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UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN 
 
 Issued Weekly 
 Vol. XXIV May 31, 1927 No. 39 
 
 [Entered as second-class matter December 11, 1912, at the post office at Urbana, Illinois, under the 
 Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in 
 section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 31, 1918.] 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 35 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 |THE constant and variable occupations 
 
 OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1920 
 
 By 
 
 R. H. OjEMANN 
 
 Assistant, College of Education 
 
 PRICE 25 CENTS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA 
 
 1927 
 
The Bureau of Educational Research was established by act 
 of the Board of Trustees June 1, 1918. It is the purpose of the 
 Bureau to conduct original investigations in the field of education, 
 to summarize and bring to the attention of school people the results 
 of research elsewhere, and to be of service to the schools of the 
 state in other ways. 
 
 The results of original investigations carried on by the Bureau 
 of Educational Research are published in the form of bulletins. A 
 list of available publications is given on the back cover of 
 this bulletin. At the present time five or six original investigations 
 are reported each year. The accounts of research conducted else- 
 where and other communications to the school men of the state 
 are published in the form of educational research circulars. From 
 ten to fifteen of these are issued each year. 
 
 The Bureau is a department of the College of Education. Its 
 immediate direction is vested in a Director, who is also an instructor 
 in the College of Education. Under his supervision research is 
 carried on by other members of the Bureau staff and also by grad- 
 uates who are working on theses. From this point of view the 
 Bureau of Educational Research is a research laboratory for the 
 College of Education. 
 
 Bureau of Educational Research 
 College of Education 
 
 University of Illinois, Urbana 
 
BULLETIN NO. 35 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 THE CONSTANT 
 
 AND VARIABLE OCCUPATIONS OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES IN 1920 
 
 By 
 
 R. H. OjEMANN 
 
 Assistant, College of Education 
 
 PRICE 25 CENTS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA 
 
 1927 
 
310 
 
 716.35-41 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. Introduction 7 
 
 Chapter II. The "Constant" Occupations for Men 13 
 
 Chapter III. The "Less Constant" Occupations for Men. ... 20 
 
 Chapter IV. The "Variable" Occupations for Men 28 
 
 Chapter V. The "Constant" Occupations for Women 31 
 
 Chapter VI. The "Less Constant" and "Variable" Occupa- 
 tions for Women 34 
 
 Chapter VII. Summary and Significance of the Data 40 
 
 Appendix 44 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The study reported in this bulletin is a repetition and an 
 elaboration of an earlier one by Leonard P. Ayres. New 
 data, however, have been used and the comparisons thus 
 made possible indicate the trend of constant and variable oc- 
 cupations. This information, as well as the facts relative to 
 the various occupations, should be helpful in considering the 
 problems of vocational education. 
 
 The study was financed by the Bureau of Educational 
 Research, but in a very true sense it is the product of Mr. 
 Ojemann's own labors. The Director welcomes the oppor- 
 tunity to include this bulletin in the list of the publications of 
 the Bureau of Educational Research. 
 
 Walter S. Monroe, Director 
 April 4, 1927. 
 
THE CONSTANT AND VARIABLE OCCUPATIONS 
 OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1920 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 An important problem in the administration of vocational education 
 in the secondary school is the selection of the occupations which should 
 be represented by the corresponding vocational subjects in the second- 
 ary-school curriculum. In making this selection, some school systems 
 have given considerable emphasis to the results of the surveys of local 
 communities. 1 Careful consideration will show, however, that a study 
 of the local conditions cannot furnish all the data that are necessary to 
 make an intelligent selection. There are many principles that must be 
 taken into consideration, and many of these principles require data not 
 furnished by the local survey. For example, Inglis 2 lists as one of these 
 principles the following: "Only those occupations which have a fairly 
 steady and general demand for skilled workers should be represented 
 by related vocational subjects in the secondary school. No school can 
 afford to introduce vocational subjects when the occupations for which 
 they prepare vary widely in the rate of demand for workers thus pre- 
 pared." 
 
 Hence it is important that we know the rate of demand for workers 
 in the various occupations in places where men live together in large 
 numbers. If there are certain occupations which offer opportunity for 
 employment to a considerable number of workers everywhere, we 
 should know what these occupations are. On the other hand, if there 
 are certain occupations which offer employment to a considerable num- 
 ber of workers in some communities and not in others, we should know 
 what they are. 
 
 Several studies have been made in an attempt to supply this infor- 
 mation. Some of these studies have been state-wide; others have been 
 nation-wide. The best known nation-wide study is that of Ayres 3 re- 
 
 x The term "community" here refers to an area bounded by corporate limits such 
 as a city, town, or school district. 
 
 j Ixglis, Alexander. Principles of Secondary Education. Boston: Houghton Mif- 
 flin Company, 1918, p. 581. 
 
 3 Ayres, L. P. "Constant and variable occupations and their bearing on problems 
 of vocational education." Russell Sage Foundation, Division of Education, Pamphlet 
 Publication E 136. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1914. 11 p. 
 
 [7] 
 
ported in 1914 and based on data furnished by the 1900 census. Since 
 several significant social and economic changes have taken place since 
 that time, it appeared advisable to conduct another nation-wide survey. 
 This study represents such an attempt. 
 
 Statement of the problem. The specific questions to be considered 
 are the following: 
 
 1. What are the facts at the present time relative to the number 
 of workers employed in the different occupations in the various com- 
 munities? 
 
 2. How do these facts compare with those obtained by Ayres in his 
 study of the 1900 Census, and what are the reasons for the differences: 
 
 3. What is the significance for education of the facts obtained in 
 the answers to the above two questions? 
 
 Definition of terms. The three questions just stated contain sev- 
 eral terms that demand definition. 
 
 1. "At the present time" — The data for this study were taken from 
 the 1920 Census of the United States and the term "at the present 
 time," when used in the statement of the problem, will refer, therefore, 
 to the year 1920. 
 
 2. "Occupations" — The classification of occupations used in this 
 study is the same as that of the 1920 Census with the exception of cer- 
 tain changes consisting of omissions and groupings. In making these 
 groupings and omissions, two general principles were followed: first. 
 occupations for which the training is similar were combined into one 
 group; second, occupations for which little or no training is necessary 
 were omitted. The application of these two principles to the 1920 Cen- 
 sus occupational classification resulted in 123 groups of occupations. A 
 list of these occupations will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 3. "Community" — In the subsequent discussion, the term "com- 
 munity" will be used to refer to a city in the United States which had 
 between twenty-five thousand and one hundred thousand population in 
 1920. There were 219 such cities, and all but one were included in this 
 study. Hamtramck Village, Michigan, was excluded. This city, located 
 about five miles northeast of Detroit, increased its population more than 
 thirteen times in the period 1910-1920. The reason for this enormous in- 
 crease is found in the tremendous development of the automobile in- 
 dustry in the vicinity of Detroit. Hamtramck Village represents a very 
 unusual situation and was therefore excluded. 
 
 4. "Number of workers employed" — In the previous studies the 
 term "constant" was applied to an occupation if it was represented by 
 at least ten workers per ten thousand population in all the communities 
 
 [81 
 
studied. Correspondingly the term 'iess constant' was applied to an oc- 
 cupation if it was represented by at least one worker per ten thousand 
 population in each of the communities studied, but did not qualify as a 
 ''constant" occupation. The term "variable" was used to designate those 
 occupations which were not represented by at least one worker per ten 
 thousand population in all the communities studied. In the present 
 study, this terminology will be retained, and the occupations will be 
 classified as "constant," "less constant," and "variable" groups accord- 
 ing to the criteria outlined above. 
 
 60 
 
 j\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 / I 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 / 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <0 
 
 / / * \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^0 
 
 / '' \ \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
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 I/O 
 
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 1 
 1 
 II 
 
 / I 1 I 
 
 ! \. I 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 ' ' 
 
 1 
 
 10 ZQ 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 
 
 Number Employed Peg Ten Thousand Population 
 
 Chart I. 
 
 Graphic representation of the variability in employment for two 
 ''less constant" occupations. The solid line represents the distribution 
 of the proportion of "barbers"; the broken line, "semi-skilled oper- 
 atives in other industries." 
 
 There is, however, another characteristic of occupations to be con- 
 sidered. An occupation is designated as "constant" if it is represented 
 by at least ten workers per ten thousand inhabitants. This definition 
 restricts the meaning of the term "constant" considerably. The fact 
 that an occupation is represented in all communities by ten or more 
 workers per ten thousand inhabitants does not insure that the propor- 
 tion of workers employed does not vary greatly from community to 
 community. It is conceivable, for example, that an occupation repre- 
 sented by at least ten workers per ten thousand inhabitants and hence 
 classified as a "constant" occupation might vary greatly in the number 
 
 [9] 
 
of workers employed per ten thousand inhabitants from one community 
 to another, while an occupation falling in the "less constant" group 
 might vary to a far lesser extent. 
 
 Some of the "less constant" occupations exhibit a great range of 
 variation. Chart I shows the distribution among the 218 cities studied 
 of the ratios of the number of workers employed per ten thousand 
 population for two "less constant" occupations. It can easily be seen 
 that "barbers" varies less from one community to another than "semi- 
 skilled operatives in other industries." Hence some measure is needed 
 by which we can compare the variability of the different occupations. 
 
 By comparing a measure of the variability of a distribution with a 
 measure of central tendency of the same distribution, it is possible to 
 secure a measure by which the variability of distributions having aver- 
 ages that are widely different can be compared. The measure of rela- 
 tive variability that was employed for the purposes of this study is: 
 
 D 
 
 : — in which D = P 90 — P 10 . This measure was chosen because it 
 
 Median 
 
 takes into consideration more cases than Q (quartile range) and ex- 
 cludes the extreme cases which would be included if the total range 
 were used. The calculation of P 10 , P 90 , and median will be described 
 later. 
 
 Source and treatment of the data. As already indicated, data rela- 
 tive to occupations were taken from Table XX of Volume IV, Chapter 
 II of the Fourteenth Annual Census of the United States. The popula- 
 tion for each of the 218 cities was taken from Volume I of the Four- 
 teenth Annual Census. The data of Table XX of Volume IV, Chapter 
 II of the Census Reports were transferred to large data sheets and the 
 number of workers per ten thousand population for the 123 occupations 
 in the 218 cities was calculated to the second decimal place. These 
 ratios with the names of the corresponding cities were arranged in de- 
 scending numerical order on separate sheets for each occupation, and 
 from these sheets the data for the tables reported in this study were 
 taken. The twenty-second case was taken as P 10 ; the one hundred 
 tenth case was taken as the median; and the one hundred ninety-sixth 
 case was taken as P 90 . 
 
 The data from Ayres 7 study were taken from Pamphlet Publica- 
 tion No. El 36 of the Division of Education of the Russell Sage Foun- 
 dation. 
 
 [10] 
 
Restatement of the problem. We are now ready to state our 
 problem in more specific terms: 
 
 1. What are the "constant" occupations for men, that is, those 
 offering employment to ten or more workers per ten thousand inhabit- 
 ants in the 218 cities of the United States having a population between 
 twenty-five thousand and one hundred thousand in 1920? 
 
 2. How does this list of "constant" occupations for men compare 
 with Ayres' "constant" occupations in 1900: 
 
 3. What is the relative variability of the "constant" occupations 
 for men: 
 
 4. What are the "less constant" occupations for men: 
 
 5. How does this list of "less constant" occupations compare with 
 Ayres' "less constant" occupations of 1900? 
 
 6. What is the relative variability of the "less constant" occupa- 
 tions ? 
 
 7. What is the relative variability of the "variable" occupations for 
 men? 
 
 8. What are the "constant" occupations for women? 
 
 9. How does this list of "constant" occupations compare with 
 Ayres' "constant" occupations for women? 
 
 10. What is the relative variability of "constant" occupations for 
 women ? 
 
 11. What are the "less constant" occupations for women? 
 
 12. How does this list of "less constant" occupations compare with 
 Ayres' list of 1900? 
 
 13. What is the relative variability of the "less constant" occupations 
 for women? 
 
 14. What is the relative variability for the "variable" occupations 
 for women? 
 
 15. What is the significance of the data obtained in answering the 
 above questions ? • 
 
 In the subsequent treatment the first three questions will be con- 
 sidered in Chapter II; the next three, in Chapter III; question 7, in 
 Chapter IV; questions 8, 9, and 10, in Chapter V; questions 11-14, in 
 Chapter VI; and the answer to question 15 together with a summary 
 will be given in Chapter VII. 
 
 Accuracy of the data. The numerical data used in this report are 
 subjected to two errors, those involved in preparing the Census Reports 
 and those involved in the subsequent treatment. Various methods of re- 
 checking were used in the subsequent treatment, so that the errors com- 
 
 t 11 ] 
 
ing from the latter source are judged to be negligible. As for errors 
 coming from the former source, it is of course possible to judge only 
 from the results secured. The writer is inclined to believe, however. 
 that the errors involved in preparing the Census Reports are within 
 the limits of accuracy required by this study. 
 
 [ 12] 
 
CHAPTER II 
 THE "CONSTANT" OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN 
 
 The "constant" occupations in 1920. We have denned a "constant'' 
 occupation as one which offers employment to ten or more workers per 
 ten thousand inhabitants in each community studied. We have also 
 defined the term "community" as referring to any one of the 218 cities 
 of the United States having a population between twenty-five thousand 
 and one hundred thousand in 1920. The "constant" occupations for 
 1920 are given in Table I. They are listed in the descending order of 
 the proportion of workers in the median city. Table I shows that there 
 were twelve "constant" occupations for men in 1920. 
 
 Inspection of Table I reveals another interesting fact. The differ- 
 ences between the ratios for the lowest city and the highest city in any 
 one occupation are in most cases large. This would tend to show that 
 there is considerable variation in the proportion employed from one 
 community to another. Upon first thought, this may appear surprising. 
 We must bear in mind, however, that there are many factors that de- 
 termine the number of workers employed in any one occupation in a 
 given city, and "total population" is only one of these. What we need 
 is some measure by which we can compare the variability in the pro- 
 portions employed in one occupation with the variability in another. 
 As we pointed out in Chapter I, we shall supply this measure in the 
 form of the coefficient of variability a little later in this chapter. 
 
 Comparison with Ayres' "constant" occupations in 1900. For the 
 convenience of the reader, Ayres' "constant" occupations are listed in 
 Table II. The comparison of the two lists of "constant" occupations is 
 made somewhat difficult by the fact that the Census Bureau made 
 some changes in the occupational classification in 1910. As a result of 
 these changes, the composition of some of the occupational groups was 
 changed to such an extent that comparison between them is rendered 
 impossible. This is true of the "steam railroad men," "engineers," and 
 "street railway men" which appear in the 1900 list, and "machinists," 
 "metal workers," "managers and superintendents (manufacturing)," 
 and "clerks" which appear in the 1920 list. In addition to these changes 
 in composition, the group "laborers" was omitted from the present 
 study. 
 
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The changes in the composition of the remaining occupations of 
 Table I and Table II are small enough to permit comparison. For ex- 
 ample, in 1900 the group "blacksmiths" included "blacksmiths and ap- 
 prentices." In 1920, this group did not include apprentices. However, 
 in 1900, out of the 226,000 "blacksmiths" in the United States, only 
 8,000 were apprentices. This number is not significant in the compari- 
 sons we are about to make. 
 
 There is another element that we must bear in mind in making 
 these comparisons. Ayres' study included cities having a population of 
 fifty thousand and over in 1900. The present study includes cities hav- 
 ing twenty-five thousand to one hundred thousand population in 1920. 
 The extension of the lower limit in the size of the city tends to include 
 cities that differ more from one another in the composition of their 
 working population. For example, in Table I, we see that the propor- 
 tion of "woodworkers" in the lowest city is 36 workers per ten thousand 
 population, and in the highest city, 361. If we include only cities having 
 fifty thousand to one hundred thousand population, the proportion of 
 "woodworkers" becomes, in the lowest city, 60, and in the highest city, 
 249. Thus, by excluding the cities of twenty-five thousand to fifty thou- 
 sand population, we decrease the range in the proportion of workers 
 from the lowest to the highest city by 136 points. The amount of the 
 change in the range varies. In some occupations it is very small. In 
 others, as in the case of "woodworkers," the difference is quite large. 
 The point that we must bear in mind is that one of the factors that 
 might be responsible for a greater range from the lowest to the highest 
 city in the present study as compared with Ayres' study is the differ- 
 ence in the size of the cities that we are studying. 
 
 A detailed study of the occupations listed in Tables I and II, for 
 which comparison is possible, gives the following results: 
 
 1. Since 1900 there has been no great change in the proportion of 
 "retail merchants," "carpenters and cabinet makers," and "salesmen." 
 
 2. There has been a considerable decrease in the proportion of men 
 employed as "draymen." 
 
 3. There appears to have been a slight decrease in the proportion 
 of "painters." 
 
 4. There has been no great change in the proportion of "account- 
 ants." The proportion in the highest city was considerably higher in 
 1920 than in 1900, but the proportion in the median city was about the 
 same. 
 
 5. There has been no great change in the proportion of "plumbers." 
 
 [16 J 
 
6. There has been such a large decrease in the proportion employed 
 in the occupations of "waiters," "printers," "blacksmiths," "masons," 
 "barbers," "shoe makers," and "bakers" since 1900 that they do not 
 classify as "constant" occupations in the present study. This holds true 
 even if we allow for the difference in the size of the city by considering 
 only those cities having between fifty thousand and one hundred thou- 
 sand population. 
 
 7. The occupation of "electricians" has^'shown sufficient increase in 
 the proportion employed that it appears as a "constant" occupation in 
 the present study. In 1900 it appeared in the "less constant" group. 
 
 Reasons for the differences. We have just seen that even if we 
 allow for the differences in the Census occupational classification and 
 for the difference in the size of the city studied, there are certain signi- 
 ficant changes that have taken place among the "constant" occupations 
 during the period 1900-1920. For any one of these changes, there are 
 probably many factors that have contributed, but we can point out 
 some that have played a significant part. We shall restrict our number 
 to three: 
 
 1. One of the important factors is the invention of machinery to 
 take the place of workers. This is probably the most potent factor re- 
 sponsible for the absence of "printers" from Table I. It also probably 
 contributed to the disappearance of "shoe makers" and "bakers" from 
 the list of "constant" occupations. 
 
 2. A second factor that has been responsible in part for the changes 
 in occupations is the centralizing tendency manifested in certain indus- 
 tries. This factor accounts in part, for the absence of "bakers" from 
 the 1920 list of "constant" occupations. 
 
 3. A third factor that may account for some of these changes is 
 the development of new products to take the place of old ones. This 
 factor has been responsible for the disappearance of "blacksmiths" and 
 "masons" from the list of "constant" occupations and for the appear- 
 ance of "electricians." 
 
 Relative variability of the "constant" occupations. When we first 
 observed the figures given in Table I, we noticed that the range from 
 the proportion in the lowest city to the proportion in the highest city 
 was rather large in some cases. As we have pointed out before, we must 
 know the value of the coefficient of variability of the occupations in 
 order that we may have a better idea of the variation in the proportion 
 employed in the communities under consideration. The values of this 
 coefficient for the "constant" occupations are given in Table III. Glanc- 
 
 1 17] 
 
TABLE III. 
 
 -THE RELATIVE VARIABILITY COEFFICIENTS OF THE 
 "CONSTANT" OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Pio 
 
 Pso 
 
 D 
 
 (Pgo — Pio) 
 
 Median 
 
 D 
 
 Median 
 
 Retail dealers 
 
 120 
 60 
 90 
 
 25 
 
 81 
 
 57 
 
 32 
 31 
 29 
 30 
 20 
 19 
 
 197 
 353 
 208 
 444 
 
 188 
 169 
 
 86 
 90 
 73" 
 64 
 51 
 47 
 
 77 
 293 
 118 
 419 
 
 107 
 112 
 
 54 
 59 
 44 
 34 
 31 
 28 
 
 151 
 146 
 
 138 
 134 
 
 125 
 102 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 50 
 45 
 31 
 31 
 
 51 
 
 Machinists 
 
 2 00 
 
 Clerks (except clerks in stores) 
 Metal workers 
 
 .85 
 3 12 
 
 Carpenters and cabinet 
 
 makers 
 
 Salesmen 
 
 .85 
 1 .10 
 
 Managers and superinten- 
 dents (mfg.) 
 
 .94 
 
 Accountants 
 
 1 .07 
 
 Dravmen 
 
 .88 
 
 Painters 
 
 .75 
 
 Plumbers 
 
 1.00 
 
 Electricians 
 
 .90 
 
 
 
 ing through the last column of the table, we see that all but two of the 
 occupations have a coefficient of variability that is relatively small. How- 
 ever, since we do not know the value of this coefficient for any of the 
 other occupations, we must defer our final interpretation until we have 
 considered the "less constant" and "variable" groups. For the present, 
 we may conclude that all but two of the "constant" occupations do not 
 vary greatly, relatively, in the proportion employed from community to 
 community. The variation in the proportion employed is greatest in 
 the case of "metal w*orkers" and next in the case of "machinists." 
 
 Summary of the "constant" occupations for men. We have noted 
 several interesting facts in regard to the "constant" occupations for 
 men. We have seen that since 1900 some have disappeared from the 
 list, some have shown a moderate decrease in the proportion employed, 
 some have shown only a slight decrease, new ones have appeared, and 
 some have shown no change. 
 
 In the group that has shown no change we find "retail merchants," 
 "salesmen," "carpenters," "plumbers," and "accountants." "Draymen" 
 have decreased moderately, while "painters" have decreased only 
 slightly. 
 
 It was interesting to note the increase in "electricians." 
 
 We have also learned that "printers," "waiters," "blacksmiths," 
 "masons," "barbers," "shoemakers," and "bakers" were absent from 
 the 1920 list of "constant" occupations although they were found in 
 the 1900 list. This fact is noteworthy. The decrease is not due to the 
 difference in the size of the community studied in the two surveys but 
 appears to be the result of the changes in our social and industrial life. 
 
 [18] 
 
Finally we have seen that of all the "constant" occupations for 
 1920, those of "metal workers" and "machinists" are the most variable 
 in the proportion employed among the different cities. 
 
 Comparatively few of the occupations that we find in every city are 
 reported as belonging to the "constant" group. Such common occupa- 
 tions as "physicians," "lawyers," "clergymen," and so forth, are absent 
 from the list. Just what the facts are relative to these occupations we 
 shall see in the next chapter. 
 
 [19] 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE "LESS CONSTANT" OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN 
 
 The "less constant" occupations in 1920. We have denned a "less 
 constant" occupation as one which offers employment to at least one 
 worker per ten thousand inhabitants in all the communities studied, but 
 which does not qualify as a "constant" occupation. The "less con- 
 stant" occupations for 1920 are given in Table IV. The occupations are 
 listed in the descending order of the proportion of workers in the median 
 city. As we see in the table, there were forty-nine occupations that 
 qualified as "less constant" for men in 1920. 
 
 Comparison with Ayres' "less constant" occupations. Ayres' list 
 ot 'less constant" occupations is given in Table V. In making the com- 
 parison of Ayres' list with the list in Table IV. we must bear in mind 
 the restrictions that we pointed out in Chapter II. The first restriction 
 is that the Census classification of occupations was changed in 1910, and 
 several of the groupings differ in composition to such an extent that 
 comparison is not possible. This is true of such groups as "foremen 
 and overseers (manufacturing)," "semi-skilled operatives in other indus- 
 tries," "brakemen and conductors," "mechanics." "firemen (not fire de- 
 partment)." "clerks in stores," and so forth. The second restriction to 
 which our comparison is subjected is the difference in the size of the 
 city considered in the 1920 and 1900 studies. Ayres studied the cities 
 having a population of fifty thousand or more. The present study was 
 made of cities having between twenty-five thousand and one hundred 
 thousand population. 
 
 In order to summarize the results of the detailed study of Tables 
 IV and V, we shall divide the occupations for which comparison is pos- 
 sible into four groups: 
 
 1. Occupations that showed no significant change in the proportion 
 of workers employed : 
 
 Commercial travelers 
 
 Lawyers 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 Wholesale dealers 
 
 Dentists 
 
 Photographers 
 
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 [24 1 
 
2. Occupations that showed a slight drop in the proportion of 
 workers employed: 
 
 Physicians 
 
 3. Occupations that showed a considerable decrease in the propor- 
 tion of workers employed: 
 
 Servants and waiters 
 
 Blacksmiths 
 
 Barbers 
 
 Printers 
 
 Brick and stone masons 
 
 Bakers 
 
 Tailors 
 
 Shoe makers 
 
 Laundry men 
 
 Stone cutters 
 
 Upholsterers 
 
 Hostlers 
 
 4. Occupations that showed an increase in the proportion of work- 
 ers employed since 1900: 
 
 Janitors 
 
 Insurance agents 
 
 Real estate agents 
 
 Restaurant keepers 
 
 Stenographers 
 
 Actors and showmen 
 
 Undertakers 
 To this group should be added the occupation of "electrician" which in- 
 creased to such an extent that it appeared as a "constant" occupation 
 in 1920, while it was classified as a "less constant" occupation in 1900. 
 In the 1900 classification, "insurance agents" and "real estate 
 agents" were grouped together as "agents." This group is not listed as 
 either a "constant" or "less constant" occupation in 1900, while in 1920, 
 both "real estate agents" and "insurance agents" appear as "less con- 
 stant" occupations. 
 
 "Stenographers," "actors and showmen," and "undertakers" did not 
 qualify as "less constant" occupations in 1900, even though they did 
 appear in the classification of occupations used in the 1900 Census. 
 In 1920, each of these occupations appeared in the "less constant" 
 group. 
 
 5. The fifth and last group includes those occupations of Table V 
 which have been created since 1900 as a result of changes in our social 
 
 [25] 
 
TABLE VI. 
 
 -THE RELATIVE VARIABILITY COEFFICIENTS OF THE 
 "LESS CONSTANT" OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Pio 
 
 P90 
 
 D 
 
 (P90 — Pio) 
 
 Median 
 
 D 
 
 Median 
 
 Foremen and overseers (mfg.) 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 6 
 7 
 6 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 2 
 5 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 97 
 
 165 
 89 
 76 
 68 
 60 
 59 
 54 
 47 
 67 
 43 
 32 
 48 
 35 
 31 
 37 
 39 
 30 
 44 
 24 
 22 
 32 
 20 
 27 
 23 
 41 
 18 
 21 
 48 
 21 
 21 
 20 
 19 
 
 45 
 17 
 15 
 
 28 
 16 
 12 
 
 17 
 12 
 12 
 7 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 82 
 
 150 
 73 
 62 
 54 
 44 
 44 
 37 
 30 
 59 
 31 
 17 
 36 
 23 
 18 
 26 
 31 
 21 
 36 
 14 
 13 
 26 
 10 
 21 
 16 
 35 
 11 
 14 
 40 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 
 42 
 11 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 9 
 5 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 4 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 49 
 
 38 
 37 
 36 
 32 
 31 
 31 
 30 
 29 
 28 
 24 
 24 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 13 
 13 
 13 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 11 
 11 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 1.67 
 3.94 
 
 
 1.97 
 
 Brakemen and conductors. . . . 
 
 1.72 
 1 69 
 
 
 1 .42 
 
 
 1.42 
 1.23 
 
 Commercial travelers 
 
 Blacksmiths 
 
 Barbers 
 
 1.03 
 2.10 
 1.29 
 
 .71 
 1 .64 
 
 
 1.05 
 
 
 .82 
 
 
 1 .44 
 
 Technical engineers 
 
 1.72 
 
 Brick and stone masons 
 
 1.16 
 2.40 
 
 
 .93 
 
 Guards 
 
 .87 
 1.85 
 
 Marshalls, policemen 
 
 .71 
 
 Builders and contractors 
 
 Express messengers 
 
 Bankers 
 
 Bakers 
 
 1.50 
 1.23 
 2.69 
 .84 
 1.16 
 
 Shoemakers 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 3.33 
 1.16 
 
 Officials and inspectors (gov.) . 
 
 1.27 
 1.27 
 
 Wholesale dealers 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 lumber industries 
 
 1.40 
 4.20 
 
 
 1 .10 
 
 Restaurant keepers 
 
 1.11 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 
 2.77 
 
 Launderers 
 
 1.22 
 1 .14 
 
 Foremen and overseers (R. R. 
 
 2.14 
 
 Dentists 
 
 1.00 
 
 Stenographers 
 
 Garage keepers 
 
 Authors 
 
 Jewelers 
 
 1.28 
 1.25 
 1.50 
 1.25 
 1.00 
 
 
 1.33 
 
 Foremen and overseers (other 
 transportation pursuits). . . 
 
 1.67 
 1.00 
 
 [26] 
 
and industrial life. These occupations are "chauffeurs" and "garage 
 keepers." 
 
 Relative variability of the "less constant" occupations. As we 
 
 pointed out in Chapter I, we must know something about the variability 
 in employment among the different communities for each occupation. 
 For this purpose, we adopted a variability coefficient which enables us 
 to compare the relative variability in the rate of employment for the 
 different occupations. The values of this coefficient for the "less con- 
 stant" occupations are given in Table VI. As we glance down the last 
 column in the table, we see that most of the values are somewhere near 
 one. The highest values, and hence the greatest variabilities in the pro- 
 portion employed, are found in "semi-skilled operatives in other indus- 
 tries," "semi-skilled operatives in the lumber industry," "shoe makers," 
 and "semi-skilled operatives in the food industry." In all of these, we 
 would expect a rather wide variation in the proportion employed in the 
 different communities. The values of the coefficient of variability for 
 the occupations of "barbers," "janitors," "physicians," "guards," "po- 
 licemen," and "bakers" fall below one. This means that, relatively, the 
 variation in the proportion of workers employed in these occupations is 
 low. 
 
 [27 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 THE "VARIABLE" OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN 
 
 The "variable" occupations in 1920. By a "variable" occupation, 
 we mean an occupation which does not offer employment to at least one 
 worker per ten thousand population in all the communities that we are 
 considering. For the purposes of the present study, we are interested 
 in two aspects of the "variable" occupations for men: first, what these 
 
 TABLE VII.— THE RELATIVE VARIABILITY COEFFICIENTS OF THE 
 "VARIABLE" OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN 
 
 Occupation 
 
 D 
 
 (P90 — P10) 
 
 Median 
 
 I) 
 
 Median 
 
 Switchmen , 
 
 Locomotive engineers 
 
 Motormen 
 
 Boilermakers 
 
 Firemen (fire dept.) 
 
 Designers 
 
 Officials and superintendents 
 (R. R. Transportation).. . . 
 
 Farmers 
 
 Inspectors (other transporta- 
 tion pursuits) 
 
 Plasterers 
 
 Telegraph operators 
 
 Porters 
 
 Telephone linemen 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 textiles 
 
 Pattern and model makers. . . 
 
 Gardners 
 
 Hotel keepers 
 
 Extractors of minerals 
 
 Chemists 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 clothing industries 
 
 Floorwalkers 
 
 Proprietors and managers of 
 transfer companies 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 tobacco industry 
 
 Proprietors and officials 
 (trade) 
 
 Boiler washers 
 
 Upholsterers 
 
 Baggagemen 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 clay, glass and stone in- 
 dustries 
 
 3.53 
 2.20 
 4.73 
 1.25 
 4.35 
 2.62 
 
 1.66 
 1.12 
 
 1.66 
 1.26 
 2.28 
 1.01 
 2.26 
 
 .43 
 
 .66 
 
 1.01 
 
 1.40 
 
 .61 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 .66 
 1 .11 
 
 1.35 
 
 .34 
 
 1.00 
 .26 
 
 1.00 
 .98 
 
 .63 
 
 36.66 
 43.47 
 17.85 
 32.80 
 14.12 
 20.83 
 
 13.38 
 31.69 
 
 15.79 
 11.64 
 10.39 
 30.22 
 8.96 
 
 168.75 
 11.72 
 10.03 
 8.68 
 83.23 
 10.52 
 
 14.56 
 5.68 
 
 5.62 
 
 16.86 
 
 8.80 
 8.89 
 8.48 
 5.63 
 
 12.48 
 
 33.13 
 41.27 
 13.12 
 31.55 
 9.77 
 18.21 
 
 11.72 
 30.57 
 
 14.13 
 10.38 
 
 8.11 
 29.21 
 
 6.70 
 
 168.32 
 
 11.06 
 
 9.02 
 
 7.28 
 
 82.62 
 
 9.40 
 
 13.90 
 
 4.57 
 
 4.27 
 
 16.52 
 
 7.80 
 8.63 
 
 7.48 
 4.65 
 
 11.85 
 
 14.49 
 
 13.54 
 
 10.89 
 
 9.75 
 
 9.71 
 
 8.95 
 
 7.10 
 6.98 
 
 6.59 
 6.24 
 5.78 
 5.24 
 5.07 
 
 4.14 
 4.14 
 3.78 
 
 3.75 
 3.65 
 3.35 
 
 3.28 
 3.09 
 
 3.05 
 
 2.99 
 
 2.29 
 3.05 
 1.21 
 3.23 
 1.01 
 2.04 
 
 1.65 
 4.39 
 
 2.14 
 1.68 
 1.40 
 
 5.57 
 1.32 
 
 40.46 
 2.67 
 2.38 
 2.94 
 
 22.64 
 2.38 
 
 4.23 
 1.47 
 
 1.40 
 
 5.42 
 
 2.35 
 
 5.04 
 
 [28] 
 
occupations are; second, what the relative variabilities in employment 
 are. Both of these facts are supplied in Table VII. The occupations are 
 listed in the descending order of the proportion employed in the median 
 city. The reports of the number of workers per ten thousand popula- 
 tion are not given for the lowest and highest city, but only for the P 10 , 
 median, and P 90 cities. The last column contains the relative "variabil- 
 ity" coefficients. The occupations in which the proportion of workers 
 per ten thousand population in the median city was zero are not given. 
 Our chief interest in the relative variabilities of the "variable" oc- 
 cupations is to make a comparison in all the occupations for men. As we 
 look down the last column in Table VII, we notice at once that none 
 
 TABLE VII.— {Concluded) 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Architects 
 
 Paper hangers 
 
 Proprietors and officials 
 (other transportation pur- 
 suits) 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 chemistry 
 
 Boarding-house keepers 
 
 Structural iron workers 
 
 Stone cutters 
 
 Ticket and station agents. . . . 
 
 Housekeepers 
 
 Hostlers 
 
 Artists 
 
 Roofers and slaters 
 
 Foremen of livery and trans- 
 fer 
 
 Decorators 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 harness industry 
 
 Telephone operators 
 
 Coopers 
 
 College professors 
 
 Engravers 
 
 Veterinary surgeons 
 
 Inspectors (trade) 
 
 Millers 
 
 Express company agents 
 
 Captains 
 
 Osteopaths 
 
 Trained nurses 
 
 Milliners 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 paper industry 
 
 Boatmen 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 tanneries 
 
 .83 
 .50 
 
 .76 
 
 .31 
 .54 
 .36 
 .69 
 .55 
 .56 
 .36 
 .30 
 .28 
 
 .45 
 
 .32 
 
 .30 
 .41 
 .00 
 .00 
 .27 
 .29 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .10 
 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 
 5.24 
 5.24 
 
 9.16 
 5.49 
 
 5.73 
 3.84 
 2.77 
 3.46 
 3.55 
 4.81 
 3.35 
 
 2.21 
 2.36 
 
 4.56 
 2.34 
 5.26 
 5.80 
 3.78 
 2.01 
 3.51 
 3.64 
 1.23 
 9.93 
 1.15 
 1.31 
 1.10 
 
 8.90 
 
 1.71 
 
 4.86 
 
 D 
 
 (P90 — P10) 
 
 4.41 
 
 4 74 
 
 4.04 
 
 8.85 
 4.95 
 5.37 
 3.15 
 2.22 
 2.90 
 3.19 
 4.51 
 3.07 
 
 1.76 
 2.04 
 
 3.64 
 1.23 
 9.93 
 1.15 
 1.31 
 1 .00 
 
 8.90 
 1.71 
 
 4.86 
 
 Median 
 
 2.25 
 1.94 
 
 1 .86 
 
 1 .82 
 1 .80 
 1.77 
 1.72 
 1.62 
 1 .61 
 1.51 
 1.43 
 1.34 
 
 1 .18 
 1.16 
 
 1.11 
 111 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.01 
 .97 
 .91 
 .75 
 .73 
 .52 
 .50 
 .41 
 .36 
 .36 
 
 .33 
 .17 
 
 .15 
 
 D 
 
 Median 
 
 1.96 
 
 2.54 
 
 2.17 
 
 2 .29 
 
 1 .40 
 
 1.75 
 
 3 
 1 
 5 
 5 
 3 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 19.86 
 2.80 
 3.63 
 2.77 
 
 26.97 
 10.06 
 
 32.40 
 
 83 
 
 73 
 00 
 74 
 61 
 88 
 68 
 98 
 36 
 
 129] 
 
of the coefficients are below one, and one-half of them are over two. 
 Such occupations as "extractors of minerals." "boatmen," and "cap- 
 tains" show a very high relative variability, while such occupations as 
 "plasterers," "telegraph operators," "motormen," and "telegraph and 
 telephone linemen" have a coefficient falling between one and two. A 
 knowledge of these coefficients of variability enables us to interpret 
 more accurately the coefficients that we obtained for the "constant" and 
 "less constant" occupations. An occupation that has a coefficient of 
 variation of one or less does not vary greatly, when compared with other 
 occupations, in the rate of employment from community to community. 
 When we considered the "constant" occupations in Chapter II, we 
 learned that all but two of them had coefficients of one or less. Thus, 
 all but two of them are "constant," not only in the sense in which we 
 are using the term in this study (i.e., employing ten or more workers 
 per ten thousand inhabitants in all the communities studied), but also in 
 the sense that the proportion of workers per ten thousand population 
 does not vary- greatlv from one communitv to another. 
 
 [30] 
 
CHAPTER V 
 THE "CONSTANT" OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN 
 
 The "constant" occupations in 1920. The occupations that offer 
 employment to at least ten women per ten thousand inhabitants in the 
 218 cities of the United States having a population between twenty-five 
 thousand and one hundred thousand in 1920 are given in Table VIII. 
 The procedure of listing the occupations in the descending order of the 
 proportion in the median city is followed. Inspection of Table VIII 
 shows that there were six "constant" occupations for women in 1920. 
 
 Comparison with Ayres' "constant" occupations of 1900. Ayres' 
 "constant" occupations for women are given in Table IX. When mak- 
 ing the comparison, we must bear in mind the two limitations that we 
 pointed out in Chapter II. The first limitation arises out of the changes 
 in the occupational classification which the Census Bureau made in 
 1910. In this change, the composition of some of the occupational 
 groups was altered to such an extent that comparison is not possible. 
 The second limitation is that Ayres studied cities having a population of 
 fifty thousand and over, while the present study was made of cities hav- 
 ing twenty-five thousand to one hundred thousand population. 
 
 A detailed study of Tables VIII and IX gives the following results: 
 
 1. There seems to have been a decrease in the proportion of wo- 
 men employed as "servants and waiters," but there has also been some 
 concentration in certain cities. 
 
 2. There has been no significant change in the proportion of wo- 
 men employed as "saleswomen." 
 
 3. The occupations of "dressmakers," "teachers," "laundresses," 
 "nurses," and "housekeepers" appeared as "constant" occupations in 
 1900, but not in 1920. Of these the occupations of "teachers" and 
 "nurses" differed in composition in 1920 from that of 1900 to such an 
 extent that comparison is not possible. The other three, "dressmakers," 
 "laundresses," and "housekeepers," decreased in the proportion em- 
 ployed to such an extent that they appear as "less constant" in the 
 present study, as we shall see in the next chapter. 
 
 4. The occupations of "stenographers" and "accountants" increased 
 in the proportion employed to such an extent that they rose from "less 
 constant" in 1900 to "constant" in 1920. 
 
 Reasons for the differences. It is impossible to do more here than 
 
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merely point out some of the more significant factors that account in 
 part for the changes in the "constant" occupations that we have just 
 noted. The effect of the use of machinery is clearly shown in the sig- 
 nificant changes in the proportion employed as "dressmakers" and 
 "laundresses." The proportion of "dressmakers" in 1920 in over one- 
 half of the cities was below the proportion in the lowest city in 1900. 
 "Laundresses" shows a smaller decrease. 
 
 The tendency of women to enter gainful occupations is also shown 
 in the changes in the "constant" occupations. The occupation of "sten- 
 ographers" which appeared in the "less constant" group stood second in 
 the list of "constant" occupations in 1920. Although the occupation of 
 "teachers" included "teachers and professors in college" in 1900 and 
 only "teachers" in 1920, it nevertheless showed an increase in the 
 median and highest city in 1920. 
 
 Relative variability of the "constant" occupations for women. 
 The coefficients of variability for the "constant" occupations are given in 
 Table X. The coefficients for all the occupations are near one, except 
 
 TABLE X.— THE RELATIVE VARIABILITY COEFFICIENTS OF THE 
 "CONSTANT" OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN IN 1920 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Pio 
 
 P90 
 
 D 
 
 (P90 — Pin) 
 
 Median 
 
 D 
 
 Median 
 
 
 65 
 53 
 
 45 
 32 
 34 
 26 
 
 325 
 128 
 88 
 83 
 81 
 99 
 
 260 
 
 75 
 43 
 51 
 
 47 
 73 
 
 117 
 
 82 
 60 
 
 57 
 56 
 
 52 
 
 2 22 
 
 Stenographers 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Saleswomen 
 
 .91 
 
 .72 
 .90 
 
 Accountants 
 
 .84 
 
 Clerks (except clerks in stores) 
 
 1.40 
 
 that of "servants and waiters." This means that, relatively, the occu- 
 pations of this group, with the exception of "servants and waiters," do 
 not vary greatly in the proportion employed from one community to 
 another. 
 
 133 1 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE "LESS CONSTANT" AND "VARIABLE" 
 OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN 
 
 The "less constant" occupations in 1920. Those occupations which 
 offer employment to at least one worker per ten thousand population in 
 all the communities studied but which do not qualify as "constant" oc- 
 cupations are designated throughout this study as "less constant" occu- 
 pations. The "less constant" occupations for women in 1920 are given 
 in Table XI, arranged in the descending order of the proportion of work- 
 ers employed in the median city. The table shows that there were 
 twelve "less constant" occupations for women. 
 
 Comparison with Ayres' "less constant" occupations. For the con- 
 venience of the reader. Ayres' list of "less constant" occupations is re- 
 produced in Table XII. In the occupational classification made by the 
 Census Bureau in 1910, the composition of the groups "seamstresses," 
 "clerks," "trained nurses," "semi-skilled operatives in the clothing in- 
 dustry," and "semi-skilled operatives in other industries" was changed 
 to such an extent that comparison is impossible. A study of the data 
 for the remaining occupations appearing in Tables XI and XII, dis- 
 closes the following facts : 
 
 1. The occupations of "stenographers" and "bookkeepers" appeared 
 as "less constant" in 1900. As we learned in the last chapter, they ap- 
 peared as "constant" occupations in 1920. 
 
 2. The occupations of "laundresses," "dressmakers," and "house- 
 keepers" dropped from the "constant" group to the "less constant" in 
 the period 1900 to 1920. 
 
 3. "Telephone operators" appeared in the "less constant" groups 
 in both Ayres' and the present study, but showed a considerable in- 
 crease in the proportion employed in 1920 over that of 1900. 
 
 4. "Milliners" appeared in the "less constant" group in both the 
 1900 and the present study, but showed a decrease in 1920 as compared 
 with 1900. 
 
 5. There was no significant change in "boarding-house keepers," 
 "musicians," and "retail dealers." 
 
 6. It is interesting to note that the occupation of "barbers" failed 
 to qualify as "less constant" by only one city. West Hoboken Town. 
 New Jersey, which was reported as having only twenty-five hundreths 
 
 [34] 
 

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 [36] 
 
"barbers" per ten thousand inhabitants. The proportion for the median 
 city was 4.26 and for the highest city, 33.75. 
 
 Relative variability of the "less constant" occupations. The rela- 
 tive variability coefficients for the "less constant" occupations for women 
 are given in the last column of Table XIII. All of the occupations but 
 
 TABLE XIIL— THE RELATIVE VARIABILITY COEFFICIENTS OF THE 
 "LESS CONSTANT" OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Pio 
 
 P90 
 
 D 
 
 (P90 — Pio) 
 
 Median 
 
 D 
 
 Median 
 
 Laundresses 
 
 Dressmakers 
 
 Housekeepers 
 
 Clerks in stores 
 
 12 
 15 
 13 
 11 
 8 
 12 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 3 
 6 
 6 
 4 
 
 214 
 48 
 39 
 40 
 39 
 31 
 
 69 
 31 
 
 93 
 16 
 16 
 12 
 
 202 
 33 
 26 
 29 
 31 
 19 
 
 64 
 26 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 30 
 24 
 23 
 22 
 20 
 
 17 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6.31 
 1.10 
 
 1.08 
 1 26 
 
 Trained nurses 
 
 1 .41 
 
 Telephone operators 
 
 .95 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 clothing industries 
 
 3.76 
 
 Boarding-house keepers 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 other industries 
 
 1.53 
 5.62 
 
 Musicians 
 
 1.00 
 
 Retail dealers 
 
 Milliners 
 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 
 
 
 three show coefficients whose values are somewhere near one. The three 
 occupations which have coefficients considerably greater in value than 
 one are, "laundresses," "semi-skilled operatives in the clothing indus- 
 try," and "semi-skilled operatives in other industries." 
 
 Relative variability of the "variable" occupations for women. 
 The coefficients of variability for the "variable" occupations for women 
 are given in Table XIV. Those occupations in which the proportion 
 employed in the median city was zero were omitted. The values for P 10 , 
 P 90 , and median are given to two decimal places, the way in which they 
 appear in the original calculations. If the decimals were dropped, the 
 changes in the ratios would be considerable, especially in the occupa- 
 tions near the bottom of the table. The decimals were therefore re- 
 tained. 
 
 As we glance down the last column, we see that such occupations 
 as "semi-skilled operatives in textiles," "semi-skilled operatives in the 
 lumber industry," "semi-skilled operatives in the tobacco industry," and 
 "shoe makers" show considerable variation from community to com- 
 munity. Such occupations as "metal workers," "semi-skilled operatives 
 in the food industry," "college professors," "semi-skilled operatives in 
 
 [37] 
 
the chemical industry," "real estate agents," and "dairy farmers" show 
 a lower variation. "Agents and collectors" show the smallest variation 
 of this group. It is interesting to note the relative variation in the occu- 
 
 TABLE XIV.— THE VARIABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR THE 
 "VARIABLE" OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMEN IN 1920 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Pio 
 
 P90 
 
 D 
 
 (P90 — Pio) 
 
 Median 
 
 D 
 
 Median 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in tex- 
 tiles 
 
 Metal workers 
 
 Foremen and overseers (mfg.) 
 
 Barbers 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 
 .43 
 
 .69 
 
 .44 
 
 1.53 
 
 .51 
 
 1.24 
 .74 
 .78 
 .67 
 .60 
 
 .59 
 
 .33 
 
 .00 
 
 .34 
 .28 
 .28 
 .23 
 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .13 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 .00 
 
 232.99 
 50.12 
 11.06 
 
 9.75 
 
 23.18 
 13.99 
 5.62 
 4.11 
 4.57 
 4.97 
 
 3.65 
 3.65 
 
 41.47 
 4.14 
 
 2.34 
 2.21 
 2.27 
 
 7.47 
 3.57 
 2.35 
 
 4.39 
 1.82 
 2.89 
 1.94 
 3.15 
 1.65 
 2.07 
 1 .63 
 1 .08 
 1 .19 
 1 .21 
 1 .29 
 
 .68 
 
 25.04 
 .77 
 .72 
 .48 
 .56 
 .72 
 .75 
 .67 
 
 232.56 
 
 49.53 
 
 10.62 
 
 8.22 
 
 22.67 
 12.75 
 4.88 
 3.33 
 3.90 
 4.37 
 
 3.06 
 
 3.32 
 
 41 .47 
 3.80 
 2.06 
 1 .93 
 2.04 
 
 7.47 
 3.57 
 2.35 
 
 4.39 
 1.82 
 2.89 
 1.94 
 3.15 
 1.52 
 2.07 
 1 .63 
 1.08 
 1.19 
 1.21 
 1.29 
 
 .68 
 
 25.04 
 .77 
 .72 
 .48 
 .56 
 .72 
 .75 
 .67 
 
 8.17 
 6.51 
 4.48 
 4.26 
 
 4 22 
 4 ill 
 2.38 
 2.21 
 2.10 
 2.02 
 
 1 .68 
 
 1 .24 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.01 
 
 .96 
 
 .81 
 
 .77 
 .70 
 .70 
 
 .69 
 .68 
 .67 
 .67 
 .65 
 .57 
 .55 
 .52 
 .37 
 .36 
 .30 
 .23 
 
 .22 
 
 .21 
 .21 
 .20 
 .20 
 
 .18 
 
 :!! 
 
 .11 
 
 28.41 
 7.59 
 2.37 
 1.93 
 
 5.37 
 
 Printers 
 
 3.10 
 
 Janitors 
 
 2.05 
 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 1.86 
 
 Tailors 
 
 Managers and superinten- 
 
 2.16 
 1.82 
 
 Artists 
 
 2.76 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 
 35.14 
 
 
 2.39 
 
 Photographers 
 
 Authors 
 
 2.04 
 2.01 
 
 Physicians 
 
 2 52 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 
 9.70 
 
 
 5.10 
 
 Actors 
 
 3.36 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 
 chemical industries 
 
 Insurance agents 
 
 6.36 
 2.69 
 
 Hotel keepers 
 
 4.31 
 
 Bakers 
 
 2.89 
 
 
 4.85 
 
 Officials and inspectors (gov.) 
 
 2.66 
 3.76 
 
 
 3.13 
 
 Commercial travelers 
 
 Floor walkers 
 
 Bankers 
 
 2 92 
 3.30 
 4.03 
 
 Farmers 
 
 5.61 
 
 Proprietors, officials, etc. 
 (trade) 
 
 3.04 
 
 Semi-skilled operatives in 
 shoe industries 
 
 119.23 
 
 Osteopaths 
 
 3.66 
 
 Dentists 
 
 3.60 
 
 Policemen 
 
 2.40 
 
 Lawvers 
 
 3.11 
 
 Chemists 
 
 4.50 
 
 Gardeners and florists 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 5.00 
 6.09 
 
 [38] 
 
pation of "physicians" for women as compared with that for men. For 
 men, the coefficient was near one, while for women it was considerably 
 above two. 
 
 [39] 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 SUMMARY AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DATA 
 
 Summary. The foregoing pages contain the results of a study of 
 the proportion of workers employed in 1920 in the various occupations 
 in the cities of the United States having from twenty-five thousand to 
 one hundred thousand population, and a comparison of these results 
 with those obtained by Ayres in a similar study of the 1900 Census. 
 The purpose of the study is to furnish some of the facts that are neces- 
 sary for an intelligent selection and application of the principles under- 
 lying the choice of occupations that should be represented by the cor- 
 responding vocational subjects in the secondary-school curriculum. The 
 data for the study were taken from the United States Census Reports 
 of 1920. The opportunities for employment were measured by the 
 number of workers per ten thousand population. Occupations were di- 
 vided into three classes with respect to the number of workers per ten 
 thousand inhabitants. Those occupations which employed ten or more 
 workers per ten thousand population in all the 218 cities studied are 
 designated as "constant" occupations. Those occupations which em- 
 ployed one or more workers per ten thousand population but which 
 did not qualify as "constant" are designated "less constant." The oc- 
 cupations which did not qualify as "constant" or "less constant" are 
 designated as "variable." 
 
 For each of the occupations, a measure was secured by which it is 
 possible to compare the variability in the proportion employed from 
 community to community in one occupation with the variation in an- 
 other. This measure is designated as the coefficient of variability. 
 
 The following results were obtained: 
 
 1. The "constant" occupations for men in 1920 were "retail deal- 
 ers," "machinists," "clerks (except clerks in stores)," "metal workers," 
 "carpenters and cabinet makers," "salesmen," "draymen," "painters," 
 "managers and superintendents (manufacturing)," "bookkeepers and 
 accountants," "plumbers," and "electricians." 
 
 2. Of the "constant" occupations for men, the group "electricians" 
 was added since 1900. 
 
 3. The values of the variability coefficient for all the "constant" 
 occupations are small except for "metal workers" and "machinists." 
 
 [40] 
 
This means that all but these two do not vary greatly, relatively, in the 
 rate of employment in all the 218 cities studied. 
 
 4. The occupations for men of ''waiters," "printers," "blacksmiths," 
 "masons," "barbers," "shoe makers," and "bakers" which appeared as 
 "constant" occupations in 1900 had decreased in the proportion of 
 workers per total population to such an extent that the}' were classified 
 as "less constant" occupations in 1920. 
 
 5. There were forty-nine occupations for men that could be classi- 
 fied as "less constant' 1 in 1920. 
 
 6. Among the list of "less constant" occupations for men, there ap- 
 peared two occupations which had been developed since 1900. They 
 are "chauffeurs" and "garage keepers." 
 
 7. For women, the "constant" occupations were: 
 
 Servants and waiters 
 
 Stenographers 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Saleswomen 
 
 Accountants 
 
 Clerks (except clerks in stores) 
 Of this group, "stenographers" and "accountants" were added since 
 1900. 
 
 8. The occupations of "dressmakers," "laundresses," and "house- 
 keepers" dropped from the "constant" group to the "less constant" 
 group since 1900. 
 
 9. All of the "constant"' occupations for women except "servants 
 and waiters" show a relatively low variability in the proportion em- 
 ployed from one community to another. 
 
 10. There were twelve "less constant" occupations for women in 
 1920. 
 
 Significance of the data. This study is essentially a fact-finding 
 study. There are, however, a few statements that we make by way of 
 interpretation. In our thinking out the problem of the selection and ap- 
 plication of the principles underlying the choice of occupations to be 
 represented in the secondary-school curriculum, there are certain data 
 that we must have at hand. Among other things, we should know the 
 situation with reference to the rate and demand for workers in the var- 
 ious occupations wherever large numbers of people live together. This 
 study has attempted to supply this information for cities having twenty- 
 five thousand to one hundred thousand population. We have seen that 
 all occupations tend to vary from one community to another in the ratio 
 of workers employed per total population. This is not surprising. There 
 
 [41] 
 
are many factors that determine the number employed in any one com- 
 munity and "total population'' is only one of these. It is also possible 
 that many cities have not reached the "saturation point" of employment 
 in some of the occupations. 
 
 In spite of this variation in the ratio of workers to total population 
 it appears that we can pick out certain occupations which employ a 
 high proportion of workers per total population, and which do not vary- 
 greatly, relatively, from one community to another in the proportion 
 employed. The occupations of "retail dealers," "clerks," "carpenters," 
 "painters," "plumbers," and "electricians" for men, and "stenograph- 
 ers," "saleswomen," "teachers," and "accountants" for women are illus- 
 trations. These facts do not constitute a complete guide for the selection 
 of vocational courses. They do, however, tell us considerable about a 
 characteristic of occupations that is important in solving the problems of 
 vocational education. 
 
 Since it has been possible to make a comparison at certain points 
 with Ayres' study of the 1900 Census, there is another significant con- 
 clusion that we should note. We shall illustrate this by using a specific 
 example. In Chapters II and III, we learned that a large decrease in 
 the proportion of men employed per ten thousand population as "print- 
 ers" has taken place in the last twenty years. This is true even if we 
 allow for the slight differences in the composition of the occupation in 
 the Census classification of 1900 and 1920, and for the difference in the 
 size of the community considered in the two studies. We can obtain 
 another measure of this decrease by considering the total number of 
 workers employed as "printers" in the United States in 1900 and in 
 1920. When we do this, we find that the increase in the total number of 
 workers is less than 50 per cent of the 1900 number — a figure that is 
 much less than the increase in the total output of printing. Thus, there 
 have been some significant changes that have taken place in the occu- 
 pation of printing during the last twenty years. 
 
 Our data show that there have been similar significant changes in 
 several other occupations. This fact has two important consequences. 
 In the first place, surveys of the type reported in this bulletin must be 
 made frequently. This fact has been sufficiently recognized in educa- 
 tional writings and we need not emphasize it here. The second conse- 
 quence is more important. Changes necessitate adjustments. It is an 
 important part of the job of the workers in an occupation to make these 
 adjustments. Adjustments must be made to newly-invented or per- 
 fected machines, to new or different methods of work, or to the devel- 
 opment of new products which may supplement or completely replace 
 
 [42] 
 
the older products. Furthermore, as Kilpatrick 4 has pointed out, since 
 the body of tested thought becomes larger, changes tend to become 
 more rapid. For education, this means that training for specific occupa- 
 tions cannot afford to neglect training in ability to make adjustments. 
 This aspect of training for vocations has not been sufficiently empha- 
 sized in the programs of the past. It must be emphasized in the pro- 
 grams of the future. 
 
 4 Kilpatrick, \Y. H. Educating for a Changing Civilization. New York: The Mac- 
 millan Company, 1926. 14-3 p. 
 
 [43] 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 The following list of occupations shows the groupings and omis- 
 sions that were made in this study. 
 
 I. Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry 
 
 1. Farmers 
 
 a. Farmers, dairy farmers, and stock raisers 
 
 b. Dairy farm, farm, and garden foremen 
 
 2. Gardners, florists, fruit growers, and nurserymen 
 
 II. Extraction of minerals 
 
 3. Extractors of minerals (total of the whole group) 
 
 III. Manufacturing and mechanical industries 
 
 4. Bakers 
 
 5. Blacksmiths, forgemen, and hammermen 
 
 6. Boiler makers 
 
 7. Brick and stone masons 
 
 8. Builders and building contractors 
 
 9. Carpenters, cabinetmakers, and sawyers 
 
 10. Printers 
 
 a. Compositors, linotypists. and typesetters 
 
 b. Electrotypers, stereotypers, and lithographers 
 
 c. Pressmen and plate printers 
 
 d. Semi-skilled operatives in printing and publishing 
 
 11. Coopers 
 
 12. Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory) 
 
 13. Dyers 
 
 14. Electricians 
 
 15. Engineers (stationary), cranemen, etc. 
 
 16. Engravers 
 
 17. Machinists 
 
 a. Filers and grinders 
 
 b. Machinists, millwrights, etc. 
 
 18. Firemen 
 
 a. Firemen (except locomotive and fire department) 
 
 b. Locomotive firemen 
 
 19. Foremen and overseers (manufacturing) 
 
 20. Metal workers 
 
 a. Furnacemen, smeltermen, heaters, and pourers 
 
 b. Moulders, founders, and casters 
 
 c. Rollers and roller hands 
 
 d. Semi-skilled operatives in iron and steel 
 
 e. Semi-skilled operatives in other metals 
 
 21. Glass blowers 
 
 22. Jewelers, watchmakers, etc. 
 
 23. Loom fixers 
 
 24. Managers and superintendents (manufacturing) 
 
 a. Managers and superintendents (manufacturing) 
 
 b. Manufacturers and officials 
 
 25. Mechanics 
 
 T44] 
 
26. Millers 
 
 27. Milliners and millinery dealers 
 
 28. Painters, glaziers, etc. 
 
 29. Paper hangers 
 
 30. Pattern and model makers 
 
 31. Plasterers and cement finishers 
 
 32. Plumbers and gas and steam fitters 
 
 33. Roofers and slaters 
 
 34. Semi-skilled operatives in chemical and allied industries 
 
 35. Semi-skilled operatives in cigar and tobacco industries 
 
 36. Semi-skilled operatives in clay, glass, and stone industries 
 
 37. Semi-skilled operatives in clothing industries 
 
 38. Semi-skilled operatives in food industries 
 
 39. Semi-skilled operatives in harness and saddle industries 
 
 40. Semi-skilled operatives in lumber and furniture industries 
 
 41. Semi-skilled operatives in paper and pulp industries 
 
 42. Shoemakers 
 
 a. Semi-skilled operatives in shoe factories 
 
 b. Shoemakers and cobblers (not in factory) 
 
 43. Semi-skilled operatives in tanneries 
 
 44. Semi-skilled operatives in textile industries 
 
 45. Semi-skilled operatives in other industries 
 
 46. Stonecutters 
 
 47. Structural iron workers 
 
 48. Tailors 
 
 49. Tinsmiths and coppersmiths 
 
 50. Upholsterers 
 
 IV. Transportation 
 
 A. Water transportation 
 
 51. Boatmen, canalmen. etc. 
 
 52. Captains, masters, mates, etc. 
 
 B. Road and street transportation 
 
 53. Chauffeurs 
 
 54. Draymen 
 
 55. Foremen of livery and transfer companies 
 
 a. Foremen of livery and transfer companies 
 
 b. Livery stable keepers and managers 
 
 56. Garage keepers 
 
 57. Hostlers 
 
 58. Proprietors and managers of transfer companies 
 
 C. Railroad transportation 
 
 59. Baggagemen and freight agents 
 
 60. Boiler washers 
 
 61. Brakemen and conductors 
 
 a. Brakemen 
 
 b. Conductors (steam railway) 
 
 c. Conductors (street railway) 
 
 62. Foremen and overseers 
 
 63. Locomotive engineers 
 
 64. Motormen 
 
 65. Officials and superintendents 
 
 66. Switchmen, flagmen, and yardmen 
 
 67. Ticket and station agents 
 
 D. Express, post, telegraph, and telephone 
 
 [45] 
 
68. Agents (express company) 
 
 69. Express messengers 
 
 a. Express messengers and railway mail clerks 
 
 b. Mail carriers 
 
 c. Telegraph messengers 
 
 70. Telegraph and telephone linemen 
 
 71. Telegraph operators 
 
 72. Telephone operators 
 
 E. Other transportation pursuits 
 
 73. Foremen and overseers 
 
 74. Inspectors 
 
 75. Proprietors, officials, and managers 
 
 V. Trade 
 
 76. Bankers and brokers 
 
 77. Clerks in stores 
 
 78. Commercial travelers 
 
 79. Decorators, drapers, etc. 
 
 80. Floorwalkers 
 
 81. Inspectors, gaugers, and samplers 
 
 82. Insurance agents and officials 
 
 83. Proprietors, officials, and managers (X.O.S.) 
 
 84. Real estate agents 
 
 85. Retail dealers 
 
 86. Salesmen and saleswomen 
 
 87. Undertakers 
 
 88. Wholesale dealers 
 
 VI. Public Service 
 
 89. Firemen (fire department) 
 
 90. Guards 
 
 91. Marshals and policemen 
 
 a. Marshals, sheriffs, and detectives 
 
 b. Policemen 
 
 92. Officials and inspectors (government) 
 
 a. Officials and inspectors (city and county) 
 
 b. Officials and inspectors (United States) 
 
 VII. Professional Service 
 
 93. Actors and showmen 
 
 94. Architects 
 
 95. Artists and sculptors 
 
 96. Authors, editors, and reporters 
 
 97. Chemists 
 
 98. Clergymen 
 
 99. College presidents and professors 
 
 100. Dentists 
 
 101. Designers and draftsmen 
 
 102. Lawyers 
 
 103. Musicians and teachers of music 
 
 104. Osteopaths 
 
 105. Photographers 
 
 106. Physicians and surgeons 
 
 107. Teachers 
 
 108. Technical engineers 
 
 109. Trained nurses 
 
 [46] 
 
110. Veterinary surgeons 
 
 111. Barbers 
 
 112. Boarding and lodging-house keepers 
 
 113. Hotel keepers and managers 
 
 114. Housekeepers and stewards 
 
 115. Janitors and sextons 
 
 116. Laundrymen 
 
 a. Laundry operative? (not in laundry) 
 
 b. Laundry operatives 
 
 c. Laundry owners and officials 
 
 117. Porters 
 
 118. Restaurant keepers 
 
 119. Servants and waiters 
 
 VIII. Clerical occupations 
 
 120. Agents and canvassers 
 
 121. Bookkeepers, cashiers, and accountants 
 
 122. Clerks (except clerks in stores) 
 
 123. Stenographers and typists 
 
 [47]