THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 370 ie6e M -ssarassas-*" University of lllinoisUbrary_ .* q riis WAY MAR 19 V#l T963 l 5 ^ L161 — H41 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign http://www.archive.org/details/howtomakecourseo42herr UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN Issued Weekly —\ 3 Vol. XXIII January 4, 1926 No. IS ^ [Entered as second-class matter December 11, 1912, at the post office at Urbana, Illinois, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailine at the special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 31, 1918.] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CIRCULAR NO. 42 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH COLLEGE OF EDUCATION HOW TO MAKE A COURSE OF STUDY IN READING By M. E. Herriott Associate, Bureau of Educational Research i '/ icoCi R 1 1 . WHO*™ ° r ll PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS URBANA 2 HOW TO MAKE A COURSE OF STUDY IN READING 1 INTRODUCTION Relation of this circular to others on course-of-study making. 2 This is the third of a series of circulars on course-of-study making. The first deals with the general problem of organizing for course-of- study making. The second gives detailed directions for preparing a course of study in arithmetic. This circular presents similar directions for preparing a course of study in reading. Both reading and arithmetic are tool subjects which are taught throughout the elementary school. Consequently, there are many sim- ilarities in the general make-up of courses of study in these two sub- jects. These similarities make for certain likenesses between the present circular and the one relating to arithmetic; but as arithmetic differs from reading, the course of study in reading differs in certain significant respects from that in arithmetic. These differences make it desirable to have a separate circular dealing with the peculiarities of the reading course of study. Purpose of circular. The purpose of this circular is to describe a technique of preparing a course of study in reading and to give sugges- tions as to its content and organization. No attempt is made to present a course of study in reading, but merely to tell how the work of making such a course of study may be carried on and what it should be like when completed. A number of the better courses of study in reading are referred to as examples of good practices. "Consideration of details of form is not included in this circular. For such matters consult: Monroe, Walter S., and Johnston, Nell Bomar. "Reporting Educational Re- search." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 38, Bureau of Educational Re- search Bulletin No. 25. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 63 p. 2 The two circulars previously written are: Monroe, Walter S. "Making a course of study." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 2, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 35. Urbana- Universitv of Illinois, 1925. 35 p. Herriott, M. E. "How to make a course of study in arithmetic." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 6, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No 37 Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 50 p. [3] Plan of circular. In order to provide a general view of the content and organization of a course of study in reading, the outline for a read- ing course of study is given first. The different divisions of this outline are then considered in detail, the nature of the content for each dis- cussed, and suggestions made as to the procedure to be followed in preparing each division. Throughout the circular, numerous references are given which illustrate the points under consideration and provide samples of what has been done. A selected and annotated bibliog- raphy, which contains references valuable to those formulating a course of study in reading, is given. Course-of-study making a cooperative enterprise. The making of courses of study is generally undertaken as a cooperative enterprise. When several or all of the courses of study for a school system are being formulated, the teachers are usually organized into subject com- mittees. A somewhat detailed discussion of organizing for course-of- study making and the benefits to be derived from such work is given in the first circular of this group. 3 Many superintendents state that this cooperative plan of course-of-study making has proved to be the most valuable work that they have undertaken for the improvement of teachers in service. The present circular gives in some detail directions for the guidance of the subject committee on reading, although it should be equally help- ful when the course of study is prepared by an individual rather than . by a committee. Function of the course of study. A course of study has a two-fold function; first, to coordinate the work of the teachers of a school system, and second, to help them as individual teachers. The coordinating func- tion is aptly discussed in the following quotation. "When a teacher is provided with a carefully prepared course of study, she has a detailed statement of the specific tasks assigned to her and the directions for the performance of these tasks. Thus she is able to undertake her year's work, confident that if she complies with the specifications, she will be cooperating with the other teachers in a consistent and unified effort to educate the children of the community. Without a course of study a teacher works more or less in the dark. Although, individually the teachers of a school system may be capable, industrious, and con- scientious in their work, they will not, except by accident, coordinate 3 Monroe, Walter S. Op. cit. [41 their efforts in the best way unless they are provided with a good course of study." 4 The teaching tasks in reading may be ever so well apportioned to the various school grades, and thus each teacher be assured of her proper niche in the task of educating the children, but that is not enough. There must be a fair degree of certainty that each teacher will perform her tasks adequately. A well-prepared course of study pro- vides a teacher with many suggestions as to appropriate and effective procedures to be used in accomplishing her apportionment of the work. These suggestions are made in proximity to the enumeration of tasks to be performed, which gives added pertinence to both. Without a course of study, reliance must be placed on each teacher familiarizing herself with the books on methods of teaching and with the numerous educational magazine articles on the subject, and then applying whatever she finds to be usable. There is not a high degree of assurance in this procedure, largely because such material is not available to many teachers. Types of material in course of study. The double purpose of the course of study largely determines its content. In order to coordinate the efforts of the teachers of a school system and to help them use appropriate teaching procedures, the following two general types of material should be included: (1) specifications of the detailed objec- tives of the course and of the materials of instruction, and (2) direc- tions consisting chiefly of suggestions as to learning exercises and methods of stimulating and directing learning. Outline of a reading course of study. The following outline is suggested as a working basis for a reading course of study covering the work of six grades. I. Introduction 1. Purpose of course of study 2. Statement of general objectives 3. Tabulation of specific objectives 4. Tabulation of supplementary reading materials 5. Grade time allotments 6. General aspects of reading instruction A. Relation of reading to other school activities B. Phonics C. Relation of silent to oral reading 'Monroe, Walter S. Op. cit. p. 4. [5] II. Course of study by grades 1. First grade A. Specifications a. Specific objectives b. Textbook c. Supplementary reading materials d. Other materials and devices B. Directions relative to teaching procedures a. Devising learning exercises b. Giving directions for work c. Motivating pupils' activities d. Evaluating pupils' achievements e. Giving remedial instruction f. General conduct of the recitation g. Providing for individual differences 2. Second grade (Subdivisions as for first grade) 3. Third grade (Subdivisions as for first grade) 4. Fourth grade (Subdivisions as for first grade) 5. Fifth grade (Subdivisions as for first grade) 6. Sixth grade (Subdivisions as for first grade) III. References for the teacher A little study of this outline reveals that the plan is to present in the introduction to the course of study the general point of view, the specifications for the reading course as a whole and certain general aspects of reading instruction. The chief purpose of this introductory section is to present the course in perspective so that the work of each grade may be seen in its proper relation to that of the other grades and also in order that the entire reading course may be seen as a con- tinuous and progressive whole. In the later sections, provision is made for presenting separately for each grade the specific objectives and the list of supplementary reading materials. This repetition is desirable because both the specifications and the methods for carrying them into effect should be in as close physical relation to each other in the course of study as possible in order that their presentation may be most effective. I. THE INTRODUCTION TO A READING COURSE OF STUDY The introductory section as outlined here contains more than the statements that ordinarily are included for the purpose of furnishing a setting for the remainder of the course of study. The introduction should include whatever is said about the course in reading which is so [6] general that it can be treated more effectively in one place rather than for each grade separately. Purpose of course of study. This section might be called the intro- duction to the introduction. In addition to containing explicit state- ments of the purposes to be served by the course of study and ways in which it should be used, this section should present in definite terms the point of view that is exemplified in the later sections, that is, the author or authors' educational philosophy as applied to reading. Such a statement of educational philosophy may include, among others, some of the following topics: the nature of the learning and teaching pro- cesses in reading, the function of reading in and out of school, and the •general aims to be realized by teaching reading. The last topic leads directly into the discussion of general objectives. No doubt anyone who starts to write a course of study will have already an educational philosophy upon which to base a formulation of general objectives, but neither the educational philosophy nor the ob- jectives may be clearly defined. In such instances, it would be well to read one or two books on educational theory and methods of teaching reading before attempting to write out a point of view and general objectives. 5 General objectives. 6 The purposes or aims of instruction are often classified as general and specific objectives. General objectives are stated in broad terms, as the name signifies. Each is a composite of many possibilities. For example, "ability to read ordinary material silently with reasonable speed" is frequently given as a general ob- jective. General objectives, like the one just given, serve as guides for the formulation of specific objectives, which are particularized aims. For instance, one of the specific objectives, the achievement of which will directly contribute to attainment of the general objective stated above is, "ability to read at the end of the fifth grade the type of reading material used in the Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Test, Re- vised, Form 1, at the rate of 142 words per minute." A great many 5 See bibliography for suggested references. Two good sources of general objectives are: "Essential objectives of instruction in reading." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925, p. 9-19. "Reading in the Saint Cloud Public Schools — grades one to six." Saint Cloud, Minnesota: Board of Education, 1924, p. 11-13. [7] specific objectives, 7 such as this one, are subsidiary to any one general objective. The objectives of reading, both general and specific, should be formulated early by the makers of a course of study in order that the work of preparing the remainder of it may be guided by these objec- tives. Also they should be presented early in the course of study so as to guide those who read and use it. The objectives of reading may be classified under five headings: 1. Objectives related to establishing motives for, and interests in, reading. 2. Objectives related to establishing specific habits in the semi- mechanical aspects of reading common to most reading situ- ations. 3. Objectives related to establishing ability to comprehend. 4. Objectives related to establishing ability to read effectively orally. 5. Objectives related to establishing habits and skills in the use of books, libraries, and other sources of information. The first rubric draws attention to the need for engendering com- pelling motives and interests which will function in later life, rather than merely emphasizing the "how" of reading. Recognition should be given to reading as an activity that will be carried on after school days are over. Reading interests largely determine this later use. The second rubric directs attention to the "how" of reading. The specific habits referred to are those ordinarily considered as related to the mechanics of the reading process, such as eye-movements. The so- called mechanics of reading involve chiefly habits that condition facility of word recognition, one of the two phases of reading which are most often measured by achievement tests, and probably the one most em- phasized at present in the teaching of reading. The third rubric refers to the other phase of reading that is often measured by achievement tests, namely, comprehension of meaning. The precise nature of comprehension varies with the character of the material. In the case of narrative or description, the pupil is expected to experience vicariously. When reading exposition his purpose is somewhat different. Training in comprehension of meaning is essen- tially training in reasoning or reflective thinking, although there are many specific habits in which training must be given. The fourth rubric includes the objectives to be attained in acquir- ing ability in effective oral interpretation. This ability is necessarily 7 Specific objectives are discussed more in detail on pages 16-18. [8] based upon many of the more fundamental attainments that are in- cluded in the second, third, and fourth rubrics. The fifth rubric refers to the aspects of reading involved in making independent use of sources of information, such as dictionaries, ency- clopedias, and libraries. This last rubric, along with the first, includes objectives that have often in the past not been considered as aims of instruction in reading. They point to both the need for an inherent value in what is read and the need of training for reading outside of school. Recognition by course-of-study writers and by teachers of these five types of purposes for which reading is taught will help to minimize over-emphasis on the more mechanical phases. Although achievement of objectives that fall under the second rubric is essential to the realiza- tion of the others, the first and the last groups of objectives are ultim- ately the more fundamental. In formulating the general objectives of reading, course-of-study makers should take cognizance of each of these five rubrics. Usually the rather lengthy lists of general aims that are often given contain objectives that classify under only one or two of these groups. General objectives should be couched in straight-forward language that is full of meaning, and not in a high-sounding rhetorical style. For instance, "To open the door of understanding to the problems of life" is given as a general objective in x one of the better courses of study. It is very prettily stated but relatively meaningless. A more effective statement would be: To extend the worthwhile experiences of boys and girls. With a general educational philosophy toward reading fairly well established and the general objectives defined, the writers of a course of study are ready to proceed with the other tasks indicated in the outline on pages 5-6. They may find later that their point of view has been modified in certain details and that they wish to rewrite portions of what they have formulated, but they need these statements of educa- tional philosophy and general objectives as guides in developing the course of study. Sequence of specific objectives. 8 The course in reading should not be presented in a piece-meal fashion, that is, one grade in isolation from other grades; but it should be organized so that teachers will see it as a whole. In order to provide this unified view, the specific objectives of "Specific objectives are discussed at length later, pages 16-18. The purpose here is only to point out the manner of presenting them in the introductory section of the course of study. [9] the entire reading course should be presented in the introductory section of the course of study so as to show their sequence from grade to grade. 9 Probably such a presentation can be made more effective when given in tabular form. An illustration of a form of presenting specific objectives is given below: SEQUENCE OF SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES IN ELEMENTARY READING Grade Motives and Interests Mechanics Rate Comprehension Etc. I II III Etc. This organization of the specific objectives provides a summary and hence assists a teacher in comprehending the work of any particu- lar grade in its relations to that of other grades. Although these objec- tives should appear in the introductory section of the course of study, they cannot be prepared until the specifications for each grade have been formulated. Presentation of supplementary reading materials. 10 A tabulation of all the reading materials for the entire elementary school should be given in the introductory section of a course of* study immediately after the tabulation of specific objectives so that a proper perspective of the "Objectives in reading have not been tabulated in any highly satisfactory way, although two charts were prepared in 1922 for the Rochester, »New York, Public Schools. These charts are entitled, "Chart of minimum requirements for course in phonetics" and "Attainments in reading." This same sort of thing has been done in a suggestive way for junior and senior- high-school literature in a small publication entitled, "Objectives and materials in liter- ature for junior and senior high schools," published by Scott, Foresman and Company, Chicago, 1925. Tabulations of subject-matter in arithmetic have been made more extensively. A good example may be found in: "Arithmetic — grades 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 — course of study monograph." Denver: Board of Education, 1924, insert inside front cover. 10 One of the best sources of selected and organized reading materials is: "Appropriate materials for instruction in reading." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925, p. 161-226. [10] work in reading may be maintained. Almost no book or other reading material is suited especially to one grade and that grade alone; but rather, almost anything that might be read in the elementary school is suitable for pupils in two or three grades. In fact, one study 11 showed that some poems have been considered as suitable for all eight elemen- tary grades as revealed by an examination of courses of study. The grades for which the available reading materials are especially suitable should be given in the tabulation referred to at the beginning of this paragraph. If the course-of-study makers feel that a selection is in general better suited to one grade than to any other, they may indicate this by a double star, as in the illustration below. If they have an abundance of reading materials at their command, they may designate only one grade for each selection, but in general this is not the best policy. It is better to give individual teachers some opportunity to use their judgment in selecting reading materials from the list of sugges- tions. The following form is an example of the way in which the refer- ences may be tabulated: READING MATERIALS AVAILABLE FOR GRADES I TO VI Book or Selection Grades for Which Suited ■ ii in IV V VI Williston, Teresa P. Japanese Fairy Tales. Chicago: RandMcNally * ** * Grade time allotments. Time allotments for school subjects have not been scientifically determined, but current practices have been studied. In an investigation 12 of conditions in forty-nine cities, the fol- lowing average grade time allotments were found for reading: Grades I II III IV V VI VII VIII Average Minutes Per Week 430 413 339 250 185 165 146 140 Number of Cities Giving Reading 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 35 "Bamesberger, Velda C. "Standard requirements for memorizing literary mate- rial." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. 26, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 3. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1920. 93 p. (Out of print). ""Facts on the public school curriculum." Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. 1, No. 5. Washington: Research Division of the National Education Association, 1923, p. 326-27. [11] This table should be read as follows: forty-seven cities, out of forty-nine studied, teach reading in Grade I on an average of 430 minutes per week, and so forth. The time to be given to reading cannot be determined independ- ently of that to be provided for the other subjects. The time allotted to the various school subjects in the different grades is frequently deter- mined by a general committee of teachers, although the superintendent or board of education may arbitrarily make these provisions. Some of the factors that need to be considered in making time allotments are: (1) the grade placement of subjects; (2) the number of subjects to be taught in a grade; (3) the subject-matter of each course, for instance, reading in some grades of some schools includes the work in elementary science, in other grades it includes whatever is given of the subject-matter of the social studies; (4) the degrees of accomplishment to be attained; and (5) the way in which the work is to be conducted, that is, how much can be done at home, how much must be done under the direct supervision of the teacher, and so forth. Figures such as those given in the above table should be used only in an advisory or comparative way. General aspects of reading instruction.. At least three phases of reading instruction are of so general a nature that they should be dealt with in the introductory section of the course of study rather than left to be treated a little at a time or with much repetition in the sections devoted to the work of particular grades. These aspects of reading in- struction are: (1) the relation of reading to other school activities, (2) phonics, and (3) the relation of silent to oral reading. Each of these is broad in its relationship to the reading course as a whole and constitutes a phase of reading instruction which changes gradually, not abruptly, as progress is made through the grades. Relation of reading to other school activities. 13 Reading is not only a separate school activity but a tool which is used in other activ- 13 See: Beauchamp, Wilbur L. "Supervised study In elementary physical science," School Review, 32:175-81, March, 1924. Terry, Paul W. 'The reading problem in arithmetic," Journal of Educational Psychology, 12:365-77, October, 1921. Wilson, Estaline. "Improving the ability to read arithmetic problems," Ele- mentary School Journal, 22:380-86, January, 1922. "The relation of reading to content subjects and other school activities." Twenty- Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloom- ington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925, p. 97-140. [12] ities, both in and out of school. An extremely close relationship exists between reading as a tool and other school subjects, such as, arithmetic, history, geography, industrial arts, and so forth. Even if reading were not a valuable tool in adult life, it would be desirable for pupils to gain a high degree of skill in it for the purposes of school use. The course of study should not merely point out to the teacher the close relationship that exists between reading as a tool and other school activities but also call attention to the variety of types of reading which pupils are asked to do, such as: comprehension of material read plus memorization so that it can be reproduced; obtaining information for the purpose of solving problems or answering questions; or discov- ery of collateral or illustrative material for topics or problems under discussion. 14 Phonics. 15 There is perhaps a greater variation in current opinions with respect to the teaching of phonics than on any other phase of reading instruction. There has been a tendency to neglect phonics en- tirely since silent reading has been emphasized, but it appears that cur- rent practice is beginning to recede from this extreme position. It is probable that explicit instruction in phonics should be given in not more than the first three grades. The course of study in reading should make perfectly clear the extent to which phonics are to be studied, the grades in which they are to be taught, their relationship to the periods for oral and silent reading, and the methods to be used. "For a discussion of the types of reading which pupils are asked to do, see: Monroe, Walter S. "Types of learning required of pupils in the seventh and eighth grades and in the high school." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 15, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 7. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1921. 16 p. 15 See: Winch, W. H. "Teaching beginners to read in England: its methods, results, and psychological bases." Journal of Educational Research Monographs, No. 8. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925. 185 p. "Development of a vocabulary." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National So- ciety for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publish- ing Company, 1925, p. 75-96. A rather good course of study in phonics is: "Provisional course of study in phonetics — Grades I-III." Rochester, New York: Board of Education, 1922. 15 p. A chart has also been prepared to accompany this course of study. Its title is: "Chart of minimal requirements for course in phonetics." [13] Relation of silent to oral reading. 16 The reading course of study should make clear the difference in the purposes for which training is given in oral and silent reading and some of the reasons for emphasiz- ing oral reading at one time and silent reading at another. For example, it is psychologically sound that beginning reading should be oral; but as the mechanics of word recognition are mastered, one becomes able to comprehend or to read silently much more rapidly than he can pro- nounce the words. A great deal of training in oral reading, after the mechanics of word recognition have been fairly well mastered, tends to inhibit reading processes (such as eye-movements) and to slow down the rate of silent reading. Nor is there any universal demand for oral reading in adult life, so that no urgent reason exists for giving elaborate training in it to all pupils. The course of study should make the above and similar consider- ations clear and should indicate the approximate emphasis that is to be placed upon oral and silent reading in the various grades. No attempt should be made to set inflexible rules, for the relative emphasis of these two types of reading must be determined somewhat by the degree of development of particular pupils. For example, backward pupils often need additional work in oral reading which would not be desirable for the normal pupils of the same school grade, and conversely, bright pupils usually do not need to do as many oral reading exercises. Occasionally a diagram similar to Figure 1 is given to represent the relative amount of school time devoted to oral and silent reading in the various grades. But it seems that the relationship shown in Figure 2 is more nearly in keeping with the way in which abilities in silent and oral reading develop. 17 Figure 1 represents beginning reading as part oral and part silent, with the relative amount of time devoted to each type of reading chang- ing at a uniform rate throughout the eight grades. The amount of time devoted to silent reading does not equal the amount of time given to oral reading until the beginning of the fifth grade. Figure 2 represents 10 See: ■Gray, William S. 'The relation of silent reading to economy in education." Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1917, p. 17-32. O'Brien, John A. "The development of speed in silent reading." Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921, p. 54-76. 1 'For a related discussion, see: Gray, William S. Op. cit. [14] beginning reading as entirely oral, with silent reading slowly intro- duced in the first grade. The emphasis on silent reading is rapidly increased in the second grade so that equal amounts of time are given to silent and oral reading by the beginning of the third grade instead of the fifth as in Figure 1. The rate of decrease in emphasis on oral reading gradually diminishes until the end of the sixth grade when a stable condition is reached. 1 Grade VIII Silent / Grade VII Reading / Grade VI Grade V Grade IV 1 Oral Grade III / Reading Grade II / Grade 1 Figure 1. Conventional diagram of the relationship that exists be- tween the amount of school time devoted to oral and si- lent reading in the elementary- school grades. Figure 2. The probable relationship that should exist between the amount of school time de- voted to oral and silent read- ing in the elementary-school grades. II. COURSE OF STUDY BY GRADES General content of course of study by grades. As noted on page 5, the reading course of study by grades should contain two types of material: first, specifications of objectives and reading materials; sec- ond, suggestions relative to teaching procedures. The specifications [15] include specific objectives, the textbook, supplementary references, and other materials and devices. The directions relative to instruction include devising learning exercises, giving directions for work, moti- vating pupil activities, evaluating pupil achievements, giving reme- dial instruction, general conduct of the recitation, and providing for individual differences. All of the suggestions on these phases of instruc- tion should be specific and pertain directly to the specifications for each grade. Nature of specific objectives. Specific objectives should be so stated as to specify definite and limited goals to be attained. They should be expressed in terms of ability to do, and whenever feasible, should specify the degrees of the abilities to be achieved. For example, a specific objective in both fifth and sixth-grade reading might be the ability to read a given type of material such as that used in the Monroe Standardized Silent Reading Test, Revised, Form 1 ; but this is still too general to differentiate between the fourth and fifth grades. The degree of ability to be attained should be added. Thus, in the fourth grade the pupils should read this test with a comprehension score of 7.7 and a rate of 122 words per minute, while in the fifth grade they should read with a comprehension score of 9.8 and a rate of 142 words per minute. Some important reading objectives are less tangible and hence cannot be expressed as definitely as the objectives in the preceding paragraph. These "less tangible objectives" include such abilities as, ability to determine the aim and purpose of a passage, ability to find the important points and subordinating details, and ability to collect information that will aid in the solution of a problem. Even though the degrees of attainment in such abilities have not been determined, and may never be in all cases, objectives should be stated as definitely as possible. General terms, such as "proficiency," "fluently," and "quickly" and statements of ground to be covered, such as, so many pages in the textbook, should be avoided. How to formulate specific objectives. Course-of-study makers should not attempt to formulate the specific objectives for a reading course without securing assistance from as many sources as are avail- able. Some of the sources from which specific objectives may be ob- tained are: (1) reading textbooks, 18 (2) books on methods of teaching 18 In general, textbooks only imply the objectives to be attained, although some of the newer books include standards of attainment. For example: The Silent Readers by Lewis, William D., and Rowland, Albert Lindsay, pub- lished by the John C. Winston Company, Philadelphia, 1920. [16] reading, 19 (3) courses of study, (4) standardized tests, and (5) special studies, such as the ones reported in the Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. 20 After examining available sources, judgment should be exercised in formulating a list of specific objectives, for any thorough search of sources will reveal conflicting and trivial objectives that should be modi- fied or discarded. In addition, some objectives need to be restated in order that they may be most effective. The work of formulating specific objectives should be guided by general principles decided upon in advance by the makers of the course of study. Such principles should be definite enough to be real guides, yet they should be flexible enough to allow for a liberal interpretation in order to avoid having the task become purely mechanical. The fol- lowing principles are suggestive: 1. Specific objectives should be stated in terms of ability to do. This is discussed on page 16. 2. Specific objectives should state the degrees of attainments. This is also discussed on page 16. 3. The adoption of specific objectives should be controlled by the general objectives previously formulated. For example, specific objec- tives involving a high degree of skill in oral reading will probably be out of keeping with any set of general objectives which might be previously formulated. 4. The sequence of specific objectives should correspond to the periods of normal progress in fundamental reading habits, interests, accomplishments, and needs. These periods and their approximate grade positions are: (a) in the early part of the first grade, the period of preparation for reading, (b) in the latter part of the first grade, the initial period of reading instruction, (c) in the second and third grades, the period of rapid progress in fundamental attitudes and specific habits, (d) in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, the period of wide reading to extend and enrich experiences and to cultivate important reading attitudes, habits, and tastes, and (e) in the junior and senior 19 The most recent one to give particular attention to objectives is: Anderson, Charles J., and Davidson, Isobel. Reading Objectives. New York: Laurel Book Company, 1925. 408 p. 20 "Essential objectives of instruction in reading." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925, p. 9-19. For a discussion of a standard vocabulary and standards in rates of reading, see: "Reading." Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu- cation, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1915, p. 37-60. [17] high-school grades, the period of refinement of specific reading attitudes, habits, and tastes. 21 5. Provision should be made for attainment of ability in the vari- ous types of reading which pupils are asked to do. 22 These types of reading are referred to on page 13. 6. The standards of attainment should allow for reasonable indiv- idual variation in rate and amount of development. That is, it is prob- ably not best to set one inflexible standard, say in rate of reading for the fifth grade, but rather to indicate the range within which the abili- ties of the pupils of a grade should fall. 7. Specific objectives should be so organized as to make an inter- related, unified, and progressive whole. That is, the objectives should be so arranged that attainment of the goals of one grade lays the foun- dation for realizing the objectives of the next grade. A scheme for presenting the specific objectives is illustrated on page 10. The textbook. The textbook for each grade should be specified at the beginning of each grade division of the course of study. If the text- book has been adopted and no change is to be considered, the course-of- study makers will have merely to accept and incorporate it into the course of study. If a new textbook is to be adopted, the course-of-study makers should see that it is decided upon before proceeding further than formulating the objectives for the course. The best stage of the work at which to choose a textbook is after the objectives have been formu- lated, for the book adopted should be, in so far as possible, in accord with the objectives. Supplementary reading materials. It has been suggested previ- ously that the sources of reading materials for the entire elementary 21 For a discussion of these periods of progress, see: "A modern program of reading instruction for the grades and the high school." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925. p. 21-73. 22 For a discussion of these purposes, see: Monroe, Walter S. "Types of learning required of pupils in the seventh and eighth grades and in the high school." University of Illinois Bulletin. Vol. 19. No. 15, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 7. Urbana: University of Illinois 1921 16 p. For a more detailed study of one of these types of study, see: Monroe, Walter S.. and Mohlman, Dora Keen. "Errors made by high-school students in one type of textbook study," School Review. 31:36-47, January, 1923. For the way in which these types of study have been incorporated into a course of study, see: "Reading in the Saint Cloud Public Schools — grades one to six." Saint Cloud, Minnesota: Board of Education, 1924, p. 121-23, 133-37, 146-51, 156-60. [18] school should be presented in the introductory section of the course of study. The materials for each grade should be given also at the begin- ning of that part of the course of study devoted to it. For example, the reading materials recommended for the pupils of the sixth grade should be listed at the beginning of the sixth-grade section of the course of study. In this way the objectives and reading materials for a particular grade appear in proximity to each other and furnish a background for the discussion of methods of instruction, which makes up the remainder of the section of the course of study. No well-established standards have been arrived at as yet for the selection and grade placement of reading materials. 23 The judgment of experienced teachers must be largely relied upon in selecting these materials. The opinions of certain teachers and supervisors are repre- sented by the reading materials listed in courses of study. Other materials and devices. 24 In the early grades a large propor- tion of the pupils' activities are connected directly with reading. In consequence, a great variety of materials and devices is needed for use in connection with the actual reading that is done. Some of these materials, such as pictures, lantern slides, and sand tables, are furnished ready for use; and others, such as flash cards, sometimes have only the raw materials provided from which the teachers may make their own helps. The course of study should list the materials and devices avail- able for use in each grade and also should make suggestions as to ways in which the teachers may add to those furnished. Provisions for individual differences by modifying specifications. 25 In formulating specific objectives and in selecting reading materials,. 23 For the results of one study, see: Uhl, Willis L. "Scientific determination of the content of the elementary school course in reading." University of Wisconsin Studies in the Social Sciences and History,. No. 4. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 1921. 152 p. 24 See: Hoover, J. H. "Motivated drill work in third-grade silent reading." Twentieth. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington,. Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921, p. 77-89. Pennell, Mary E., and Cusack, Alice M. How to Teach Reading. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1923. 298 p. Watkins, Emma. How to Teach Reading to Beginners. Philadelphia: J. B. Lip- pincott Company, 1922. 133 p. 2, The provisions made for individual differences must be dependent largely upon the policy of the school toward such provisions. Consequently, they may be elaborate or meagre, for mixed classes or for classes where pupils of different abilities are segre- gated, and so forth. For illustrations of provisions see the reading courses of study for the Long Beach., California, City Schools, 1924. [19] consideration should be given to provisions for individual differences. Some eliminations from the objectives may be made for the slower pupils and some additions for the brighter ones. In order that the teacher may be guided in selecting references suited to the varying abilities of the pupils in her room, some indications should be made in the grade lists as to which reading materials are the more difficult and which are the simpler. Designations of this sort will enable her to give the brighter pupils more difficult material and to assign simpler reading matter to the slower pupils. Most provisions for individual differences, especially when there is no attempt at homogeneous grouping, must be made by adapting learning exercises and methods of instruction. This is discussed later on pages 26-27. General nature of directions relative to teaching procedures. The dual purpose of the course of study, as previously stated, is to coordin- ate the work of teachers and to help them individually to use appro- priate teaching procedures. The coordinating function is served mainly by the specifications described in the preceding pages. The second function is accomplished by the inclusion of suggestions relative to learning exercises to be assigned and methods of instruction. A course of study in reading may appropriately include suggestions relative to, the following phases of instruction: (1) devising learning exercises; (2) giving directions for work; (3) motivating pupil activity; (4) evaluating pupil achievements, including the devising, selection, and use of tests; and (5) giving remedial instruction, including giving direct and indirect assistance. The suggestions on these phases of instruction may well.be pre- ceded or followed by general suggestions on the conduct of the recita- tion, which is a complex of the above phases of instruction, and by sug- gestions on providing for individual differences by modifications of teaching procedures. The method followed in this circular is to discuss the five phases of instruction enumerated above and to follow this dis- cussion by a consideration of the two general topics. Devising learning exercises. 26 Reading textbooks, unlike arith- metic texts, are chiefly compilations of material to be read and not of exercises to be done, although at present there is a tendency for the makers of readers to suggest exercises that may be done by the pupils. 20 Some sources of good suggestions are: Germane, Charles E. "Outlining and summarizing compared with re-reading as methods of studying." Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of [20] However, it is still largely left to the teacher of reading to devise the learning exercises which the pupils are to do in order that they may achieve the objectives set for them. The learning exercises that a teacher assigns probably play a more important part in stimulating and directing the pupils' learning than do the methods of instruction which she employs. Yet comparatively little attention in general has been given to the devising of exercises. Ob- servers often criticize teaching as inefficient, yet are not aware that in many instances the kind of exercises set by the teacher is the factor that makes for the inefficiency. In assigning a new lesson, teachers fre- quently direct the pupils merely to read instead of to read for some expressed purpose. This makes much of the reading pointless and less effective than it would be if some definite exercise to be done had been set for the pupils. Or a teacher may have her beginning pupils study their reading lessons at home where the exercise becomes quite different under the unskilled assistance of parents from what it would be under the skillful direction of a good teacher. Or again, a teacher may ask the pupils to learn lists of words and their meanings, when it would be much more effective for the words to be learned in context. The course of study should point out the purposes to be accom- plished by various types of exercises, such as speed drills with flash cards, dramatization^ keeping records of books read, and the like. In this connection, some suggestions should be made as to ways in which the textbook and supplementary reading materials should be used. For Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921, p. 103-13. Heller, Regina R., and Courtis, S. A. "Exercises developed at Detroit for mak- ing reading function." Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921, p. 153-61. "Appropriate materials for instruction in reading." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925, p. 161-232. "Reading exercises based on children's experiences." Nineteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1920, p. 20-30. "Reading for children in non-English-speaking families." Nineteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1920, p. 31-46. "Silent reading exercises developed at Denver, Cedar Rapids, Racine and Iowa City." Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921, p. 162-72. [21] example, it may be that for some grades the textbook should be used only during recitation periods and at other times be kept by the teacher, or some parts of the textbook may be well adapted to the purposes of testing, or some of the selections in the textbook may be suitable for memorization by all members of a class. In connection with using sup- plementary books, the pupils may read silently for pleasure, may re- count in class some of the interesting stories read, may write short com- positions on topics suggested by something read, or do other exercises. In addition to the suggestions on devising exercises in connection with the textbook and supplementary reading materials, some suggestions should be made about the use of other materials and devices, such as pictures, flash cards, and lantern slides. After positive suggestions have been made, there is still need for calling attention in the course of study to the ineffectiveness of some types of learning exercises, such as games that lack compelling interest for the pupils. Relation of learning exercises to local conditions. In educational writing and discussions, much attention is given to the effect of local conditions on curricula and courses of study. The work of the school may be adjusted to local needs in at least two ways: (1) by means of "adaptations of objectives" and (2) by "adaptations of learning exer- cises." The distinction between these two types of adjustments is sel- dom made, although it is fundamental to any consideration of adapta- tions of school work to particular localities. The objectives of reading are essentially the same for most communities, but diverse means may be used in different communities in order to arrive at the same objec- tives. For example, the reading matter 27 may be different in many respects for the pupils in one community from what it is for those in another. Because a community is the home of a famous author or has local scenes or characters which have been used in certain stories, some reading matter which would not be appropriate elsewhere may be so in that community. Such local "atmosphere" may make possible also many other exercises, such as a visit to an author's home or a talk by an author, which help to give the pupils perceptual experiences that they would not otherwise have. Local conditions may handicap the work in reading as well as afford advantages such as those just mentioned. The presence of a large foreign element, for instance, may make it necessary to devise 27 The material selected for reading so largely determines the nature of the learning exercises that no distinction is made here between "adaptation of learning exercises" and "adaptation of reading matter." [22] many learning exercises that are suited to meet the unusual situation. Thus, the content of the reading matter might be different in order to appeal to the particular interests of the pupils, to emphasize ideas and ideals that demand especial attention for their inculcation, such as American ideals of liberty, or to meet other needs. Giving directions for work. 28 Probably next in importance to the learning exercises to be done are the directions for doing them which the teacher gives the pupils. Most of the reading activities of the pupils must be carried on in so-called study periods, whether these be parts of recitation periods or entirely separate. The course of study should give suggestions on the characteristics of good assignments, such as the time of making and the goals set up. Criteria for judging assignments may also be given, as well as some examples. Motivating pupil activity. 29 Motivation in reading is often consid- ered only in relation to drill work, but many reading exercises that are not of a drill nature need motivating. Drill work is motivated more often by introduction of the game spirit than in any other way. Other reading work is motivated by use of pictures, dramatization, questions, the content of the reading matter itself, and other related means. The appropriateness of any motivating procedure depends upon the need for motivation, which in turn depends in the main upon the reading objectives to be attained, the type of reading which is being done (that is, comprehension of material read plus memorization so that it can be reproduced, obtaining information for the purpose of solving problems, and so forth), the age and interests of the pupils, and the nature of the reading matter. The reading course of study should give many good motivating devices in connection with indicating the more common needs for motivation in teaching different types of reading. There is also a negative aspect to motivation. Some teachers feel that they must explicitly motivate every learning activity of pupils. 28 See: Odell, Charles W. "The assignment of lessons." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 7, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 38. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 20 p. 29 Although motivation is a part of the task of giving directions for work, it is dealt with as a separate topic because it is also involved in the devising of learning exercises, in giving all kinds of assistance, and in remedial instruction. For some good suggestions, see: Hoover, J. H. "Motivated drill work in third-grade silent reading." Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921, p. 77-89. Odell, Charles W. Op. cit. [23] Such a procedure often results in what is known as "sugar coating." Teachers should be warned against this abuse of motivation. Evaluating pupil achievements. 30 The course of study should help the teacher by suggesting methods and means of testing reading ability. These suggestions should include a list of the commercial tests that are available for use in the school system for which the course of study is written, purposes for which these tests should be used, ways of making use of the test results, and possibly some other information. However, the course of study should not attempt to be a treatise on the use of standardized tests. The making and use of more or less informal tests should also be discussed somewhat in detail. Measuring pupil progress and diagnosing for the purposes of re- medial instruction are the two most important uses to be made of tests and test results by the classroom teacher. The teacher should be given some suggestions about how to proceed in making use of test results, particularly how to diagnose pupils' difficulties. Yet the course of study should not go into too much detail. It may be supplemented by refer- ences to good treatises on the subject. Giving remedial instruction. 31 Remedial instruction should always follow diagnosis, for otherwise the diagnosis does not serve the purpose for which it is made. In the course of study a relatively strong empha- sis may well be placed upon remedial instruction, for it is of great im- 30 A recent development is a series of booklets containing "Standard test lessons in reading." These lessons are analogous to practice tests in arithmetic. The authors of the booklets are McCall, William A., and Crabbs, Lelah Mae. They are published by- Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1925. Three of the best references on testing in reading are the following: Monroe, Walter Scott, DeVoss, James Clarence, and Kelly, Frederick James. Educational Tests and Measurements (Revised Edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924, p. 94-154. ''Reading tests, standardized and informal." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925, p. 233-74. "Reading in the Saint Cloud Public Schools — grades one to six." Saint Cloud, Minnesota: Board of Education, 1924. 162 p. and approximately 160 p. of tests. 31 The two most recent and systematic discussions of remedial instruction in read- ing are: "Diagnosis and Remedial Work." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Soci- ety for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925, p. 275-89. Streitz, Ruth. "Teachers' difficulties in reading and their correctives." Univer- sity of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 30, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 23. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 35 p. [24] portance. A good way for the course of study to help the teacher is to list and describe the types of reading difficulties which frequently occur along with ways of coping adequately with them. Most of the remedial work is carried on in study periods in which the teacher directly or indirectly assists the pupils: directly, by answer- ing pupils' questions, telling them where they may find certain mate- rials, and the like; indirectly, by assigning supplementary exercises that are designed to help the pupils overcome certain difficulties. Reme- dial instruction usually should take on the form of indirect assistance. By reason of the nature of the difficulties to be overcome, most remedial instruction must be individual, although some of it may be carried on as group work. All of the assistance that a teacher gives her pupils is essentially "supervising study." Unless a school system has adopted a special scheme of supervised study, such as the Batavia Plan, all suggestions on supervising study may well be taken up under the general topic of remedial instruction. But if a particular form of supervised study is in use, specific directions should be given so that the instruction in reading will fit in with the formal scheme. 32 The recitation. 33 The recitation is a complex of the five phases of instruction which have been discussed in the preceding pages; some- times one predominates, sometimes another. The value of any recita- tion period is largely determined by the success of the teacher in choos- ing profitable exercises to be done. A decision on this point involves answers to a multitude of questions, such as: — When should the reci- tation period be used for reading in unison? When should all read silently? When should the period be devoted to group discussion? Should the recitation period be used for drill purposes? For giving the pupils added perceptual experiences? For pooling information? An- swers to questions like these naturally vary from class to class and from grade to grade. However, it is true in general that as advancement is made, the recitation period represents an ever decreasing proportion of the time devoted to reading by the pupils, drill exercises become of less importance, and discussion types of exercises increase in prominence. The general criterion that governs what should be done in the recitation 32 For a critical summary of investigations in this field, see: Brownell, William Arthur. "A study of supervised study." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 41, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 26. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 48 p. 33 For several good examples of recitation period activities, see: "Course of study — fifth and sixth grades." Los Angeles, California: Board of Education, 1924, p. 97-124. [25] period and what should be done elsewhere may be stated thus: Exer- cises that can be done as well without as with the active and immediate supervision of the teacher should be done elsewhere than in the recita- tion period. This assumes that no exercise is done except for the pur- pose of attaining some specific and worthwhile aim. The course of study in reading should indicate a wide variety of ways in which the recitation period may be used, along with their rela- tive values, giving consideration to the purposes of instruction and pupil development. Some general discussion will no doubt be desirable and necessary, but some of the most effective presentations consist chiefly of rather detailed summaries of type lessons, with pertinent comments. Adaptation of teaching procedures to individual differences. 34 Aside from purely administrative schemes, there are three outstanding types of provisions for individual differences which may be made: (1) modifications of objectives,' (2) differentiations in reading materials, and (3) modifications of teaching procedures. The modifications of ob- jectives and differentiations in reading materials should be indicated in the outline of specifications which is given in the introductory section and at the beginning of each grade section of the course of study. These provisions are discussed previously on pages 19-20. Modifications of teaching procedures should be discussed in the grade sections of the course of study. It seems that in reading, even more than in some other subjects, there is an accentuation of disparity in pupils as they progress through the grades, so that there is additional need for emphasizing provisions for individual differences in the upper grades. This increase in individual differences is one of the significant reasons for separating the sugges- tions on providing for them under the various grade divisions of the course of study instead of including all such suggestions under one heading in the introduction. However, because of the gradual way in which this disparity grows, some course-of-study makers have found it 34 See: Gray, William S. "Individual difficulties in silent reading in the fourth, fifth and sixth grades." Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921, p. 39-53. Herriott, M. E. "Modifying technique of instruction for gifted children." Uni- versity of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 18, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 41. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 20 p. "Provisions for individual differences." Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Pub- lishing Company, 1925, p. 227-32. The reading courses of study for the Long Beach, California, City Schools, 1924. [26] desirable to group suggestions on this phase of teaching for two or three grades at a time, such as for the primary, intermediate, and upper grades, rather than to make a different section on individual differences for each grade. Others have met this situation by making generous use of cross references from grade to grade. III. REFERENCES FOR THE TEACHER 35 The course of study in reading should have appended a few refer- ences that in the opinion of the course-of-study makers will be of most value to teachers of reading. This should not be an extended bibliog- raphy, but should contain a selected list of references that will be of im- mediate value to the classroom teacher. Each reference should be an- notated in order that the teachers will find the list readily usable. Such a bibliography should include titles covering the more im- portant phases of at least the following: (1) methods of teaching, (2) standards of attainment, and (3) testing and remedial instruction. In addition to references on these phases of instruction, a few educational journals that frequently contain current articles on the teaching of reading should be included. Also, it is well to list a few of the better reading courses of study with brief comments on what is of most worth in each. 3, One of the most complete bibliographies on reading is to be found in: Gray, William Scott. "Summary of investigations relating to reading." Supple- mentary Educational Monographs, No. 28. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1925, p. 219-70. [27] BIBLIOGRAPHY SELECTED AND ANNOTATED Introductory statement. This bibliography is made up of refer- ences that have been selected because of their pertinence to the work of those who make courses of study in reading. No attempt has been made to include all possible references. The bibliography is divided into five groups: first, general references on curriculum and course of study making; second, books and articles on methods of teaching read- ing; third, reading courses of study; fourth, references on testing and standards of achievement; and fifth, reports of investigations and mis- cellaneous references. 1. General References on Curriculum and Course of Study Making Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924, p. 1-75. This is a report of the work on revising the curriculum in Los Angeles, which Dr. Bobbitt directed over a period of two years. Caldwell, Otis W. "Types and principles of curricular development," Teachers College Record, 24:326-37, September, 1923. Speech delivered at meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association at Cleveland, February 28, 1923. Outlines the methods and results of two types of curricular investigations and states certain principles for use in reorgan- izing school subjects of study. Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction. New York: The Mac- millan Company, 1923, p. 3-168. This portion of the book gives a good background theory of curriculum construc- tion and presents Dr. Charters' own point of view. McMurry, Charles A. How to Organize the Curriculum. Xew York: The Macmillan Company, 1923. 358 p. The curriculum is discussed in terms of projects, type studies, and large units of study. A suggested curriculum of large teaching units is given, covering the fields of geography, history, science, and literature. Monroe, Walter S. "Making a course of study." University of Illi- nois Bulletin, Vol. 23, Xo. 2, Bureau of Educational Research Cir- cular No. 35. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 35 p. This circular presents the best present day ideas on general make-up of courses of study, the way to go about making a course of study, and the benefits to be derived from such work. A lengthy bibliography on curriculum and course-of-study making is included. [28] Threlkeld, A. L. "Curriculum revision: how a particular city may attack the problem," Elementary School Journal, 25:573-82, April, 1925. This is a report of the method of attack used in Denver, Colorado. Wilson, H. B. "The course of study in the work of the modern school," Course of Study Monographs, Introductory. Berkeley, California: Board of Education, 1921. 14 p. "Introductory to all (Berkeley) Courses of Study presenting the general point of view which has guided the formulation of the detailed courses in all subjects for the various schools." (Introductory Note.) "The elementary school curriculum." Second Yearbook of the Depart- ment of Superintendence. Washington: Department of Superin- tendence of the National Education Association, 1924. 269 p. A fair presentation of the elementary curriculum situation in the United States in 1923 is given. "Facts on the public school curriculum." Research Bulletin of the Na- tional Education Association, Vol. I, No. 5. Washington: Research Division of the National Education Association, 1923, p. 310-50. This bulletin furnishes good source material on time allotments, statutory require- ments, grade combinations of subjects, and other pertinent matters. "Keeping pace with the advancing curriculum." Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. 3, Nos. 4 and 5. Wash- ington: Research Division of the National Education Association, 1925, p. 107-92. This bulletin makes an intensive survey of the curriculum advances that are being made in the United States. It is crowded with facts and helpful suggestions. 2. Methods of Teaching Reading. Anderson, Charles J., and Davidson, Isobel. Reading Objectives. New York: Laurel Book Company, 1925. 408 p. The purposes of this book are "(1) to set forth the objectives of reading and of reading instruction, and (2) to point out how these objectives may be realized through a proper interpretation and practical application of the findings of research in the field of reading." (P. VII of the preface.) Herriott, M. E. "Modifying technique of instruction for gifted chil- dren." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 18, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 41. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1926. 17 p. Six modifications of learning exercises and three modifications in the directing of the doing of learning exercises are given as a result of considering the factors involved in modifying technique of instruction. [29] Germane, Charles E., and Germane, Edith Gayton. Silent Reading: A Handbook for Teachers. Chicago: Row, Peterson and Com- pany, 1922. 383 p. The methods presented here are based chiefly on experimental evidence. This, book is an intensive treatment of silent reading. Huey, Edmund Burke. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading.. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1908. 469 p. Although one of the first books with the modern point of view, this is still a standard reference. The book is divided into four parts, dealing respectively with the psychology of reading, the history of reading and reading methods, the pedagogy of reading, and the hygiene of reading. Leonard, Sterling Andrus. Essential Principles of Teaching Reading and Literature. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1922.. 460 p. The chief emphasis is on the teaching of literature. Many excellent, practical helps are given. MacClintock, Porter Lander. Literature in the Elementary SchooL Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1908. 305 p. This book does for the teaching of literature in the elementary school, particularly the lower and intermediate grades, very much what Leonard's book does for the upper grades and high school. The point of view is its most important contribution. O'Brien, John A. Silent Reading. New York: The Macmillan Com- pany, 1921. 290 p. Studies of the factors affecting the speed of reading are excellently summarized.. Methods and results of a training experiment to increase speed are given. Pennell, Mary E., and Cusack, Alice M. How to Teach Reading. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1923. 298 p. Particularly valuable because of the many practical helps, as the title implies. It is most valuable to teachers in the kindergarten and first three grades. Stone, Clarence R. Silent and Oral Reading. Chicago: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1922. 306 p. The author takes what might be called a common sense view of reading that tempers his use of the results of scientific investigations. Although a very helpful book in a practical way, its greatest value lies in the author's refreshing point of view. Watkins, Emma. How to Teach Reading to Beginners. Philadelphia:: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1922. 133 p. This is a book filled chiefly with learning exercises to be used by primary teachers. Wheat, Harry Grove. The Teaching of Reading; A Textbook of Prin- ciples and Methods. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1923. 346 p. The author presents the "significant results of the recent scientific investigations of reading" and a '"somewhat explicit statement of the underlying principles, the aims, . and the important outcomes of . . . reading for the various grades." [30] "Silent reading: suggestions for testing and corrective work." Maryland School Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 11. Baltimore: State Department of Education, 1924. 88 p. Many helpful suggestions, devices and materials for use in remedial work in reading are given. 3. Courses of Study in Reading "Course of study, public schools, Baltimore County, Maryland, Grades I-VIII." Baltimore: Warwick and York, 1921, p. 1-82. The reading materials, methods, and results to be obtained are carefully outlined for each grade. "Course of study — fifth and sixth grades." Los Angeles, California: Board of Education, 1924, p. 93-136. Particularly valuable for its list of suggested activities and the concrete suggestions for teaching various kinds of lessons. It is probable that there are equally valuable courses of study for other grades by this time. "English — course of study for grades four, five, and six." Baltimore, Maryland: Department of Education, 1924, p. 65-118. Very helpful in its discussion of the purposes of reading in these grades. Good classified lists of literary readings are provided. "Long Beach City Schools course of study." Long Beach, California: Board of Education, 1924. (Separate monographs for the first six grades, having approximately 30 pages each.) These course-of-study monographs are especially good in making provisions for individual differences and in showing what the course of study can do by way of directing teachers in the use of the textbook. "Reading and literature — elementary course of study." Trenton, New Jersey: Board of Education, 1924. 169 p. Especially useful because of the long lists of reading materials and the analyses of reading textbooks. "Reading — composition — literature — spelling — handwriting — course of study for kindergarten and grades one, two, and three." Baltimore, Maryland: Department of Education, 1924, p. 9-33, 48-60. Many good suggestions tersely put. Good lists of reading materials. "Reading in the Saint Cloud Public schools — grades one to six." Saint Cloud, Minnesota: Board of Education, 1924. 162 p. (160 addi- tional pages of tests.) This is probably the most elaborate course of study in reading yet produced. It is replete with teaching helps and discussions of the nature of the reading process. [31] 4. Testing and Standards of Achievement Doherty, Margaret, and MacLatchy, Josephine. "Bibliography of educational and psychological tests and measurements." U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1923, No. 55. Washington, 1924 233 p. This bibliography gives not only the tests but a rather complete list of references that discuss the particular tests, the uses of tests in general, and the uses of tests according to types of schools. Finch, Charles E. "Junior-high-school study tests," School Review, 28:220-26, March, 1920. The study tests used in Rochester, New York, in diagnosing reading and study habits of pupils are described. McCall, William A., and Crabbs, Lelah Mae. Standard Test Les- sons in Reading. New York: Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, 1925. One book, each of ninety-four lessons, for each grade of the elementary school. These test lessons are analogous to the well-known practice tests in arithmetic. Monroe, Walter S. "A critical study of certain silent reading tests." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 22, Bureau of Educa- tional Research Bulletin No. 8. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1922. 52 p. The report furnishes data on the reliability and validity of several reading tests for the purpose of helping the users of the tests in this field to make an intelligent selection of them. Monroe, Walter Scott, DeVoss, James Clarence, and Kelly, Fred- erick James. Educational Tests and Measurements. (Revised Edi- tion) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924, p. 94-154, 417-30, 469-86. The structure, uses, and limitations of most of the standardized tests in reading are discussed in the sections referred to. The general theory of testing is discussed and practical suggestions made. An excellent bibliography on testing in arithmetic is given on pages 152-54. Odell, Charles W t . "Educational tests for use in elementary schools, revised." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 16, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 33. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1924. 22 p. An annotated bibliography of tests that are now available. 'Tests that are known to be distinctly unsatisfactory are omitted." Norms are available for most of the tests listed. The bibliography is preceded by a brief discussion of the characteristics and use of tests. [32] Bureau of Cooperative Research, Indiana University (Compiled by). "First revision of bibliography of educational measurements." Bul- letin of the School of Education, Vol. 1, No. 5. Bloomington, In- diana: Indiana University, 1925. 147 p. 'This bibliography is compiled for the double purpose of listing all efforts, so far as they have come to our attention, which have been made in the United States to develop achievement tests, and of giving a brief description of each test, including in the description not only an analysis of the test and its purpose but also available information concerning the range of the test, administration cost of the test in money and in time, information as to the time of year in which it was standardized, the publisher of the tests, and the date of publication." (From foreword of first edition.) 5. Reports of Investigations and Miscellaneous References Beauchamp, Wilbur L. "Supervised study in elementary physical science," School Review, 32: 175-81, March, 1924. Types of errors in reading are reported and suggestions made concerning their diagnosis and correction. Burbank, E. D. "Phonetics in the elementary grades for teachers of normal children," Volta Review, 22:113-16, 217-20, 274-78, 323-27, March, April, May, June, 1920. The science of phonics is discussed "in a form that will make it available for teachers of the primary grades." Buswell, Guy Thomas. "Fundamental reading habits: a study of their development." Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 21. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1922. 150 p. The results of significant studies of fundamental reading habits, methods of teach- ing beginning reading, and individual variations in reading habits are reported. Gates, Arthur I. "The psychology of reading and spelling." Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 129. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1922. 108 p. The results of detailed investigations to determine the nature of specific difficulties in reading and spelling are presented and a remedy for each is given. Germane, Charles E. "The value of the corrected summary as com- pared with the re-reading of the same article," Elementary School Journal, 21:461-64, February, 1921. The methods and results of an experiment in Grades V to IX are reported. Germane, Charles E. "The value of the written paragraph summary," Journal of Educational Research, 3:116-23, February, 1921. The results of a study of the value of a written paragraph summary as compared with re-reading are reported. [33] Germane, Charles E. "The value of the controlled summary as a method of studying," School and Society, 13:730-32, June, 1921. Reports the results of an experiment with seventh and eighth-grade pupils to determine the relative value of answering questions and of re-reading for the same period of time. Gray, Clarence Truman. Deficiencies in Reading Ability. New York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1922. 420 p. Summaries of reading investigations, methods of diagnosing reading deficiencies, and remedial devices are given. Gray, Clarence Truman. "The anticipation of meaning as a factor in reading ability," Elementary School Journal, 23:614-26, April, 1923. " A series of experiments to show the place and function in reading of the anticipa- tion of meaning are summarized. Gray, William Scott. "A summary of investigations relating to read- ing." Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 28. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1925. 275 p. This is a very systematic and exhaustive summary. Consequently it is a most valuable source book of investigations relating to reading. There is an annotated bibli- ography of 436 titles. Gray, William Scott, with the cooperation of Kibbe, Delia, Lucas, Laura, and Miller, Lawrence William. "Remedial cases in reading, their diagnosis and treatment." Supplementary Educa- tional Monographs, No. 22. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1922. 208 p. Of a practical nature because of the actual cases reported, the excellent analysis of causes, and the remedial measures described. Hilliard, George Horatio. "Probable types of difficulties underlying low scores in comprehension." University of Iowa Studies in Edu- cation, Vol. 2, No. 6. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1924. 60 p. A summary of investigations concerning difficulties in comprehension, followed by the results of studies of relation of six abilities to reading. James, M. Elizabeth. "Using the results of measurement in reading in training student-teachers," Elementary School Journal, 23 : 190-96. November, 1922. A procedure adopted to improve the comprehension of third-grade pupils is described. [34] Judd, Charles Hubbard, and Buswell, Guy Thomas. "Silent read- ing: a study of the various types." Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 23. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1922. 160 p. The effect on reading habits of changes in the content and purpose of reading are .discussed, analytical study is distinguished from reading, and characteristic eye-move- ments in reading foreign languages are described. Marks, Hannah. "An experiment in teaching beginning reading in a socially organized classroom," Journal of Educational Method, 3:360-67, May, 1924. The results of teaching a first-grade class to read silently for meaning are reported. Many supplementary devices. Merton, Elda L. "The discovery and correction of reading difficulties." Second Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Prin- cipals, Vol. 2, No. 4. Washington: Department of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association, 1923, p. 346-63. Methods of administering remedial instruction in the classroom are described. Monroe, Walter S. "Types of learning required of pupils in the seventh and eighth grades and in the high school." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 19, No. 15, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 7. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1921. 16 p. Twelve types of textbook study, or purposes for which pupils read, are dis- tinguished. Teachers' opinions as to the prevalence in various school subjects and the relative difficulties of these various types of study are reported. Monroe, Walter S., and Johnston, Nell Bomar. "Reporting educa- tional research." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 38, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 25. Urbana: Univer- sity of Illinois, 1925. 63 p. Most of the principles relating to the reporting of educational research are appli- cable to the writing of a course of study. This bulletin will be of real assistance to the one who does the actual writing of a course of study. Monroe, Walter S., and Mohlman, Dora Keen. "Errors made by high-school students in one type of textbook study," School Review, 31:36-47, January, 1923. This presents a study of the errors made by high-school students in one type of textbook study, "comprehension of material read plus memorization so that it can be reproduced." An analysis of the causes of errors is made and remedial measures are suggested. [35] Streitz, Ruth. "Teachers' difficulties in reading and their correctives." University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. 22, Xo. 30. Bureau of Educa- tional Research Bulletin Xo. 23. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1925. 35 p. A distinction is made between teachers' difficulties and pupils' difficulties. Twenty- six difficulties are listed and correctives that are in actual successful use are given for each. Terry. Paul YV. 'The reading problem in arithmetic," Journal of Edu- cational Psychology, 12:365-77, October, 1921. Laboratory studies with adult subjects were made to determine the methods used in reading problems in arithmetic. The results are presented. L hl, \\ illis L. "Scientific determination of the content of the ele- mentary school course in reading." University of Wisconsin Studies in Social Sciences and History, Xo. 4. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1921. 152 p. Reports the results of critical studies made of the selections in school readers. Lists of desirable qualities of selections for each grade are given. Yogel. Mabel, Jaycox, Emma, and Washburxe, Carletox W. "A basic list of phonics for Grades I and II." Elementary School Jour- nal, 23:436-43, February, 1923. The methods and the results of a study to determine the most frequently recurring phonetic elements in Grades I and II are reported. \\ ilsox, Estalixe. "Improving the ability to read arithmetic prob- lems," Elementary School Journal, 22:380-86, January, 1922. The methods and the results of training sixth-grade pupils to read arithmetic problems are reported. Winch, W. H. ''Teaching beginners to read in England: its methods, results, and psychological bases." Journal of Educational Research Monographs, Xo. 8. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publish- ing Company, 1925. 185 p. The author makes a critical analysis and experimental comparison of the phonic, look-and-say, syllabic or alphabetic, and phonoscript methods of teaching beginning reading. Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for procedure," Elementary School Journal, 18:505-22, March, 1918. Fundamental principles of reading are discussed and ten types of "individuated instruction" are described. The results of instruction adapted to individual needs are given. [36] "A few facts about phonetics." New York: Ginn and Company, 1915. 12 p. An analysis of 2,396 words was made to determine the common phonetic elements. The results are discussed. "New materials of instruction." Nineteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1920, p. 20-57. The chapters referred to have the following titles: "Reading exercises based on children's experiences," "Reading for children in non-English-speaking families," "Read- ing for non-English-speaking adults," "Tests in reading as part of classroom routine," and "Reading instructions for college students." On minimum essentials: Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I; Sixteenth Yearbook, Part I; Seventeenth Yearbook, Part I; and Eighteenth Yearbook, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1915, 1917, 1918, 1919. These are reports on economy of time and minimal essentials in elementary school subjects. The discussions furnish a background for such provisions in courses of study. Some concrete material and suggestions are also provided. "Report of the national committee on reading." Twenty-Fourth Year- book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925. 357 p. This is a most important and valuable assembly of the best present day educa- tional opinions with regard to reading as an elementary-school subject. Much usable material has been brought together. "Report of the Society's committee on silent reading." Twentieth Year- book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1921. 172 p. This yearbook embodies a great deal of immediately usable classroom material. [37]