, Kingfishers 143 Family ALCEDINID.S:, Kingfishers 143 BELTED KINGFISHER 143 Order PICI, Woodpeckers 144 Family PICDXE, Woodpeckers 144 HAIRY WOODPECKER 145 Eastern Hairy Woodpecker 145 Northern Hairy Woodpecker 145 'DOWNY WOODPECKER 145 Northern Downy Woodpecker 145 'ARCTIC THREE-TOED WOODPECKER 146 AMERICAN THREE-TOED WOODPECKER .... 146 Eastern Three-toed Woodpecker 146 35 Family PICID.E Continued. PAGE. YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKEB 146 Eastern Sapsucker 146 PILEATED WOODPECKER 147 Northern Pileated Woodpecker 147 RED-HEADED WOODPECKER 148 RED-BELLIED WOODPECKEB 148 FUCKER 148 , Northern Flicker 149 Order MACROCHIRES, Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Hummingbirds 149 Suborder CAPRIMULGI, Goatsuckers 149 Family CAPBIMTTLGID^;, Goatsuckers 150 CHUCK-WILL'S WIDOW 160 WHIP-POOB-WILL 150 Eastern Whip-poor-will 150 NIGHTHAWX 151 Eastern Nighthawk 151 Suborder CTPSELI, Swifts and Allies 152 Family MICROPODID.E, Swifts 152 Subfamily CRSTURIN.S, Spine-tailed Swiftt 152 'CHIMNEY SWIFT 152 Suborder THOCHILI, Hummingbirds 153 Family TROCHHID.S:, Hummingbirds , 153 RUBY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD 153 Order PASSEBES, Perching Birds 154 Suborder CLAMATORES, Songless Perchers 154 Family TYKANNID.E, Tyrant Flycatchers 154 6CI8SOK-TAILED FLTCATCHEB 155 KINGBIRD 155 CRESTED FLYCATCHEB 156 PHOEBE 156 OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHEB 157 WOOD PEWEE 157 YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHEB 158 ACADIAN FLYCATCHEB 158 TKAILL'S FLYCATCHEB 158 Alder Flycatcher 159 Western Alder Flycatcher 159 LEAST FLYCATCHBB 159 Suborder OSCINES, Song Birds 159 Family ALAUDID.E, Larks 160 HOBNED LARK 160 Eastern Horned Lark 160 Prairie Horned Lark 160 Hoyt's Horned Lark 160 Family CORVID.S;, Jays and Crows 160 Subfamily GARBOTJN.E, Magpies and Jays 161 MAGPIE 161 American Magpie 161 BLUE JAY 161 CANADA JAY 162 Eastern Canada Jay 162 Labrador Jay 162 Subfamily COBVIN.Z, Crows 162 RAVEN 162 Northern Raven 163 AMERICAN CROW 163 Eastern Crow 163 Family HTDRNIDJB, True Starlings 164 STABLING 164 Family ICTEBID.S:, American Starlings 165 BOBOLINK 165 COWBIRD 166 YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD 167 36 Family ICTERUXE Continued. PAGE BED-WINGED BLACKBIRD 167 Eastern Red-wing 167 Northern Red-wing 167 MEADOWLABK 168 ORCHARD ORIOLE 168 BALTIMORE ORIOLE 169 RUSTY BLACKBIRD 169 CROW BLACKBIRD 170 "Bronzed Crackle 170 Purple Crackle 170 Family FRINGILLID.S;, Sparrows, Linnets, Finches, or Buntings. . . . 170 EVENING GROSBEAK 171 Eastern Evening Grosbeak 171 PINE GROSBEAK 172 Canadian Pine Grosbeak 172 PURPLE FINCH 173 Eastern Purple Finch 173 HOUSE SPARROW 173 CROSSBILL 175 American Crossbill 175 WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL 176 Genus ACANTHIS, Redpolls 176 HORNEMANN'S REDPOLL 176 Greenland RedpoU 176 Hoary Redpoll 176 REDPOLL LINNET 176 Common RedpoU 177 Holbaell's Redpoll 177 Greater Redpott 177 AMERICAN GOLDFINCH 177 Eastern Goldfinch 177 PINE SISKIN 178 *SNOW BUNTING 178 Common k>now Bunting 178 LAPLAND LONGSPUR 179 Eastern Longspur 179 VESPER SPARROW 179 Eastern Vesper Sparrow 179 IPSWICH SPARROW 180 SAVANNAH SPARROW 180 Eastern Savannah Sparrow 180 GRASSHOPPER SPARROW 181 Eastern Grasshopper Sparrow 181 HENSLOW'S SPARROW 181 Eastern Henslow's Sparrow 181 LECONTE'S SPARROW 181 NELSON'S SHARP-TAILED SPARROW 182 Prairie Sharp-tailed Sparrow 182 Acadian Sharp-tailed Sparrow 182 LARK SPARROW 182 Eastern Lark Sparrow 182 HARRIS' SPARROW 183 WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW 183 Eastern White-crowned Sparrow 183 WHITE-THROATED SPARROW 183 TREE SPARROW 184 Eastern Tree Sparrow 184 CHIPPING SPARROW 184 Eastern Chipping Sparrow 184 CLAY-COLOURED SPARROW 185 FIELD SPARROW 185 Eastern Field Sparrow 185 JTJNCO 186 Slate-coloured Junco. . 186 37 Genus ACANTHIS Continued. PAGE. SONG SPARROW 186 Eastern Song Sparrow 186 LINCOLN'S SPARROW 187 Eastern Lincoln's Sparrow 187 SWAMP SPARROW 187 FOX SPARROW 188 Eastern Fox Sparrow 188 TOWHEE 188 Eastern Toahee 189 CARDINAL 189 Eastern Cardinal 189 BOSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK 190 BLUE GROSBEAK 190 Eastern Blue Grosbeak 190 INDIGO BUNTING 191 DICKCISSEL 191 Family TANOARID.B, Tanagers 191 SCARLET TANAGER 192 BUMMER TANAGER 192 Family HIRUNDINID^, Swallows 193 PURPLE MARTIN 193 Eastern Martin 193 CLIFF SWALLOW 194 Eastern Cliff Swallow 194 BARN SWALLOW 194 TREE SWALLOW 195 BANK SWALLOW 195 ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW 195 Family BOMBYCTLLID.B, Waxwings 196 BOHEMIAN WAXWINO 196 CEDAR WAXWING 196 Family LANHDJ:, Shrikes, Butcherbirds 197 NORTHERN SHRIKE 198 LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE 198 Migrant Loggerhead 198 Family VIREONID-E, Vinos or Greenlets 199 RED-EYED VIREO 200 PHILADELPHIA VIREO 200 WARBLING VIREO 200 Eastern Warbling Vino 200 YELLOW-THROATED VIREO 201 SOLITARY VIREO 201 Blue-headed Vireo 201 WHITE-EYED VIREO 201 Northern White-eyed Vireo 202 Family MNIOTILTID.*:, Wood Warblers 202 BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER 203 PROTHONOTARY WARBLER 203 Genus VERMTVORA, Worm-eating Warblers 204 WORM-EATING WARBLER 204 BLUE-WINGED WARBLER 204 GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER 204 NASHVILLE WARBLER 205 Eastern Nashville Warbler 205 ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER 205 Interior Orange-crown 205 TENNESSEE WARBLER 205 PABULA WARBLER 206 Northern Panda Warbler 206 Genus DENDROICA, Woodland Warblers 206 CAPE MAY WARBLER 206 YELLOW WARBLER 206 Eastern Yellow Warbler. . 207 38 Genus DENDROICA Continued. PAGE. 'BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER 207 Northern Black-throated Blue Warbler 207 MYHTLE WARBLER 207 "MAGNOLIA WARBLER 208 CERULEAN WARBLER 208 CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER 208 BAY-BREASTED WARBLER 209 BLACK-POLL WARBLEB 209 BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER 210 BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER 210 KIRTLAND'S WARBLER 210 PINE WARBLER 211 PALM WARBLER 211 Interior Palm Warbler 211 Yellow Palm Warbler 211 PRAIRIE WARBLER 212 Genus SEIURUS, Wagtail Warblers 212 *OVENBIRD 212 NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH 213 Eastern Water-thrush 213 Grinnett's Water-thrush 213 LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH 213 Genera OPOBORNIS and GEOTHLYPIS, Ground Warblers.. 213 KENTUCKY WARBLER 213 CONNECTICUT WARBLER 214 MOURNING WARBLER 214 MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT 215 Northern Yellow-throat 215 YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT 215 Genus WILSONIA, Flycatching Warblers 215 HOODED WARBLER 216 BLACK-CAPPED WARBLER 216 Wilson's Warbler 216 CANADA WARBLEB 216 AMERICAN REDSTART 216 Family MOTACILLID.E, Wagtails or Pipits 217 AMERICAN PIPIT 217 Family MIMIDJE, Mockers and Thrashers 218 MOCKINGBIRD 218 Eastern Mockingbird 218 CATBIRD 218 BROWN THRASHER 219 Family TROGLODYTHWB, Wrens 220 CAROLINA WREN 220 Northern Carolina Wren 220 BEWICK'S WREN 220 Eastern Bewick's Wren 220 HOUSE WHEN 221 Eastern House Wren 221 WINTER WREN 221 Eastern Winter Wren 221 SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN 222 LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN 222 Eastern Marsh Wren 222 Family CEBTHIID.S:, Creepers 222 BROWN CREEPER 223 Eastern Brown Creeper 223 Family srrrnxE, Nuthatches 223 CAROLINA NUTHATCH 224 White-Breasted Nuthatch 224 RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH 224 39 PAGE. Family PARID^E, Titmice 224 TUFTED TITMOUSE 225 BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE 225 Eastern Chickadee 225 Carolina Chickadee 225 BROWN-HEADED CHICKADEE 226 Hudsonian Chickadee 226 Acadian Chickadee 226 Family SYLVinxe, Old-world Warblers and Kinglets 226 Subfamily REGULIN^E, Kinglets 226 GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET 227 Eastern Golden-crown 227 RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET 227 Eastern Ruby-crown 227 Subfamily POLIOPTOLIN*:, Gnaicalchers 228 BLUE-GRET GNATCATCHBB 228 Eastern Gnatcatcher 228 Family TURDID.S, Thrushes and Allies 228 Subfamily TURDIN.S:, True Thrushes 228 WOOD THRUSH 229 WILSON'S THRUSH 229 Veery 229 Willow Thnak 229 ALICE'S THRUSH 229 Grey-fheeked Thrush 230 BickneU's Thrush 230 OLIVE-BACKED THRUSH 230 Su-ainson's Thrush 230 HERMIT THRUSH ; 230 Eastern Hermit Thrush 230 AMERICAN ROBIN 231 Eastern Robin 231 WHEATEAR 231 Greenland WheaUar 231 BLUEBIRD 232 Eastern Bluebird. ... 232 41 DESCRIPTIVE ORNITHOLOGY. CLASS AVES. BIRDS. Birds, as a class, can be divided into toothed and toothless birds, although the former are now extinct and are known only by their frag- mentary remains preserved as fossils. All modern birds are toothless. Some species, for example the Mergansers, are furnished with serrations in the horny bill that have a superficial resemblance to teeth (Figure 7, p. 19), but examination shows that they are not true teeth. SUBCLASS CARINAT.E. KEEL-BREASTED BIRDS. Present day, toothless birds are divided into two subclasses, Ratitce or raft-breasted birds and Carinatce or keel-breasted birds. The Ratitce include the Ostriches and Emus which are without a keel to the breast bone for the attachment of wing muscles and are flightless. There are none in North America and they are, therefore, not dealt with here. The term keel-breasted is derived from the high, thin, keel-like projection from the middle of the breast bone, to which the powerful breast or wing muscles are attached. Keel-breasted birds (subclass Carinata) are divided into numerous orders which are considered here in the sequence adopted by the American Ornithologists' Union. Order Pygopodes. Diving Birds. General Description. The Divers, as their name implies, are birds fitted for sub- aquatic pursuits. The hip joint is set far back on the body and the leg mechanism is better fitted for swimming than for walking. The tarsus, the visible part of the leg, is much flattened (Figure 2, p. 18), and the toes are either partly (Figure 13, p. 20) or completely (Figures 2 and 6, pp. 18 and 19) webbed. The wings are small in comparison with the size of the body. The bill is straight and usually tapered, moderately long, but occasionally flattened and deepened, as in the cases of the Auks and Puffins; in the latter species this specialization reaches its highest development in the order. Distinctions. Toes, three or four entirely or partly webbed, tarsus flattened, tail inconspicuous or small. Field Marks. Small wings and tail; and straight, narrow bills not duck-like The Divers bear a superficial resemblance to Ducks, but where Ducks would fly the Divers dive. Nesting. In the immediate vicinity of water on reedy shores or rocky ledges, or in crevices and holes in the ground. In consequence of the peculiar leg construction, an unusually upright carriage of the body is necessitated when on land, and they walk with difficulty. Indeed some species are almost helpless on the ground and are unable to rise into the air except from the water, off steeply rising ground, or against a strong head wind. They swim and dive with ease and, though their wings are small in comparison with the size of the body, when once on the wing they fly with rapid beats, swiftly and strongly, in straight lines or long curves without evolution or manoeuvring. 42 Economic Status. The Diving Birds feed almost entirely upon aquatic life usually captured by diving and pursuit under water. Economically, they are of slight importance. The Canadian representatives of this order are divided into three families : the Grebes, Colymbidce; the Loons, Gaviidce; the Auks, Murres, etc., Alcidce. SUBORDER COLYMBI. GREBES. FAMILY COLYMBIDjE. GREBES. General Description. Grebes and Divers with feet lobed and not fully webbed, and without perceptible tails. Instead of full webs extending from toe to toe, as in most swimming birds, the digits are provided with a scalloped edging of flat lobe-like flaps or processes hinged to the toe. These make excellent paddles during the stroke, and folding away, offer the minimum of resistance to the water on the return. Their wonderful diving ability has given these birds the common sobriquets of Hell-diver, Water-witch, etc. Distinctions. Scalloped toe webs (Figure 13, p. 20), short tail, straight, pointed bill, and the peculiar silvery sheen of the feathers of the underparts. Field Marks. Pointed bill and inconspicuous tail. Feet carried straight out behind when flying. Nesting. In reeds or rushes bordering sloughs or ponds, on floating or stationary heaps of vegetable matter. Distribution. Grebes are distributed over the whole of Canada, and well into the arctic zone. In the breeding season they are generally more common on fresh than on salt water. There are three species of this family occurring regularly in eastern Canada; a fourth species, the Western Grebe, not further mentioned here, has been incorrectly recorded several times, and only one occurrence can be substantiated. Grebes are typically inhabitants of fresh ponds and lakes, though at times they frequent the sea in numbers. The adults are coloured in rather broad masses; the young show sharp stripes, especially about the head, indicating that the family has descended from a common striped ancestor. The Grebe breasts, so much used for trimming and millinery purposes, are procured from birds of this family. The sacrifice of large numbers for this purpose and the drainage of many of their natural breeding grounds are continually reducing their numbers. Economic Status. Feeding almost entirely upon water-inhabiting creatures they are of little direct economic importance. Considerable masses of feathers are often found in Grebe stomachs, but the reason of their presence is not yet understood. There is no evidence that they are remains of birds preyed upon. GENUS COLYM BUS. HORNED GREBES. 2. Holboell's Grebe. RED-NECKED GREBE. FR. LE GREBE X con RODGE. Colymbus holboelli. L, 19. This is the largest of our Grebes. Summer adults have white cheeks and throat and a rich chestnut-red neck. Distinctions. Size is usually sufficient to distinguish this Grebe. Juvenile birds generally have only a suggestion of the rufous neck. Field Marks. Size will also separate it in the field from other Grebes; and the pre- sence of a white wing-patch and an unmottled back, from the Red-throated Loon with which it might be confused. The white cheek-patch is quite conspicuous in contrast with black crown and red neck. Nesting. On floating or stationary vegetable compost or marshy islands near the shores of freshwater lakes. Distribution. Across the continent; breeding in the east, north of present settlement. In the prairie provinces and west it nests southwards to and across the United States border. 43 The bird, except in the west in the breeding season, is more commonly seen on large bodies of water than small. It is comparatively scarce in eastern Canada. 3. Horned Grebe. FB. LE GR^BE CORNU. Colymbus aicritus. L, 13-50. The Horned Grebe is about the same size as the Pied-billed Grebe mentioned next, but has a much sharper and more slender bill. The summer adult has a red neck (much like Holboell's), prominent ochraceous ear-tufta, and a full projecting ruff on the cheek from hindhead to throat. In the autumn and winter a shining, black and white, head contrasts with the duller coloration of the Pied-billed Grebe. Distinctions. The juvenile, a plain, greyish-black and white bird, may be mistaken for the young Pied-billed Grebe, but can be distinguished by its shiny white forehead and breast, slender bill, and white wing-patch. Field Marks. Slender, sharp bill, white foreneck and wing-patch. Nesting. Similar to the preceding. Distribution. Across the continent, breeding locally within the borders of present settlement and northward, but more commonly west than east. The Horned Grebe on migration inhabits the larger bodies of water and is less commonly seen in the small mud-holes where the Pied-bill often occurs. 6. Pied-billed Grebe. DAB-CHICK, HELL-DIVER, WATER-WITCH. FH. LE GREBK 1 BEC BIOARRE. Podilymbus podiceps. L, 13-50. Plate I A. Distinctions. The Pied-bill can be separated from all other Canadian Grebes by its relatively heavier and stouter bill with its spot and its more strongly arched culmen; and from the juvenile Horned Grebe in any plumage, by ita darker, less shiny foreneck, breast, and underparts, and the absence of a white wing-patch. Field Marks. Size and shape of bill, spot on bill, lack of white wing-patch, and black throat-patch in spring. Nesting. Along the marshy edges of ponds and lakes on stationary or floating plat- forms. Distribution. Across the continent, breeding from our southern borders northwards: any Grebe found nesting south of a line drawn between Ottawa and Sault Ste. Marie will be probably of this species. This is the common breeding Grebe of eastern Canada, where it is found in the nesting season or during migration on nearly every pond and slough. It frequents clear, open water less than do its relatives. The diving powers of the Grebes are well known, and they are well developed in this species. Diving at the flash of a gun the Grebe is often safe under water by the time the shot reaches the spot recently occupied. Even breech- loading guns are not always quick enough to catch it, though the general use of smokeless powder has put it at considerable disadvantage. The Grebes have the faculty of swimming either low or high in the water. By pressing the air from the thick soft plumage and by compressing that in the body cavities the Grebe can increase its specific gravity, and gradually sink into the water until only the bill is above the surface, in which position it will hide and, barring accidents, escape the most prying eyes. Economic Status. We have little accurate information as to what constitutes the food of the Grebes. The Pied-bill, however, probably lives upon small fish and aquatic insects, supplemented more or less by vegetable matter. The fish, owing to the bird's habitat, are mostly mud-frequenting species of little economic importance. The insect content of its food probably consists largely of predaceous species like large water-beetles that occasionally do some damage to fish fry. The vegetable matter is unimportant. On the whole, we can regard the Pied-billed Grebe as absolutely harmless except in the rare cases when it pays a passing visit to pools or ponds devoted to the culture of trout or other valuable fish. 285871 44 SUBORDER CEPPHI. LOONS AND AUKS. FAMILY GAVIID^!. LOONS. General Description. The Loons are large Divers with straight, sharply pointed bills and with the feet fully webbed (Figure 2, p. 18). In the adult state they are coloured in strikingly contrasting patterns, mostly black and white. Distinctions. Larger than Ducks and with shorter necks than Geese. These points and the sharp, pointed bill are diagnostic. Tails more evident than in the Grebes. Field Marks. Size, length of neck, and bill. In flight, the feet are trailed behind the tail. Nesting. On low shores in the immediate vicinity of water where they can dive almost directly into the water from the nest. The Loons are probably even better divers than the Grebes but they rise less easily from the water, and unless there is a good breeze that they can face, require a long splashing start over the surface before being wing borne. Economic Status. Their food is composed almost entirely of fish, but owing to the small number of Loons usual hi any one locality, their direct economic importance is small. Genus Gavia. Loons. 7. Common loon. GREAT NORTHERN DFVEB. FB. LE PLONGEON A COLLIER. LE HUARD. Gavia immer. L, 32. Plate I B. Distinctions. The adult Common Loon is easily separated from other Loons by its marked coloration, but juveniles are somewhat more difficult to differentiate. Size and the lack of spots on the back will separate it from the Red-throated Loon with which it is most easily confused. Field Marks. Size and unspotted back of the juveniles as above. Most Loons seen on our inland lakes are of this species. Nesting. Close to the water on the boggy or rocky shores of inland lakes where, when alarmed, the Loons can slide directly into the water. The rather bulky nest is built of decaying vegetable matter. Distribution. Over the whole of Canada, breeding wherever conditions are suitable and often remaining in the winter until the last open water is closed by ice. Most frequenters of our waterways and lakes are familiar with the long loud laugh of the Loon. The Loon has another call beginning low, rising high, and then dropping suddenly; and other loud wild notes. It is often noisy at night or just before a storm and birds frequently call to and answer one another across the water. Owing to the constant encroachments of settlement, and the consequent disturbance of its nesting places, the Loon has been growing scarcer of late years and in many of its old haunts it is seldom seen now except during migration. However, there are still many lonely lakes in the great uninhabited north where it can live and breed undisturbed, and the immediate loss of this picturesque species need not be anticipated. Proper local protection, enforced by an awakened public opinion, would undoubtedly restock our lakes and ponds in summer as well as augment the number that make passing visits. Economic Status. Although the Loon is a large bird the capacity of its gullet limits the fish it takes to comparatively small sizes. This fact, taken in connexion with the small number of birds on the smaller lakes and the immense numbers of fish in the larger bodies of water, makes its depre- dations economically unimportant. The species, therefore, should not be destroyed. 45 11. Red-throated Loon. LE PLONGEON A GORGE RODSSE. Gavia stettata. L, 25. This is smaller than the Common Loon, and is without its intensely contrasted black and white back coloration. Its head and neck are grey and summer adults have a maroon-red throat-patch. Distinctions. Adults can be distinguished from the Common Loon by size and color- ation as above. Juveniles can be recognized by their finely speckled backs in distinction from the slightly grey marginations of the Common Loon. Field Marks. Size and back coloration. Nesting. Breeding habits similar to those of the preceding species. Distribution. Ranges over the whole of Canada, scarce in the interior, more common on the coasts. Breeds in the east from northern Ontario, central Quebec, and New Bruns- wick northward. Economic Status. Similar to the Common Loon, but of less import- ance on account of its smaller numbers. FAMILY ALCIDjE. AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS. General Description. This family is composed of strictly maritime species of rare or only accidental occurrence on fresh water. Though most at home in the water they stand upright on land and walk about with considerably more ease than do the Grebes or Loons. Their bills are subject to a greater degree of variation than the aforementioned families, ranging from the straight tapering shape of the Murre to the deep compressed bill of the Puffin. Distinctions. The obvious diver-like form combined with webbed feet and no hind toes (Figure 12, p. 20) is diagnostic. Field Marks. General resemblance to Ducks, but their short necks, and pointed and sometimes deepened and narrowed bill, are characteristic. Nesting. Breed in large colonies, often of mixed species, on rocky islets or inaccess- ible sea-washed cliffs. Build no nest but lay their eggs directly on the ground. Their eggs are unusually large for the size of the bird and markedly pyrifonn, a shape that causes them to roll in circles rather than in straight lines and lessens the danger of their falling from the bare, rocky, nesting ledges. Distribution. Over our sea-coast from our southern borders to the Arctic. They are only casual on fresh water, though one species has indulged in occasional abnormal, eruptive migrations to the lower Great Lakes. This family frequents the open sea, coming ashore only to breed. They differ from the other Divers in habitually using their wings under water as in flying. On the Labrador coast their eggs in the past have been much used by the fishermen for food. Economic Status. Eating nothing but the smaller sizes of fish and crustaceans taken at sea, where the supplies are more than ample, there is little harm that these species can do. Subfamily Fraterculinae. Puffins. Genus Fratercula. Puffins. 13. Puffin. SEA PABBOT. PAROQUET. PB. LE MACAREUX ABCTIQtrB. LE PERBOQUET DE MER. Fratercula arctica. L, 13. The Puffin is a grotesque little Diver, black above, white below, and with a grey face. It is notable for its absurdly deepened and flattened bill, nearly as high as long and highly coloured with reds and yellows. Distinctions. Bill is always distinctive. Field Marks. Bill can be recognized in life nearly as far as the bird can be seen. 28587 4J 46 Nesting. Breed in the crannies and cracks of rocky cliffs or burrow in the soil on lonely islets. Along the Labrador coast there are several "Paroquet" islands, so-called from the great numbers of these birds breeding on them. However, the depredations of fishermen have sadly reduced their numbers and unless protective steps are taken they will shortly be exterminated. Distribution. Puffins are distributed over the sea-coast on both sides of the Atlantic from Canada and England northward far into the Arctic zone. A sight of this bird is sufficient for recognition of the appropriateness of the names Parrot or Paroquet. Unlike other Divers it stands up on its toes and is quite agile afoot. Subfamily /Ethiiruc. Auklets. Murrelets, Guillemots. Genus Cepphus. Sea Pigeons. 27. Black Guillemot. PIGEON. SEA PIGEON. FR. LE GUILLEMOT NOIR. LE PIGEON DE MER. Cepphus grylle. L, 13. In summer the Black Guillemot is a small, coal-black Diver with large white wing-patches and red feet. In winter the underparts are white and the feathers above are black but broadly tipped with white. The wings remain as in summer. Distinctions. In summer the species cannot be mistaken for any other. In winter, the size and wing coloration are almost equally distinctive. Field Marks. The characters above make easily recognizable field marks. Nesting. In cavities in the rocks or in openings in the rough talus at the foot of sea- cliffs. Distribution. The Atlantic Guillemot is common along our Atlantic coast but is rarely if ever seen inland. SUBSPECIES. There are two subspecies of the Black Guillemot in Canada, the Atlantic Guillemot, the type form, and Mandt's Guillemot Cepphus grylle mandti, a northern race inhabiting Arctic regions and distinguished by having all the wing-coverts white to the base instead of with a concealed dark wing-bar. This form is given by the American Ornithologists' Union check-list as a full species, but should probably be reduced to subspecific status. The Black Guillemot is one of the commonest inhabitants of our sea- coast and is known to nearly all who visit there. It is less gregarious than the other members of the family and usually nests alone and not in rookeries, though sometimes numbers are drawn together in localities by a community of interest. Subfamily Alcinse. Auks and Murres. Genus Uria. Murres. 30. Common Murre. FR. LE GUILLEMOT ORDINAIRE. LA MORMETTE. LA MARMETTE. Uria troille. L, 16. The Murre in summer is white below, with the head and neck dark, smoky, seal-brown. The back and wings are black. In winter the throat is light, veiled with more or less greyish, and the brown is replaced on the head and neck with black more or less shaded with grey especially on the throat. Distinctions. The Common Murre is very much like Brunnich's Murre and the Razor- billed Auk. Can be differentiated in summer from the former by the lighter brown colora- tion of the head and neck and by the fact that the back of the neck is not darker than the front. At all seasons it has a somewhat longer and more slender bill than that of the Brunnich's Murre. From the Auk it can be told by its bill which is not markedly flattened or deepened. Field Marks. Bill sizes and neck coloration are the only field marks that can be given to separate the two Murres and in life these can be seen only under the most favourable circumstances. The birds are said to swim with level instead of up-turned tail as does the Razor-bill. The difference between the latter's bill and that of the Murre, however, is quite obvious under ordinary conditions. 47 Netting. In large colonies amongst rocks, making no nest and laying only a single egg- Distribution. Abundant along the eastern sea-coast, never or rarely ever being found in the interior on fresh water. SUBSPECIES. The Common Murre inhabits the northern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, being represented by different subspecies in each. The Atlantic Murre is the type form and is, of course, the one that occurs on our eastern coasts. The number of Murres that will occupy a nesting ledge is sometimes remarkable. At the edge of the rocky shelves they gather as close as they can stand, like files of soldiers, bearing strong resemblance to the lines of penguins that are familiar to us in pictures. 31. Thick-billed Guillemot. FR. us GUILLEMOT DB BRUNNICH. Uria lonvria. L, 16-50. This Murre is almost exactly similar to the preceding species. Distinctions. Head and neck are darker and richer brown without the smokiness of the Common Murre and the neck is somewhat darker behind than in front. Bill is some- what larger and noticeably shorter and thicker than that of the Common Murre. Field Marks. Shorter, thicker bill, and coloration of the head and neck will, under exceptional visual conditions, sepa- ate this bird in life from the Common Murre. Sharp and tapering instead of blunt and deep bill, and tail not turned up in swimming, should serve to distinguish it from the Razor-billed Auk. Nesting. Similar to the preceding species. Distribution. Somewhat more northern than that of the Common Murre. SUBSPECIES. The Thick-billed Guillemot occurs in the northern Pacific and Atlan- tic oceans but as distinct subspecies. Our eastern form is the type and is known as Briin- nich's Murre. Briinnich's Murre is the only member of this family that is found on the Great Lakes. The birds have at times come in hundreds to lakes Ontario, Erie, and tributary waters in late autumn and early winter, all in a starving condition, and none seemed to survive or return to their sea homes. These occurrences are as yet unexplained. Genus Alca. Auks. 32. Razor-billed Auk. TINKER. FH. IJB PINGOUIN COMMUN. Alca torda. L, 16-50. The Razor-billed Auk is of the same general appearance as the last two species. Distinctions. Bill is considerably deepened and flattened (though not nearly as much so as in the Puffin); it is thus easily distinguished from the Murre especially in summer when a white line connects the eye and the oase of the culmen, and the bill is crossed by a white band near the tip. Bill of the winter juvenile is less characteristic but may still be distinguished from that of the Murres. Field Marks. Deepened bill and, when swimming, cocked-up tail make good field marks. Nesting. Similar to that of the two preceding species but rather less gregarious. Distribution. Frequents our Atlantic coasts north to the Arctic. Genus Plautus. Great Auk. 33. Great Auk. GARE-POWI,. FB. LE GRAND PINGOUIN. Plavtus impennis. L, 30. The Great Auk was the largest of the American Divers. Its wings were so reduced in size that though they made excellent swimming organs they were useless for other purposes and hence the bird was unable to fly. As the species is now extinct no further description is necessary. This bird had become so well adapted to an aquatic life that flying was no longer necessary and consequently its wings became reduced to mere swimming flippers like those of the penguins of the Antarctic, and 48 flight was impossible. Though as well able to live at sea as any fish or marine animal, land was as necessary to it for reproduction as to any other bird. Even then, if it had inhabited the very extremes of the Arctic regions for nesting purposes it would probably have survived; but lonely outlying rocks and islets about the British Isles and, on our side of the ocean, south to Newfoundland, were its nesting places and immediately in the course of the fleets of hardy fishermen who early in our history flocked to our shores. To them, these then countless thousands of large sea-birds inhabiting islets in the immediate vicinity of their fishing-grounds, so helpless on land that they could be killed in unlimited numbers with sticks and clubs, were irresistible. They took full advantage of their opportunities and the story passes current that to save labour, gang planks were placed ashore from the boats and the unresisting birds were driven aboard in droves to be clubbed to death on deck. Of course no numbers could long resist such destruction and today the Great Auk is but an interesting memory represented by only individual specimens and frag- ments in a few favoured museums. Subfamily Allinee. Dovekies. Genus A lie. Dovekie. 34. Doyekle. SEA DOVE. FR. LE MEBGULE NAIN. Alle alle. L, 8. The Dovekie is a diminutive Diver, the smallest of its family in eastern Canada. When in our waters it is generally black above and white on throat, cheek, and below. Distinctions. Its size is enough to separate it from any other Diver in eastern Canada. Field Marks. Size and extremely rapid wing beats make the best field marks. Nesting. On cliff ledges in the far north. Distribution. In summer in the far north in the eastern Arctic, in winter along the sea coasts. On our coastal shores and harbours this little bird should be looked for only in the winter. It flies with a very rapid wing motion. Order Longipennes. Long-winged Swimmers. General Description. The Long-winged Swimmers are sea-birds, with four toes and two webs, and with the wings longer than the tail if the excessively lengthened middle tail feather of some Jaegers and the equally elongated outer swallow tails of some Terns are disregarded. Distinctions. Can be recognized as an Order by their long wings and bill characters (Figures 3, 4, 5, p. 18, and are separated from the Tube-nosed Swimmers by the position of the nostrils which are in the sides of the bill and not in a tube on top (See, Figure 11, p. 19, for comparison). Field Marks. No field marks can be given covering the order except length of wing and mode of flight. Nesting. Usually breed on the ground or on cliff ledges, but there is little uniformity in their nesting habits. Distribution. Some species are more or less common over all the waterways of Canada. The Long-winged Swimmers are wonderful fliers, being both tireless and agile on the wing. In habit they are fishers, scavengers, or pirates. There are only two families of the order in Canada; the Jaegers and the Gulls, the latter including the closely allied Terns or " Sea Swallows ". Economic Status. Being sea-birds, the damage they do is slight and some of them are actively beneficial to man. 49 FAMILY STERCORARIID.E. SKUAS AND JAEGERS. General Description. The Jaegers are predaceoua sea-birds. In colour they are dark brown and white. The family shows a peculiar dichromatism and all Canadian species occur in two colour phases, one an almost evenly dark brown and the other a dark or slaty brown with white or light head, neck, and underparts and an almost black cap. Distinctions. The bills of the Jaegers (See Figure 3, p. 18) are characteristic, there being a distinct nail at the tip forming a well-marked hook plainly separable from the remaining cere at the base of the bill. This character separates them easily from the Gulls, whereas the presence of nostrils and two instead of three toe webs (Figure 6, p. 19 for comparison), distinguishes them from the Cormorants which have bills similar in out- line. The fact that the nostrils are not in tubes (Figure 1 1, p. 19) differentiates them from the Petrels which they otherwise resemble. Field Marks. Jaegers are dark in colour above, have a quite conspicuous light band across the underside of the wing near the tip, and are hawk-like in flight. Two of the three species, in the adult state, show elongated tail feathers that are good recognition marks. Nesting. On the ground, in grass. The occurrence of the two colour phases as well as every possible intermediate plumage, makes the identification of some of the Jaegers a difficult matter. Jaegers are pirates of the air; they pursue successful fishing birds and force them to disgorge the fish they have swallowed; and eggs and young birds in the nest are never safe from them. Three Jaegers occur in eastern Canada and one Skua the latter too rare and accidental, except off the outer Newfoundland coast, for further mention. Economic Status. The Jaegers are not very numerous and except in far away, wild localities, where numbers give them local importance, they are of little economic influence. Genus Stercorarius. Jaegers. 36. Pomarine Jaeger. BO'SN. (BOATSWAIN). FB. LB LABBE POM AWN. Stercorarius pomarinus. L, 22. (Tail 9 -25, projections of centre feathers beyond outer ones 4-25.) This is the largest of the Jaegers. It resembles the other two species in coloration so closely that its separation is difficult except by size and in adult condition. The species occurs in two colour phases and in all intermediate stages. Distinctions. Elongated middle tail feathers of adult are wide and twisted at the tip so as to lie in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane. Field Marks. The broad, elongated, twisted tail feathers are probably the best field marks. Nesting. On the ground, in grass. Distribution. Breeds on the islands and mainland in the Arctic across the continent. Occurs on the sea-coasts farther south, only as a migrant. 37. Parasitic Jaeger. FR. LE LABBE PARASITE. Stercorarius parasiticus. L, 17. (Tail 8-25, projection of middle feathers beyond outer ones 3-25.) This species occurs in two colour phases, a light, and a dark one. In the dark phase the general colour is dark brown slightly lighter below and with a black cap. In the light phase the under- parts, breast, neck, and face are white, with black cap. Intermediate stages of coloration also occur. Distinctions. The smaller size of this bird should distinguish it from the preceding in all plumages. In the adult, the middle tail feathers project only 3 inches beyond the others instead of 7 inches as in the next species and are slender instead of broad and twisted as in the last species. Immature birds of the Long-tailed species, not having the long tail feathers, are almost exactly similar to this species, and can best be distinguished by the colour of the shafts of the primary feathers. In the Parasitic, the shafts ol the three first feathers are white and the remainder are progressively darker as they succeed each other on the wing. In the Long-tailed, there is an abrupt darkening of colour of the shafts after the third primary. This distinction, however, is not infallible and occasional specimens occur that are very difficult of determination. 50 Field Marks. Small projection of the middle tail feathers as above and their not being twisted make a field mark of fair reliability in adult birds. Nesting. On the ground, on the moors and tundras of the north. Distribution. Breeds in the Arctic across the continent and is much more common on the seaboard in migration than inland, where it is a very rare though possibly a regular straggler. This is the only Jaeger that is likely to be met with in the interior on the Great Lakes. Other species have been recorded, but upon investigation, except in one instance, they have been found to be young birds incorrectly identified, usually on the ground of their lack of elongated tail. 38. Long-tailed Jaeger. FR. LE LABBE A LONGUE QUEUE. Stercorarius longi- caudits. L, 21. (Tail 13-25, projection of centre feather beyond outer ones 8.) Very similar in coloration to the preceding, but the long slender middle tail feathers project 7 or 8 inches beyond the others instead of only 3. Distinctions. The Long-tailed Jaeger although having nearly the measurements of the Pomarine, owing to the great tail length being included, is a much smaller bird than either of the other two species. Size should distinguish it. Juveniles are often con- fused with the Parasitic but the wing characters given under that species are diagnostic. Field Marks. It is possible to separate only adult Jaegers in life; the long middle tail feathers being the best guide. Nesting. Similar to that of the other Jaegers. Distribution. Breeds in the Arctics of Europe, Asia, and America. Is only of rare occurrence on east coast. Though the Long-tailed Jaeger has been recorded on the Great Lakes most of such occurrences are wrongly identified juveniles of the preceding species. FAMILY LARID^E. GULLS AND TERNS. General Description. The Gulls and Terns are Long-winged Swimmers, easily separable from the Jaegers by the shape and construction of the Dill which shows a single continuous surface without distinct parts or joints (Figures 4, 5, p. 18). The colours of the adult are usually pure white, with white, pearl-grey, or black mantles, often with black wing- tips, hood, cape, or cheek spots. Distinctions. Bill with continuous surface and sharp projecting angle on lower man- dible is sufficient to diagnose the family in all plumages. Colours are quite characteristic, though some species during juvenility are evenly (over all) dark, approaching the dark phases of the Jaegers. Field Marks. Coloration and flight characteristics are the best field marks. Nesting. Gulls generally build on ground, on rocky ledges or flat shores in sandy, grassy, or marshy places; rarely, in trees. Distribution. Gulls and Terns are distributed over all the world, usually near large bodies of water, but sometimes occurring far inland, for instance in our prairie regions. Subfamily Larinse. Gulls. General Description. With the family description in mind the Gulls can be confused only with the Terns (See p. 55). Distinctions. Can be distinguished from the Jaegers by the bill and coloration char- acters. (See family description on previous page) ; from the Terns, by their more robust build and mode of flight. Bills especially are heavier and stronger (compare Figures 4 and 5, p. 18). As a rule, tails are square without evident fork. Though as much masters of flight as the Tern they have less agility and perform fewer aerial gymnastics. Young Gulls are often quite brownish and dark in coloration, in marked contrast to the adult. Young Terns are usually light in coloration. 51 Field Marks. Large birds of heavier flight than the Terns. Square tails and surface feeding habits; not diving from the wing, and the horizontal carriage of the bill when flying (See Tern, p. 55) are the best guides by which to separate the Gulls from the closely allied Terns. Nesting. On rocky shores or cliffs near the water in various localities, depending upon the species and locality. Distribution. Almost cosmopolitan in range and few countries are without represent- atives of the subfamily. In Canada about twenty-five species are known to occur, but some are only casual within the bounds of settled areas and are not discussed here. Though Gulls are essentially sea-birds they are at times found at considerable distances from large bodies of water and flocks often follow the prairie ploughman to search for insects in the newly turned furrows They feed from the surface of the water, never diving, or glean from the shores, beaches, or fields. Economic Status. Gulls eat anything in the way of animal matter, fish, crustaceans, molluscs, insects, offal, and even, when opportunity offers, young birds and mice. The amount of fish they consume is relatively unimportant, as it is usually only very abundant small species occurring in great schools that attract their attention ; they are not patient fishers like the Herons. They search low tidal shores for crabs and other shell-fish, showing considerable ingenuity in breaking the hard shells and extracting the contents. The food supply from these sources is economically insignificant. The Gulls annually dispose of vast quantities of garbage and offal thrown into harbours and waterways; they frequent agricultural land for insect food and some species have been known to be instrumental in stopping mouse and other small mammal and grasshopper plagues. The Gulls must be considered, therefore, as beneficial and consequently should be protected, although they do sometimes destroy eggs and young birds. Genus Rissa. Kittiwakes. 40. Kittiwake. FK. LA MOUETTE A TROIS DOIOTB. Rissa tridactyla. L, 16. A small or medium sized Gull of the same general coloration as the Herring Gull (See p. 53). Distinctions. Rudimentary condition or almost total absence of a hind toe is always diagnostic. Field Marks. Resembles so many other Gulls in general coloration that it can be separated in life only by close observation of minute characters under favourable conditions. In size, is smaller then the Herring and Ring-billed Gulls and larger than Bonaparte's Gull. From the Herring and Ring-billed Gulls it differs by having black instead of flesh- coloured or yellowish legs and in lacking the small terminal white spots on the black primary tips. The bill is an even yellow in the adult, without the red spot of the Herring Gull or the black transverse band of the Ring-billed. Juveniles resemble Bonaparte's Gull very closely in having a black bill and similar colour pattern, but the forward edge of the outstretched wing is mostly black instead of conspicuously white. Juvenile Kittiwakes do not pass through a brown stage, as do the Herring Gulls, but resemble the adult in a modified but similar coloration. Nesting. Makes a substantial and well-built nest of seaweed on small projections from the faces of perpendicular cliffs. Distribution. A marine species, the Atlantic Kittiwake, occurs only casually on fresh water or inland. Inhabits both sides of the Atlantic; breeding, in America, from the gulf of St. Lawrence north to well into the Arctics. It should be reported on the Great Lakes only upon unimpeachable evidence. 52 SUBSPECIES. The Kittiwake occurs in distinct subspecific form on both the north Atlantic and north Pacific oceans. Our eastern form, the Atlantic Kittiwake, is the type and occurs in both Europe and America. Economic Status. The food of the Kittiwake is, probably, similar to that of the other marine Gulls, but its smaller size renders it even less open to objection than some other members of its family. Genus Larus. Gulls. 42. Glaucous Gull. BURGOMASTER. FH. LE GOELAND A MANTEAU GLAUQUE. Larus hyperboreus. L, 28. The Glaucous Gull is one of the largest of the Gulls. In the adult, the mantle is only slightly tinged with grey; younger specimens are nearly pure white all over. It is the largest of the white-winged Gulls (those having no black on the wing-tips). Birds of the year are only slightly barred with ashy or brownish grey. Distinctions. Its nearly white colour separates it from the Black-backed which it resembles in point of size. Field Marks. Size, general white coloration, and lack of black wing-tip make the best recognition marks in life. Nesting. On the ground, in the far north. Distribution. Breeds along the circumpolar coasts and islands of both hemispheres. Occurs on our Atlantic coast in autumn and winter when a few individuals wander inland to lake Ontario and perhaps to lake Erie. Economic Status. Being only a winter visitor to our coasts and rarely appearing inland, its economic importance is unappreciable. 43. Iceland Gull. FR. LE GOELAND A AILES BLANCHES. Larus leucopterus. L, 24. The Iceland Gull is of about the same size as the Herring Gull, but with very light grey or white mantle and white wing-tips a smaller edition of the Glaucous. Distinctions. Size, and white instead of black wing-tips. Field Marks. Size, wing-tips, and general whiteness of coloration. Nesting. On the ground. Distribution. Breeds in the Arctic regions of eastern America and western Europe. Visits our Atlantic coast in winter only, rarely straggling inland as far as lake Ontario. Economic Status. As it is only a winter visitor on our sea-coasts and accidental on the Great Lakes, it has little if any economic importance. 47. Great Black-backed Gull. SADDLE-BACK. COFFIN CARRIER. FR. LE GOE- LAND A MANTEAD NOIR. LE GROS GOELAND. Larus marinus. L, 29. A very large Gull, the adult with a distinctive black mantle. Distinctions. Large size and black back are characteristic of the adult. Juveniles are brown instead of ashy or white as in the Glaucous Gull, more plainly striped on back and less evenly coloured than the Herring Gull. Field Marks. Large size and black back are good field marks for the adult. Size is the only describable distinction for juveniles in life. Nesting. On the ground, nest of seaweed or vegetable fragments. Distribution. Breeds on the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia northward to the high Arctic. Owing to advancing settlement nesting localities have been reduced to the more isolated situations. Is a more or less regular but rather scarce winter visitor on lake Ontario, but rarely wanders farther inland along the Great Lakes. Economic Status. With feeding habits similar to those of the other Gulls, the superior size, strength, and numbers of the Black-backed Gull increase its powers for good or harm. The species is certainly not to be trusted in the vicinity of unprotected nests, or even young birds of other species, as both eggs and young are eagerly devoured when opportunity 53 offers. To offset this, however, the opportunity to become troublesome is small except in a few localities, as on the Labrador coast where the Black-back breeds abundantly in close proximity to great numbers of Eiders and other sea-birds. The damage it does on the Labrador coast, however, is small compared with the more serious and wanton waste of some of the fishermen. 51. Herring Gull. FB. us GOELAND ARGENT^. Larus argentatus. L, 24. Plate II A. Distinctions. Size and general coloration are generally sufficient to distinguish the Herring Gull from all other Canadian species, but as size alone is seldom a sufficiently reliable criterion when the contrasted species are not together for comparison, the following points will assist in accurate determination. The juvenile Herring Gull is the darkest of the family, approaching the dark-phased Jaegers closely in this respect, but the bill shape and Gull habits will prevent confusion with them. In the adult, the black wing-tips serve to distinguish it from any of the white- winged Gulls and the small white terminal spots from the Kittiwake. The lack of a dark transverse bar on the bill distinguishes it from the adult Ring-bill. However, the juvenile Herring Gull at one stage, as the bill is turning from black to the yellow of maturity, shows a very similar mark and comparative size is then about the only distinguishing point of recognition. Field Marks. Size and the colour marks above given are the best field guides. It is often very difficult, sometimes impossible, to separate the Herring and the Ring-bill in life when immature birds of either species are seen separately. Nesting. On the ground, or on rocky ledges or the flat tope of large isolated rocks, in nests of seaweed or waste vegetable matter. Distribution. Found practically all over Canada, and common in the immediate neighbourhood of the larger bodies of water either fresh or salt. Breeds either generally or locally in all but the more southern sections of Canada. The Herring Gull is the commonest of our Gulls. It is a wanderer and often seen on the smallest of our lakes, even at a considerable distance from its nesting grounds. The Gulls that remain on the lower Great Lakes through the summer are immatures or non-breeding birds. In winter the species remains upon the larger waters until they are frozen over and often throughout the entire season, beating over the open water or perched on the floating ice. The Gulls haunt harbours and congregate in large numbers about sewer outlets for the floating offal. They have also learned that ships are abundant providers of toothsome scraps. Fishing stations have great attractions for them and there is almost certain to be a large flock in attendance about the cleaning tables on the shore. At the seashore, shell-fish are eagerly sought for at low tide and the Gulls have learned the trick of carrying their hard-shelled prey into the air and dropping it upon the rocks, after which they descend and extract the savoury morsels from the broken case. In rough weather they congregate about foamy breakers off stormy points for the food that is brought to the surface. Occasionally they follow the immense schools of small fish that periodically visit our shores, and take toll of the inex- haustible supply. Economic Status. It will be seen from the above summary of the Herring Gulls' food habits that as scavengers they are important and should be protected. 54 54. Ring-billed Gull. FB. LE GOTLAND DE DELAWARE. LA MAUVE. Larus dela- warensis. L, 18-50. Like the Herring Gull (See p. 53) but smaller; the adult with the bill crossed near the tip with a transverse bar or ring. Distinctions. Except when adult and ring on bill is obvious, size is the best guide to separate this species from the Herring Gull, but the young Ring-bill is never as dark as that species in its first year. On the sea-coast this species may be mistaken for the common but smaller Kittiwake. The presence of terminal white spots on the black wing- tips serves to distinguish the Ring-bill. In juvenility, the brown coloration of the Ring- bill is in contrast with the lighter coloration of the young Kittiwake. It lacks the distinct terminal tail band of those birds and has flesh-coloured instead of black feet and legs. The absence of the sharp, narrow, black tail band and dark cheek-patch, and great difference in size should be sufficient to differentiate it from Bonaparte's Gull in juvenile or winter plumage. Field Marks. A careful study of the characters above will reveal the only good field marks known to the author. Nesting. On the ground, in grasses or vegetable material. Distribution. Found over almost the whole of Canada. Breeds locally throughout its range in Canada except in the most southern parts of the Dominion in the lower Great Lakes region. Economic Status. The food habits of the Ring-bill are similar in a general way to those of the Herring Gull, but the smaller size of the Ring-bill reduces its influence. 60. Bonaparte's Gull. FH. LB GOELAND DE BONAPARTE. Larus Philadelphia. L, 14. Bonaparte's is our smallest eastern Gull. Its general coloration is similar to that of the Herring or Ring-bill but the adult has a black hood over the head and neck. Juven- iles and winter birds are without the hood, but are marked with a veiled or indistinct dark ear spot. Distinctions. The black hood serves to distinguish this Gull from all eastern species when in summer plumage. In western Ontario, Franklin's Gull may occasionally be seen. It is a slightly larger bird with a deep red bill and almost black feet, instead of black bill and coral-red feet. The exposed primary tips are mostly black instead of mostly white with small black tips. Juveniles may be recognized by their dark ear spot. They are distinguished from the Kittiwake which they somewhat resemble on the forward part of the outstretched wing, by the black posterior margin to the wing a mourning band and by the dark terminal tail band. Bonaparte's Gull may at times be confused with the Terns, but its heavier build and action, and lack of any suggestion of a forked tail should make differentiation comparatively easy. The Laughing Gull which occasionally occurs on our southern sea-coast looks very much like this species, but the outer wing feathers are black instead of mostly white and it is a breeder not a winter migrant. It is, however, so rare that its identification should be accepted with the greatest caution. Field Marks. Size, black hood in summer adults, white on forward edge of wings, and the bill and feet colour on other plumages make the most valuable field characters for recognition in life. Nesting. On stumps, bushes, or trees, sometimes as high as 20 feet from the ground. Distribution. Breeding range not well known but it has been found nesting in Alaska and the far northwest. Occurs in winter or migration practically throughout Canada. This little Gull is more often seen in passing or visiting flocks than the other species. It also haunts marshes and flooded lands more than they do and is rarely noted as a solitary individual. It shows a markedly gregarious habit and flocks seem to be held together more by sociability than by a community of interest, as appears usually to be the case with other species of Gulls. 55 Subfamily Sterniiiae. Terns. General Description. The Terns, or Sea Swallows as they are sometimes called, are mailer, lighter, and of more graceful build and habit than the Gulls. Distinctions. The bill, lighter, and more slender than that of the Gulls (See bill, figure 5, p. 18), and the forked tail are characteristic of the Terns and will usually eparate them without difficulty. All Canadian species have a more or less forked tail ,nd all but one (the Black Tern) in summer adult plumage have a sharply-defined black ap. The forking of the tails of young birds, though beginning to show early in their levelopment, does not reach its maximum until after they leave for the winter; hence hrough the summer and autumn many individuals will be seen with much smaller orks than the measurements indicate. Field Marks. The greater lightness of action on the wing and constant and rapid -erial evolution; the fact that Terns constantly dive from the wing, and the habit of qmmonly turning the bill straight down towards the water intead of carrying it on a line rith the body are characteristic. The forked tails and black caps are also good recognition aarks for adults. Nesting. Whereas Gulls seem to prefer rocky shores upon which to breed, the Terns, xcept Forster's and the Black, favour sandy beaches, laying their eggs in a smooth circle if pebbles without other nest preparation. Distribution. As a subfamily, Terns are more southerly in distribution than Gulls, hough at least one species, the Arctic Tern, has been found as far north as man has ever ;one. All our species migrate, none remaining in eastern Canada through the winter. One has only to watch a flock of Terns feeding to recognize the appro- >riateness of the popular term Sea Swallow. Their active grace and dainty, )earl-like colours are a joy to the nature lover. Terns are on the whole ess marine in their habits than Gulls and are not as often seen far from land. They haunt harbours, shores, and beaches, and live largely upon small ish caught near the surface by quick, sudden dives from the wing, but hey are not scavengers. In these dives the birds plunge in head first with , splash of white spray in which for a moment they disappear, but unlike iannets and Cormorants they never go far under water. Genus Slerna. Terns. 64. Caspian Tern. ra. LA STEBNE CASPIENNE. LB GRAND ESTERLETTE. Sterna aspia. L, 21. (Forking of tail 1-50.) 1 The largest of our Canadian Terns. In colour 'ery similar to the Common Tern (See p. 56). Distinctions. Large size of this Tern is characteristic. There are two other equally irge species, but they are too rare to require more than passing mention here. The Cas- )ian Tern is as large as some of the smaller Gulls; but its bill though comparatively heavy or a Tern is too graceful and tapering to be gull-like. Field Marks. Characteristic Tern coloration, and habit and size make the best field narks. A large Common Tern with less deeply forked tail. Its voice is utterly unlike hat of the smaller species being louder and much hoarser. Nesting. On sandy beaches, or rocky or gravelly islands. Distribution. A nearly cosmopolitan species. Found in the Old as well as the New 7orld. Occurs rather irregularly all over Canada, but its known nesting stations are 3W and scattered over the continent from lake Winnipeg to Labrador. The peculiarly disconnected and irregular distribution of this beau- iful Tern suggests that it is a gradually disappearing species. This is ;reatly to be deplored as it is one of the most beautiful of our sea-birds .nd it is hoped that careful conservation of its few remaining breeding tations will be inaugurated so that it will continue to adorn our waterways. 1 This measurement shows the difference in length between the middle and outer tail feathers. A great part of ie total length of these birds is in the greatly elongated outer tail feathers and these do not reach their maximum i juvenile birds. Hence this figure is given to correct the oftentimes greatly misleading nature of the usual length leasurement. 56 Economic Status. Though feeding largely upon fish, the size of its prey is limited to small fry. The rarity of the species precludes its doing any appreciable amount of damage. 69. Forster's Tern. FB. LA STERNE DE FORSTEB. Sterna forsteri. L, 15. (Forking of tail 4.) 1 Closely resembling the Common Tern (See next species) in size and coloration. Distinctions. Forster's Tern lacks the delicate grey shading on the flanks and under- parts characteristic of the Common Tern, and the outer feathers of the tail have the dark web on the inside instead of the outside of the shaft. Field Marks. The pure white underparts are the most reliable field guides. The voice, hoarser and deeper than that of the Common Tern can always be recognized after having once been heard. The species is so rare east of lake Huron that its identification in life should be based only on birds in the hand. Nesting. On slight elevations in grassy marshes, in nests built of fragments of waste vegetation. Distribution. Western or interior bird. At one time it nested on Detroit river but seems to have deserted that station and now as a breeder must be sought for farther west. These Terns frequent marshes rather than beaches and do not usually gather in flocks like the Common Tern. They should be looked for as individuals in flocks of other species. Economic Status. Though fish eaters, their size and usual habitat prevent their being harmful. 70. Common Tern. WILSON'S TEBN. FB. LA STEBNE COMMUNE. Sterna hirundo. L, 15. (Forking of tail, 3.) Plate II B. Distinctions. The dark outer, instead of inner, webs on the outer, long tail feathers and delicate greyish, instead of pure white, breast and underparts distinguish the Com- mon from Forster's Tern. Its call is also recognizably distinct (See previous species). The grey of breast and underparts is rather less pronounced than in the Arctic Tern and the legs and feet are decidedly larger and heavier. The bill is usually dark in colour towards the tip, whereas that of the Arctic is evenly red. Juveniles are more or less washed with brownish above and have blackish bills. With adults in winter, the black cap is replaced by a more or less broken dark cape over hindhead and upper hindneck. In this plumage Forster's Tern has a broad black streak through the eye. Field Marks. Except in the few localities where other Terns are known to occur commonly it is always safe to conclude that this is the species seen. The pearly grey underparts may sometimes, and its shriller voice will always distinguish it from Forster's Tern, but it is difficult to separate it from the Arctic Tern which, however, is only to be expected on our extreme eastern sea-coast. Nesting. Depression in sand on beach. Distribution. A circumpolar species migrating to South America and Africa. More or less common all over Canada and breeding in favourable localities throughout its Cana- dian range. This is the most abundant Tern of eastern Canada. Common about sandy shores, scarcer on rocky ones, it may be seen on any of our larger bodies of water, salt or fresh, throughout the summer. Its wonderful lightness of wing, and graceful circlings one instant hovering on rapidly beating wings stationary in the air as it regards some coveted prey below and the next dropping like a plummet with a sparkling splash are constant delights to a seeker of the beautiful. Its shrill cry, harsh if taken by itself, blends harmoniously into the soft surge of the surf and remains in keeping with marine surroundings. Economic Status. Though fairly numerous in suitable localities this species is too small to be seriously destructive. 1 See footnote, p. 55. 57 71. Arctic Tern. FK. LA STERNE ARCTIQUE. Sterna paradtscea. L, 15-50. [Forking of tail 4 50.)' Closely resembling the Common Tern (See above) in size and colour. Distinctions. The Arctic Tern has a little stronger greyish suffusion over breast and inderparts than the Common Tern. Bill is red to tip and feet and legs are very small and treak. Its range separates it from Forster's Tern and there are only the Common and the Roseate with which it can be confused, but the Roseate is too rare on Canadian waters to be jonsiderpd. Field Marks. There is no field mark that can be described by which this species an be recognized with certainty, but the even red coloration of the bill is a fairly eliable guide. In eastern Canada it is a sea-coast species, and it should be recorded on jyesight evidence only where it is known to occur commonly. Nesting. Depression in sandy beaches. Distribution. Nearly cosmopolitan, but of eastern and Arctic distribution in Canada md rarely if ever seen in the Great Lakes region. It is notable from having perhaps the greatest migration range of any species of bird. Though in summer it flies nearly to the north pole, it winters as far south as the Antarctic continent. The remarks made under the heading of the Common Tern apply here also, bearing in mind that this species is regularly only of extreme eastern and Arctic distribution. Economic Status. The small size of the fry it takes and the known abundance of such fish in the sea, render this species as harmless as any of the other Terns. Genus Hydrochelidon. Black Terns. 77. Black Tern. FR. LA STERNE NOIRE. Hydrochelidon nigra. L, 10. (Forking }f tail, 0-8.) 1 The smallest of our Common Terns, dark slate-grey deepening to dull olack on head, neck, and underparte. Distinctions. The above diagnosis is sufficient to separate summer adults. Winter md immature birds have a dirty white face, throat, neck ring, and underparts and the ?rey above is suffused with more or less brown. It is, however, always considerably darker than corresponding plumages of other species. This fact and the small size of the lire! should be sufficient to differentiate it at all times. Field Marks. Size and coloration make this species easy to recognize in life. Nesting. On slight elevations such as old muskrat houses or floating debris in wet marshes, nest of vegetable matter. Distribution. The American Black Tern is a bird of the interior, breeding from the Great Lakes region westward. SUBSPECIES. The Black Tern occurs in both Europe and America in allied sub- specific forms of which the European is the type. The American Black Tern C.n. svr- inamensis is the only subspecies with which we are concerned. This is a bird of the inland marshes. It is rarely seen on the larger bodies of water, but within its regular range no extensive expanse of watery marsh is without it. Its general habits are much like those of the other Terns. Economic Status. The insect content of this bird's food is probably larger than that of the other Terns. In the south it is known to consume the larvae of the cotton-boll weevil and it follows the ploughman of the west for the grubs turned up. Therefore, we can venture to state that it is probably actively beneficial. At any rate the fish it takes are mud- inhabiting forms of small economic importance. i See footnote, p. 55. 58 Order Tubinares. Tube-nosed Swimmers. General Description. Tireless fliers of the deep sea, of various sizes from the large Albatross to the small Petrel. Usually dull and evenly coloured birds. Distinctions. Nostrils are encased in tubes laid on top of the bill proper (Figure 11, p. 19). Field Marks. General flight habits and coloration. Familiarity with the various species is necessary to recognize members of the order. Nesting. On the ground or in burrows in out-of-the-way localities, often on rocky islets far out at sea to which they find their way in some mysterious manner that we cannot explain. Distribution. As a family, they are birds of the southern hemisphere, for it is there that they reach their fullest development in numbers of individuals and species. How- ever, some inhabit the north far into the Arctics. The Tube-nosed Swimmers are essentially marine, using the land only for breeding purposes. The whole ocean is their home and its lonely waste is sufficient for all their needs except that of rearing their young. They, therefore, as a class, rarely come into shallow water and are most commonly seen by the deep-water sailor, the offshore fisherman, or the ocean voyager. There are two families of the order: the Albatrosses, Diomedeidas; and the Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petrels, Procellariidce; that are here called for convenience the Lesser Tube-nosed Swimmers owing to their inferior size. As there are no Albatrosses regularly on our east coast we are concerned only with the Procellariidce. Economic Status. Owing to their pelagic habitat they are of little if any known economic interest. FAMILY PROCELLARIIDjE. LESSER TUBE-NOSED SWIMMERS. FULMARS, SHEARWATERS, AND PETRELS. Subfamily Fulmarinac. Fulmars. General Description. See previous description of order. Distinctions. Lesser Tube-nosed Swimmers are smaller than the Albatrosses and are the only members of the order regularly found on our eastern coast. Field Marks. General coloration and flight habits. Wings stiffly held straight out from the body and long steady glides on motionless wings (Fulmars and Shearwaters), or gently flitting close to the surface up one side of a wave and down the other with feet occasionally paddling along as if running on the surface (Petrels). Distribution. The family is distributed over the oceans of the world from pole to pole. Though many species are regularly confined to the southern hemisphere they are great wanderers and the list of stragglers on our northern coast is comparatively large. Of many species very little is -known and our knowledge of several of them is confined to single or a few individual specimens that have found their way into collectors' hands. Other species than those here listed may be found on our C9asts or even occasionally on the Great Lakes, but their identification should be made with the greatest caution. Economic Status. Though feeding almost entirely on fish and offal, their deep sea habitat renders them of little economic importance. 59 Genus Fulmarus. Fulmars. 86. Fulmar. FR. LB FULMAR. Fulmarus glacialis. L, 19. A large bird of ull-like coloration (light phase), or evenly dark, slaty grey (dark phase), and tube-en- ased nostrils. Distinctions. One of the larger of the Lesser Tube-noses, even grey or white and grey ull-like coloration. Field Marks. Flight habits, stiffly-held outstretched wings, and long glides, together nth light or grey coloration instead of dark brown as in the Shearwaters which approach he Fulmars in size, should usually render this species recognizable in life. The Fulmar occurs in allied subspecific form on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The Atlantic Fulmar is the type form. Nesting. In large communities on ledges of rocky cliffs. Distribution. The Fulmar is a bird of the north Atlantic, breeding in high latitudes nd migrating to our southern coasts. More often seen by sealers and whalers, the offal of whose trade ittracts numbers of Fulmars. They are often seen by transatlantic ravellers in mid-ocean or near the shores. Economic Status. Of no economic importance. Subfamily Puffininse. Shearwaters and Petrels. Genus Puffinus. Shearwaters. General Description. Tube-nosed Swimmers from 17 to 20 inches long. The nasal ubes are apparent but much less pronounced than in either the Fulmar or the Petrel. Distinctions. The only two east Canadian species that the ordinary observer is likely o meet are either very dark or seem almost crow-black from a distance. Field Marks. The long narrow wings held stiffly at right angles to the body and the ong glides of half a mile or more on fixed wings are distinctive. Their colour in browns should separate them from the Fulmar which is grey but has much the same flight habits. Nesting. Very little is known of the nesting habits of the Shearwaters. Many of hem nest in the southern hemisphere, migrating north in the summer. Distribution. Distributed or wandering over most of the oceans of the globe. Nesting ocalities lonely islets, mostly unknown. Shearwaters are wonderful fliers, breasting the storms and gales with :he ease and grace of swallows. They are rarely seen by the casual observer except from the decks of transatlantic steamers. Economic Status. Gleaning from the surface of the high seas, taking .mall fish or offal thrown from deep-sea fishing or whaling boats, their Bconomic influence is too small to be appreciable. 89. Greater Shearwater. FR. LE GRAND PUFFIN. Puffinus grains. L, 20. The .arger of our two commoner Shearwaters, lighter below with undertail-coverts ashy ferey. Distinctions. Its light colour below should separate this from the Sooty Shearwater; ind its general brownness instead of greyness of back, and its variegated colour differ- sntiate it from the Fulmar. Field Marks. Flight habits as described previously, together with brown coloration and white underparts should separate this in life from either the Fulmar or the next species. Nesting. There is little known of the nesting habits of this species. Probably breeds in the southern hemisphere on lonely islets that have not been ornithologically investigated. Distribution. Ranges over the whole Atlantic ocean from the Arctic to cape Horn. Visits Canada irregularly in summer. Economic Status. Of no economic importance. 285875 60 95. Sooty Shearwater. PR. LB PUFFIN FULIGINEUX. Puffinus griseus. L, 17, The slightly smaller of our two more common Shearwaters. Very dark brown, almost black, and but little lighter below. Distinctions. Size, when possible to estimate or measure, and general dark coloration- Field Marks. Flight habits as described under Shearwaters and very dark, almost crow-black, appearance in life are probably the best field distinctions. Nesting. In burrows in the ground. Distribution. The oceans of the southern hemisphere, migrating up our coasts in summer rather rarely. The two Shearwaters and Wilson's Petrel are the only species of Canadian birds that are known to nest at the southern extremity of their migratory range instead of at the northern. Specimens seen here in the summer are migrants, not nesting birds. Economic Status. Of no economic importance. Genera Oceanodroma and Oceanites. Petrels. General Description. The Canadian species of Petrel are small birds, scarcely as large as Robins and of even dark brown coloration. Distinctions. Small size, general sooty-brown coloration, and white rump. Field Marks. Size, colour as above, and the habit of pattering up and down the waves as if walking on the water are diagnostic of the Petrels. The Petrel takes its name from Peter who walked on the sea of Galilee. The birds are also well known to sailors and travellers under the name of "Mother Carey's Chickens" and their appearance is said to presage a storm. In spite of their diminutive size they are met with far out at sea and are seldom seen by the longshoreman except in the vicinity of their breeding grounds. Economic Status. The Petrels though feeding on fish are too small and they live too far from civilization to be of measurable economic importance. 106. Leach's Petrel. PR. LE PETREL DE LEACH. Oceanodroma leucorhoa. L, 8. A small, sooty-brown bird, very slightly lighter below, with a white rump. Tail forked about one-half an inch deep. Distinctions. Forking of the tail, slightly lighter general coloration, and all black feet will separate this from Wilson's Petrel, the only one likely to be confused with it. Field Marks. The slight forking of the tail is perhaps the surest specific guide in life Nesting. In burrows in the ground or under rocks. Distribution. Inhabits both the north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans, breeding on the eastern side of the continent, from Greenland to Maine. This is the only Petrel breeding on our coasts. It may be locally very abundant in the nesting season and its burrows may riddle the ground without the observer having a suspicion of its presence. It remains in its burrow through the day, but at night comes out in great numbers, wheeling about the deserted neighbourhood, uttering a low, wierd, oft-repeated little song with most eerie effect. Economic Status. Of no economic importance. 109. Wilson's Petrel. MOTHER CAREY'S CHICKEN. FR. LE PETREL DE WILSON. Oceanites uceanicus. L, 7. A slightly smaller bird than Leach's Petrel, of the saiue general colour but averaging slightly darker, less forked tail, and with toe webs mostly yellow instead of all black. 61 Distinction*. Smaller size, slightly darker coloration, square instead of forked tail, nd the yellow foot webs will separate this Petrel from Leach's. The Storm Petrel Iso is said to occur off the Atlantic coast, but is too rare to be considered here. Unim- >eachable evidence of its occurrence is desirable. It is recognizable by having the white ump feathers tipped with black. Field Marks. Square instead of slightly forked tail is probably the most reliable ,-uide to the specific identity of this Petrel in life, but accurate observation is necessary o make the distinction. Nesting. In ground burrows or rock crevices. Distribution. From the Antarctic to Labrador and to the British Isles across the Atlantic. Wilson's Petrel is notable as being one of the very few North American pecies that are known to nest at the southern end of their migratory ange. Hence individuals seen here in the summer are migrants, not >reeders. Order Steganopodes. Totipalmate Swimmers. Full webbed Swimmers. General Description. Birds with webs between all four toes, making three webs ngtead of the usual two as in other orders (Figure 6, p. 19). Distinctions. The feet characters are always distinctive. Canadian Totipalmates are divided into three families: Sulidce, the 3annets; Phalacrocoracida, the Cormorants; and Pelecanidce, the Pelicans. There are other families that have occurred or may occur accidentally n Canada but are too rare to be included here. Economic Status. This order, being composed of large birds, all fish- aters, and many of them frequenting inshore or inland waters in consider- ible numbers, is open to a certain amount of suspicion as to its economic ffect. However, no step should be taken against any species until careful nvestigation has proved its necessity. FAMILY SULID.B. GANNETS OR BOOBIES. General Description. Large birds, mostly white when adult, bill sharp and straight rithout hook or pronounced throat or gular pouch. Distinctions. The bill characters of this family serve to distinguish it from all except - ng Tropic Birds, one species of which has been taken off Newfoundland. As the Tropic Birds, however, have enormously elongated middle tail feathers there is little chance of onfusion, even if they were not too rare in our waters to merit detailed consideration here. The Gannets are strictly marine birds never seen away from the sea xcept as stragglers. The family on the whole is tropical and only one pecies occurs in Canada. 117. Gannet. SOLAN GOOSE. FB. LE FOU DE BASSAN. LE MABGOT. Svla bassana j, 35. A fully-webbed swimmer with straight bill without pronounced hook or conspi- uous throat or gular pouch. Distinctions. The bill characters are distinctive. The adult is pure white except for he blade primaries and a rich creamy suffusion over the crown and hindneck. The oung bird of the year is greyish-brown, lighter below, and each feather has a small white > r at the tip that gives an even speckling over all. Several intermediate spotted stages >ccur between these plumages. 28587 5J 62 Field Marks. Dazzlingl> white body and black wing-tips of the adult are distinctive. The habit of diving from the wing, entering the water head first like an arrow, and remain- ing under an appreciable length of time, is also characteristic. Terns dive from the wing but they rise again almost immediately and seldom completely disappear from sight like the Gannet. Moreover the great difference in size is diagnostic. Nesting. In large communities on the rocky shelves of sea-cliffs; nests made of seaweed. Distribution. Both sides of the north Atlantic, breeding in Canada only on Bird Rock off the Magdalen islands, and on Bonaventure island, Gaspe county, Quebec, both stations being in the gulf of St. Lawrence. The Gannet had at one time a much wider and commoner distribution than now, nesting as it did on many of the rocky islets on both sides of the north Atlantic. Although of very slight value either for food or other uses, except in the most primitive communities, it has been driven from one breeding station after another until in the New World only two rookeries remain and, unless prompt measures are taken, these will likely go the way of the others. 1 Economic Status. Though the Gannets have been accused of doing considerable damage to fishing interests, their harmful effects have been much overestimated. The greater part of the life of the Gannets is spent on or near the deep sea. When they come inshore for breeding purposes they can make very little impression on the mighty shoals of herring and other fish they pursue. FAMILY PHALACROCORACID^E. CORMORANTS. General Description. Large birds of black or very dark coloration, with bills ending in a decided hook and with a small throat or gular pouch. Distinctions. Bill and small gular pouch are diagnostic. Field Marks. In life the Cormorants look somewhat like the Loons, but have a distinctive wing action more easily recognized than described. In flight the Cormorant carries its neck outstretched and its feet hidden under the long tail, instead of trailing them behind like the Loon. On the water, it is easily recognized by its plainly visible tail, and even, dark coloration. A cosmopolitan family, only two species of which are found in eastern Canada. Genus Phalacrocorax. Cormorants. 119. Common Cormorant. PH. LE COBMOBAN ORDINAIRE. Phalacrocorax carbo. L, 36. See family description previously given. Distinctions. With the family description in mind, this species can easily be distin- guished from all but the one following. The adult of this species has a flash of white at the base of the gular pouch and another on the flank. In other plumages, its superior size and fourteen instead of twelve tail feathers are diagnostic. The absence of crest even when adult is not a reliable guide for the determination of the species (See next species). Field Marks. Unless size or the white marks are obvious it is rarely possible to separate the two Cormorants in life. Nesting. Similar to that of the next species. Distribution. The northern parts of all three continents. In Canada, it is closely confined to the eastern coast and is rarely seen inland. 'Since this paragraph was written, these localities have been constituted bird sanctuaries, and a hitherto un- known rookery has been reported off the southeast coast of Newfoundland. 63 Though called "Common" Cormorant this is the rarest of our eastern Canadian Cormorants. The species occurs on the European coast and was ;iven the name "Common" because of its abundance around the British isles. Economic Status. Owing to its rarity it is of little economic import- ince in Canada. 120. Double-crested Cormorant. FB. LB CORMORAN X AIGRETTES. Phalacro- oroz auritus. L, 30. See family description on previous page. Distinctions. This species is likely to be confused with the preceding one only. In idult plumage the absence of any white at the base of the gular sac and on the flanks is liagnostic. In other plumages, size and the presence of twelve instead of fourteen feathers n the tail must be relied upon. Early in the spring the filamentous crests on the sides if the head instead of a ragged ruff as in the previous species are characteristic; but these eatures are lost early in the season, before nesting begins, and hence are usually of little lelp in determination. Field Marks. Though Cormorants can be recognized easily by the characters given inder the family heading, size and the presence or absence of the white spots are about ;he only features that serve to separate the two species in life. Nesting. On the ground amongst rocks, or on cliff ledges, occasionally in bushes IT low trees, in rather bulky structures of sticks or weeds. Distribution. The Double-crested Cormorant breeds on the gulf of St. Lawrence and Dn lakes in the prairie provinces. It is a rather uncommon though perhaps regular migrant )n the Great Lakes. SUBSPECIES. The Double-crested Cormorant of North America is divided into 'our subspecies, of which within the range of this book there is only one, the Eastern Double-crested Cormorant, the type race. This is the most common Cormorant of easterr Canada. Unlike the previous species it is not strictly maritime and is found on fresh as well as salt water. It captures its prey by diving and pursuit under water. Unlike the Gannet it never dives from the wing but first alights on the surface and then goes under with a serpentine, gliding movement like a Loon. It seldom remains under water longer than forty seconds. Economic Status. The danger of jumping at conclusions based upon superficial observation or common report was well illustrated by the out- come of a study of the food of these birds in the neighbourhood of the Gaspe salmon rivers. 1 Though commonly accused of damaging the salmon fisheries by devouring the small fish and fry, careful examination of about thirty specimens showed that the birds were eating fish of no economic value and no salmonoid remains were found in them. Probably the eels, sculpins, and other fish taken by the Cormorant make the species beneficial rather than harmful to the salmon, and may more than compensate for the few valuable fish that it occasionally takes. This is a good example of the caution that is necessary before condemning arjy species of birds. FAMILY PELECANID.fi. PELICANS. Genus Pelicanus. Pelicans. General Description. Large bird with a very long, flattened bill and enormous throat or gular pouch. Distinctions. The enormous throat pouch, holding a gallon or more, and the long flattened bill are always diagnostic. '"The Double-crested Cormorant, Phalacrocorai Auritus. ar 1 Its Relation to Salmon Industries on the Gulf St. Lawrence," Dept. of Mines, Geol. Surv., Can., Mus. Bull. No. 13, Biological Series No. 5 ,1915. 66 The American Merganser is a bird of small rather than large waters and hence is less common on the larger lakes or the sea than the Red- breasted. Otherwise remarks under that species will apply to the American Merganser as their habits are similar. Economic Status. See under subfamily heading. 130. Red-Breasted Merganser. SAW-BILL. FISH-DUCK. SHELDUCK. SHELDBAKE. FB. LE HARLE A poiTBiNE BOUSSE. LEBECSciE. M ergus serrdtor. L, 22. Plate III A. Distinctions. The ragged crest, and reddish breast-band separated from the head by a conspicuous white collar, are sufficient to diagnose the male of this species. The female and the juveniles of this and the last species are much alike. The bill is, however, lighter in build and the nostrils are slightly nearer the base than in the American Merganser. The head is usually not as rich a brown and the upper throat only a lighter shade of the same colour and not white as in that species. Field Marks. The crest and breast-band of the adult male and the lack of the white upper-throat in the females and young birds wi) 1 separate the Red-breasted from, the Ameri- can MergaLser. The grey appearance of the back and the length of the outstretched head and neck will differentiate the Sheldrakes from other Ducks having white wing-patches. Nesting. On the ground near water: sometimes in trees. Distribution. Occurs more or less commonly over the whole of Canada, nesting wherever found except in the more southern parts. A bird of the open waters, hence more often seen on the open lakes and the sea than the preceding species. Economic Status. See under subfamily heading. Genus Lophodytes. Hooded Merganser. 131. Hooded Merganser. FR. LE PETIT HARLE. Lophodyles cucullatus. L, 17-50. The smallest of our Mergansers. The male is a most striking black and white bird with rich chestnut flanks. Its distinctive ornament, the hood, is a flat, disk-like crest springing from the base of the bill, arching over the crown, meeting the neck at the base of the head, and coloured mostly pure white with a narrow black edge. The female is a much duller-coloured bird with brownish fuscous body, lighter below, and with a ragged, slightly reddish crest, in shape similar to that pictured in Plate III A. Distinctions. The hood of the male is unlike anything else worn by American birds. The female can always be distinguished from other Mergansers by its small size. Field Marks. Hood of the male and reddish crest and size of the female. Nesting. In hollow trees. Distribution. Across the continent but scarcer in the east than in the interior. Breeds locally wherever found in Canada. The Hooded Merganser is a bird of the interior, of quiet ponds and woodland streams. It is the most edible of the Mergansers; this fact, combined with the clearing of the forests and too little restriction on shooting, is probably the cause of its growing scarcity. Economic Status. It is doubtful if any serious charge can be sub- stantiated against the Hooded Merganser. Subfamily Anatinae. River and Pond Ducks. General Description. Typical Ducks with flattened spatulate bills, furnished with flat nail tip and straining laminse or plates along the inner margins (Figure 8, p. 19) instead of tooth-like projections (Figure 7, p. 19). Feet with a small though well-formed hind toe, not modified into a flat lobe or fin-like appendage. Distinctions. The bill will separate the River Ducks from the Mergansers; and the hind toe as above from the Sea Ducks. 67 Field Marks. Under the most favourable conditions of view the bill will separate he Anatina from the Mergansers. The greater length of neck and more slender bodies ire slight and rather uncertain guides to separate them from the Sea or Bay Ducks. The nembers of the subfamily are more easily recognized in life by species than as a class. Nesting. On the ground, with the exception of the Wood Duck. Distribution. As a class the Pond and River Ducks are more abundant in the interior :han on either coast. As the names imply, the River and Pond Ducks frequent our smaller inland waters more than they do the larger ones. They feed from the surface by "tipping" and reaching under the water. The food is gathered in the bill and the water squeezed out, the laminse of the bills retaining the solid matter. Economic Status. Being strictly water-birds and vegetable and insect feeders, their food habits are not a menace. It has lately been shown that Ducks feed largely upon mosquito larvse and that they may do surprising good in this direction. By actual experiment a pair of Ducks in a small pond did more to reduce these pests in it than a considerable school of goldfish. As game, they are of great importance, see p. 12. Genus Anas. Mallards. 132. Mallard. GREEN-HEAD. GREY DUCK. FR. LE CANARD ORDINAIRE. LE CANARD DE FRANCE. Anas platyrhynchos. L, 23. Plate III B. Distinctions. The male cannot be mistaken for any other wild Duck though many domestic strains approach it closely. The female is often regarded as belonging to another species and is sometimes called Grey Duck. There are several other Ducks approaching her in coloration but the purple speculum with the white bar both before and behind the speculum are good distinguishing marks. Field Marks. Green head and white neck ring are conspicuous recognition marks for the male. The speculum with ite white bars will identify the female in life. Her tail shows a general whiteness in flight that is quite characteristic. Nesting. On the ground usually; in high grass or reeds not far from water, though occasionally at a considerable distance inland. Distribution. Distributed over practically the whole of Canada but less common in the extreme east. Breeds throughout Canada except where disturbed by settlement. This is the "Wild Duck" par excellence, and is known as such to the sportsman of the Old World as well as the New. It is the original stock from which our domestic varieties sprang and nearly any mixed farmyard flock will show the green-black heads, white collar, or recurved upper- tail-coverts denoting reversion to the original form. As well as being one of the best table-birds it is one of the wildest of Ducks; on that account it still breeds in limited numbers on the edges of civilization. 133. Black Duck. DUSKY DUCK. BLACK MALLARD. FR. LE CANARD NOIB. Anas rubripes. L, 22. Plate IV A. Distinctions. The general dark coloration combined with size renders this species unmistakable among River Ducks. Field Marks. Size, dark coloration, and a silvery sheen to the lining of the under- wings that shows in flight. The absence of the white bar bounding the speculum behind will separate it from the Mallard. Nesting. On the ground, in grass near water. Distribution. The Black Duck is a more eastern species than the Mallard and is not commonly found west of the Great Lakes. It breeds in eastern Canada wherever found. 68 Now that the Wood Duck is growing scarce the Black Duck is the commonest nesting Duck in the southern parts of Canada and the only one that can be called a common breeder near the lower Great Lakes. Originally almost every little lake and pond raised its brood of Black Duck, but, owing to the drainage of the marshes and human interference with nesting, it is now practically restricted to the larger marshes or more inaccessible situations. It is still in dispute whether there are two forms of the Black Duck. Late in the autumn a number of very large birds with red legs are taken but it has not been conclusively determined whether they are subspecific- ally distinct. Economic Status. Though the Black Duck often, especially in the breeding season, haunts the edges of cultivated fields where it gleans what food it can find, it does little or no harm. There is little crop to damage at that season and, as at other times it confines its attention to aquatic life, there is no harm that can be charged against the species. Genus Chaulelasmus. Gadwall. 135. Gadwall. OBEY DUCK. SPECKLE-BELLY. PR. LE CANARD CHIPEAU. Chaule- lasmus streperus. L, 19-50. A finely speckled or vermiculated grey Duck, of same general tone as the female Mallard, but with chestnut-red shoulders and a white -speculum. Distinctions. White speculum is always diagnostic. Females are otherwise likely to be mistaken for small female Mallards or Baldpates. Field Marks. White speculum and general greyish appearance. Nesting. On the ground, in grass or under bushes. Distribution. Nearly cosmopolitan. One of the rarest Ducks on the lower Great Lakes, nearly absent from the east coast, commoner to the west where it breeds. Genus Mareca. Widgeons. 137. Baldpate. AMERICAN WIDGEON. PR. LE CANARD D'AM^RIQDE. Mareca americana. L, 19. A medium-sized, greyish Tuck. The male has white shoulders and cap, and a broad green stripe through the eye, a black speculum with green reflections, and a soft wash of pink over breast and back. Distinctions. The male is distinctive; the female might easily be mistaken for a female Mallard or Gadwall but for its black speculum and pure white underparts. Field Marks. The white crown and green eye-bar are characteristic of the male; the white underparts and the abrupt ending of the brown breast against thfe underparts distinguish the female in life. Nesting. On the ground, in grass or under bushes. Distribution. Ranges over nearly all Canada; rare on the Atlantic coast, more com- mon to the west. Closely related to the Widgeon of Europe, which has occasionally been taken on our coasts and which it closely resembles. Genus Nettion. Teal. 139. Green-winged Teal. PR. LA SARCELLE A AILES VERTES. Nettion carolinense L, 14-50. The smallest of our Ducks. The male has a chestnut-coloured head; a bar back from eye and speculum, iridescent green; finely vermiculated back, and spotted breast; nearly white below. The female is a dull-brownish bird considerably lighter below and has the characteristic green speculum of the species. Distinctions. Size will always separate this little Duck from all others except the next species and the Bufflehead. The brilliant green speculum will separate it from the latter and the entire absence of chalky blue on the shoulders from the former. Field Marks. Small size together with green speculum and lack of chalky blue on loulders are recognition marks for any plumage. Nesting. On the ground, near water. Distribution. Distributed across the continent but scarce in extreme east. Breeds in usti-rn Canada occasionally and probably originally nested in the lower Great Lakes region. This is one of the daintiest of the Ducks. Its habit of flying in large ocks at great speed m;tkes it well known to sportsmen. The European 'eal, also, occasionally straggles to Canada but is very rare. Genus Querquedula. Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal. 140. Blue-winged Teal. KB. LA SARCELLE A AILES BLEUES. Querquedula diseors. , 16. Plate IV B. Distinctions. Size will separate the Blue-winged Teal from any other Duck except le Green-winged and the Bumehead and the light blue on the wings will do so in these ises. The Shoveller also has a similar blue on the wings, but the small size of the Blue- inged and the lack of the broad shovel-bill distinguish these two species. Field Marks. Small size, together with white face mark, dark underparts, and chalky lue on wings. Nesting. On the ground, amidst grass. Distribution. Across the continent; now rather rare in the extreme east. It is one f the few species that still breed regularly though sparsely in the lower Great Lakes !gion. A western Teal, the Cinnamon Teal, is occasionally reported from astern Canada, but most of such records are based upon the Blue-winged eavily stained below with iron 1 from the water. Genus Spatula. Shoveller. 142. Shoveller. SPOONBILL. PR. LE CANARD SOUCHET Spatula clypeala. L, 0. The male is strikingly marked, with a green-black head, white breast and line over 'ings; underparts rich chestnut, cutting in a sharp line against the breast. The shoulders re chalky blue and the speculum green. The bill widens out at tip to a broad shovel or poon shape. The female is much like the female Mallard though distinctly smaller. Distinctions. Shovel bill separates this species from all others in any plumage. Field Marks. White breast, rich chestnut belly, blue on the wings, and size dis- inguish the male. The bill will distinguish the bird in any plumage and when it can be een is perhaps the best means of separating the female from the larger female Mallard hich it resembles. Nesting. On the ground in grass, not always in the immediate vicinity of water. Distribution. This is a bird of the west. It occurs sparingly on the lower Great Lakes nd occurs farther east only as a straggler. Genus Dafila. Pintail. 143. Pintail. SPRINGTAIL. FH. LE CANARD PILET. Dafila acuta. L, 28. A very >ng and slender Duck. Head seal-brown, foreneck and underparts white, back finely ermiculated in greys, speculum bronze-green bounded by a light chestnut line before nd a white one behind. The tail is graduated with two greatly elongated middle feathers, 'emale is much like the female Mallard. Distinctions. The long tail is diagnostic of the male, the Old-Squaw being the only ther American Duck with anything like this feature, but otherwise the Old-Squaw is ntirely different and is a Sea not a River Duck. The bronze-green speculum and ite 'ounding lines of rufous and white are characteristic of any plumage. Young, Green- ringed Teal show almost the same speculum features but the difference in size will prevent onfusion. 1 See footnote, page 64. 70 Field Marks. Long, slenaer head and neck and long, pointed tail make good field marks. The dark head and white foreneck and underparts are recognition marks for the male. Nesting. On the ground, sometimes at a considerable distance from water. Distribution. Rare on the Atlantic coast, becoming commoner towards the west. Breeds from the prairie provinces north to the Arctic and formerly east to lake Erie. Genus Aix. Wood Duck. 144. Wood Duck. SUMMER DUCK. THI. BRIDE. PR. LE CANARD BUPPE. LE CANARD BRANCHU. Aix sponsa. L, 18-50. Plate V A. Distinctions. With the illustrations as a guide there should be no difficulty in recognizing this species. The male even in eclipse plumage always retains a suggestion of the cheek markings. Field Marks. This is the only common summer Duck in our southern sections having a pure white underbody. The white eye-ring of the female is quite conspicuous. Nesting. In hollow trees or stumps in the vicinity of quiet water. Distribution. Temperate North America as far north as southern Canada and across the continent; more common in the lower Great Lakes region than on either of our coasts or in the prairie provinces. This is the brightest coloured and most beautiful Duck in America and perhaps in the world. The only species that can approach it is the Mandarin Duck of China which is often seen in confinement with it. The Wood Duck was originally the "Summer Duck" of our southern borders and almost every woodland stream and backwater pond had at least one pair; but, since the clearing of the land, the farmer's-boy-shot-gun combination has been too much for it. Its bright colours, the relative consp'cuousness of its nesting places, and the ease with which it can be stalked or "jumped" in its more or less wooded haunts have made it an easy prey for even the inexperienced shooter and it is in great danger of being exterminated. A Duck that alights in trees is more or less paradoxical to most European sportsmen, but this species does so commonly. It builds its nest in a hollow tree some distance from the ground, usually overlooking a quiet oxbow pond or other dead water. How the young are brought to the ground is not known, and many conflicting reports are circulated regarding it; such as the old birds carrying their young in their bills or on their backs, or shoving them out to take chances with their little unfledged wings in fluttering to the ground. In some way they reach the ground at an early age and follow the mother about the reaches of the streams or other quiet waters, the male keeping nearby to give his family the benefit of his moral support in times of danger. Later they seek the marshes, which they inhabit through the autumn, leaving for the south before the first frost has chilled the waters. The Wood Duck takes readily to nesting boxes prepared for the purpose and its numbers could probably be increased in this way. Subfamily Fuligulinae. Bay, Sea, or Diving Ducks. General Description. Heavily or compactly built Ducks with typically flattened or spatulate duck-like bill sometimes swollen or high at base (Figure 9, p. 19), but always with flattened nail at tin (Figures 8 and 9, p. 19). Hind toe modified into a flat, paddle, or fin-shaped lobe. Distinctions. Bill will separate the Sea Ducks from Mergansers; and hind toe from River and Pond Ducks. 71 Field Marks. Bill, when observed, will separate these from Mergansers though they e more easily recognized in life as species than as a subfamily. Nesting. Usually on the ground, although sometimes in trees. Distribution. A ! though some representatives of this subfamily are found commonly i every waterway in Canada both species and individuals are more numerous on the i:ist than in the interior. The Bay and Sea Ducks, though more at home in large open waters, ften frequent marshes and shallower waters for feeding. They are good ivers, sometimes descending to astonishing depths for shell-fish or vege- tble matter. They include some of the finest table species. Economic Status. The direct economic importance of their food abits is even less than that of the other Ducks. Genus Mania. Redheads, Canvas-backs, and Scaups. 146. Redhead. FR. LE UILOUIN 1 TBTE ROOSSE. Marila americana. L, 19. A ither large Duck with an even-coloured, brick-red head and upperneck: black breast; rey back finely vermiculated with black; white below. Head of female duller in colour, yen to dull grey-brown, and canvas-coloured back replaced by an even wash of brown imetimes without hint of fine venniculation. Distinctions. Male resembles the Canvas-back but back considerably darker and xl of head does not come to shoulders as in that species. Females of these two species are yen more alike, but shape of bill is always diagnostic (See Canvas-back). Females also jmewhat like those of Scaup and Golden-eye but distinguished by grey instead of white jecuium or wing-patch and absence of white face mark. The Ring-necked Duck has a milar speculum but is a much smaller bird and has the white face mark. Field Marks. Colour of head and outline of head and bill. Nesting. Usually on land or slightly elevated from water, nest of reeds with more r less down. Distribution. Usually only a migrant east of the prairie provinces, though at one time few bred locally in Great Lakes region; rare on east coast. One of our finest Ducks and when fed on wild celery its flesh has as .ne a flavour as that of the Canvas-back. It is rather less of an open- ^ater-bird than many of the Sea Ducks and is often found on marshes nd ponds. 147. Canvas-back. FR. LE MILOUIN AUX YECX ROUGES. Mania valisineria. i, 21. A large Duck; male with dull brick-red head and neck; black breast; white below; ack white with very fine dark vermiculations bearing a resemblance to canvas, to hich the species owes its name. In female the redness of head and neck is reduced to rownish grey and the back is brownish. Distinctions. Colours very close to those of comparable Redhead plumages; dis- inguished from Redhead by shape of bill which in Canvas-back is longer and heavier, pringing from well up on forehead and giving an almost straight culmen line rather than a oncave one as in Redhead. Male much whiter on back and the red comes down to the houlders instead of stopping halfway down the neck. Young and females may possibly e confused with the Scaups, Ring-bill, or Golden-eye, but may be separated by superior ize or the lack of white or grey on the wing or of white on the face. Fiela Marks. Red or reddish, or reddish-grey head, lack of white on face or wing, nd shape and outline of head and bill. . Nesting. Nest of reeds lined with down, built over water. Distribution. Of regular though not very cr mmon occurrence on lower Great Lakes ast to lake Erie; rare on Atlantic coast but more common in western Canada where it reeds. 72 One of the best known and most highly esteemed of the Ducks. The Canvas-back is associated in the popular mind with terrapin and high- living. This gastronomic fame is largely due to the wild celery, Vallisneria spiralis, upon which it frequently feeds and from which its specific name is derived. However, many other Ducks feeding upon the same plant become equally palatable. On the Great Lakes the introduction of the German Carp has proved very destructive to the once extensive beds of wild celery and wild rice, both of which plants are extremely attractive to all kinds of Ducks. One of the first steps to attract Ducks to reservations and private waters should be the clearing out of carp and the planting of wild celery and wild rice, Zizania aquatica. 148. .Greater Scaup Duck. AMERICAN SCATJP. BROAD-BILL. GREATER OR LAKE BLDEBILL. FH. LE MORiLLON A TETE NOIRE. Marila marila. L, 18 50. A medium-sized Duck male, white below; head, neck, and upper breast black; and a black and white vermieulated canvas-like back. Females without canvas-back; blacks reduced to reddish browns of various shades; white face mark at base of bill. Distinctions. Greater and Lesser Scaups are of almost exactly similar coloration but can usually be distinguished by size, or by shape and size of terminal nail on bill. Nail proportionately wider and more nearly circular in the Greater. Head of adult Greater Scaup has greenibn gloss instead of changing to slightly purple on crown. Reddish shade on heads of young and females sometimes quite noticeable, and they may be mistaken for the Canvas-back, Redhead, or sometimes the Golden-eye, but white spot at base of bill and across forehead, or white wing-patch are always distinctive of the Scaups. Ring- necked Duck, which also resembles them, has grey speculum instead of white. Field Marks. Almost impossible to distinguish the two Scaups in life. Males of both species in flight appear black on front third of body and on the remainder except tail, but including secondary wing-quills, white. White face mark at base of bill, as above, is best field mark for female. Nesting. On the ground, in grass near grassy ponds. Distribution. Uncommon migrant and rare breeder on Atlantic coast; common on Great Lakes. The Greater Scaup is more of an open-water bird than the Lesser as is indicated by one of its common names, but it often comes with other species into the marshes for wild celery and rice. 149. Lesser Scaup Duck. RIVER BROAD-BILL. LITTLE OR MARSH BLUEBILL. FR. LE PETIT MORILLON. Marila affinis. L, 16-50. Almost exactly similar to the last but a little smaller. Crown of adult male has a purplish instead of greenish gloss as on other parts of head. Distinctions. See previous species. Field Marks. See previous species. Scaups in life distinguished from each other only by size. Nesting. On the ground, near grassy ponds. Distribution. Slightly less common in eastern Canada than the preceding. Breeds commonly in western Canada and occasionally east to Great Lakes. This is one of the commonest Ducks away from the sea-coast and more of a marsh and small-water bird than the preceding. 150. Ring-necked Duck. RING-BILLED DUCK. FR. LE MORILLON A. COLLIER. Marila collaris. L, 16-50. Very close in coloration to preceding two species, but without the canvas-coloured back; with a light ring about bill near end, and faint brown or copper- coloured ring about neck. Distinctions. Young Ring-necks and females may be mistaken for either the Scaups, Golden-eye, Redhead, or Canvas-back,' but may be distinguished from the Scaups by the grey instead of white speculum, the female by fine white eye-ring; and from any of the other Ducks by white face marks usually connected across chin. See footnote, p. 64. 73 Field Marks. Male can be told from the Scaups by ita black back, and female by s white chin and fine light eye-ring; and either, in adult plumage, by light ring on the ill. Nesting. On the ground, near grassy ponds. Distribution. Scarce migrant in the east where it once nested occasionally; scarce i Great Lakes. Genus Clangula. Golden-eye. 151. Golden-eye. WHISTLE-WING. WHISTLER. GREATHEAD. FR. LB BUCEPHALE 'AMERIQUE. LE PLONGEUR. Clangula dangula. L, 20. A rather large, heavily built >uek, strikingly coloured in black and white. The back and head are black; the remainder ' the plumage, including a very conspicuous circular spot between the eye and the bill, ad the wing-patch are white. The female and young male are marked with light greys id blacks on the back, large white wing-patches, and a seal-brown head; the upperneck wally strongly contrasted with white or grey neck and breast. Distinctions. In young and female plumages it may sometimes be confused with le Redhead, Canvas-back, 1 or Scaups. In such plumages the lack of white face mark .- its restriction to the sides of the face will distinguish it from the Scaups; the white wing- atches from the Redhead and Canvas-back. Field Marks. The striking black and white coloration of the male and the brown 3ad and lack of face markings of most juveniles and the females. The large head, short jck, and loud whistling of the wings in flight are characteristic. Nesting. In stumps or hollow trees. Distribution. Golden-eyes inhabit most of the northern parts of the northern hemis- here. The American Golden-eye, the only New World representative of the species, is :nerally distributed over most of Canada. A common migrant and locally a winter sident in eastern Canada, breeding sparingly in the eastern provinces but more com- :only in the northwest. SUBSPECIES. The Golden-eye is divided into two subspecific races: an Old World id a New World form the latter, the American Golden-eye, C. c. americana, being the ily one that occurs in America. One of the best known of the larger Ducks. A very hardy bird remain- ig in our waters until they close with ice. 152. Barrow's Golden-eye. FR. LE BUCEPHALE D'ISLANDE. Glaucionetta islandica. , 20. Like the American Golden-eye, but the male has a crescent-shaped instead of a rcular face spot. The head glossed with purple instead of green and the bill relatively gher at the base. Distinctions. Males easily separated from the Golden-eye as above, but young birds id females of the two species more difficult to distinguish and shape of bill perhaps only liable guide. Young males can be recognized by a slight lump in the forehead just at ise of bill, which though not visible through the plumage can be plainly felt with the iger. Field Marks. Exceptional circumstances may allow some of the above points to be cognized in life. Nesting. In stumps or hollo'v trees when possible, otherwise probably in rock cavities on the ground. Distribution. A bird of very unusual distribution; common on the eastern and estern coasts but absent from most of the great interior; eastern birds probably breed northern Quebec. This is a more northern species than the former which it closely sembles in habits as well as appearance. Genus Charitonetta. Buffle-head. 153. Buffle-head. SPIRIT DUCK. BUTTERBALL. FR. LE PETIT BCCEPHALE. Char- metta albeola. L, 14-75. A very small Duck, almost as diminutive as the Teal, but loured in striking contrasts of black and white. Male: white below and around base neck, black above with an iridescent black head broken by a large white triangular itch with apex below the eye meeting its fellow along the nape. The feathers of the eeks lengthened, making puffs on the sides of the face, hence its name. Female: white Jow and dull brownish grey elsewhere except for a vague white spot on each cheek. i See footnote, p. 64. 74 Distinctions. Male cannot be mistaken for anything else; female rather like the Scaup but can be distinguished by smU size and dash of light extending from behind eye towards back of crown instead of a white patch at base of bill. One facial spot instead of two and the evenly light underparts will separate it from the female Harlequin which it also resembles. Field Marks. Small size and white head spot for the male, and size, cheek spot, and white wing-patch for the female. Nesting. In a stump or hollow tree. Distribution. A common migrant from the Atlantic coast westwards; breeds in the west and northwest. The name Spirit Duck refers to its diving powers and the remarkable ease with which it disappears when wounded. Genus. Harelda. Old-Squaw. 154. Old-Squaw. SOUTH-SOUTHERLY. COWEEN. LONG-TAILED DUCK. OLD-WIFE. COCKAWEE. FR. LE CANARD A LONGUE QUEUE. LE KAKAWi. Harelda hyemalis. L, 21. (Projection of middle tail feather beyond others, 4-50 5.) A medium-sized Duck showing remarkable seasonal change of plumage. Male in spring has a seal-brown breast, neck, head, and back; an almost white facial mask; and ochraceous striping over wings and at base of hindneck. Winter plumage white, with black or dark brown breast, back, and line across shoulders; a spot of same colour over the hind cheeks and upperneck: white stripes over wings. In both seasons male has two greatjy elongated middle tail feathers about 8 inches from base to tip and projecting 4 or 5 inches beyond other tail feathers. Plumage of female is intermediate between the above two plumages, showing mostly white without any sharp line between the dark of the breast and the white under- parts as in males. Distinctions. Males are characteristic; females may be confused only with those of next species, but are much lighter underneath, and head is mostly white instead of mostly dark. Field Marks. Long tail of the male, and head mostly white with dark cheek mark in juvenile and female plumages. Nesting. On the ground, near water, hidden under bushes or grass. Distribution. Breeds across the continent in the far north. More common on the coast or Great Lakes than on smaller bodies of water. This is, with us, essentially a winter Duck. It haunts our harbours and often congregates about the mouths of sewers remaining as long as open water prevails, even throughout winter. It is a great diver and a fish-eater, but is nearly worthless as a table-bird. It descends to great depths after food and is sometimes taken in the fishermen's nets far from land and at surprising depths in one known case 90 feet. Genus Histrionicus. Harlequins. 155. Harlequin Duck. ROCK DUCK. LORD AND LADY. FR. LE CANARD HIS- TRION. Histrionicus histrionicus. L, 17. A small Duck appropriately named after Earticoloured Harlequin. Male's general coloration is from dull slate-blue to blue-black, ut on this ground is arranged a striking series of crescents, stripes, circular spots, triangles, and a collar of pure white, each narrowly bordered with black that makes it stand out in striking contrast; a brilliant splash of rich chestnut adorns the flanks and borders the sides of the crown. Female very dull and subdued, all brownish with white spotting on abdomen aggregated into a not quite continuous middle area. An obscure white blotch in front of and below eye and another more sharply defined over ear. Distinctions. Male cannot be confused with that of any other species. Female resembles female Buffle-headin size and colouring, but has a more or less speckled belly instead of an evenly light one, two facial spots instead of one, and no wing-patch. 75 Field Marks. Male is unmistakable. Female may be recognized by size and general irkness of coloration, scarcely lighter below; absence of a wing-patch; and two light ffused face patches. Nesting. On ground, under rocks or driftwood or in hollow stumps. Distribution. Only a migrant in the east, very rare in the interior though common the mountains of the west where it breeds. This is one of the prettiest of our Ducks, coming next to the Wood 'uck in point of beauty. Its proper home is in the brawling streams of ic west and northwest where it is well known to the prospector and miner, i eastern Canada it haunts rocky bays and shores where it feeds largely i the sea fleas and small shrimps that throng the inshore salt waters. Genus Somateria. Eiders. Though not forming a recognized systematic division of Ducks this id the next genus are peculiar and show enough common characters to ceive special mention here. General Description. Large, sturdily built birds, the largest of our Ducks. Male ders have broad masses of sharply contrasting colours and delicate tints; Scoters nearly 1 black, some with small accents of pure white. Both genera have swollen bills with -ange excrescences and brilliant colorations (Figure 9, p. 19). Distinctions. General dark colorations, unrelieved by much pattern of the Scoters: ight coloration in broad masses of male Eiders; and finely and evenly barred tones of owns of females; size, build, swellings and protuberances of bills of both sexes of most ecies are the most obvious characteristics. Field Marks. General coloration and bills. Nesting. On the ground near water, sometimes under shelter of overhanging rocks or shes; nest lined with down from the parent's body. The eider-down of commerce is tained from the nests of the Eiders. Distribution. Distributed over the whole of Canada, nesting in the north; most mrnon on the coasts and the large bodies of water during migration. These are "Sea Ducks" in the strict sense of the term, built for buffet- g heavy weather and rarely coming in to the shallow pools or marshes, bey feed on shell-fish and marine life obtained by diving. Economic Status. Their food habits have little economic interest man, but in certain localities, as in Labrador, they furnish in themselves id their eggs, the bulk of the fresh animal food available. As the down is valuable object of commerce the Eiders are of distinct and recognized due. They are being rapidly reduced in numbers (See discussion of cnerican Eider) and drastic steps should be taken for their conservation. 160. Eider Duck. PR. L'EIDER DU NORD. Somateria mollissima. L, 23. Male: vck below, cutting sharply against the white breast which is delicately suffused with laceous pink; white above; head white with nile-green suffusion from cheeks to nape; )ad black bar through eye to hindhead. Female: evenly coloured in fine pattern of rious browns, blacks, and light ochres arranged in broken bars around the body. Bill jcesses extending up either side of the forehead in long fleshy tongues. Distinctions. Male unmistakable; female may be separated from that of King Eider feathering of crown not extending as far forward as rear end of the nostril. This species much like the American Eider from which it can be separated only by size and shape of ; bill processes on the forehead in the Eider Duck they terminate acutely and are not inded at the tips and distance from point of feathering on side of bill to tip of process less than in the American Eider. Field Marks. Size and general coloration. Nesting. On the ground, nest built entirely of down. 285876 74 Distinctions. Male cannot be mistaken for anything else; female rather like the Scaup but can be distinguished by small size and dash of light extending from behind eye towards back of crown instead of a white patch at base of bill. One facial spot instead of two and the evenly light underparts will separate it from the female Harlequin which it also resembles. Field Marks. Small size and white head spot for the male, and size, cheek spot, and white wing-patch for the female. Nesting. In a stump or hollow tree. Distribution. A common migrant from the Atlantic coast westwards; breeds in the west and northwest. The name Spirit Duck refers to its diving powers and the remarkable ease with which it disappears when wounded. Genus. Harelda. Old-Squaw. 154. Old-Squaw. SOUTH-SOUTHERLY. COWEBN. LONG-TAILED DUCK. OLD-WIPE. COCKAWEE. PR. LE CANARD A LONQUE QUEUE. LE KAKAWi. Harelda hyemalis. L, 21. (Projection of middle tail feather beyond others, 4-50 5.) A medium-sized Duck showing remarkable seasonal change of plumage. Male in spring has a seal-brown breast, neck, head, and back; an almost white facial mask; and ochraceous striping over wings and at base of hindneck. Winter plumage white, with black or dark brown breast, back, and line across shoulders; a spot of same colour over the hindcheeks and upperneck: white stripes over wings. In both seasons male has two greatly elongated middle tail feathers about 8 inches from base to tip and projecting 4 or 5 inches beyond other tail feathers. Plumage of female is intermediate between the above two plumages, showing mostly white without any sharp line between the dark of the breast and the white under- parts as in males. Distinctions. Males are characteristic; females may be confused only with those of next species, but are much lighter underneath, and head is mostly white instead of mostly dark. Field Marks. Long tail of the male, and head mostly white with dark cheek mark in juvenile and female plumages. Nesting. On the ground, near water, hidden under bushes or grass. Distribution. Breeds across the continent in the far north. More common on the coast or Great Lakes than on smaller bodies of water. This is, with us, essentially a winter Duck. It haunts our harbours and often congregates about the mouths of sewers remaining as long as open water prevails, even throughout winter. It is a great diver and a fish-eater, but is nearly worthless as a table-bird. It descends to great depths after food and is sometimes taken in the fishermen's nets far from land and at surprising depths in one known case 90 feet. Genus Histrionicus. Harlequins. 155. Harlequin Duck. HOCK DUCK. LORD AND LADY. FR. LE CANARD HIS- TRION. Histrionicus histrionicus. L, 17. A small Duck appropriately named after particoloured Harlequin. Male's general coloration is from dull slate-blue to blue-black, but on this ground is arranged a striking series of crescents, stripes, circular spots, triangles, and a collar of pure white, each narrowly bordered with black that makes it stand out in striking contrast; a brilliant splash of rich chestnut adorns the flanks and borders the sides of the crown. Female very dull and subdued, all brownish with white spotting on abdomen aggregated into a not quite continuous middle area. An obscure white blotch in front of and below eye and another more sharply denned over ear. Distinctions. Male cannot be confused with that of any other species. Female resembles female Buffle-headin size and colouring, but has a more or less speckled belly instead of an evenly light one, two facial spots instead of one, and no wing-patch. 75 Field Marks. Male is unmistakable. Female may be recognized by size and general irkness of coloration, scarcely lighter below; absence of a wing-patch; and two light iffused face patches. Nesting. On ground, under rocks or driftwood or in hollow stumps. Distribution. Only a migrant in the east, very rare in the interior though common the mountains of the west where it breeds. This is one of the prettiest of our Ducks, coming next to the Wood >uck in point of beauty. Its proper home is in the brawling streams of ic west and northwest where it is well known to the prospector and miner, i eastern Canada it haunts rocky bays and shores where it feeds largely i the sea fleas and small shrimps that throng the inshore salt waters. Genus Somateria. Eiders. Though not forming a recognized systematic division of Ducks this id the next genus are peculiar and show enough common characters to ceive special mention here. General Description. Large, sturdily built birds, the largest of our Ducks. Male ;ders have broad masses of sharply contrasting colours and deucate tints; Scoters nearly I black, some with small accents of pure white. Both genera have swollen bills with range excrescences and brilliant colorations (Figure 9, p. 19). Distinctions. General dark colorations, unrelieved by much pattern of the Scoters; ight coloration in broad masses of male Eiders; and finely and evenly barred tones of owns of females; size, build, swellings and protuberances of bills of both sexes of most ecies are the most obvious characteristics. Field Marks. General coloration and bills. Nesting. On the ground near water, sometimes under shelter of overhanging rocks or ishes; nest lined with down from the parent's body. The eider-down of commerce ia tamed from the nests of the Eiders. DistribiUion. Distributed over the whole of Canada, nesting in the north; most mmon on the coasts and the large bodies of water during migration. These are "Sea Ducks" in the strict sense of the term, built for buffet- g heavy weather and rarely coming in to the shallow pools or marshes, hey feed on shell-fish and marine life obtained by diving. Economic Status. Their food habits have little economic interest > man, but in certain localities, as in Labrador, they furnish in themselves xd their eggs, the bulk of the fresh animal food available. As the down is valuable object of commerce the Eiders are of distinct and recognized ilue. They are being rapidly reduced in numbers (See discussion of merican Eider) and drastic steps should be taken for their conservation. 160. Eider Duck. FR. L'EIDER DTI NOBD. Somateria molli&sima. L, 23. Male: ick below, cutting sharply against the white breast which is delicately suffused with laceous pink; white above; head white with nile-green suffusion from cheeks to nape; oad black bar through eye to hindhead. Female: evenly coloured in fine pattern of rious browns, blacks, and light ochres arranged in broken bars around the body. Bill ocesses extending up either side of the forehead in long fleshy tongues. Distinctions. Male unmistakable; female may be separated from that of King Eider feathering of crown not extending as far forward as rear end of the nostril. This species much like the American Eider from which it can be separated only by size and shape of e bill processes on the forehead in the Eider Duck they terminate acutely and are not onded at the tips and distance from point of feathering on side of bill to tip of process less than in the American Eider. Field Marks. Size and general coloration. ^ Nesting. On the ground, nest built entirely of down. 285876 76 Distribution. Eider Duck inhabit northern parts of Europe and eastern America. The Northern Eider is the more northern of our two similar Eiders (See next species). A strictly Atlantic bird breeding in the eastern Canadian Arctic and in Greenland. SUBSPECIES. The Eider Duck is represented in America by a subspecies, the Northern Eider S. m. borealis. The European Eider, the type race, has never been recorded in America. 161. American Eider. FR. L'EIDEB D'AMERIQUE. LE MOTAC. Somateria dresseri. L, 23. Almost exactly similar to the preceding species. Distinctions. Female may be mistaken for that of King Eider, but can be separated from it by the feathering of crown not extending as far forward as rear of nostril. It may not be specifically distinct from preceding species and either sex can be separated from it only by rounded ends of bill process on forehead and the fact that the distance from point of feathering on side of bill to tip of processes is greater. Field Marks. Size and general coloration; cannot be distinguished from Northern Eider in life. Nesting. On the ground, sometimes under overhanging rocks or bushes, nest built of down plucked from the parent's breast. Distribution. A bird of our eastern coasts, nesting on the north shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence, and occasionally on the coast as far south as Maine. In Scandinavia and Iceland the Eiders are semi-domesticated and the down derived from their nests is an important source of revenue. Though on the Labrador and Gulf of St. Lawrence coasts there are immense flocks of these birds no attempt has been made to turn them to account except as food; but the numbers have been so rapidly reduced by reckless killing that only a small fraction of the original number remains. On these bleak and desolate coasts where fresh meat is scarce the Eiders should be con- served for food if for nothing else. An intelligent and far-seeing policy would conserve them for all time to come, supply a liberal amount of flesh food and eggs, and at the same time produce a crop of down worth in the markets far more than the carcasses of the birds. So closely is this species related to the last that it would not be surpris- ing were it classified together with the Northern Eider as a subspecies. 162. King Eider. KING DUCK. FR. L'EIDER REMARQUABLE. Somateria spec- labilis. L, 23. Male much like the preceding, but the back mostly black, cheeks nile- green, top of head and hindneck light bluish grey, and a black V on the throat; bill is distinctive, the bright yellow fleshy forehead processes almost meet on the forehead where they widen put to nearly an inch across, forming a comparatively mountainous hump. Female is without the great bill process and is coloured in the same browns and blacks in fine-barred pattern as are the other Eiders. Distinctions. Male with its bill processes cannot be mistaken for any other species. Females resemble those of other Eiders but can be separated from two preceding species by feathering of crown extending as far forward as rear of nostrils. Field Marks. Less amount of white on the back and bright yellow bill processes of the male. Females cannot with certainty be distinguished from the other Eiders in life. Nesting. On the ground, lined with down. Distribution. The most northern of our Eiders. Nesting across the continent along the coast and islands of the Arctic. Wintering along the gulf of St. Lawrence and New England shores. It is the only Eider that straggles to the lower Great Lakes with any regularity. Genus Oidemia. Scoters. 163. American Scoter. BLACK SEA COOT. FR. LA MACREUSE D'AMERIQUE. Oidemia americana. L, 19. Male all black; base of bill much swollen near forehead and bright yellow. Female without swollen bill; dusky all over, lighter below and with evident darker cap contrasting in a sharp line against lighter cheeks. Distinctions. Male is the only Canadian all-black Duck unrelieved by any spot of colour. Dark cap of female is distinctive against other comparable species. 77 Field Marks. Evident black colour and yellow bill of male, and the lack of white spots or facial marks and the dark cap on the female. Nesting. On the ground, near water. Distribution. Breeds in the far north across the continent; common in winter on our eastern coasts and not unusual on lower Great Lakes. 165. White-winged Scoter. WHITE-WINGED COOT. PR. LA MACRECSE VELOUTEE. Oidemia deglandi. L, 22. Dark brown, almost black, with white ring patches and a small white crescent under the eye; bill is swollen at the base rising more abruptly forward than shown in Figure 9, p. 19, and the upper mandible is coloured with bright red and white. Female even, dull brown. Distinctions. White wing-patch is distinctive of any plumage of this species. Field Marks. Large size, general and even darkness, and white wing-patches. Nesting. On ground, under or among bushes. Distribution. Breeds in the higher latitudes across the continent; abundant on the 3oast in migration and is the commonest Scoter on the Great Lakes and in the interior. 166. Surf Scoter. BOTTLE-NOSED DIVER. PR. LA MACREUSE A LARGE BEC. Oidemia oerspicillata. L, 20. Male all black with white patch across forehead and a triangle of jame colour at base of head; bill greatly swollen (Figure 9, p. 19) and coloured most strikingly with reds, yellow, and black. Female dull brown, lighter below and much like that of American Scoter. Distinctions. White patches of the head are distinctive of male. Female can be told from that of the White-winged by lack of wing-patches; and from the American by absence of cap and presence of two vague light spots on side of the face, one at base of bill and the other covering the ear. Field Marks. White on head of male and the two vague spots on face of female. Nesting. In grass near water. Distribution. Of about the same distribution as last species, but perhaps more common on the coast and less so on the Great Lakes. Genus Erismatura. Ruddy Duck. 167. Ruddy Duck. PR. LE CANARD ROTJX. Erismatura jamaicewis. L, 15. \ small Duck. Male strikingly coloured, rich rufous-chestnut on neck, shoulders, back, md flanks; crown and back of head almost black, and cheeks and lower face white. Female small, dull greyish brown, lighter on underparts and cheeks, and with a dark cap. Distinction. Male is the only Duck that is largely red. Female can be told by the silvery grebe-like sheen of the underparts, and, in any plumage, by the stiff, pointed tail eathers. Field Marks. Size, short squatty shape, and thick neck. Its trick of occasionally :arrying its tail erect and spread out fan-wise is also a good guide, though some Scoters ilso are said to do this at times. Nesting. In reeds over water. Distribution. Nests in the prairie provinces northward; more common in migrations >n the Great Lakes than on the coast. Subfamily Anserinse. Geese. General Description. Geese resemble Ducks, but are larger with a less flattened body md comparatively longer legs; bill (Figure 10, p. 19) is higher and somewhat more corn- Dressed at base, stouter and less flattened at tip, hardly to be termed spatulate but with :he broad nail at tip characteristic of the order. Field Marks. The strong flight of the geese is familiar to most. Size, coloration, md flight habits are the best field guides. Their hoarse, honking voices so often heard luring migration are also characteristic. Nesting. On the ground. Distribution. Geese are of world-wide distribution. The American species all breed the north, migrating through the interior as well as along the coasts. 28587 6J 78 The Geese are more terrestrial and herbivorous than the Ducks but they are equally at home on the water. They do not normally dive, but secure food from the bottom by tipping and reaching by means of their long necks. The sexes are alike and there is little seasonal change of plumage. The Goose is an excellent table bird and for this reason and on account of its superior size it is much sought after by sportsmen. Geese are exceedingly wary and, though greatly reduced in number, have been able to take better care of themselves than many other large game birds. Economic Status. Feeding largely upon grasses and frequenting cultivated areas in migration more than other members of their order they may do more harm than the Ducks, but this has never been seriously held against them. Their value in other directions is so obvious that less complaint has been made against Geese than against other species equally worthy of protection but whose usefulness though real is less obvious. Genus Chen. Waveys. 169. Snow Goose. LAUGHING GOOSE. WAVEY. PR. L'OIE BLANCHE. Chen hyperborew. L, 23. A rather small Gooae, pure white with black primaries. Juveniles with more or less grey or greyish brown washing locally or over all. Distinctions. Cutting edges of mandibles are more or less bowed away from each other, exposing tooth-like serrations and giving to the face the appearance from which the name, laughing, is derived. Field Marks. Colour and evident goose-like flight and outline. Nesting. On the ground. Distribution. The Lesser Snow Goose breeds on the Arctic coast and islands from Coronation gulf westward. It migrates down the interior of the continent, the Greater Snow Goose appears along the Atlantic coast. SUBSPECIES. There are two subspecies of Snow Goose in Canada, the Lesser and the Greater, differing only in size; but as the two intergrade this is not an entirely reliable distinction. There is a difference based upon the comparative shapes and sizes of the bills, but it requires specimens for comparison for its appreciation. Though often incorrectly recorded the Greater Snow Goose is a very scarce bird. It is the extreme eastern form of the species and can be expected only along the Atlantic coast and the lower St. Lawrence. The name "Wavey" is a corruption of the Indian word "Wa-wa," meaning Wild Goose. 169.1. Blue Goose. PR, L'OIE BLEUE. Chen ccerulescens. L, 26. Slaty grey body, wave-marked with lighter feather edges on back and more or less so below; slate colour strongest on wings and rump; head white. Juvenile similar but head and neck greyish brown. The bill shows in slightly reduced degree the teeth serrations of the Snow Goose. Distinctions. The combination of white head contrasted with blue-grey wings does not occur in any other eastern American Goose. Field Marks. White head and darker body probably best field marks. Nesting. On the ground. Distribittion. Seems to be confined in breeding season to the east of Hudson bay; bulk of migration through Manitoba; a rare migrant on the Great Lakes on its way to or from the Mississippi valley. For a long time the Blue Goose was thought to be only a juvenile plumage of the Snow Goose, but is now recognized as a separate species. 79 Genus Anser. Grey Goose. 171a. White-fronted Goose. FK. L'OIE A. FRONT BLANC. Anser albifrons. L, 27. reyish brown, darker on head and neck, lighter below, white patch about base of bill; ;ht colour of underparts irregularly blotched with black aggregating in maturity into definite bands giving an immature effect even to adult birds. Distinctions. Brown head and white face. Fieui Marks. General brownness and white face mark. Nesting. On the ground. Distribution. The White-fronted Goose is a nearly circumpolar species. The Ameri- n subspecies breeds on the western Arctic mainland and islands. Migrates through the terior of the continent and is found rarely as far east as the Great Lakes. SUBSPECIES. Our representative, the American White^fronted Goose A . a. gambeli, subspecies of the European White-fronted Goose from which it is said to be distinguished its slightly larger size. Genus Branta. Canada Goose and Brant. 172. Canada Goose. WILD GOOSE. GREY GOOSE. FB. LA BEBNACHE DD CANADA 'OUTARDE)'. Branta canadensis. L, 35. Plate V B. Distinctions. Large size, black head and neck, white throat and cheek -patch. Field Marks. Black head and neck and white throat-patch. A white V over the tail, iplayed when flying, will separate the members of this genus from any of the larger Ducks. Nesting. On the ground, occasionally in large deserted nests in trees. Distribution. Breeds across the continent from beyond the northern tree limit to the rders of settlement. SUBSPECIES. The Canada Goose is divided into several geographical races, the west, there is a small subspecies called Hutchins's Goose B. c. hutchinsi. It is said have a different note and to be quite distinguishable in life by experienced hunters. ; smaller size is an uncertain criterion but is the only distinction that can be given here. i length averages under 25 inches. It is to be expected only as far east as Manitoba d its identification elsewhere should be made with great caution. The Goose is a wary and watchful bird, usually spending the day well it in the open water, coming in to the marshes and cultivated fields to 3d at night or in the evening and unless disturbed remaining until well to the nelxt day. While so engaged there is always at least one with Qg neck upstretched surveying the surrounding country for danger and i unobserved approach by even the most experienced stalker is next to (possible. On this account the Canada Goose has perhaps suffered less >m hunters than other members of its order and until its remaining eeding grounds are invaded there is little danger of its being exterminated. bred originally within the borders of our present inhabited areas but ttlement has driven it from its more southerly breeding range. How- er, it still occupies large areas throughout northern Canada as far as e northern tree limits, and as much of this territory will remain unsettled r many years the Goose is assured of safe breeding grounds. However, less intelligent conservation principles are adopted the Canada Goose 11 probably decrease in proportion to the rate at which its breeding Dunds are opened up. 1 A regrettable confusion has risen in the French-Canadian use of the vernacular name 9ttarde for this bird. TCCtly, Outarde is the name of the Bustard, an Old World species with no American representative. It is % nearly a Shore Bird than a Goose and there is no justification for applying its name to this species. The