THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 3 55.5 $ K 5 VY\ Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. A charge is made on all overdue books. U. of I. Library —Q-T.. - MAY / 9’38 Jflfl 4,8 |j)4 MfiR 2 5 1342 flPR -8 1342 0 l m 2 d APR 2 81984 MANUAL OF GAS IN ATTACK AND DEFENSE BY MAJOR WILLIAM KIRBY, Inf., R. C. Published by EDWIN N. APPLETON Military and Naval Books Exclusively 1 Broadway, New York City COPYRIGHT APPLIED FOR ^ c S> ( a, c $ < 5 Table of Contents. PAGE. Chapter I. Schedule for Training of Enlisted Men. 7 Part 1. Seven Weeks’ Training. 7 Part 2. Six-Day Course. 22 Part 3. Preliminary Drills With Box Respirators. 35 Chapter II. Lecture on Gas for Officers. 41 Chapter III. Defensive Measures Against Gas Attacks. 53 Part 1. Introduction. 55 Part 2. Organization of Gas Defense. 59 Part 3. Protective Appliances. 76 Part 4. Considerations Affecting Special Arms. 84 Chapter IV. Final Drills With Box Respirators and Helmets, 91 Part 1. Practice A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. 91 Part 2. Tube Helmet Drill. 93 Chapter V. Inspection of Personal Anti-Gas Equipment.... 97 Chapter VI. Instructions for the Use of Horse Respirators. . 101 Chapter VII. Typical Standing Orders for Action During Gas Alert and Hostile Gas Attacks. 107 Chapter VIII. Typical Standing Orders for Company Gas N. C. O’s. 113 Chapter IX. Instructions for Making Wind Observations and Furnishing Reports. 115 Chapter X. Instructions for Taking Gas Samples and for Reporting on Hostile Gas Attacks. 119 PAGE. Chapter XI. Gas in the Offense. . . .. 121 Part 1. Liquid Fire. 121 Part 2. Smoke Bombs. 122 Part 3. The Tactical Employment of Gas in Offense. .. 123 Part 4. Method of Making a Gas, Attack. 124 Chapter XII. Pathology of Gas Poisoning and its Treatment, 127 Part 1. The Mode of Action of Poisonous Gases. 127 Part 2. The Use of Gas for Offensive Purposes. 130 Part 3. Cloud Gas of 1915, 1916, 1917. 132 Part 4. Regulations for Treatment of Gassed Cases.... 144 Part 5. Index to Drugs Which Have At Various Times Been Used. 147 Part 0. Nitrous Fumes, Lachrvmators, Hydrocyanic Acid, Carbon Monoxide. 149 Index 159 Abbreviations Bde. G. 0. Brigade Gas Officer. B. G. 0. Battalion Gas Officer. Cl. Chlorine. CO. Carbon Monoxide. C.O. Commanding Officer. D. A. D. 0. S. Deputy Assistant Director of Ordnance Service. D. G. 0. Divisional Gas Officer. D. Mk. III. “ D ” Class, Mark 3 (sub-class) Field Telephone H. Q. Headquarters. Hylio. «/ Sodium Thiosulphate. N. C. 0. Non-commissioned Officer. 0 . c. Officer Commanding. P. H. Phenol Hexamine. S. A. A. Small Arms Ammunition. S. B. R. Small Box Respirator. CHAPTER L Schedule For Training Enlisted Men. PART I.—SEVEN WEEKS’ TRAINING. Schedule for Training of Enlisted Men. (For guidance of battalion anti-gas officers.) Seven weeks’ training. Two separate hours per week, a. Introduction. Methods of attack. Effects of gas. Seri¬ ousness of this form of warfare. b. (Issue of respirators, roughly according to size.) Protection. S. B. B. Description. Method of working. Inspection. c. Inspection of S. B. It. (Small Box Respirator). Visit to Lachrymatory. Chamber for fitting. d. Drills. Breathing. Necessity for holding breath. Exercises in holding breath. Respirators. Adjustment by numbers. Clearing masks. Smelling for gas. Removal of masks. e. Drills (continued). Exercises in holding breath. Adjustment by numbers, and without. Cleaning eyepieces. Speed drill. f. Drills (continued). Exercises in holding breath. Speed drill and tests. Giving and passing on orders. March and short double time march in respirators. 8 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. g. Drills (continued). Exercises in holding breath [ 2 , Speed in adjustment j “ our ' Lecture. Gas Alert. (Wind Dangerous.) Measures taken. i hour. h. Lecture. Gas shells. Giving alarms, etc. i. Drill for gas shells. Holding breath. Adjustment from slung position. Gas shell demonstration. j. Drill. Revision of Inspection. Standard tests. 6 seconds. 7 seconds. Bombing, Physical drill, Bayonet work, etc., in S. B. R’s. k. Lecture. Duties of Company Gas N. C. 0. in trench. First Aid. Protected dugouts. Practical — Revision of drill. l. Practical — Clearing trenches and dugouts. Use of fans and fires. m. Visit to chlorine chamber at gas school for: a. Examination in standard tests. b. Passing through chlorine. n. Gas cloud and gas shell demonstration at gas school. 45 min. 15 min. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 9 FIRST LECTURE ON GAS. 2. ANTI-GAS MEASURES. One of the forms of attack you will certainly meet with when you go to the front, is the attack by means of POISON" GAS. The first use of gas in modern warfare was in an attack on April 22, 1915, by the Germans at Ypres, on a sector where the French and Canadian forces met. The surprise was complete and the number of casualties enormous. The Allies first used gas on September 25tli, 1915, at Loos. Since then the new weapon has been con¬ stantly used. Now, attacks by gas differ from all other forms of attack in that you as soldiers are unable to protect yourselves except by the use of the respirator issued to you. You cannot take cover from gas in the way you can take cover from bullets, splinters, shrapnel, etc. GAS" CAN GET AROUND ALL COVER —YOU MUST EVER BE ON THE WATCH. There are two chief methods of attack: (1) Gas cloud or mist attack. (2) Gas shell attack. The Gas Cloud Attack. — Gases used — chiefly Chlorine and Phosgene — ASPHYXIANTS — they act through the lungs, caus¬ ing death by suffocation. Used because they are: (a) Heavy — three or four times as heavy as air. (b) Easily turned into liquids. (c) Really poisonous. These gases are liquified by cold and pressure and placed in metal cylinders weighing over 1 cwt. The cylinders are taken up to the front line trenches and placed in special emplacements under the fire step. (See sketch, Par. 3.) When the wind is favorable for an attack (steady — at 5 to 8 m. p. h.) the gas is liberated by turning the stop-cock of the cylinders. The gas being heavy, it is carried by the wind, close to the ground, towards the troops to be attacked, remaining in the bottom of the trenches, dugouts, etc., for several days if it is not cleared. A definite warning is therefore given to the troops to be attacked, by the direction of the wind — therefore the necessity for wind observation in the trenches. C.F. What Steps to be Taken When Wind is Dangerous. — For a cloud attack a general alarm must be given, which will rouse everyone along a wide front. 10 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. (1) Sentries are posted in every bay with lateral alarms and orderlies within reach. (Explain.) (2) Strombcs Horns. (Explain.) If proper precautions are taken a surprise attack can very seldom be made. .It When attack takes place it can be recognized by (a) Sound of gas escaping from cylinders, (b) Appearance of the cloud, (c) Smell of the gas. Gas Shell Attack.— All areas within five miles of the front line are liable to be attacked by gas shells. These are fired from heavy and light Howitzers and trench mortars or Minenwerfers. The greater part of the explosive is taken away and replaced by a poisonous liquid, which when the shell bursts, turns into a heavy vapour which hangs about the position for a long time. When fired alone, the shells can be detected (a) by the “wobbly” noise which the shell makes coming through the air, (b) by the small noise on bursting, and (c) by the appearance of a whitish cloud on the bursting of the shell. Cylinders placed in special places under parapets. Do not connect up cylinders until attack is to be made. 3,500 cylinders were used on a mile front. Two men to a cylinder. The reason they are connected up is to send over waves. Expanded metal work is placed over tanks, and then sand bags. This will not interfere with trench work. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 11 Warning.—When old cylinder is disconnected, push red tag over same, with the word “empty” on it. If tags are not avail¬ able, use marker and mark empty, on outside of cylinder. Pressure: 170 kilograms to cubic centimeter. Kilogram equals 4| lbs. Centimeter equals one-third of one inch. 4 . A “ General ” alarm is not wanted, but one that will cover a small area very quickly. (See lecture on gas shells.) Protection.— The S. B. Respirator issued to you is an efficient protection against all poisonous gases used by the enemy. A perfect familiarity with the gas mask and quick application are the only certain means of defence. The necessity of holding the breath directly a gas alarm is given, cannot be overemphasized. One might mention before going into details about the various gases the importance of knowing your gas mask, how to use it and to have all the confidence in the world in it, because it really is your only life saver against gas attacks. In the month of January, 1917, four regiments of German Marines were brought up to hold a certain sector of the British front. They had no experience with a gas mask, until they began to realize that the British found this out. Hundreds of Gas Cylinders were brough up by the British, and placed in the usual position, under the fire steps, waiting for the wind to change so that it would be in a dangerous position for the Ger¬ mans. In the meantime, which was about three days, the Germans drilled and drilled in the use of their own mask, but it was too late, for at the end of three days the British had the wind in the right direction and let forth this rolling cloud of poisonous Chlorine Gas, which went over on the Germans, who had very little training, and the loss of life amounted to nearly 10,000 killed. The above only goes to show how one must train and train, in order to secure safety at all times against attack. SECOND LECTURE. 6 . ANTI-GAS MEASURES. The following notes to be expanded by the battalion Anti-Gas Officers. Gas alert (or wind dangerous) will be ordered when the wind is .in the dangerous quarter, no matter what the strength of the wind. 12 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN rtAOC or mat e A'Ji 7'f r/0 h $ tf/'IH w*t f r* Ar*o fit/Jr r*v Ait •rp SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 13 The order “ Gas Alert ” will be sent out to all units by Corps H.Q. (or, if authority has been so delegated, by Divisional H.Q.), but Brigade H.Q. or Battalion Commanders are empowered to order a “ Gas Alert ” as a result of wind observations made by Company Gas N.C.O’s. forwarded by Company Commanders. Such action will be reported immediately to the next higher formation. “ Gas Alert ” will not be taken off without the authority of the Corps Commander, or the Divisional Commander to whom authority has been delegated. Wind Reports.— Every three hours or oftener if the wind is in or approaching a dangerous quarter: For direction — Wind Vane — describe type, points of compass used. For strength — Beaufort flag used with the Beaufort scale. Type of Wind Report. (Illustrate) BEHAVIOR DURING GAS ALERT. Inspection of Box Respirators.— All box respirators will be care¬ fully inspected and the inspection repeated only daily about one hour before sunset. Alert Position for Box Respirators.— All ranks will carry their box respirators in the alert position. Nothing slung across the chest must interfere with the immediate use of the respirator. Sentries, etc.— All working parties will have a sentry posted to give instant warning of a gas attack. A sentry will be posted at each Strombos Horn or other alarm device and instructed in its use. ' A sentry will be posted to every large dugout and to each group of small dugouts. A sentry will be posted to each Headquarters, Signal Office and independent body of men. Arrangements will be made by the officer in charge of the trench for warning the Artillery Observation Post if there is one in the trench. Commanders of units in billets within eight miles of the front line trenches will organize a system of giving the alarm and rousing all men in cellars or houses. At night sentries must have at least two men within reach of them so that the alarm can be spread rapidly. Sleeping.— When a gas attack is probable, men in front line trenches will sleep on the fire-step instead of in dug-outs. 14 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. Men sleeping in rearward lines or in works where they are allowed to take off their equipment, will sleep with their box respirators on the person. Company Gas N.C.O’s. —• Company Gas N.C.O’s. will report to Company H.Q. in readiness to assist the Company Commander should a gas attack occur. 7 . AMMONIA CAPSULES. Medical Officers in units must see that a proper proportion of the ammonia capsules are with stretcher bearers in the front line, in readiness for their immediate use after a gas attack. 8 . GAS ALARM. In the event of an enemy gas attack the alarm will at once be given by all means available — by telephone, Strombos Horns, gongs and, if necessary, by orderly. Sentries will warn all ranks in trenches, dug-outs, observation posts or mine-shafts. All ranks will at once put on their box respirators. Troops in the front line trenches and elsewhere where the tactical situation requires it, will stand to arms. All ranks in the front lines are forbidden to remain in, or go into, dug-outs or move to a flank or to the rear. If troops in support or reserve lines of trenches remain in, or into, unprotected dug-outs, they must continue to wear their anti-gas appliances. Unnecessary Movement to Cease.— There must be as little movement and talking as possible. On the alarm being given, all bodies of troops or transport on the move will halt and all working parties cease work until the gas cloud has passed. If a relief is going on, units should stand steady as far as possible until the gas cloud has passed. Supports and parties bringing up ammunition and grenades will only be moved up if the tactical situation demands. Protected Shelters. — The blanket doorways of protected dug- outs, cellars, etc., will be let down and carefully fixed in position. 9 . ACTION DURING AN ENEMY GAS ATTACK. Should the gas cloud be unaccompanied by an infantry attack, the signal for gas will be sent and the S. 0. S. signal will not be made unless an infantry attack develops. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 15 Tactical Measures. — The troops in the front trenches will open a slow rate of rifle fire against the enemy trenches; occasional short bursts should be fired from machine guns to ascertain that these are in working order. All available howitzers should be turned on the enemy’s trenches from which the gas is being emitted, or in which the enemy infantry may be concentrating for the assault. Should an infantry attack develop, the normal procedure of S. O. S. will be carried out. Troops in the front line must be prepared to bring a cross fire to bear on the enemy attempting to advance against a- gassed portion of the line. Movement. — All movement must be reduced to a minimum. There should be as little moving about and talking as possible in the trenches. Men must be made to realize that, with the gas now used by the enemy, the observance of this rule may be essential for their safety. io. ACTION AFTER AN ENEMY GAS ATTACK. Removal of Respirators, etc. — Men in charge of anti-gas fans will use them as soon as the gas cloud has passed, so as to admit of respirators being removed. Box respirators will not be removed after a gas attack until permission has been given by the Company Commander who will, when possible, ascertain from officers and N.C.O’s. who have been trained at a Gas School that it is safe to do so. Preparation for a Subsequent Attack. — So as to be ready for a subsequent gas cloud, all ranks will replace their box respirators in the “ Alert ” position. A sharp look-out must be maintained for a repetition of the gas attack as long as the wind continues in the dangerous quarter. Clearing of Shelters. — Dug-outs, cellars, etc., must not be en¬ tered before they have been thoroughly ventilated, except by men wearing box respirators. Thorough ventilation, by means of fires or anti-gas fans, is the only sure way of clearing a shelter. Movement. — No man suffering from the effects of gas is to be allowed to walk to the dressing station. The clearing of trenches and dug-outs must not be carried out by men who have been affected by the gas. 16 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. After a gas attack, troops in the front trenches are to be re¬ lieved of all fatigue and carrying work for twenty-four hours by sending up working parties from companies in rear. Horses which have been exposed to the gas should not be worked for twenty-four hours if it can be avoided. Cleaning of Arms.— Rifles and machine guns must be cleaned after a gas attack. Oil cleaning will prevent corrosion for twelve hours, but the first opportunity must be taken to clean all parts in boiling water containing a little soda. THIRD LECTURE. n. GAS SHELLS. These shells contain a small bursting charge and a liquid chemical substance which is converted into vapor and gas when the shell bursts. To have a satisfactory effect a large number must be discharged in a small space. The bursting charge, though not so powerful as that of the ordinary shell, is neverthe¬ less sufficient to produce a considerable exposive effect in addition to the actual gases. Talk briefly upon: (1) Nature of Armament. (2) Description of the various kinds of shells. Poisonous and lachrymatory and their effects. (3) The tactical use of gas shells. It is very important that each man should be able to recognize gas shells, be able to give the alarm and put on his protection promptly. The alarm is given either by men shouting “ Gas Shells” or using rattles. The following scheme is suggested: 1. A short talk to the men (15 minutes) upon these points: (a) Up to 5 miles from front line likely to get Gas Shells, they can be recognized by: (1) Wobbly noise. (2) Slight detonation on bursting (duds). (3) Dense white cloud on bursting. (b) Necessary that all men within 300 feet of bursting shell should get the alarm and put on protection. (c) By considering (1) The direction of the wind; (2) Their distance from bursting shell. Men should be able to immediately decide whether to shout “ Gas Shells ” first, hold breath and then put on protection, or hold breath, put on protection and then shout “ Gas Shells.” SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 17 Rattles can be used, after men, who have them, have completely adjusted their protection. All must be impressed with the complete protection afforded by the S. B. R. 2. After all the men have thoroughly understood the procedure to be adopted, the following practical work should be followed: (a) Paper bags burst to represent gas shells, at varying distances and directions. Men should either shout “ Gas Shells ” first or get on protection first according to (c) (1). Repeat when squad is on the move. (b) Small puff balls (gunpowder, brown paper, fuse) burst and procedure in ( 2 ) (a) followed. (c) By arrangement with the Gas Officer, gas can be liberated as each puff-ball bursts. 3. Repeat (a), (b) and (c) above with the S. B. R’s. at the slung position. Squads stationary and moving, men must remem¬ ber to: (a) To move out of thick part of cloud. (b) To keep clear of area being shelled. (c) To pick up all equipment before moving on. N. C. O’s in charge of squads must move their men out of area shelled and out of cloud as quickly as possible. FOURTH LECTURE. 12 . TYPICAL STANDING ORDERS FOR COMPANY GAS N. C. O’S. (1) They will assist officers at the inspection of box respirators, helmets and goggles and in making such local repairs as are possible. They will assist in training men in the use of anti-gas appliances. (2) Under the Company Commander they will have charge of all anti-gas trench stores as follows: (a) Strombos Horns and other Gas Alarm Devices — Inspect daily and see that sentries posted to them know how they should be used. (b) Gas-proof Shelters — See that the blanket doorways fit and are kept in good order. (c) Anti-Gas Fans — See that they are in their proper posi¬ tion and in serviceable condition. (d) Stores of fuel for clearing shelters — Insure sufficient sup¬ ply for clearing all dug-outs, to be maintained under company arrangements 18 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. (e) Vermorel Sprayers — Maintain in working order and see that supply of solution is available. (f) Gas Sampling Apparatus — Have charge of the vacuum bulbs and gas-testing tubes. Keep a stock of corked bottles and small tins with well-fitting lids for collecting samples of earth and water after a gas shell attack. (3) On relief they will assist the Company Commander in taking over all anti-gas trench stores. The Company Gas N. C. O’s. should accompany the advance party and take over anti-gas trench stores (by daylight if possible). (4) They will make wind observations every three hours, or more frequently if the wind is in or nearing a dangerous quarter, and will report any change of wind to the Company Commander. (5) During a gas cloud attack they will take gas samples by means of the vacuum bulbs and gas-testing tubes. (G) During or after the attack the N. C. 0. must note down in writing as much information regarding the attack as possible. (7) As soon as possible after the conclusion of a gas shell bombardment, the Gas N. C. 0. must fill his bottles and tins and take samples of water, mud or earth, from those parts of the line which are smelling most strongly of shell gases. He should note the position of any blind shells. (8) As soon as possible after a gas attack, all samples and notes will be handed to the Company Commander for trans¬ mission to the Divisional Gas Officer. First Aid.— Talk on the following points: (1) If a man is gassed or wounded he must on no account be allowed to remove his respirator while the gas is about. Hands to be tied if necessary. ' (2) Clothing loosened round neck, chest and waist. Equipment, etc., removed. (3) Man to be removed to a protected dug-out, or if that is not possible, placed on the top of the parados. (4) A gassed man must not walk. He must be treated as a stretcher case. REST IS ESSENTIAL. (5) When gas cloud has been cleared away or the man has reached a protected dug-out, his respirator may be removed. (6) Vomiting is beneficial. (7) Ammonia inhalation from Capsules in possession of stretcher bearers often give relief. (8) No movement and as much rest as possible. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 19 9. Sometimes alcoholic treatment will help. 1(L MOST IMPORTANT —Do not use artifical respiration. Poisoning By Carbon Monoxide. — This gas is not used directly in an attack, but causes a large number of deaths. It poisons the blood. It is much lighter than air. It cannot be liquified easily. The respirator is not protection against this gas. Death by this gas is very pleasant, one simply goes to sleep, with no ill effect. It is formed when carbon burns, i. e., when there is very little air in a confined place. When any high explosive explodes in a confined place, such as the entrance to a trench, mine or dug-out, carbon monoxide is formed. It forms from a back blow from machine-guns, also from artillery that is enclosed or confined. Men who are engaged in trench work or mines, and have to use high explosives are most subjected to this kind of gas. Explosion of coal dust forms carbon monoxide. This set lasts for one-half hour, and one has to be verv care- ful with it or it is liable to go up. Pressure is about 150 atmospheres. This is strapped to the body. Artificial respiration is the only cure. No action on the heart, but on the blood. 13. PROTECTION OF SHELTERS. (1) Methods of Protection. — Protection of dug-outs, cellars, buildings, etc., is given if all entrances are closed by well-fitting doors or by blankets sprayed with hypo solution from a Vermorel sprayer. Practically no gas passes through a wet blanket, and the protection depends on getting a good joint at the sides and bottom of a doorway, so as to stop all draughts. This can be effected by letting the blanket rest on battens, fixed with a slight slope, against the door frame. The blanket should overlap the outer sides and a fold should lie on the ground at the bottom. A pole is fastened to the blanket, which allows the latter to be rolled up on the frame and causes it to fall evenly. Wherever possible, particularly where there is likely to be movement in and out of the shelter, two blankets fitted in this way but sloping in opposite directions should be provided. There 20 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. should be an interval of at least three feet between the two frames, and the larger this vestibule is made, the more efficient' is the dug-out. When not in use, the blankets should be rolled up and held so that they can be readily released, and so should be sprayed occasionally with water or a little Vermorel sprayer solution. If the blankets become stiff from a deposit of chemicals, they should be sprayed with water. All ranks must be taught how to use gas-proof dug-outs, e. g., how to enter a protected doorway quickly, replacing the blanket immediately, and carrying in as little outside air as possible. The protection afforded by these means is just as complete against lachrymatory gases as it is against cloud gas and poison¬ ous shell gases. Shelters Which Should Be Protected. — The following should always be protected: Medical aid-posts and advanced dressing stations, Company, Battalion and Brigade Headquarters, Signal Shelters and any other place where work has to be carried out during a gas attack. In addition to the above, it is desirable to protect all dug-outs, cellars and buildings within the shell area, particularly those of artillery personnel. It should be noted, however, that the pro¬ tection of dug-outs for troops in the front line of trenches is usually inadvisable on account of the delay involved in getting men out in time of attack. It is desirable to protect stretcher bearers’ dug-outs with a view to putting casualties in them. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 14. PROTECTED DUGOUTS. D S 22 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. PART 2.— SIX-DAY COURSE. 15. SIX-DAY COURSE IN ANTI-GAS MEASURES. 8:30- 9:15 A. M. 9:15- 9:30 A. M. 9:30-10:15 A. M. 10:15-11:30 A. M. First Day. Introductory. 1. Methods of gas attack. 2. History of gas attacks and defense. 3. Necessity for careful training. Recess. Issue of Small Box Respirators. The Gas Mask. (Small Box Respirator.) 1. Description and mechanism (with mask in hand). 2. Inspection. 3. Demonstration of drills. Practical. 1. Visit to Gas House for: (a) Smell of chlorine. (b) Fitting by passing through lach- rymator. 2. Drill in adjustment — by numbers. Practice A. B, F. G. Second Day. 8:30-10:15 A. M. The Cloud Gas' Attack. 1. Kinds of gas used. Effects. 2. Methods of installing gas in trenches. 3. Three signs of approaching cloud attack. Wind observations. Introductory. (Nec¬ essary conditions.) Recess. Exercise in holding breath. 5. Wind dangerous period. Precautions taken. 6. Means of giving alarm for cloud gas. 7. Action to be taken in the trenches dur¬ ing a gas cloud attack and rules to be observed. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 23 10:15-11:30 A. M. $ Drills. Exercise in holding breath. Adjustment by the numbers. Practice D, E, H. Speed adjustment. (Alternate with adjust¬ ment by the numbers.) 8:30-10:30 A. m. Third Day. Cloud Gas Attack (continued). 1. Action after a gas attack — clearing of the dugouts and trenches. 2. Protection of arms, ammunition and equipment. Recess — Drills. Exercise in holding breath. Speed with accuracy of adjustment. 3. Protected dugouts. Description and use of. 4. Use of smoke in warfare. 10:30-11:30 A. M. Practical. Passing through chlorine. 8:30- 9:10 A. M. Fourth Day. Wind observations. Beaufort scale. Wind 9 :10- 9:30 A. M. 9:30-11:30 A. M. reports. Practical wind reports. Smoke and gas cloud demonstration in trenches, followed by clearing of trenches and dugouts with fans and fire. 8:30- 9:45 A. M. Fifth Day. Gas Shells. 1. Description. Armaments. 2. Kinds of gas used. 3. Tactical uses. 4. Signs of a gas shell attack. 5. Methods of giving the alarm. Note-books to be handed in. 9:45-11:00 A. M. 11:00-11:30 A. M. Gas Shell Demonstration. Route march in respirators. 24 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. Sixth Day. 8:30- 9:00 a. m. Effect of Gas and Treatment of Gas Cases. 9:00-10:00 A. M. 10:00-11:00 A. M. 11:00-11:30 A. M. First Aid. Organization of Gas Service in Foreign Forces. Anti-gas duties with an infantry regiment. Standing orders. Duties of Company Gas N.C.O. Mutual Instruction in Squads. Disinfection of gas appliances. Demonstra¬ tion and conferences. ANTI-GAS MEASURES. 16 . First Lecture. First Use of Gas by Germans, April 22 , 1915 .— Gas (Cl) was first used by the Germans on April 22, 1915, in back of Ypres near the junction of the French and Canadian lines. The gas was sent over by the cloud method. This Chlorine Gas causes death by suffocation. It was entirely unexpected, so heavy casualties resulted. There was no protection against it at the time. Since that date the Germans have been using gas with increasing clever¬ ness. The Allies soon caught on and have used it in return. First crude protection against gas, used by the Allies.— As a protection against chlorine gas attacks, the Allies, at first, used to soak their handkerchiefs in water or in their own urine and wrapped it about the nose and mouth. Then it was found that Sodium Thiosulphate (Hypo) would absorb chlorine, so pads soaked in Hypo and tied around the neck by tapes were used. Crude methods used.— Another means of protection against chlorine, gas was a bottle with the bottom knocked out and filled with moist earth and cotton. The soldier breathed through this bottle by applying to his lips. Second Great Gas Attack — Chlorine-Phosgene. November 19 , 1915 .— Realizing the Allies had protection against Cl, on Nov. 19, 1915, the Germans sent over bv the cloud method a combination of chlorine and phosgene. The phosgene was not absorbed by Hypo, water or urine. Hence, more adequate protection was needed. Gas Shell Attack by Boches July, 1915 .— In July, 1915, the Germans began to put gas in shells. Anyone near a bursting shell became a casualty. In every battle now, gas shells are used. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 25 Last Great Gas Cloud Attack, Jan. 31 , 1917 .— On Jan. 31, 1917, there occurred a cloud gas attack against the French, when casualties occurred twenty miles behind the lines. Methods of Gas Attack. — There are two ways gas may be sent over: 1. Cloud or Mist: Gas in form of liquid is placed in iron cylinders and taken to front line trenches. When wind is favorable the cylinders are opened, the liquid turned into gas, and carried by wind over the enemy’s trenches. 2. Gas Shell: Shells are filled with poisonous liquids which turn into poison¬ ous vapor upon bursting of shell. Cloud Method Out of Date. — The cloud method is seldom used now and then only against undisciplined and poorly trained men. Gas Shells Used Now. — Gas shell method now used for nine- tenths of gas attacks in France. Take place every day and every minute. Thirty to forty per cent of shells fired by every gun and battery are gas shells. Need for Careful Training. — Success of these attacks is due to surprise. Hence men must be very carefully trained, always on the alert, and expert in defense against gas attacks. Men must understand: 1. Shell or cloud gas attacks. 2. Their protection and its mechanism. 3. Quick adjustment of masks. 4. Must hold breath while donning. 5. Must always be on alert and ready to give gas alarm. 6 . Must have confidence in protection. Reasons for Passing Men Through Gas Chamber.— For the fol¬ lowing reasons men must go through Gas Chamber: (a) Every Officer, N. C. 0. and man must pass through gas before going over seas. (b) Insures careful adjustment of masks. (c) Insures careful inspection. The Gas Mask. — The Gas Mask, called Small Box Respirator, is a protection against all gases used by Germans such as Chlorine (affects lungs) ; Prussic acid (affects nerves) ; Tear Shells (affects eyes), and “Mustard Oil Gas” (affects skin). 26 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. The Cloud Gas Attack. Qualities Desired in Gases Used in Clouds: 1. Must be heavier than air. 2. Easily liquified. 3. Cheap to manufacture and raw material plentiful. 4. Very poisonous. Gases Used in Cloud Method. — Gases used almost exclusively in Cloud Gas Attacks are Chlorine and Phosgene. These two gases are liquified by cold and pressure and put in steel cylinders. The cylinders act exactly like soda water containers. These cylinders are taken into the front line trenches and put in special emplacements under the parapet, beneath the fire step — four or five in a place. Number of cylinders needed in attack varies. In one attack 3,500 cylinders were used for one mile front. Three or more successive waves are sent over in one attack to surprise the enemy. Cylinders are covered over with sand bags because (1) they are out of the way and (2) in trench raids for gas scouting, they are hidden from view; (3) sand bags save cylinders from hostile fire. When aviators or scouts discover such gas present they signal back to artillery G-A-S. If accompanied by infantry attack, artil¬ lery is warned in ordinary way. Usual combination of Chlorine and Phosgene: Summer, 50 per cent Cl and 50 per cent Phosgene. Winter, 90 per cent Cl and 10 per cent Phosgene. Chlorine and Phosgene belong to a class of gases called asphyxi¬ ants. They attack the lungs and cause death by suffocation. Each lung is filled with air spaces and cells, the latter taking up the oxygen from the air and transferring it to the blood. Chlor¬ ine destroys the layer of cells so it cannot function and death results. It also causes the cells to exude matter which does not dry up but fills the lungs with liquid mass. Table of concentra¬ tion for Chlorine: 1 in 10,000 will knock a man out in five minutes. 1 in 100,000 for five hours will cause Bronchitis. 1 in 28,000 for five minutes will cause pneumonia. Concentration aimed at in gas attacks is 1 in 2,000. Chlorine. — Chlorine is 2.5 times heavier than air. Hence rolls along the ground. Greenish yellow in color. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 27 Phosgene. — Phosgene is 3.5 times heavier than air. It is color¬ less. Acts as an asphyxiant but is only half as strong as chlorine. It also has a delayed action on the heart, which acts two days afterwards. Hence in trenches after an attack troops and horses are rested for 24 hours, for any exertion by a man who has been gassed by Phosgene makes the effects much worse. Fresh troops take their places. Phosgene smells like musty hay. Action during Wind Dangerous Period.— As soon as wind is discovered to be dangerous, notices are posted to that effect. Five to 8 m. p. h. is the best speed. Favorably, steady wind must be waited for; hence, if the enemy sees that wind is blow¬ ing from our trenches toward them, they prepare for a gas attack. Wind Observations. — Wind observations are made every three hours: 1. To determine direction of wind. 2. To determine strength of wind. Gas Alarms. — Methods of giving the alarm are prepared as follows: Sentries put all along front to watch for gas. Every “ bay ” has a sentry. The alarm is given by striking an empty shell case with a piece of iron or wooden mallet. These are called Lateral Alarms. Strombos horns are also used —14 to one mile of front — and extend back to rear of lines. These horns are blown by compressed air and may be heard 400 to 500 yards. Each sentry, posted by lateral alarms or strombos horns, has two men near by to warn all men sleeping in dugouts. Head¬ quarters and Signal dug-outs all have sentries. Artillery obser¬ vation posts are also warned. During Wind Dangerous all masks are worn at the alert position and are inspected every day. The Company Gas N. C. 0. reports to Company Commander to give advice, if needed. Men in front line trenches sleep on fire step during Wind Dangerous period, and men in front or rear sleep with mass at the alert position. Men in billets must be warned. Children playing in the streets wear masks strapped on. Rifles are smeared with oil or vaseline to protect metal from gas. Action During Gas Attack.— Sentry can tell in three ways that gas is coming: 1. Hear it escaping from cylinders. 2. See cloud coming. 3. Smell the gas. Upon perceiving gas attack, sentry holds breath, gives alarm, puts on, mask and continues to give 23 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. alarm. All unnecessary movement must cease. Working parties and reliefs stop. Sentries lower blanket door at dugouts. Sentry holds breath, lowers first blanket, passes through and lowers second blanket, and then puts on his mask. G-A-S is sent back to artillery if attack is not accompanied by infantry. If followed by infantry S-O-S is sent. Men in front line trenches mount fire step and commence a slow rate of fire. This helps to protect the inside of rifle barrels from gas and also steadies the men. Cloud attacks now very few due to warning given by the wind and men are not surprised. Only used now against untrained troops with little or no anti-gas training. (With only three days’ training 1,600 Germans were killed by one gas attack.) Mechanism of Strombos Horn.— Each Strombos Horn has two compressed air cylinders, one attached and the other in reserve. Pressure of air in cylinder should be 175 kilograms per sq. cm. and must never be less than 150 kilograms per sq. cm. Strombos Horns are placed in horizontal position to protect from rain. STROMBOS HORN. Brass plate vibrates — compressed air pushing down onto bross plate causes it to vibrate, giving it the sound of a “ G ” note on the bugle. Two cylinders are with each horn; after an attack old cylinder Ms disconnected and new one attached, waiting for the next gas attack. One sentry is posted over each strombos horn. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 17. METHODS OF GETTING GAS OUT OF TRENCH. Two men in step and coming toward each other. 29 Three men in each sector, going in the same direction and in step. Clearing dugout: 1. By natural ventilation it takes from four to six hours to clear a dugout of Chlorine or Phosgene. 2. Tear Gas takes from three to four days. Fires in dugout.— Always wear mask. 18. Second Lecture. Action After Gas Attack. —-Before respirators are removed the trenches and dugouts must be cleared of gas. The gas settles into all holes at bottom of trenches and is cleared by fans or fires. Fans used chiefly in trenches. Men using fans work out of step. When they face each other they work in step. If men have been even slightly gassed they should not be allowed to help clear trenches. Clearing Dugouts.— There are three methods of clearing dug- outs: 1. Natural Ventilation.— Chlorine and Phosgene take from three to six hours to get out by natural ventilation. 2. By Fires.— Fire is made in center of double entrance dugout, six inches above level of floor, in a brazier or pail. One pound 30 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. of wood used for 200 cu. ft. of air space. In single entrance dug- out fire is built in passage one-third way from dugout. In a dug- out with steps leading into it, fire is built on steps near entrance. 3. By Fans. Action of Gas on Rifles, Ammunition and Equipment.— Chlor¬ ine is the chief gas acting on the metals. Therefore, all guns, mechanisms and bright parts of instruments are covered with light oil or vaseline. Ammunition, bombs, etc., are stored in compartments protected from gas by heavy blankets. To counter¬ act action of gas in rifle barrels a solution of soda is poured down barrel and then properly cleaned with oil. In case of wounds Chlorine gas acts as an antiseptic. Does not harm food; may be slight taste. Effect of Gas on Rifles, Ammunition and Equipment. The chief gas that acts is Chlorine: Brass and copper: Blue powder. Steel and iron: Rust. All rifles, ammunition, signal apparatus and bombs should be covered with ordinary rifle oil, i.e., 3 in 1 or vaseline. Use vaseline if available, if not oil is the next best for this purpose. Blankets are sprayed with water. Hinges are covered with flannel or cloth and soaked in water Acid will form in rifle barrels, and care should be taken to pour soda into them after every attack by gas, as acid will spread immediately. No dangerous effect on food except on canned goods that are open. If wounded in a gas attack the chances of recovery are better than if wounded elsewhere. Protected Dugouts.—- Most of the second and third line dugouts are protected, most of the doors having double blankets, looping into dugouts. There are no protected dugouts in the front line trenches. Dug- outs in second line and support lines are protected by double door of blankets. Construction.—- Blankets rest against beams with roller which holds them tight to the beams. Blankets are soaked in substance which absorbs water. They are sprayed once a week with ordi- SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 31 nary hype or a compound (Vermorel Spray). 14 lbs. Hype. 3 lbs. soda, 3 gal. water. Rollers extend over edge of blankets and hang on nails at top of entrance when blankets are rolled up. Dangerous to sleep in dugouts, with men going in and out, without respirator near. When wind is dangerous or likely to be so, wind observations, and reports are made every 3 hours by every Company Com¬ mander in front line trenches, and if situation warrants, Wind Dangerous or Gas Alert is ordered from Brigade Hdqrs. In making out wind reports the direction and strength of the wind must be known. Beaufort No. 0 1 2 • 3 _ 4 5 Beaufort Scale. Speed m. p. li. Natural Objects. Behavior of Flag. 0 Smoke straight up. No movement. 2 Smoke slants. No movement. 5 Felt on face. Slight movement. 10 Paper, etc., moved. ! up. 15 Bushes sway. Up, falling down. 20 Tree-tops sway. Wavelets on water. Up, falling less often 30 Trees sway and whistle. 0 32 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. Wind Report. Trench No. 303 December 6, 1917 Time Direction Strength, M. P. H. Remarks 10.30 a. m. S. SW. 5 m. p. h. Gusty. FIRST AID TO GASSED, ig. Third Lecture. First thing a wounded man tries to do is to tear off his helmet, which is fatal if any gas is present. Hence everyone should try to prevent this if possible. Next get him as high out of the gas as possible, and into a protected dugout. After getting him to protected dugout and mask removed, have him smell a capsule of aromatic spirits of ammonia. Next make him vomit. REST is the chief medicine. He must be treated as a stretcher patient and sent to hospital as soon as possible. Masks should be inspected in the prescribed manner, very care¬ fully. Carbon monoxide is not used directly in attacks, but has caused many casualties. It attacks the blood corpuscles and they no longer carry oxygen. It is a very light gas — lighter than air — so cannot be used as a cloud gas. Cannot be easily liquified, so cannot be used in gas shells. No respirators protect against this gas. Gas forms when carbon burns in very little air, in con¬ fined space. When any high explosive bursts in a confined place, carbon monoxide is formed. As a protection from this gas Salvus Sets are issued to machine gunners and some batteries. A salvus set cuts a man off entirely from the outside air. Consists of a cylinder of oxygen opening into bag of waterproof material, from which issues a tube leading to mouthpiece. If a man gets gassed by CO, artificial respiration is the only thing of any use. This is the only case in which artificial respiration is used in gas cases. Smoke warfare has been increasing in the last three or four months. Smoke is used of various colors, fired from all kinds of guns, trench mortars, bombs and stokes guns. There are two kinds: 1. Type S — ignited by fuse; 2. P. bombs — filled with red phosphorous and exploded by detonator. Uses of smoke: SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 33 1. Chlorine gas cloud attack, combined with smoke, now em¬ ployed a great deal. Saves a great deal of chlorine. Helps to lower enemy’s morale. 2. Assume that we are to concentrate troops at one point. To keep enemy from learning this, we screen the concentration by smoke for miles on either side. 3. In actual attack, nearly always, infantry advance is screened by smoke. 4. Smoke used for screening positions from aeroplanes. 5. Some barage placed on flank during a retirement so as to prevent exposure to hostile fire. Gas Shells. — Gas shells are ordinary shells from which the greater part of explosive has been taken and replaced by a poison¬ ous liquid, which, when the shell bursts, turns into a poisonous vapor or gas, and being heavy, hangs about the place where the shell bursts. In some cases, a lead container has to be used for the liquid, but in most cases the liquid is poured into the shell. Only enough explosive is used to burst the shell and set the gas free. Gas shells were first used by the Germans in October, 1915, and the Allies began to use them shortly afterwards. The first gas shells were fired indiscriminately and did little damage: 1. On account of small bursting charge they make a very small explosion. 2. Having such a great deal of liquid in them, a very curious, wobbly sound is produced as they go through the air. 3. The shell on bursting, produces a whitish cloud, which hangs over the place of bursting. By above characteristics gas shells were recognized. Nature Allies. 75mm. (Trench). 4.5 inch (Howitzer). 4.7 inch (Field Gun). 00 Pounder. Livens Projector (new gun like Trench Mortar). With above guns gas shells five miles. of Armament. German. 15 cm. Howitzer. 10.5 cm. Light Howitzer. 7.7 cm. Field Gun. Minenwerfers (Trench Mor¬ tars). can be thrown anywhere within 9 34 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. Gas shells are divided into four main divisions, according to chemicals inside. 1. Asphyxiants.— Attack lungs, causing death by suffocation, 01, Phosgene, K substance. 2. Paralysants.—Attack nerve centers. Prussic acid (usually mixed with other poisons of like nature). 3. Lachrymatory.—Attacks eyes, causing intense pain and tre¬ mendous flow of tears. From 1 in a million to 1 in five million knocks a man out. Has no permanent ill effect. Germans use benzyl bromide. 4. “Mustard Gas.”—Only used since July, 1917, by Germans. This shell contains heavy liquid which does not evaporate easily and affects the skin, forming ulcers, sores, etc. Affects especially the tender parts of the body. This gas hangs low and may be picked up by anyone by touching dirt near the place of bursting. This gas causes a loss of the sense of smell for other gases temporarily. Action is on eyes, causing intense pain and running of pus for three months, and sometimes permanent blindness. If this gets on hands, face or between the legs, it causes nasty sores which are incurable. Sometimes the officers wore the mask in the alert position, not putting mask entirely over the face, but inserting the mouth¬ piece and fastening the nose-clip. This has been discontinued as the Germans soon discovered this fact. Do not touch the eves «< with the hands. All gas shells are painted grey in color with identification marks painted on. Marks on Shells. Shells are painted light grey, with various markings, according to the gases they contain. Asphyxiant Shells.— Grey and light grey marks. Lachrymatory Shells.— Grey and black band. All shells are marked. Gas shells are used in the following ways: 1. To prevent con¬ centration of troops, supplies, etc., back of the lines. 2. Used for counter-battery work. 3. Used for lowering morale of opposing troops. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 35 Lachrymator shells are used against a position which you desire to deny the enemy and do not wish to occupy yourself. Asphyxiants and other gases are used against positions which you desire to deny the enemy and do wish to occupy yourself. Alarms for Gas Shells.-— Success of gas shells is due to sur¬ prise. They are mixed with other shells, so men must always he on the lookout for them whenever there is a bombardment. Local alarms are used for gas shells. Alarm may be given by shouting Gas Shells or by using a rattle, depending upon prox¬ imity of shell. For Gas shells the wind must be under 5 m.p.li. Fog or gentle rain is very good for these attacks. Objective of attack usually woods, bushes, or low ground. Heavy rain, a high wind or sun shining and barometer low are very unsuitable conditions. Men should be trained to get masks on in 7 seconds from the slung position and 6 seconds from the alert position. Time in seconds for gas cloud to reach us from enemy’s trenches: Distance in yards x 2 m.p.li. PART 3 .— PRELIMINARY DRILLS WITH BOX RESPIRATORS. 20. Practice “ A.”— Adjustment of the Box Respirator in the “ Alert ’’ Position. — Hang the box respirator round the neck with the press buttons next the body. With the right hand seize the satchel by the leather tab, with the left hand seize the sling by the brass button and clip this into the leather tab. Undo the press buttons, closing the satchel. The length of whipcord will then be withdrawn from the right- hand compartment, passed through the ring on the right of the satchel and carried round the waist to the ring on the left, where it is fastened. The press buttons closing the satchel will be left undone, but the flap will be put in position to keep the respirator from wet. Practice “ B.”— Drill “ by numbers ” To Obtain Correct Adjust¬ ment of the Box Respirator. — Note.— This drill is to be carried out alternately with one “ judging the time,” i. e., as quick adjust¬ ment as possible. It is the most important and complete adjust¬ ment must be obtained by all ranks in SIX SECONDS. 36 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. Adjust tlie respirator in the alert position with satchel covered but not buttoned. 1. On the command “One” place the left hand on the left cheek and knock off steel helmet on to left wrist from behind with the right hand, press down both thumbs between the satchel and the body and open the satchel flap. Immediately seize the mask with the right hand, the metal elbow tube just outside the mask being in the palm of the hand and the thumb and first finger grasping the wire frame of the nose clip. 2. On the command “ Two ” bring the mask smartly out of the satchel and hold it in both hands with all the fingers outside found the binding and the two thumbs inside, pointing inwards and upwards under the elastic. At the same time throw the chin well forward ready to enter the mask opposite the nose clip. 3. On the command “ Three ” bring the mask forward, digging the chin into it and with the same motion bringing the elastic bands back over the crown of the head to the full extent of the retaining tape, using the thumbs. 4. On the command “ Four ” seize the metal elbow tube outside the mask, thumb on the right, fingers on the left — all pointing towards the face. Push the rubber mouthpiece well into the mouth and pull it forward until the rim of the mouthpiece lies between the teeth and the lips and the two rubber grips are held by the teeth. 5. On the command “Five” adjust the nose-clip to the nose, using the thumb and first three fingers of the right hand. Run the fingers round the mask on either side of the face to make sure that the edges are not folded over. Correct any faults in adjustment. Come smartly to attention. Practice “ C.” — To adjust Box Respirators when carried over the shoulder and not in Alert Position. — Sling the satchel round so that it hangs in front of the body. Undo the press buttons and adjust the mask as in Practice “ B,” allowing the satchel to hang by the rubber tube. After the nose-clip is put on, at once proceed to adjust the satchel in the alert position, as in Practice “ A.” Standard test 7 seconds. Practice “ D.” — Drill to teach cleaning of eyepieces.— On the command “ Clean Eyepieces ” the right eyepiece will be gripped between the thumb and the first finger of the left hand. The SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 37 first finger of the right hand will then be pushed gently into the fold of the mask behind the right eyepiece which will be cleaned with a gentle circular motion. The left eyepiece will be cleaned in a similar way. Practice “ E.” — Drill to teach method of giving orders. — It is first explained to a squad that the nose-clip must not be re¬ moved to talk and that before each sentence is spoken a long breath must be taken and the mouthpiece removed sideways from the mouth by turning th° metal tube outside the mask to one side. After speaking, the mouthpiece is replaced. The squad should then be numbered off, extended to four paces, and orders passed along the line. Officers and N.C.O’s. will receive special care in Practice “ E.” Practice “ F.”— Drill to teach method of clearing mask from gas which may have leaked in and is affecting the eyes. — Press the mask close to the face, forcing out foul air round the sides and then fill again with fresh air from the lungs by blowing out round the mouthpiece. Practice “ G.”— Drill to teach method of testing whether trench or dug-out is free from gas. — With the right hand open the face- piece away from the right cheek, then loosen the nose-clip on the nose and smell gently (do not take a breath). If gas is smelt, the nose clip and mask are replaced. Then as in Drill “ F.” If no gas is smelt, left hand removed from nose-clip and placed under face-piece on left cheek. Mask then removed with both hands. Practice “ H.” —Ordinary infantry drill will be carried out while wearing the mask. This will include doubling for at least 200 yards at a time. Marching order will be worn. Musketry and bombing instruction and training of specialists (including artillery, machine gunners, signallers, medical corps) will also be carried out. 21. Directions for use of Box Respirators. — At ordinary times, the haversack containing the Box Respirator is to be carried slung over the right shoulder, WITH THE FLAP FASTENERS NEXT THE BODY. (A) To Change to the Gas Alert Position: (1) Pass the left arm backwards through the sling so that the haversack hangs in front of the body. 38 SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. (2) Raise the haversack on to the chest by pulling the sling with the left hand until the brass stud on the sling is low enough to button on to the leather tab on the left side of the haversack. (3) Take the coil of whip cord out of the haversack, pass it through the ring pointing to the right of the haversack, round, the body, and tic it firmly to the ring pointing to the left of the haversack. (4) Unbutton the snap fasteners, but keep the flap closed towards the body to protect the respirator from wet. (B) On the Sounding of the Gas Alarm: (1) Open the haversack by pulling the cover forward, and grip the mask with the right hand. (2) Take the mask out of the satchel and seize it with both hands, the fingers gripping the edge of the mask and both thumbs pointing inwards and upwards UNDER, the elastic. Throw the chin well forward ready to enter the mask. (3) Push the chin well into the mask and at the same time draw the elastics over the head AS FAR AS THEY WILL GO, i. e., till the central tape is tight. (4) Holding the metal mouth tube in the right hand outside the mask, push the rubber mouthpiece well into the mouth and draw it forward so that the rubber flange is between the teeth and the lips, and grip the two small rubber projections with the teeth. Then start breathing in and out through the tube. (5) Open the nose clip by pinching from the outside the cir¬ cular wire spring below the goggles; push the clip buttons on to the lower part of the nose and release the spring, making sure that the nostrils are closed. (6) Complete the fitting of the mask by pulling it well on over the jaw and by smoothing the edge all around the face. (7) Do not attempt to speak while wearing'the respirator ex¬ cept in case of necessity. (8) If it is necessary to speak, breathe in deeply, grasp the metal tube outside the mask and carefully remove the mouth¬ piece from between the lips — care being taken not to move the nose-clip. (9) After speaking, immediately replace the mouthpiece and make certain that the nose-clip is properly adjusted. SCHEDULE FOR TRAINING ENLISTED MEN. 39 (10) If the eye-pieces become dull they can be cleaned by inserting the forefinger into the pockets alongside the goggles and wiping the inside of the windows. The eye-piece is held with the other hand while this is being done. (11) If the nose-clip slips off the nose, replace it at once. (12) After use, carefully dry the mouthpiece and eye rims from the inside and also inside surface of the mask, so as to remove the condensed moisture resulting from the breath. TO INSPECT RESPIRATORS. 22. Masks are slung, boxes opened and respirators taken out. Respirators proper are inspected first: 1. Inlet valve. 2. Box of chemicals. 3. Shake well before using. 4. Connections. 5. Tube,— flexible — no holes and in good order. 6. Elbow piece firmly attached. 7. Rubber outlet valve. 8 . Elbow tube to face. 9. Mouth piece. 10 . Nose piece— not too loose, good grip. 11. Eye piece, fabric is caught up. 12 . Face piece itself. 13. Elastic, and retaining tape. 14. Test both valves. 15. Haversack —• every thing present. For the above inspection the usual commands of “ Open ranks.” Copy right Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. PHOTO SHOWING FRENCH RETIRING ATTACK. BEFORE GERMAN GAS Most unusual and striking photograph taken by a daring photog¬ rapher on the French fighting front. The picture shows a wave of German poison gas coming directly for the French lines. The soldiers are shown falling back towards the second line trenches to allow the deadly gas to pass on. In the foregound is a French soldier watching the movement from one of the communication trenches. V ■ .* CHAPTER II. LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. Introduction. 23 . Gas in warfare is not an entirely modern invention but is simply another reversion to primitive methods many examples of which can be found in the present conflict. Ancient history is replete with mention of “ suffocating smoke,” “ stink-pots,” “ flaming pitch ” and “ burning oil,” the forerunners of our modern gas and liquid fire. We have simply improved the methods. Even the ancient catapult has found its place in modern war to throw grenades and bombs. No mention has been made of the “ crossbow ” but, if it has not already appeared on the European battlefields it no doubt will for it would be an admirable weapon for throwing small grenades; cheap to oper¬ ate, silent, light in weight and more accurate than the hand. The use of poisoned gas in the present war, like all the cruel and less chivalrous forms of fighting, was introduced by the Germans, the first attack being at Ypres on April 22nd, 1915. It caught the allied forces unprepared, killing and poisoning large numbers. Organization and Instruction. 24 . The present English field system consists of a complete organization at the head of which is a Chief Chemical Adviser. Each command has a Chemical Adviser, each Division a Division Gas Officer, each Brigade a Bde.G..O., each Battalion a B.G.O. Many non-commissioned officers have qualified for special work in this branch. Each Battalion should have in addition to its B.G.O. four N.C.O’s. who have qualified and oiie or two N.C.O’s. of the Medical Corps. Frequent changes are made in protective methods and it is the business of this organization to carry out these changes in the units to which they are attached. The French do not have a separate field organization. Each division has a chemist who analyzes the gases used by the Germans, but beyond this the details are looked after mostly by officers of the medical corps. In both armies samples of every attack are taken and analyzed to detect the presence of any new gas. These samples are obtained by breaking the seal of a vacuum bottle, or by empty- 42 LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. mg water out of a bottle while the attack is on, then sealing it and forwarding to the division chemist. Gas as a weapon has long passed the experimental stage and is now an established method of offense. Consequently all armies have recognized the necessity of instruction and frequent drill in defensive tactics. It is just as important for men to know how to adjust masks and helmets in seven seconds as it is to shoot with the rifle. A man may escape all kinds of bullets and bayonets but without some method of filtering the air that he breathes he hasn’t one chance in a million of escaping gas. Men should be subjected to gas so they will appreciate the protection of the anti-gas appliances. This is very effectively done by subjecting them to lachrymal gas with helmets or masks and then without. This may be done without actual casualty but serves to give men a very distinct and lasting impression of the difference between meeting gas with a mask and without it. Men should also have an opportunity to see a gas cloud so they may know what it looks like and how it rolls along. To see a gas cloud for the first time under battle conditions must be rather terrifying. They should also be able to distinguish be¬ tween the burst of a gas shell and the ordinary shell. Forms of Gas Attack. 25 . There are various methods of gas attacks: a. Emanation. b. Cloud or mist. c. Chemical shells. 1. Emanation. This is the least important method and con¬ sists of scattering chemicals about trenches which are to be deserted. This chemical when brought in contact with moisture or stirred up by the digging of occupying troops produces a poisonous gas. 2. Cloud or mist. This method consists of bringing gas up to the front line in cylinders or tanks under heavy pressure and releasing it when the wind is in a favorable direction for carry¬ ing it over enemy trenches. If it is a clear dry day the gas rolls along close to the ground, a faint green mist gradually growing thinner and less deadly as it advances and dissipates. If the day is damp the gas, which has a strong affinity for moisture, takes on the appearance of a greenish yellow cloud LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. 43 bank. It is often harmless at 200 yards but again it lias been fatal after traveling two miles. 3. Chemical shells. While the amount of gas in this method is small in comparison with the cloud attack it is nevertheless very dangerous because there is no warning. In cloud attacks, the very direction of the wind is a warning but the use of shells is independent of wind. This method is used against the artillery which is usually too far back to be affected by cloud attacks ex¬ cept under exceptionally favorable circumstances. The average shell contains about five pounds of gas in liquid form which expands when released by the explosive charge, in about the same ratio as water to steam. A very heavy attack with these shells at one point produces the same effect as a cloud attack, but with the added element of surprise. This form of attack is becoming more popular with both contestants than the cloud attack. Kinds of Gas. 26 . There are a great many kinds of gas. Old ones are becom¬ ing obsolete and new ones are being evolved every day. The chemical used for Emanation was Calcium Arsenide. When brought in contact with moisture it generates “ Arsene ” a gas of faint garlic odor. It is not much used as it does not generate in large enough quantities to be particularly dangerous. Chlorine, Bromine and Phosgene have been the chief chemicals used in the cloud attacks. The latter (Carbonal Chloral) is a composition of carbonic acid and chlorine. Methyl Sulphate and Pelite are two of the poisonous gases used in shells. The German tear shells are of two kinds; one known as “ A ” shells which contain Bromaceteone and the “ T ” shells containing Xylylbromide. Other gases are hydrogen sulphide, formol and anhydrous compounds of nitrogen. Prussic Acid (hydrocyanic acid) lias evidently not been used much as very little mention of it has been made in reports from the front. Effects of Gas. 27 . Xot. all gases are intended to kill. Some like the German “ A ” and “ T ” shells are Intended to temporarily incapacitate the enemy while a charge is being made for the purpose of taking prisoners or finishing the job with bombs or bayonets. 44 LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. The Bromacetone and Xylylbromide of these German shells are classed as lachrymal gases because they directly affect the lachrymal or tear glands of the eye causing a copious secretion of tears and smarting of the eye which temporarily blinds the enemy. There is a very strong tendency to rub the eyes but this should be avoided as it only produces a more serious inflammation. The effect of Chlorine and Bromine depend on the amount of gas in the atmosphere. Both kill by suffocation when in sufficient quantities. One part of Chlorine to one thousand parts of air will cause paralysis of the glottis (the valve at the opening of the windpipe) and men will tear their throats open with their lingers in their efforts to get air. When the mixture is 1-5000 death is caused by a very acute inflammation of the lung struc¬ ture. The victim suffers for some time finally dying in agony after a frothy hemmorrhage of the lungs. 1-50000 is less violent but causes death in a few days by gangrene of the lungs. Bromine effects are identical but more violent. Phosgene gives a different effect but the final result is the same,— death. Men attacked by Phosgene feel no serious effects for hours and continue about their duties only to suddenly sink into a fatal collapse with all the symptoms of heart failure. Early in the war the French losses were very heavy from this gas. The English warned of its probable use had made prepara¬ tions to fight it and suffered few losses. The anhydrides when they come in contact with the moisture of the lungs, like phosgene, form acids corresponding to their bases, with similar effects. The effects of Prussic acid gas are entirely different from the other gases. It acts directly on the nervous system, in dilute form produces dizziness, headache, pains in chest, and difficult breathing, coma and sometimes convulsions preceding the end. In concentrated attacks the victim becomes unconscious, and death follows almost immediately. It would not be proper to go into details regarding the new gases and chemicals of the Allies but suffice it to say that they have a “weeper” (tear bomb) that “out weeps” anything the Germans have produced. This bomb is known to “ Tommy ” as the “ S. K.” from the fact that it was originally manufactured at South Kensington. They also have another chemical bomb which LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. 45 poisons everything within the radius of its explosion and against which there is no complete protection. Gas Masks. 28 . When the allied forces were caught in the first gas attacks, a few men recognized the Chlorine gas. Knowing its affinity for moisture and the neutralizing effects of certain excretions of the body they wet their handkerchiefs, coat sleeves and even the sandbag revetments, sucking air through these improvised filters and thereby cheating the gas of thousands of victims. To-day the accepted methods of defense are the gas mask or helmet and the respirator. There are various kinds of these appliances but they may all be divided into two types — the P. H. Helmet and the Box Respirator. A third consisting of goggles with heavy soft rubber rings fitting closely around the eyes was used as a protection against lachrymal gas but this protection is now incorporated in the P. H. Helmet and Respi¬ rator. The P. H. Helmet consists of a double flannelette bag with two eye pieces and a mouth piece consisting of a hard tube on the inside and a flat piece of rubber on the outside through which the breath can be exhaled but which collapses if attempt is made lo inhale through it. The flannelette is impregnated with solu¬ tions of Carbolic Acid and Phenol, Caustic Soda, Hexamine and Glycerine. The Carbolic Acid and Phenol which produces a rather annoying tickle in the throat is the neutralizing agent for the Chlorine Gas. The Caustic Soda is a protection against Prussic Acid. The Germans had not used this acid at the time this alkali was first used in the helmets. This alkali also neutralizes the acid producing gases. Hexamine, a chemical discovered by a Russian chemist, takes out the Phosgene. The Allies were warned of an impending attack of this gas and the English immediately adopted this chemical. The French did not use it and lost heavily in the first attacks. German gas helmets captured a few weeks later were found also impregnated with Hexamine, which they had evidently discovered in the helmets of some English prisoners. The Glycerine is used to hold the chemical solutions and prevent their evaporation. The helmet is carried in a rubberized pouch. Signal stations, command posts, dressing stations and dugouts for troops in the support line when within the zone of gas attacks, 45 LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. are sometimes provided with blanket curtains impregnated with these chemicals, although usually these curtains are simply dipped in water which serves as a door to keep out the gas. The French type anti-gas appliance is a true mask. It is made up of several layers of gauze, each saturated with chemical and is molded to fit under the chin, up the sides of face and across the forehead. Each man must be fitted and must retain his own mask. The goggles in these masks are made of cellulose acetate which will not break or fog from the breath, and is also equipped with a water-proof apron which protects the mask from rain. The mask is held in place by heavy elastic bands around the head, and also has a loop of tape by which it can be suspended from the neck in “ Gas Alert.” There is also a water-proof pouch with tape sling for carrying over shoulder and this in turn can be carried in a metal container with short leather sling which attaches to belt. An American has made a remarkable discovery in regard to the goggles for gas masks. He has found that two pieces of glass cemented together will not crack or break. In fact it is possible to drill a piece of glass so constructed with an ordinary steel drill. The Box Respirator (small type) consists of a small canvas haversack, called a satchel, of two compartments, one of which contains the metal filter with its charge of chemicals; the other, the mask, called the facepiece, is made of rubberized material with mica eyepieces, a nose clip, a rubber mouthpiece shaped to be gripped in the teeth and terminating on the outside in a flat rubber valve similar to that on the P. H. Helmet. Connecting the mask and the filter is a short length of non-collapsible tube. The mask fits the face closely and is held in place by broad elastic bands passing around the head. On the right side of the satchel is a small button and in the sling wTiich normally passes over the left shoulder is a button hole so that the satchel can be carried on the chest by passing the sling about the neck and hooking on button. This is known as the “alert ” position. There is also supplied a piece of whipcord which can be passed through rings on sides of satchel and around the body to prevent satchel being displaced while in action. The French have a Box Respirator of this same type but which is much larger, the box being carried on the back. LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. 47 Equipment of Men. 29 . The Box Respirator is now considered the chief means of defense with the P. H. Helmet or Mask as an auxiliary, in case the Respirator should be injured. Each man is therefore supplied with both types. The Box Respirator is slung on the right side, the strap passing over the left shoulder. The P. H. Helmet is slung from the left shoulder and hangs perpendicularly downward, the sling passing under the belt. BOTH APPLIANCES MUSI 1 BE OUTSIDE ALL OTHER EQUIPMENT. Inspection. 30 . One of the main causes of fatalities in gas attacks is the use of faulty helmets or respirators. The only method of com¬ bating this is by frequent inspections. These inspections should normally be held at least once a week, and during periods when conditions are favorable for a gas attack there should be daily inspections. The following instructions are issued regarding these inspec¬ tions : / 1 A. Box Respirators: (a) Box, face-piece, nose-clip, mouth piece, eye-pieces and elastic must be in good order. (b) Face-piece must be firmly attached to the mouth-piece and to the elbow tube. (c) Metal tube inside mouth-piece must be about ^ inch back from the opening of the mouth-piece. (d) Rubber tube must be intact and firmly attached to the box' and elbow tube. (e) Expiratory valve must be tested by removing the box from the satchel and pinching the rubber tube so as to prevent inlet of air, at the same time attempting to draw in air through the mouth-piece. It should not be possible to draw in any air. (f) See that air can be drawn freely through the box. (g) Whipcord must be present and not knotted. (h) Any small perforations in the face-piece must be temporar¬ ily repaired by applying pieces of adhesive plaster from the repair outfit to the perforation, both inside and Qutside the mask. The adhesive plaster must be large enough to overlap the hole all around. 48 LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. (i) Replace the box in the satchel so that the face-piece comes to the face without twist on the tube. Fold face-piece carefully and replace in the satchel so that the expiratory valve is not likely to crumble. B. P. H. Helmets: (a) Satchel and wallet must be in good order. (b) Helmet must be properly folded with the valve flat and no strain on the flannelette round the valve seating. (c) Joint between parts of the valve must be tight and should grip the flannelette. Mouth-piece should be horizonal. Rubber valve must be fastened securely to the metal. Valve must be tested by breathing through it. It should not be possible to breathe in through it. The valve rubber sometimes becomes hard; this is remedied by breathing out through the valve for about a minute at each inspection. (d) Eye-pieces must be screwed up tightly from the inside and must grip the flannelette. Screw threads must not be crossed. Glasses must not be cracked or loose. (e) There must not be the smallest hole through which gas might enter. Particular attention must be paid to the flannelette round the eye-pieces and'valve seating. (f) If helmets become so sodden with water that it is impossible to breathe through them they must be condemned. A supply of anti-gas stores are kept in the trenches such as fans, sprayers, grease, oil, spare cylinders, extra boxes for respirators and small boxes of chemicals. Stores must be inspected every day by a non-commissioned officer to be sure that they are in good order. Materials Required. 24% Lysol (1 tablespoon to a pint). 2 Pieces of cloth. 1 Small tin to hold disinfection. Gas Alert. 30 . When conditions of atmosphere and wind are favorable for a gas attack preparations are made to meet it. This is known as “ Gas Alert.” On the warning “ Gas Alert,” the right arm is passed back under Respirator sling and satchel is hooked so as to hang on the chest, LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. 49 the loose end of sling being tucked in the compartment UNDER¬ NEATH the face-piece. The satchel is then secured to the body with the whipcord and flap is unbuttoned. The chin strap of the steel helmet is placed over the back of the head so that the helmet can be quickly removed. Men should look over their equipment and see that there is nothing which might interfere even for a fraction of a second with the adjustment of the face-piece. If a man is only equipped with the P. H. Helmet at “ Gas Alert” he should proceed as follows: With the helmet over his head place the wallet or container on the chest with the open flap passed up under the front skirt of the helmet. Pin the front edge of helmet and the hinge of the open wallet to the shirt with two safety pins in such a manner that the helmet may be readily pulled on and off the head without removing the pins. Leaving the pins in position remove the helmet and fold in the regulation manner. The matter of folding is very important as on its cor¬ rectness depends the efficiency of the valve and the quickness with which the helmet can be adjusted. The method is as follows: Sides are folded over goggles, then crown is folded down over goggles. Next fold on a line between goggles and valves, being sure that valve lays flat when goggles are folded down o\er it. One more fold completes folding so that helmet can be put in pouch or carried under flap of wallet in alert position. Great care must be taken to see that VALVE LAYS FLAT. If equipped with French mask on “ Gas Alert ” it is only necessary to remove mask from pouch and hang around neck by means of tape sling provided for that purpose. Gas Alarm. 31 . In the front line trenches there is usually within reach of each sentinel a big klaxon horn or an empty shell case suspended on a wire. During daylight hours an approaching gas cloud can be seen through the periscopes. If the opposing trenches are close the peculiar metallic sound of the gas cylinders as they are brought up to the front line trenches is sometimes carried down the wind and gives warning of the attack. When the gas is released a loud hissing noise can be heard as it escapes through the valves. The Germans have recently tried to drown this noise by machine gun fire. It is the duty of one sentinel on any of these indications of attack to sound the nearest klaxon or shell case. The other 50 LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. sentinel must pass tlie word to dugouts, working parties, dress¬ ing stations, signal posts, etc., waking anyone that is asleep with¬ out regard for their feelings. Mask Adjustment. 32 . On the sounding of the gas alarm, if wearing a respirator, quickly take the mask in both hands, the lingers along the edges of the mask, the thumbs supporting the elastic. Thrust the chin into the mask, at the same time carrying the elastic bands back over the crown of the head to the full extent of the retaining tape. Seize the metal breathing tube outside the mask, push the rubber mouth-piece well into the mouth and pull forward until the rim of the mouth-piece lies between the teeth and the lips and the two rubber grips are held by the teeth. Next, adjust the nose-clip to the nose. If equipped with the P. H. Helmet carried in the alert position already described it will only be necessary to open the coat and lean forward so that the helmet falls. It will then be drawn over the head by both hands and gripped with the left hand tightly around the neck beneath the chin. This is the “ Position of Safety.” With the right hand tuck in the skirt of the helmet on the right side from front to back. Then the right hand will grip the helmet under the chin, while the left tucks in the skirt on that side. Special care should be taken to push the skirt of the helmet down at the back of the neck. Place the moutli-piece in the mouth with left hand and tuck the skirt inside the coat, button the coat and turn up the collar. The complete adjustment should not exceed 7 seconds. With the French mask thrust the chin well into the lower part of mask and draw elastic bands over head to full extent of tape, being careful that mask fits tightly all around face. Gas Attack. 33 . During a gas attack men should conserve their breath as much as possible. For this reason men should move about only as absolutely necessary. No talking should be allowed excepting necessary orders and ‘these should be given by signal whenever possible/ A close watch should be kept for men who are wounded or whose Respirators or Helmets may have been damaged. A wounded man will often tear off his helmet in an effort to get air. He should be forcibly restrained for if he succeeds he is LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. 51 doomed. Should a Respirator go bad or be injured the change to the Helmet should be made as quickly and smoothly as possible WHILE HOLDING THE BREATH. Men must not remove their masks or helmets after an attack until ordered to do so. They should then clean and dry their Respirator or Helmet and carry in the “Alert ” position in prepa¬ ration for another attack. Care should be taken that no one goes into any shelter or dugout until it has been ventilated unless wearing a Respirator or Helmet. Thi^ ventilation is accomplished by fanning about the shelter to produce a circulation of air. It may also be accomplished by building a fire. After each gas attack arms and ammunition should be well cleaned and oiled, as the gas rapidly corrodes the bare metal. When an attack is finally over, in addition to cleaning the masks the mouth-pieces should be disinfected by being dipped in a solution of Cresol or Lysol made by adding about a tablespoonful to a pint of water. Drill. 34 . In order to make gas masks and helmets of any practical value it is necessary for men to learn how to adjust them without any lost motions and to carry on their usual duties while wearing them. To quietly sit through a gas attack wearing a helmet is one thing; to adjust it on a few seconds’ warning and meet a bayonet attack, throw bombs or work a machine gun are differ¬ ent matters, and it is these things that count, for the gas attack is usually only a preliminary to an enemy attack. For this reason men should be drilled in putting on the anti- gas appliances and also in all branches of the work while wearing them. In marching men should learn to do double time for from two to four minutes. Bayonets exercise should be given but final assaults should never be made with Helmets or Respirators adjusted. In musketry the English use the following drill. With men occupying the 300 yard line the orders are given: (1) “Gas Alert.” f2) “Fix Bayonets. Load.” (3) “Prepare to advance.” (4) “Advance.” (Signal.) Detail advances on the double to the 200 yard trench where the gas alarm is given. Helmets must be correctly adjusted in 52 LECTURE ON GAS FOR OFFICERS. 20 seconds, the targets go up for 60 seconds during which time the men must fire ten rounds. After firing the officer in charge inspects the Helmets or Respirators and points out those which have become displaced or disarranged in such a way as to endanger the wearer. Bombers, especially, must practice in gas helmets. Telephone operators must practice sending and receiving messages while wearing helmets. Lewis and machine gun teams must practice rapid loading, aiming and clearing jams. Ambulance men should practice stretcher drill with helmets on and, if possible, moving casualties into gas-proof dugouts. One man in four Avill simulate a casualty and endeavor to remove his helmet, the other three restraining him, tying his hands and carrying him to a place of safety. ALWAYS REMEMBER THAT YOUR ANTI-GAS APPLI¬ ANCES ARE OF IMPORTANCE SECOND ONLY TO YOUR WEAPONS. KEEP THEM IN PERFECT CONDITION. YOUR LIFE MAY DEPEND ON THEM. CHAPTER III. DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. Every Officer is responsible that the men under his command are properly instructed in Defensive Measures against Gas Attacks, that all appliances are at all times in perfect order and that Standing Orders on the subject are thoroughly understood. During a Gas Attack it is important that all measures taken should be carried out with the utmost calm in order to avoid confusion and waste of energy. DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. 55 PART i.—INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF GAS ATTACKS. 35 . The use of various gases as weapons of offense in the present war has become so general that in any training of troops in the future a thorough knowledge of the technique of gas attacks and the methods of defense against them must be included. The use of gas, like many of the other weapons now in com¬ mon use in the armies of Europe, such as the catapult, flame projector, trench knife, and sling, is an inheritance from the early ages, amplified, improved, and made more destructive by the aid of modern science. The first recorded effort to overcome the enemy by the genera¬ tion of poisonous and suffocating gases seems to have been in the wars of the Athenians and Spartans (431 to 404 B. C.), when in besieging the cities of Platea and Delium the Spartans satu¬ rated wood with pitch and sulphur and burnt it under the walls of those cities in the hopes of choking the defenders and render¬ ing the assault less difficult. They also melted pitch, charcoal, and sulphur together in cauldrons and blew the fumes over the defenders’ lines by means of bellow T s. “ Greek fire ” was used by the Byzantine Greeks under Con¬ stantine about 672 A. D., to destroy the Saracens, and the Saracens, in turn, used it as a weapon of defense against the Christians during the crusades. This Greek fire had the double advantage of being not only inflammable, but also generating during the process of combustion, clouds of dense, blinding smoke and gas of an asphyxiating character. (This gas, sulphurous dioxide, is one of the gases used to-day.) Its chemical com¬ position was supposed to be a mixture of quicklime, petroleum, sulphur, and such other inflammable substance as pitch, resin, etc. Upon the addition of water the slaking process which the quicklime underwent generated enough heat to ignite the petro¬ leum, which, in turn, ignited the resin, pitch, and sulphur. This flaming mixture was delivered against the enemy by means of fantastic syringes in the shape of dragons and other monsters with wide jaws. The first use of gas in modern warfare occurred April 22, 1915, when the Germans liberated great clouds of gas against the allies' trenches near Ypres, with a resulting complete demoralization of the troops and a large number of casualties. Coincident with the use of the “ gas cloud ” the Germans began to use gas also in bombs, hand grenades, and shells. The world 56 DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. was astounded at this resurrection of an ancient form of warfare, strictly forbidden by The Hague convention, but new weapons in war demand that they be met with similar weapons, and a week later the allies had agreed to manufacture gas shells and use gas in other ways in retaliation. From this beginning, gas has now become recognized as one of the accepted arms of the military service and is being used very extensively in all armies, especially in the form of gas shells. A.— GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 36 . The following notes on defensive measures against hostile gas attacks have been compiled for the guidance of. regimental officers in instructing their men and giving orders on this subject. They deal chiefly with the preparations necessary to combat such attacks successfully, and with the action to be taken during and subsequent to an attack. 37 . In the absence of suitable means of protection the poison gases used in war are extremely deadly and the breathing of only very small quantities of them may cause death or serious injury. This being the case, it is essential that not the slightest time should be lost in putting on the box respirator or helmet on the gas alarm being given. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that the measures which have been elaborated to meet hostile gas attacks afford perfect protection, and if they are carried out properly no one will suffer from gas poisoning. 38 . The whole basis of protecting troops against gas lies (a) in keeping the appliances in perfect working order; ( b ) in learning to adjust them rapidly under all conditions; and (c) in ensuring that every man is given immediate Avarning. These results can only be attained: (i) By frequent and thorough inspection of all protective appliances. (ii) By thorough instruction and training in their use. (iii) By every man understanding and complying with all Standing Orders on the subject of defence against gas. If these are effectually carried out, there is nothing to fear from hostile gas attacks. Officers must impress this on their men, as an important object of all anti-gas instruction should be to inspire complete confidence in the efficacy of the methods which are adopted. DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. 57 B.—NATURE OF GAS ATTACKS. Gas Clouds: 39 . Tliis method of making a gas attack is entirely dependent on the direction of the wind. The gas is carried up to the trenches compressed in steel cylinders. These are dug in at the bottom of the trench and connected with pipes leading out over the parapet. When the valves of the cylinders are opened, the gas escapes with a hissing sound, which, on a still night, can frequently be heard at a considerable distance. It mixes with the air and is carried by the wind towards the opposing trenches, spreading out as it goes forward. A continuous wave of gas and air is thus formed, the colour of which may vary. {a) Because of the weather conditions. In very dry air it may be almost transparent and slightly greenish in color while in damp weather it forms a white cloud. (5) Because it may be mixed with smoke of any color. 40 . A cloud attack can only take place when there is a steady but not too strong wind blowing from the enemy’s lines towards our own. A wind between 4 and 8 miles an hour is the most likely condition. An 8 -mile wind will carry the gas cloud twice as quickly as a man walks rapidly. Gas attacks may occur at any time of the day, but are most likely to be made during the night or in the early morning. Gentle rain is without appreciable effect on a gas attack, but strong rain washes down the gas. Fogs have hardly any effect, and may, in fact, be taken advantage of to make an attack unex¬ pectedly. Watercourses and ponds are no obstruction to a gas cloud. 41 . The gas used by the enemy is generally a mixture of chlorine and phosgene, both of which are strongly asphyxiating. The gases are heavier than air, and therefore tend to flow along the ground and into trenches, shelters, craters and hollows. The gas cloud may flow round slight eminences, thus leaving patches of country which remain free from gas. 42 . Chlorine and phosgene strongly attack the mucous mem¬ branes of the respiratory organs, causing bad coughing. In strong concentrations of gas, or by longer exposure to low con¬ centrations, the lungs are injured and breathing becomes more and more difficult and eventually impossible, so that the un¬ protected man dies of suffocation. Death is sometimes caused 58 DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. by two or three breaths of the gas. Even when very dilute, chlorine can be recognized by its peculiar smell, which is like chloride of lime, but stronger and more irritating. Both chlorine and phosgene also exert a strongly corrosive action on metals, so that the metal parts of arms must be care¬ fully protected by greasing them. 43. The speed with which the gas cloud approaches depends •entirely on the wind velocity. Gas attacks have been made with wind velocities varying from 3 to 20 miles per hour, i. e., from 1 -| to 10 yards per second. In a 9 -mile wind, the gas would reach trenches 100 yards distant in 20 seconds. Gas attacks have been made on fronts varying from 1 to 5 miles; their effects at points up to 8 miles behind the front trenches have been sufficiently severe to make it necessary to wear helmets. Gas Projectiles: 44. The use of these is not entirely dependent on the direction of the wind. In gas projectiles such as shells, hand grenades, and trench mortar bombs, a part or the whole of the expxlosive charge is replaced by a liquid which is converted into gas by the ex¬ plosion. The explosive force and noise of detonation of these projectiles is less than that of the ordinary kind, and a large number of them are usually discharged into a comparatively small space. After the explosion, the irritant chemicals form a small gas cloud, though some may sink to the ground and re¬ main active for a considerable time. For using gas shells, the best condition is calm, or with a wind of low velocity. Nine-tenths of all gas attacks are shell attacks. Gas projectiles can be used in all types of country. Woods, bushels and cornfields and clumps of buildings may hold the gas active for a considerable time. 45. Two kinds of shell gases are used by the enemy, viz., lachrymators, which mainly affect the eyes, and poison gases, which may affect the eyes and are just as deadly as the gases used in the form of clouds. Tear, or Lachrymatory Shells: 46. These shells on explosion drive the liquid chemical which they contain into the air as a mist. They cause the eyes to water strongly and thereby gradually put men out of action. DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. 59 Their actual smell may be slight. Large concentrations of lachrymators begin to afl'ect the lungs and cause sickness, cough¬ ing and general irritation. Poison Shells: 47. Besides the comparatively harmless lachrymators the enemy also uses projectiles which contain a gas, the action of which is very similar to that of phosgene. Because of their slight detona¬ tion, these shells are liable to be mistaken for blinds, but they emit large quantities of a gas which attacks the lungs strongly, and is very dangerous, and even in slight cases may cause serious after-effects. Smoke: 48. The enemy may make use of smoke, either in the form of a cloud or emitted from shells and bombs. Smoke may be used with gas or between gas clouds; it may also be used alone to distract attention from a real discharge of gas, to cover the advance of infantry, or merely as a false gas attack. Mine and Explosion Gases: 49. The poisonous gases which occur in mines, and which are formed in large quantities when high explosive goes off in an enclosed space, e. g., from a direct hit in a shelter, or on the ex¬ plosion of a charge in a mine, are not protected against by the ordinary anti-gas appliances. The chief of these gases is carbon monoxide. Protection against such gases will not be considered in these notes. PART 2. II.—ORGANIZATION OF GAS DEFENCE. In England: 50. Training at home. Chemical adviser for home forces, organizes all the anti-gas training. The different gas departments are divided into various groups, such as: Eastern Command; Southern Command; Western Command. Over each command is a chemical adviser, who conducts the school in that particular command. 60 DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. Each command is divided up over nine areas; each area has a gas officer; each officer has a school for about nine days. At each command school gas officers and non-coms are picked from the various areas. Each Battalion has a gas officer or non-commissioned officer. At the end of eight weeks the men try out their speed test, then a test at gas in gas chambers. At the end of the eleventh week, men are trained to fit respira¬ tors (new ones). At the end of the thirteenth week, a night attack. The gas commander works with the bombing officer, to help make bombs. Men have to fire while wearing their respirators (attacks, firing, living in them, marches). In France: Chemical adviser to Army. Each army divided up into three corps. One chemical adviser to each corps. Each corps divided into three divisions. Each Division has a gas officer. Each Regiment has a gas officer. Each Battalion a gas officer or non-commissioned officer. Army •school trains gas officers for divisional army. Each division trains officers and non-commissioned officers. 51. Officers are held responsible that all the anti-gas appliances for protecting their men are maintained in perfect condition, and that all ranks under their command are thoroughly trained in the use of these appliances and in all other measures which may 1 affect their safety against gas. 52. Summary of Protective Measures. (a) Provision to each man of individual protective devices. (b) Arrangement for the inspection of those appliances and training in their use and instruction in all other measures of gas defence. (c) Provision of protected and gas-proof shelters. (d) Weather observations to determine periods when the con¬ ditions are favorable to a hostile gas attack. (e) Arrangement of signals and messages for immediate warning of a gas attack. (f) Provision of appliances for clearing gas from trenches and shelters. DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. 61 ORGANIZATION OF ANTI-GAS DUTIES. 53 . All ranks must be fully conversant with the measures to be adopted for defence against gas attacks as laid down in the Standing Orders of their formation or unit.* A special Gas Officer is appointed in each Division so that technical advice is readily available on all matters connected with gas defence. This officer is also charged with all duties at the Divisional Anti-Gas School. Apart from this, the following scheme of anti-gas duties should be adopted within units. ANTI-GAS DUTIES WITHIN AN INFANTRY BATTALION. {To be modified for other units to suit their organization and duties.) 54 . The Commanding Officer will be directly responsible for all measures against gas attacks, and Company Commanders will be responsible to the C. 0. for all anti-gas masures within their companies. In each Company one N. C. 0., who has been trained at an Anti- Gas School, and who has been recommended bv the Divisional Gas Officer as suitable for duty as “ Company Gas N. C. 0./’ will be specially detailed to assist the Company Commander in anti¬ gas measures. At least one other similarly trained and recom¬ mended N. C. 0. will be immediately available to take the place of the Gas N. C. 0. in case of need. A similarly trained Gas N. C. 0. will be detailed to Battalion H. Q. for duty with H. Q. details. 55 . The special duties of the Gas N. C. O’s. will be definitely laid down in Battalions.f Other duties may, however, be performed, provided that these do not interfere with the gas duties laid down. 56 . In order to secure the necessary training in all matters pertaining to defense against gas attacks, the following officers and N. C. Os. should attend a course at the Divisional Anti-Gas School: (a) Officers. (1) The Commanding Officer or Second in Command and the medical officer. * For typical Divisional Standing Orders, see Chapter VII. t For typical Standing Orders for Company Gas N.C.Os.. see Chapter Till. 62 DEFENSIVE MEASURES AGAINST GAS ATTACKS. (2) All Company Commanders. (3) Other Officers and Warrant Officers, if and when possible. It may be that cases of extensive and overwhelming edema succumb at once, while those in which on the second or third day larger islets of aerated lung alternating with edematous patches are seen, had from the beginning been in that state, so that they succumbed later than the completely edematous group because the injury to the lung was less. But the general evi¬ dence favors a more hopeful view, namely, that the edema fluid is rapidly absorbed from the second day onward, and that the later post mortems illustrate the stages in this recovery. The chief fact in support of this view is that patients who had been r deeply cyanosed at first, with the usual signs of extensive pulmo¬ nary edema, and so asphyxiated as to be unconscious for a couple GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 139 of days, may yet recover so completely that eight or nine days after exposure to gas it is difficult to discover any physical signs of edema in the lung. Symptoms: 217. Onset. —’Upon exposure to chlorine alone, a man feels im¬ mediate respiratory distress. He coughs violently and speech is made impossible by his spluttering gasps. With the later forms of drift gas, the onset is slightly altered. There is some lachry- mation. The throat feels gripped and the chest tight. Breathing is difficult but not impossible. Coughing develops a quarter of an hour or more later. Nausea and vomiting appear quickly, so that a man who was slow in getting protection may vomit in¬ side his gas mask. Headache and throbbing sensations in the body are experienced. Development. — Coughing and retching increase. The respiration becomes very hurried and labored, though shallow. The patient’s face assumes a cyanotic hue; he may lose muscular power and consciousness and die in an hour or two. Those who survive longer show the following features: Headache, pain behind the sternum and in the epigastrium. Extreme restlessness and anxiety, or a semicoma with a mutter¬ ing delirium, from which as a rule they can be roused to answer questions. Varying cough, sometimes slight, sometimes reiterant with a croupous rattling from exudate in the trachea. There is practically no laryngitis. A cyanotic blueness in the lips and ears, which may accompany a flushed lividity of the face or the grayish-yellow pallor of collapse. Extremely rapid respiration, from 40 up to even 80 a minute, of a shallow type on a dis¬ tended chest, and often marked by a jerking grunt of expiration. A pulse of about 100, which may rise to a higher rate and fall to a very low pressure in the gray examples of collapse. The skin is dry, and either hot or cold in correspondence with the state of collapse. Expectoration may be very slight, though in others there soon develops an abundant discharge of thin watery fluid, often streaked with blood, which simply flows from the mouth as the dying patient loses power to expel it. After death, the foam from this fluid may dry to a w r hite efflorescence around the mouth. The percussion note is slightly flattened over the lungs behind, where the breath sounds are much weakened, but 140 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. otherwise unchanged m quality, Fine rales are heard behind and in the axillae. There are no tubular breath sounds. In front there may be extremely little change beyond harshness in the breath sounds. The physical signs fail altogether to indicate the extent to which the lungs are damaged, for in any area examined there is always some aeration of the bronchioles and alveoli which suffices to produce relatively normal sounds on auscultation. The color, the pulse, and the rate of respiration are the chief guides to prognosis. Progress.—-Four-fifths of the deaths occur in the first 24 hours. Very few succumb after the third day. A man, who at first seemed to be lightly gassed, may, toward the end of the first day, develop cyanosis and die; but from the end of the second day onward, there is no danger to be apprehended for the less grave cases. On the second day the sputum becomes less abund¬ ant, more viscous and yellow tinted. The dyspnea persists and the temperature is raised. If complications develop subsequently from infections of the raw respiratory tract, they will be shown by persistence of fever, by a purulent sputum, and by signs of broncho-pneumonic consolidation. But as a rule the patient recovers rapidly after the third day, and at the end of a week he is fully convalescent. Cough, pain in the chest, which is often very severe beneath the rib margins, shortness of breath, loss of appetite with gastric pain, and gen¬ eral lassitude persist longest of the symptoms. There are no seri¬ ous after results to be apprehended. A man who has been badly gassed requires a long rest; but the majority, if free from neur¬ asthenic symptoms, are fit for light duty in a very few weeks, provided that they are allowed sufficient rest at first. The heart and circulation are severely strained by gas poisoning. Conva¬ lescents who show tachycardia must be carefully watched lest too heavy physical effort early in the first month of recovery induces further strain and lead to the condition of irritable soldier’s heart, from which recovery will be long delayed. Rarities: 218 . Brain.— In some cases that died after two or three days of persistent cyanosis and unconsciousness the white matter of the brain was found to be peppered with tiny petechial hemorrhages. These are the direct outcome of the asphyxial state and have GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 14 ! little clinical significance. Large cerebral hemorrhages have, however, been noted, occurring on the first or second day in cases of plethoric cyanosis. Vascular obstruction.— Occasionally the peripheral arteries to the limbs may become occluded. As a rule, the threatening gangrene clears up in these cases. Stomach.— Petechial hemorrhages and a slight superficial ulcera¬ tion are often seen post mortem over the inner surface of the cardiac fundus The stomach has occasionally at autopsy been found to be full of blood from an extension of this ulcerative process, but only in one case has death occurred with liematemesis. The gastric derangements, which generally persist during con¬ valescence, are not of a type suggesting the result of an ulcerative process. Kidney.— Clinical nephritis is rare, and its occurrence may in each case have been a chance coincidence. TREATMENT. General Considerations: Rest is the most important point of all in the general treat¬ ment of gas casualties. 219 . Men, and especially officers, should be warned beforehand that if lightly gassed they must refrain from moving about or shouting out orders. Physical strain after gassing may easily involve the loss of a life that might otherwise have been restored to the fighting line in a short time. The principle of attaining complete rest as soon as possible underlies the detailed advice for dealing with gas casualties that is given below, and is the reason for their detention at the casualty clearing stations. All kit that hinders the play of the respiratory muscles, especially belts and suspenders, should be undone. Sleep brings improve¬ ment, and restless excited cases should be quieted by morphia. It is important that arrangements should be planned beforehand at each casualty clearing station so that even a large number of gas casualties can be handled with such discipline and control as will at once introduce a sense of order and quietude, and by separating those who are more dangerously ill from the remainder, enable the less severe cases to get to sleep at once. Next in importance to rest comes the use of oxygen, protection from cold, special stimulants or drugs, venesection, and methods for removing serous exudate from the lungs. 142 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. Bronchial spasm does not seem to be a serious danger with the present form of cloud gas. Life or death is decided by the degree of pulmonary edema and asphyxia with circulatory fail¬ ure. The edema fluid tends to be absorbed quickly, and if the patient can be carried alive through the first two days, he should recover. Precautions in the meantime need to be taken to lessen the chance that secondary respiratory infections may develop as a later complication. Oxygen, if rightly administered, will generally lessen cyanosis, and therefore improve the patient’s chance of life. But the lung surface available for absorption is so small that the oxygen must be given in high concentration. The simple admixture with air obtained by open flow from a funnel or a tube placed in the patient’s mouth is useless, and since it wastes valuable oxygen it should be forbidden. Given as the pure gas from a bag with a valved face mask, as described in Treatment at Casualty Clear¬ ing Stations (see par. 222), say for 3 or 4 minutes every quarter of an hour, an oxygen cylinder of 20 feet capacity will last about 4 hours. By this means life can undoubtedly be saved in some of the apparently desperate cases. The administration must be continued night and day, so as to hold cyanosis in check. The consumption of oxygen by this method is so large that all care must be taken to economize cylinders, the provision of which, under active service conditions is necessarily limited by considerations of transport. Many casualties are so severely poisoned that their condition is seen in the first few hours to be hopeless. Some selection of the cases for oxygen treatment must therefore generally be made, and it is especially with the intermediate group who are surviving into the second day that oxygen has the best chance of acting with ultimate advantage. It is quite unnecessary to use it for relatively mild cases. Deep cyanosis, whether of the congestive or pallid type, is the indica¬ tion of need, and the lividity can always almost be lessened if the face-mask is properly applied. The subcutaneous injection of oxygen is useless. Warmth is needed in many of the severe cases, especially at the outset when they are collapsed and their skin is cold. To attain this, it may even be necessary to transfer them tempo¬ rarily indoors. Otherwise the fullest supply of fresh air is needed for all cases. When outside, care should be taken to GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 143 protect against chill, which might lead to a subsequent broncho¬ pneumonia. Special stimulants and drugs. — Ammonia is very useful as an inhalation from the small ampoules supplied. It is necessary to warn orderlies that these ampoules are to be held at some dis¬ tance from the patient’s mouth, and that their use should not be persisted in where they seem to aggravate the difficulty of breathing. The action is more as as stimulant than in chemical antagonism to the chlorine. Brandy and water is a good restorative when given in small sips. Cases .of gray collapse with a rapid pulse of poor tension do not react well to stimulant drugs and are almost hopeless when they develop this condition in the first day. Pituitrin, 0.5 cc. hypodermically every three hours, gives some aid to a failing heart. The benefit of digitalin and strychnine is more doubtful. Venesection gives real relief to men with deep cyanosis and a full pulse. The headache is lessened, the breathing feels easier, and the patient may soon fall into a sleep that conserves his strength. It appears to be harmful in collapsed cases with a poor pulse, and it should not be postponed until the patient passes into this dangerous state. Methods for aiding the discharge of exudate from the lungs.— (1) Emetics have been given at various times in the hope that the lungs would be partly emptied in the act of vomiting. The effort is very exhausting and the results do not justify the treat¬ ment in late cases. But in the first few hours, before the patient is gravely ill, vomiting is probably good and retching may be encouraged by simple means. Later, it is better to try and allay gastric pain or retching by the use of drinks with sodium bi¬ carbonate. Beef tea is not to be recommended in view of the possibility of slight gastric ulceration. (2) In the first day, if there is much fluid expectoration, good results may be obtained by postural treatment, such as by turn¬ ing the head of the patient sideways and then raising the foot end of the stretcher two or three feet, or even higher, for a few minutes at a time. (3) Schafer’s artificial respiration has occasionally proved of service in expelling fluid from the chest, but it is necessary to watch its effect on the patient very closely lest disaster ensue. 144 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. (4) Expectorants in large doses, such as 10 or 15 grains of ammonium carbonate, are probably harmful at the beginning, for they will cause nausea and an irritant cough which will interfere with sleep and may augment the tendency to disruptive emphysema of the lungs. Patients who are not seriously ill should be given a simple mixture such as amm. carb. gr. v and vin. ipecac, m. x. 6 hourly on the 'second day. Later treatment might comprise ordinary medicinal measures such as potassium iodide, atropine, steam tents with tincture benzoin compound, etc., for symptoms as they arise. % PART 4 .— REGULATIONS FOR TREATMENT OF GASSED CASES. Treatment by Regimental Medical Officers : 220 . 1. All ranks should be warned of the need for seeing that the gas masks of wounded men are kept properly in position until the danger from gas has passed away, and also of the importance to lightly gassed cases of remaining absolutely quiet. While the gas cloud is concentrated, all ranks should refrain as far as possible from movement, so that they may breathe slowly and keep the current of air through the gas mask at a low velocity. 2. After the order has been given for removal of masks, am¬ monia inhalations from the capsules should be given by stretcher bearers to all gassed men with difficulty in breathing, but their use should not be persisted with in those special cases where the ammonia seems to increase the discomfort of the patient. 3. Clothing over the chest should be loosened, the suspenders and belt undone in front and equipment removed. 4. Vomiting at first is beneficial and it may be encouraged by drinks of tepid water, either alone or with salt (1 tablespoonful to half a pint or more of water), and the back of the throat should be tickled shortly after the drink has been taken. 5. Experience has shown that atropine is of no use in the early stages of gas poisoning. 6 . All gas casualties must be evacuated as soon as possible to dressing stations. All except the lightest cases should, as far as possible, be evacuated lying down, and walking cases should be warned to seek assistance in going back along the trenches so as to avoid physical effort as much as possible. Special attention GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 145 should be paid to men who complain of feeling collapsed, though they show no manifest features of having been gassed, since these may develop later the serious form of delayed poisoning. Rest is the one point that is essential from beginning to end of the treatment of gas casualties. Gassed men should not be al¬ lowed to carry their own equipment back from the trenches. It is suggested that arrangements for the disposal of kit should be made regimentally in advance. Treatment in Dressing Stations : 221 . 1. Casualties should be kept lying down in the open air, so far as weather permits. - Suspenders must be undone and clothing over the chest loosened, so as to give freedom for breathing. 2. Ammonia inhalations should be given. Experience has shown that atropine injections are of very doubtful value. 3. If the patient still feels inclined to vomit, he may be given tepid drafts of salt and water, and the back of the throat tickled. 4. Restless cases, if fully conscious, may be given one quietening injection of one-fourth grain morphia. The time of injection and the dose must be recorded on the diagnosis tag. 5. Severe cases fall into two groups : The “collapsed” with a poof pulse and leaden gray tint and the “cyanotic” or “blue” with a full pulse and general asphyxial lividity. 6 . Collapsed cases may be retained at the dressing station for a short time, and their state of collapse combated by stimulants such as external warmth, hot drinks, brandy, pituitary extract, or other drugs. If there is much fluid flowing up through the mouth, the feet of the stretcher should be raised to a height of about 4 feet and the patient’s head turned slightly sideways. This posi¬ tion should not be maintained for more than a few minutes and it should be abandoned if it aggravates the cyanosis or fails to increase the discharge of fluid. 7. Blue cases of severe cyanosis require continuous treatment with oxygen in high concentration. They should therefore be evacuated as soon as possible to the nearest casualty clearing station or field hospital, unless special apparatus for their treat¬ ment. is available at the dressing station. If there is unavoidable delay before transference the treatment recommended at the casualty clearing station, paragraphs 7 and 8, should be tried. 146 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 8 . All cases except the mildest should be evacuated lying down, and the severe cases, with the exception of those of grave col¬ lapse, should be transferred first of all. Treatment at Field Hospitals and Casualty Clearing Stations : 222 . 1. Serious cases should at once be separated from the slight, so that the latter may lose their anxiety and get to sleep. 2. Ammonia inhalations may be useful on admission at any time up to 24 hours after exposure to gas. 3. Open air treatment is best, if the weather permits, and complete rest is essential for the first two days. The clothing and suspenders should be loosened, and the worst cases should be undressed and put to bed wherever this is possible. No patient should be allowed to leave his bed or stretcher for any purpose whatsoever. 4. Restless cases, if not unconscious, may be quieted by one injection of one-quarter grain morphia. 5. Collapsed cases should be treated with warmth and stimu¬ lants as described in dressing station 6, and oxygen should be used in addition. Atropine is harmful to these patients. 6 . Attention should be paid to the posture of unconscious cases, both to aid discharge of any fluid that may be escaping from, the lungs and to avoid injury to nerves or skin by pressure, e. g., from a clasp knife or the edge of the stretcher, if the patient is not undressed and in bed. 7. Cyanosis can be lessened by the administration of oxygen in high concentration. For this purpose the flow from a simple funnel or a tube in the mouth in inadequate and wasteful of the gas. An apparatus should be used with a valved face mask, such as that for nitrous oxide anesthesia, the valves being so set that the patient breathes in oxygen from the bag and breathes out into the open air. The treatment should be continued hour after hour with brief intervals until the edema of the lungs clears up. Cases may recover after being cyanosed and unconscious for two days. 8 . Venesection, performed slowly, to the amount of 15 or 20 ounces may be of use to “blue” cases if practiced early and before the pulse begins to fall. 9. Expectorants. —Drugs such as ammonium carbonate and vinum ipecac are recommended for use in expectorant doses from the second day onward. GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 147 10. The diet should be light and simple. Measures should be taken to open the bowels. 11 . As far as circumstances permit, no case should be evacu¬ ated to the line of communication until definite cyanosis or serious symptoms have disappeared. A note should be sent down with those cases which have passed through a condition of gravity, so as to guide the medical officer on the line of commu¬ nication as to the future treatment of the case. Lines of Communication : 223. The methods of treatment advised at casualty clearing stations are applicable for use in hospitals on the line of com¬ munication when circumstances necessitate the early evacuation of cases. A very large proportion of the casualties sent to the base as “gassed cases” are likely to become fit for duty after a short rest. Wastage by transfer to home territory is to be avoided, and medical officers should exercise the greatest care in selecting cases for evacuation to home hospitals. As a rule, only cases in which there was a clear history of grave cyanosis or collapse, or in which secondary infections of the respiratory tract have developed, should be sent farther than the base. It may be taken for granted that all casualties which had been detained in a casualty clearing station for five days were of a serious nature, whatever their condition on ar¬ rival at the base hospital. Rest stations. — Rest, with the possibility of lying down on a bed at any time of the day, must be provided during the first two or three weeks for all cases except the very mildest. Ar¬ rangements should, when possible, be made at the base to give accommodation, if the patients cannot be retained in the main hospitals, for an easy life of this nature which is not permitted in the usual routine of convalescent depots. Convalescent depots. — Gas casualties, who show neurasthenic or cardio-vascular weakness after three weeks’ treatment at the depot, should be transferred to home hospitals. PART 5.—INDEX TO DRUGS WHICH HAVE AT VARIOUS TIMES BEEN USED. 224. Ammonia. — The benefit of occasional inhalations of am¬ monia during the first day is universally admitted. Spiritus 148 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. arnmon. aromat. in 4 cc. doses with plenty of water is useful as a direct stimulant, but it does not ease breathing in the same way as does vapor. Ammonium carbonate.— In large doses of gr. xv as an emetic has proved harmful and never done good in the early stages. As an expectorant it should only be used in small doses of gr. v. Apomorphine.— In hypodermic doses of gr. 1-10 has been recommended as an emetic. The vomiting often fails, the drug is de¬ pressant, and its use had never proved to be of the least value. Atropine has been supposed to be useful in the early stages of poisoning, both to relieve bronchial spasm and to check the secre¬ tion of edema fluid. The drug has been extensively tried, both in the French and British medical services, and no conclusive evi¬ dence of such benefit has been found. On the other hand, atropine does tend to accelerate the heart beat, and a result of this na¬ ture is an actual disadvantage to an asphyxiated patient. Its use in the first two or three days should therefore be discontinued. Camphor in conjunction with ether forms a useful stimulant in cases of collapse. The Japanese in the Russian War used as a general stimulant a hypodermic injection of 10 to 15 minims of camphor 1 part, ether 4-5 parts, olive oil 4 parts. It is possible that this might also be of value in cases of gas poisoning associated with collapse. Digitalin, grain 1 /100, hypodermically, has so slight an action that it probably is not worth using in the two or three critical days of acute pulmonary edema. Ipecacuanha has been recommended as having a specific action in promoting the absorption of edema fluid. For this purpose, 20 to 30 minims of the Vinum have been given two-hourly. Nausea and emesis are not aimed at. The evidence as to its ac¬ tion in this sense is inconclusive, though it is useful in smaller doses as an ordinary expectorant. The drug should not be given as an emetic, because it produces depression. The extractive, Emetine, has been tried hypodermically in re¬ peated doses of gr. 1-3 and without any apparent benefit what¬ soever. Morphia is most useful as a sedative and may be given even to deeply cyanosed patients for extreme restlessness. The dose should not be large, gr. 4, followed, if need be by gr. 1-6, or 15 to 20 minims of tinct. opii. GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 149 Phenacetin and Aspirin have been given to relieve the headache caused by mine-gas poisoning, and they were found to produce a dangerous state of collapse in these patients. It is therefore in¬ advisable to use them for the headache that follows the inha¬ lation of cloud gas. Pituitrin 0 5 cc. into* the muscles or hypodermically increases oardio-vascular tone for a short time and gives aid to a failing heart. If a second injection is given 15 to 20 minutes after the first, it may cause the pressure to fall. An interval of three hours should be observed if the dose is repeated. Sodium lactate taken by the mouth every four hours in 2 drachm doses of a 50 per cent solution has been employed with a view to augmenting the alkaline bases of the blood, fixing some of the excess of carbon dioxide, and thereby tending to lessen the rate of respiration. The main features of gas poisoning are not influenced by this method of treatment. Sparteine has erroneously been supposed to be a cardiac tonic and a useful drug in the place of digitalin. Actually it is a poison which slows and weakens the heartbeat. Strychnine, one-thirtieth grain, may be employed in the early stages of pallid collapse. PART 6.— NITROUS FUMES, LACHRYMATORS, HYDRO¬ CYANIC ACID, CARBON MONOXIDE. Nitrous Fumes: 225 . Though no cases of nitrous fumes poisoning have hitherto been recorded, the possibility of their occurrence owing to ex¬ posure to the fumes of burning explosives should not be lost sight of. The great danger of nitrous fumes arises from the fact that in the concentrations usually met with there is comparatively little irritation of the eyes or upper respiratory passages, and a man working in such an atmosphere will not recognize its deadly nature. Air which contains enough nitrous fumes to cause feel¬ ings of irritation in the nose or air passages must be regarded as very dangerous. Nitrous fumes" are very soluble in water, and the gas may be readily removed from the atmosphere by means of a water spray, whilst a few folds of a handkerchief or a towel wetted with water and tied over the nose and mouth* will give efficient protection in the absence of a mask. The possibility of 150 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. the simultaneous occurrence of carbon monoxide in atmospheres containing nitrous fumes must be remembered. Owing to the delay in the onset of serious symptoms, it is es¬ sential that any man who is suspected of having been exposed to nitrous fumes should be sent to hospital with as little delay as possible and detained there for 24 hours for observation. Pathological changes. — The pathological changes found post¬ mortem in a fatal case of nitrous-fumes poisoning are identical with those described above as characteristic of chlorine poisoning. If the concentration of nitrous fumes to which the case has been exposed is very high, the blood may be somewhat chocolate colored owing to the formation of methaemoglobin. Symptoms.— If the gas is in very great concentration, rapid fatal asphyxiation takes place, but in the concentrations that are usually encountered, the characteristics which distinguish this from chlorine poisoning are the slightness of the initial symptoms due to irritation of the upper respiratory passages and delay in the onset of acute pulmonary edema. The typical sequence of events is — (1) Slight irritation of the nose and throat, feeling of con¬ striction of the chest, headache and slight smarting of the eyes and coughing wdiile actually exposed to the fumes. (2) On leaving the poisonous atmosphere a latent period dur¬ ing which the case may, and usually does, feel quite well and has no hesitation in taking a meal. (3) The sudden onset after four to eight hours of acute symp¬ toms. These commence with marked and increasing distress in breathing, coughing, and often severe pain in the chest. The cough is at first dry, and auscultation may reveal no moist sounds. This condition is speedily followed by the urgent signs of acute pulmonary edema which have been already detailed un¬ der chlorine poisoning (par. 214), and death may ensue in a few hours. Treatment. —When once pulmonary edema has developed, the treatment should follow the lines already laid down for chlorine poisoning (par. 219). The experience of medical officers attached to mines on the Rand, where nitrous fumes are frequently met with during blasting operations, points to the value of inducing emesis as soon after exposure to the fumes as possible, followed by a dose of such a stimulant as spir. ammon. aromat. A case GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 151 of nitrous-fumes poisoning should be under medical observation at the time when acute pulmonary edema is likely to develop and a venesection of from 15 to 20 ounces should be made as soon as there is the slightest sign of its onset. Venesection must not be delayed until the patient’s condition is grave and the stage of lividity has been reached, or it will be useless. Lachrymators : 226 . Hitherto, no serious cases of poisoning have occurred as the result of exposure to the effects of shells containing sub¬ stances employed merely on account of their lachrymatory prop¬ erties. The immediate effect of a trace of the vapor of such a lachry- mator as benzyl bromide in the air is to cause profuse watering of the eyes, accompanied by smarting. If the concentration is somewhat greater, the smarting and pain in the eyes may be¬ come intolerable, so that it is impossible to keep the eyes open. The smarting and watering of the eyes will be quite sufficient to put a man completely out of action, because he is incapable of seeing, but protection of the eyes is easily obtained by the use of goggles. With increasing concentrations of the vapor, other effects show themselves. The vapor is irritant to the lungs and upper respir¬ atory passages and this leads to a burning sensation in the throat and coughing. Nausea is often present and not infre¬ quently leads to vomiting, accompanied, it may be, by pain in the epigastrium. If it is impossible to withdraw from exposure to the fumes, slight confusion of mind and torpor may show themselves. Under ordinary conditions the symptoms do not develop further, and though the case may become somewhat collapsed as a result of the vomiting and general discomfort, this is only temporary, and within an hour or two after getting into air free from the lachrymator there may be very little amiss with the man. The nausea and irritation of the throat soon pass off, though the eyes may remain sore for some little time, and even after the lapse of 12 hours redness of the eyelids and slight injection of the con¬ junctiva may still be evident. There are no subsequent toxic effects and the case will be fit for duty as soon as the primary effects have passed off. 152 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. It must not be forgotten that some of the acute lung irritants are also extremely powerful lachrymators, and that such sub¬ stances may be used with a view to securing a double effect, viz., immediate blinding and simultaneous intense toxic effect on the lungs. In order to secure such an effect it is essential that the substance used shall be gaseous or shall vaporize with sufficient rapidity to attain a high enough concentration in the air to produce these intense toxic effects. Lachrymators such as benzyl bromide, which are liquid at ordinary temperatures, vaporize too slowly to produce such a concentration, and the symptoms caused by a lachrymator of this type, therefore, very rarely attain a degree of severity greater than those described above in detail. The smell of benzyl bromide when in great dilution suggests the flavor of mustard and cress. Lachrymators as a rule have aromatic, pungent odors. Hydrocyanic Acid : 227 . When in sufficient concentration this gas acts as a very rapid and sometimes almost instantaneous poison, affecting di¬ rectly the central nervous system. Symptoms. —These follow one another in rapid sequence : Gid¬ diness, confusion, headache, indistinct sight, palpitation and pain in the chest and over the heart. Labored respiration. Uncon¬ sciousness, convulsions, failure of the respiration and finally of the heart. In large doses, immediate unconsciousness, dilatation of the pupils, a few gasping respirations, and death with or with¬ out convulsions. The gas paralyzes the respiratory center very quickly, and with small fatal percentages the heart may continue to beat for a brief time after the respiration has ceased. With larger con¬ centrations the heart may be stopped almost at once by the direct action of the poison. When death is caused by inhalation of hydrocyanic-acid gas, it is unlikely that the smell of the gas will be detected at autopsy, as may be the case when poisoning is due to the ingestion by the mouth of a large dose of prussic acid. Treatment. —Immediate treatment is the only measure of any avail if a man falls unconscious from hydrocyanic-acid poisoning. The case must be at once dragged into fresh air, and if the re¬ spiration has stopped, or is very weak and gasping, artificial GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 153 respiration must be instantly applied by Schafer’s method. It is possible by this means to resusticate a case, and if this is so recovery will be perfect. Cold water may be splashed on the face and chest and friction applied to the limbs, but time should not be wasted on these measures before commencing artificial respira¬ tion. The same immediate treatment holds good for any other gas that causes rapid unconsciousness from its effects on the central nervous system. Carbon Monoxide : 228 . The great danger of carbon monoxide arises from the fact that the gas is colorless, odorless, and nonirritant, and that the onset of symptoms is so insidious that very often the first warn¬ ing that a man may receive is failure in the power of his limbs which will prevent him from retreating into safety. Neither the box respirator nor other masks give protection against carbon monoxide; protection can only be attained by the use of special oxygen breathing apparatus. Pathological changes. —At the autopsy, the blood may be red in color instead of dark if there is a considerable degree of satura¬ tion of the hemoglobin with carbon monoxide. If the case has continued to breathe for some time after reaching an atmosphere free from carbon monoxide, this gas will have been partly or en¬ tirely displaced from the hemoglobin and the blood after death will have its normal color. The simplest method of detecting the presence of carbon mo¬ noxide in blood is to compare the color of a dilute solution of the suspected blood with a similar solution of normal blood. Take a drop or two of blood from the finger of a normal person and dilute it in a test tube very considerably with water (a one-half of 1 per cent solution is a convenient strength), so that when examined by transmitted daylight the color of this solution is a reddish-yellow. Then take a drop or two of the suspected blood and dilute it similarly with water, so that the depth of color of the solution is the same as that of the solution of normal blood when both are viewed by transmitted light. On examining the quality of the color it will be found that the solution made with the suspected blood, if it contains carbon monoxide hemoglobin, is definitely pinker than that made with the normal blood, though it will not have the full pink tint of the same normal blood solu- 154 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. tion if the latter be shaken with coal gas so as to saturate it quite completely with carbon monoxide. The lungs show no abnormal changes in cases of rapid death. Small punctate hemorrhages may be found in the white matter of the brain and sometimes ecchymoses in the meninges if the case has been exposed to a concentration of carbon monoxide suf¬ ficient to cause prolonged unconsciousness. Symptoms.— Except with very massive doses, when loss of con¬ sciousness is very rapid, the symptoms develop very gradually, as the gas is only absorbed slowly. If a man is at rest in a con¬ centration of the gas of 1 part in 1,000 it will take about two hours before definite giddiness appears and he will not be defi¬ nitely disabled until the lapse of two and one-half hours. The rate of absorption of the gas is much quickened when the breath¬ ing is deepened during muscular exercise and the exercise also leads to great accentuation of the symptoms. With a concen¬ tration of 2 parts in 1,000 a man will be seriously affected in half an hour if he is performing a moderate amount of muscular work, and this concentration may prove fatal with prolonged ex¬ posure. Small animals are far more quickly affected by carbon mon¬ oxide than man is, owing to the natural great ventilation of their lungs and the rapidity of their circulation. A mouse or a canary will show definite symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning in a tenth of the time that a man will. If small animals are used to give an index of the presence of carbon monoxide in a suspected atmosphere, it must be remembered that though they show symptoms long before a man feels any effects, the man will in the end be reduced to the same condition as the animal, and he ought therefore to leave the dangerous atmosphere di¬ rectly the animal shows signs of being affected, unless he is protected by special apparatus. The first sign that tells a man that something is amiss is very frequently a feeling of loss of power in the limbs. Giddiness, slight confusion of mind, and breathlessness and palpitation on the least exertion also show themselves. The confusion of mind and loss of power in the legs frequently preclude a man from withdrawing from danger, even though he is dimly aware that safety is only a few yards distant. The failure of power in the limbs and mental confusion rapidly increase and the man may GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 155 appear drunk, shouting incoherently, laughing, swearing, or pray¬ ing. Apathy and complete helplessness supervene, and failure of the intellectual powers gradually passes into complete uncon¬ sciousness, which may finally terminate in a painless death. The symptoms may remain stationary at any stage, since the degree of saturation of the hemoglobin with carbon monoxide reaches a final end point which is determined by the relative concentrations of the carbon monoxide and the oxygen which are simultaneously trying to combine with the hemoglobin. Even in cases of mild gassing with carbon monoxide, a severe headache accompanied by nausea is very likely to develop. Treatment. —- The symptoms detailed above are due to the gradual diminution of the oxygen-carrying power of the blood and the exposure of all the organs of the body to increasing want of oxygen. It is clear that any increase in the oxygen demands of the body is to be avoided, and any man, therefore, who shows definite signs of gassing should be carried to a place of safety. If he attempts to walk himself he is quite likely to fall down unconscious. When a moderately gassed case reaches fresh air he sometimes falls unconscious, while other cases may commence to shout and struggle, in which case their movements need to be controlled. Any case showing definite symptoms should be removed as soon as possible to some place of safety where he can remain at rest for an hour or two before evacuation. Rest is essential. As carbon monoxide hemoglobin is a dissociable compound, the carbon monoxide is gradually driven out of its combination with hemoglobin by the oxygen of the air as soon as an atmosphere free from carbon monoxide is reached. In fresh air it will take an hour or two before the blood is entirely freed from carbon monoxide, but the process can be rendered five times as rapid by giving the patient pure oxygen to breathe. It is important there¬ fore to begin the administration of oxygen by some efficient method as soon as possible after the case has been removed from the poisonous atmosphere. A suitable method has been described under chlorine poisoning (par. 214) and the oxygen apparatus that is kept at mine rescue stations is also most efficient. Adminis¬ tration of oxygen should be kept up as continuously as possible for half an hour to an hour, depending on the severity of the symptoms. It should be remembered that if a case can be kept 156 GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. at rest lor half an hour and oxygen administered immediately after being removed from the poisonous atmosphere, he will be in far better condition to travel than if he has to be removed to a more distant point. If the breathing is very shallow, adminis¬ tration of oxygen may be combined with artificial respiration. Collapse should be combated by external warmth and by fric¬ tion of the limbs. In chlorine poisoning the pulmonary edema and damage to the lungs and the consequent interference with the gaseous exchange taking place between the blood and the air in the lungs per¬ sist for some time and may necessitate the administration of oxygen for several days. In carbon monoxide poisoning the structure of the lungs is not interfered with and oxygen is ad¬ ministered with the deliberate intention of accelerating the dis¬ charge of carbon monoxide from the blood. When once thi§ has been accomplished, i. e., after half an hour’s or an hour’s admin¬ istration, there is no need to continue the oxygen administra¬ tion, as the oxygen-carrying power of the blood has now become normal again. Any symptoms that persist are due to effects that were produced while the blood was charged with carbon mon¬ oxide and are unlikely to be influenced by oxygen administration when once the carbon monoxide has been got rid of. Further oxygen administration is therefore required only if cyanosis be¬ gins to develop subsequently from secondary cardiac or respi¬ ratory failure. Cases of carbon monoxide poisoning have been known to re¬ cover, even when they have remained unconscious for so long as 48 hours after removal from the poisonous atmosphere. In cases that have been severely gassed the possibility of subse¬ quent cardiac dilatation must not be lost sight of, and cases of severe gassing should not be returned to duty until confidence is felt that the circulation has recovered from the strain. As a result of damage to the nervous system while the blood was charged with carbon monoxide, paralysis of single muscles or a groups of muscles, or different forms of mental disturbance are sometimes found as sequelae. Need for Further Investigation: 229 . Knowledge on the various points discussed in this pamph¬ let is still far from being stable. Medical officers are there- GAS POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT. 157 fore asked to assist by making further observations and at once writing down notes on any of the following particulars, about which chance may enable them to supply useful information. Such notes should be forwarded to the division surgeon. 1. Smells of the gas. This may be musty, pungent, aromatic like lilac, garlic, mustard and cress, bitter almonds, and so on. 2. The symptoms in gassed men, especially those of onset, when they are in any way remarkable or differ from those described for cloud gas in this pamphlet. All points not observed by the medical officer himself should be subjected to careful cross-ex¬ amination. 3. The findings at autopsy of very early cases of gas poison- . ing with an account of the manner of death. 4. The value of various methods of treatment of severely gassed cases, with control observations where possible. INDEX. A. Action: Paragraph. after an enemy gas attack. 10 after enemy gas attack. 184 after gas attack. 18 during enemy gas attack. 0 during enemy gas attack. 183 during a gas shell bombardment. 185 during gas attack. 89 during our gas attacks. 102 during gas attacks. 10 to be taken in billets and back areas. 88 to be taken in trenches on gas alarm. 87 to be taken on sounding of gas alarm. 182 subsequent to gas attack. 104 Adjustment: of horse respirator. 177 of mask . 32 Aid, first . 12 Aiming points and aiming posts. 157 Alarm: gas. 8 gas. 31 gas, devices. 138 Alert: position of horse respirator. 170 position for box respirators. 6 position of respirators and helmets. 77 Ammonia: for gassed persons. 224 capsules, in gas alert. 181 inhalations. 221 inhalations. 222 capsules. 7 capsules. 83 160 INDEX. Paragraph. Ammonium carbonate for gassed persons. 224 Ammunition: and arms, cleaning. 112 and guns, protection and cleaning of. 156 effect of gas on. 18 and small arms, protection of...• 69 Anti-dimming composition for box respirator. 123 Anti-gas: fan for clearing trenches. 140 fans. 139 personal equipment, inspection of. 170 drills and practice should be continuous. 169 measures. 2 goggles, inspection of.«. 172 goggles. 131 Apomorphine for gassed persons. 224 Apparatus, gas sampling. 146 Appliance, when and where carried. 62 Armament, nature of. 19 Arms: and ammunition, cleaning. 112 cleaning of .. . 10 cleaning of after gas attack. 184 Artillery: •action during enemy gas attack. 183 fire as anti-gas measure. 159 gas protection . 151 protection of. 72 Asphyxiants. 19 Atrophine for gassed persons.. 224 Attack: action during an enemy gas. 9 flame throwing . 202 forms of gas. 25 gas. 33 gas cloud. 2 FI otc /VOTE. In deployment /-- 3"- I 1 * Cr> first hoe 2f. on tecind line 1' on t Icrie ant t nternitdiate Line PUte No 26. > WAVE < < T*la-ft IS PcS - MAP OF C COMPANY SECTOR r'tu.CzzknAry Tr 33 « V H 03 H CO'-' 0 CO '3' 03 g s C3 ca • rH a* .g.S ■g 3 ,s 2 o t- H e*H H a o o <3 s o3 • O 2 Captain. i 1 (a) Senior first lieutenant, second in command. (b) 1st and 4th Platoons commanded by first lieutenants; 2d and 3d Platoons commanded by second lieutenants; Additional officers in Regular Army from Reserve Corps or National Army. (c) Assistant to platoon commander. (d) To be distributed as needed. (e) For replacement. (J) Automatic-rifle gunners. Cf7) Company Clerk. (i) Company agents and signalmen. (k) From supply company, not in¬ cluded in total. (L) Includes 8 rifles for automatic gunners not acting as such. (m) 4 automatic rifle teams, each con¬ sisting of 1 gunner and 2 car¬ riers; 1 corporal for each two guns. (n) 3 bomber squads, each consisting of: 1 leader, 1 thrower, 1 car¬ rier, and 1 scout, (3 pistols for throwers). (o) 6 rifle grenadiers and 3 carriers. (p) Armed with pistol only. (r) Armed with rifle only. (pr) Armed with pistol and rifle. ( s ) Runners. 3 First Lieutenants. al hi j 2 3 4 Second Lieutenants. 2 2 5 Total Commissioned. 2 1 1 _] 4 6 6 First Sergeant. 1 V 1 T i ] 7 Mess Sergeant. 1 r -— 1 8 Supply Sergeant. 1 r 1 9 Sergeants. clpr lr 1 pr 3 12 12 ! io ii Corporals. qlr 2pr 2 pr 2r 2 pr 8 32 33 Cooks... 4 r 4 12 Mechanics. 4 r L 4 13 Wagoners. t . kb . 14 Buglers. 2 v 1 2 15 Privates, 1st Class. Hr lr 4 3 pr lr 6r f4p 15 60 64 16 Privates. s4r 6 r 6 r 8r 8r 32 128 128 17 Total Enlisted. 18 5 12 9 17 15 58 232 250 18 19 20 21 Aggregate. 20 6 12 9 17 15 58 236 256 Mules, draft. . .. • • • ATS Carts, ration, 2-mule.■. kl Carts, water, 2-mule. kl | 1 J _ 22 23 Kitchens, rolling, 4-mule. kl Wagons, combat, 4-mule.-. ! *i r — | 24 25 l 26 l 27 Lis So Wagons, ration and baggage, 4-mule. : AT Bicycles. 2 o Grenade-dischargers, rifle. eO 6 6 24 30 Knives, trench. d40 40 Pistols. 5 2 5 2 ry l 16 64 69 Rifles. 23 L 5 12 9 17 11 54 216 239 Rifles, automatic. 1 4 4 16 16 A « »!** • •* r.iri ' VUUJ/ . ' ' INDEX. 161 Attack (Continued): gas, method of making. gas shell . Barrage : smoke. Beaufort: scale . scale . Benzyl: bromide. Billets : action to be taken in. Blue : cases, gassed persons. Bombs : and shells, gas in offensive. precaution against . Box Respirators : inspection of . and helmets, drills with. and helmets, inspection of during gas alert method of use. anti-dimming composition . construction of . description of. directions for use of. drills with. fitting of . inspection of. inspection of. length of time to be worn.. local repairs . record of use of. replacement of.... - . Breathing : drills in . Bringing : up supports . 6 Paragraph. . 200 . 2 198 188 18 206 88 221 210 99 22 166 181 118 123 5 116 21 20 117 6 122 120 124 121 121 1 98 INDEX. 162 Burning : Paragraph. buildings. 211 of nitro explosives. 211 Bulbs : vacuum for gas samples. 191 Calculation : of time taken for gas to move a given distance. 190 Camphor : for gassed persons. 224 Capsules : ammonia. 83 ammonia. 7 Carbon : monoxide. 228 monoxide. 208 monoxide, poisoning, treatment of. 228 monoxide, poisoned by. 12 monoxide poisoning, symptoms of. 228 Carrier Pigeons : protection of . 165 Careful : training, need for. 16 Carrying : of horse respirator. 175 Cavalry : adjustment of respirators. 150 gas protection . 148 gas protection when near trenches. 149 Chlorine . 205 effect of. 214 effect on respirative organs. 42 heavier than air. . . .. 16 Circumstances : under which gas poisoning may be met with in warfare 209 under which poisonous gases other than used for of¬ fensive purposes may be encountered . 211 INDEX. 163 Cleaning : Paragraph. bright parts of trench mortars. 114 of arms. 10 of arms after an enemy gas attack. 184 of arms and ammunition.. ... H2 signal instruments after gas attack. 164 Clearing : shelters with two openings. 143 dug-outs. 18 dug-outs and other shelters. 106 of shelters. 10 of shelters after an enemy gas attack. 184 shelters, with fan. 142 trenches with fan. 140 Cloud: attack. 40 gas. 39 gas attack. 2 gas attacks, out of date. 16 gas in offensive. 210 gas of summer of 1915. 213 gas of 1916 and 1917. 215 Collapsed cases: gassed persons . 221 gassed persons . 222 Collection of specimens after a gas shell bombardment. 192 Company: gas non-commissioned officers. 6 gas 1ST. C. Os., duties and responsibilities. 186 gas 1ST. C. Os., during gas alert. 181 gas 1ST. C. Os., measures after gas shell bombardment. 192 gas N. C. Os., whom to report to. 81 vermorel sprayers ... 145 Communication, lines of. 223 Course, six day, in anti-gas measures. 15 Crude: methods used . 16 protection against gas. 16 INDEX. 164 Cylinders: Paragraph. contents of . 3 warning of old. 3 Construction. 18 and placing of wind vane. 187 of box respirator. 5 Convalescent depots. 223 D. Defensive measures against gas attacks. 3G Description of strombos horn. 134 Devices for gas alarm. 138 Diagram of box respirator. 5 Digitalin for gassed persons.... 224 Directions: for the use of anti-gas horse respirators. 173 for use of box respirators. 21 of wind, how observed and stated. 18S Divisional gas officer, duties of. 57 Dog masks . 179 Dressing stations, treatment at. 221 Drills: and practice for anti-gas should be continuous. 169 for gas shells. 1 Helmet, P. H. 128 in breathing . 1 tube helmet . 166 with box respirators. 20 with box respirators and helmets. 166 with gas masks. 34 with respirators . 1 Drugs: for gassed persons. 219 used for gassed persons. 224 Dug-outs: and shelters, clearing.. 106 clearing of . 18 INDEX. 165 Dug-outs (Continued) : Paragraph. gas proof, using of. 65 protected. 14 Duties: and responsibilities of company gas N. C. Os. 186 of divisional gas officer. 57 organization of anti-gas. 53 within an infantry battalion, anti-gas. 54 E. Ear drums, perforated, protection to use. 119 Effect: of gas poisonings in 1916 and 1917. 215 of chlorine on respiratory organs. 214 of gas on ammunition. 18 of gas on equipment. 18 of gas on rifle. 18 of gas . 27 Employment, tactical, of gas in defense. 199 Enemy gas attack, action during. 9 Equipment : and weapons, protection of. 68 carried. 58 effect of gas on. 18 inspection of personal, anti-gas. 170 of men . 29 Escaping : from gas bombs. 19 Expectorants : gassed persons .... . 222 Explosions . «... ..... 06 and mine gases. 49 Explosive : shells. 97 Eye : irritant gases .. 206 Eye-pieces : Cleaning of . 20 166 INDEX. F. Fans : Paragraph. anti-gas. 130 anti-gas for clearing shelters. 142 use for clearing trenches. 140 method of clearing around a traverse with. 141 Fanning : for ventilation. 110 Fire : rain of . 190 ventilation, material used. 109 First aid . 12 to gassed men. 19 First lecture : on gas . 2 in anti-ga^s measures. 16 Fitting : of box respirators. 117 Flame : throwing attacks .-. 202 Flammenwerfer. Form : for wind report. of gas attack. Forward : observing parties, precautions taken Fourth lecture . Fumes : from high-explosive shells. from the firing of guns. nitrous. 197 18 25 155 12 : 211 211 Gas : alarm alarm alarms G. 31 S 10 INDEX. 167 Gas (Continued): Paragraph. alarm, action to be taken. 182 alarm devices. 138 alarm, sounding of. 21 alarm, action to be taken in trenches. 87 alarm, method of giving. 85 alarm, protected shelters. 182 unnecessary movements to cease. 182 Gas Alert. 30 ammonia capsules . 181 company gas non-commissioned officers..-. 181 inspection of helmets. 129 inspection of respirators and helmets. 181 order for . 75 P.H. helmet. 127 position when only P.H. helmet is used. 167 position of box respirators. 181 sentries. 181 sleeping. 181 when and by whom ordered, and taken off. 180 Gas Appliances : training with . 168 officers’ responsibility . 51 Gas attack. 33 action after . 18 action during our. 102 action during an enemy. 9 action subsequent to. 104 during action . j. 89 method of making. 200 movement of men in trenches during. 105 tactical measures during. 158 Gas : and oil projectors. 201 and smoke used together. 96 attacks, origin of. 35 bombs and grenades, storing of. 103 bombs, escaping from. 19 clouds. 39 cloud, last great attack... 16 INDEX. 168 Gas (Continued): Paragraph. cloud, poisoning from. 212 cloud, speed of. 43 cylinders, handling of. 100 cylinders, position of in trenches. 101 defense, organization of. 50 duties, organization of. 53 defense for special arm3. 147 duties within an infantry battalion. 54 effects of. 27 first used by Germans. 16 in defense, employment, tactical. 199 kinds of . 26 masks, types of. 28 mine . 211 mixture of . 41 mustard. 19 poisoning and its treatment. 203 poisoning, how met with in warfare. 209 poisoning, treatment for. 219 poisoning, symptoms at onset. 217 poisoning, symptoms on development. 217 precautions. 194 projectile. 44 proof dug-outs, use of. 65 protection for artillery. 151 samples, instructions for taking. 191 sampling apparatus . 146 shells and gas bombs in offensive. 210 shell attack. 2 shell attacks . 16 shell bombardment, action during. 1S5 shells, kind used by enemy. 45 shells now used. 16 testing tubes . 191 which act on the eye. 206 which act by interfering with respiratory properties of the blood. 208 which act on the nervous system. 207 use of for offensive purposes. 210 INDEX. 169 Gas (Continued): Paragraph. mine and explosion. 49 poisonous, how grouped. 204 Gassed men, first aid to. 19 Goggles: anti-gas. 131 anti-gas, inspection of. 172 rubber sponge . 61 Grenades, and gas bombs, storing of. 103 Guns and ammunition, protection and cleaning. 156 H. Hand and rifle grenades: measures to be taken after exposure to gas. 113 protection of . 70 Handling gas cylinders. 100 Helmets. 60 and box respirators, drills with. 166 alert position of. 77 gas alert position when helmet only is used. 167 inspection during gas alert. 129 inspection of . 76 P.H. 125 P.H. drill . 128 P.H., during gas alert. 127 P.H., inspection of. 171 P.H., method of use. 126 P.H., special orders for men using. 181 replacement and repair. 130 special orders for using. 78 tube, drill . 166 Help each other in gas attack.'. 91 Homs: strombos. 133 strombos, description . 134 strombos, how to sound. 136 strombos, method of use. 135 strombos, replacement and repair of. 137 170 INDEX. Paragraph. Horse respirators . 132 adjustment of . 177 alert position of . 176 how carried . 175 method of use . 174 replacement of . 178 use of . 173 Hydrocyanic acid . 227 acid. 207 poisoning, symptoms of. 227 I. Inhalations : ammonia. 222 ammonia. 221 Inspection : helmets, during gas alert. 129 of anti-gas goggles. 172 of box respirators. 6 of box respirators. 22 of box respirators. 122 of box respirators and helmets during gas alert. 181 of gas equipment. 29 of gas respirators. 76 of helmets. 76 of personal anti-gas equipment. 179 of P.H. helmets. 171 of small box respirator. 1 Interference : with circulation when person is gassed. 214 Instruction : and organization. ' . 24 for taking gas samples. 191 Instruments : telephone, protection against gas. 163 Investigation ; need for further. 229 INDEX. j 71 Ipecacuanha: Paragraph. for gassed persons. 224 Issue : of respirators . 1 K. Kidneys : in gas poisoning. 218 Kinds : of gas. 20 L. Lachrymators . 206 lachrymators. 226 Lachrymatory .19 gases, protection against. 66 or tear shells. 46 Lecture : fourth. 12 in gas alert. 1 in gas shells. 1 on gas, first. 2 on gas for officers. 23 second. 6 third. 11 Length of time for wearing box respirator. 120 Light : trench mortars and ammunition..'. 71 Liquid fire : origin, how used, and construction of. 195 Lines : of communication. 223 Local repairs on box respirators. 124 M. Marks : on shells . 19 INDEX. 172 Mask : Paragraph. adjustment. 32 dog. 179 Material : used in tire ventilation. 109 Measures : anti-gas. 2 against gas attacks. 36 tactical, during action of an enemy gas attack. 9 tactical during gas attack. 158 to be taken on hand and rifle grenades that have been exposed to gas. 113 summary of protective. 52 Mechanism of strombos horn. 16 Medical officers: measures to take in gas offensive.. 210 treatment to give gassed persons. 220 Method: of adjusting respirator for cavalry. 150 of giving gas alarm. 85 of making gas attack. 200 of use of box respirator. 118 of use of P.H. Helmet. 126 of using horse respirator. 174 of using respirators by artillery. 151 crude used . 16 for aiding the discharge from lungs from gassed persons. . 219 of getting gas out of trench. 17 of protections of shelters. 63 Mine: and explosion gases. 49 gases. 211 Mixture of gas. 41 Morphia for gassed persons. 224 Mortars, trench, cleaning bright parts. 114 Movements: after an enemy gas attack. 184 during action of an enemy gas attack. 9 INDEX. 173 Movements (Continued): Paragraph. during clearing of shelters. 10 during enemy gas attack. 183 of men in trenches during gas attack. 105 unnecessary to cease at gas alarm. 182 unnecessary, to cease during gas alarm. 8 Mustard gas . 19 N. Nature of armament. 19 Natural ventilation . 107 Necessary training. 56 Need for further investigation. 229 Nervous system, gases which act on. 207 Nitrous: fumes. 225 nitric oxide and nitrogen peroxide. 205 poisoning, treatment . 225 Non-commissioned officers: company gas . 6 and officers to see that orders are carried out. 82 special duties of, gas. 55 O . Observation: wind. 74 wind. 16 Observing and stating of wind direction. 188 Offensive, use of gas for. 210 Officers: and N.C.Os. to see that orders are carried out. 82 lectures on gas for. 23 responsibility in gas appliances. 51 Oil and gas projectors. 201 Open-air treatment, gassed persons. 222 Order for gas alert. 75 Ordering of gas alert, when and by whom given and taken off 180 174 INDEX. Paragraph. Orders, standing for company gas N.C.Os. 12 Organization: and instruction . 24 of anti-gas duties.. 53 of gas defense. 50 Origin of gas attacks. 35 Oxygen, in treating gassed persons. 219 P. P.H. Helmet . 125 during gas alert. 127 inspection of . 171 method of use. 126 special orders for men using. 181 drill. 128 Paralysants. 19 Pathological changes from carbon monoxide poisoning. 228 Pathology of gas poisoning and its treatment. 203 Perforated ear drums, protection to use. 119 Personal anti-gas equipment, inspection of. 170 Phenacetin : for gassed persons.224 Phosgene . 205 effect on respirative organs. 42 heavier than air. 16 Pigeons : carrier, protection of. 165 Pituitrin : for gassed persons. 224 Placing : and construction of wind vane. 187 Poison : gases, protection against. 37 shells . 47 INDEX. 175 Poisoning : Paragraph. by carbon monoxide. 12 by gas cloud. 212 carbon monoxide, symptoms of. 228 carbon monoxide, treatment of. 228» gas, treatment for. 219 Poisonous gases: circumstances under which they may be encountered.... 211 how grouped . 204 protection against . 4 Position : alert, for box respirators. 6 gassed persons . 222 of gas cylinders in trenches. 101 Portmortem : findings . 216 findings when person is gassed. 214 Practice : A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H,—drills with box respirators and helmets.166 A and drills for anti-gas should be continuous. 169 Precautions : against bombs . 99 during gas alert. 76 gas . 194 Preparation : for subsequent attack. 10 Preservation : of guns and ammunition. 156 Projectiles : gas . 44 Projectors : gas and oil . 201 Protected : dug-outs .. 14 shelters, measures taken on sounding gas alarm. 182 INDEX. 176 Protecting : Paragraph, troops against gas. 38 Protection : and cleaning of guns and ammunition. 156 against gas and explosions for tunneling companies.... 161 against lachrymatory gases. 66 against liquid fire. 195 against poison gases. 37 against poisonous gases. 4 against poisonous gases. 59 crude against gas. 16 for perforated ear drums. 119 for telephone instruments against gas. 163 of artillery . 72 of carrier pigeons. 165 of hand and rifle grenades. 70 of shelters. 63 of shelters . 13 of signal equipment. 73 of small arms and small arms ammunition. 69 of weapons and equipments. 68 Protective : measures, summary of. 52 . R. Rain : of fire . 196 Rapid : fire . 93 Rarities : in cases of gas poisoning. 218 Record : of use of box respirator. 121 Regulations : for treatment of gassed persons. 220 Removal: of gas alert. 84 of respirators after action by enemy gas attack. 10 of respirators after enemy gas attack. 184 INDEX. 177 Repairs : Paragraph. and replacement of helmets. 130 and replacement of strombos horn. 137 Replacement : and repair of helmets. 130 and repair of strombos horn. 137 of box respirators.121 of horse respirators. 178 Report : wind, type of. 189 samples and specimens, after gas attack. 193 wind . 6 Respirator: adjustment by cavalry. 150 box, length of time to be worn. 120 box, method of use. 118 horse, adjustment of. 177 horse, alert position of. 176 horse, how carried. 175 horse, method of use. 174 alert position of. 77 and helmets, inspection of during gas alert. 181 box and helmet drills with. 166 box, record of use. 121 box, auto-dimming composition. 123 box, description of. 116 box, inspection of. 122 box, local repairs. 124 box, fitting of. 117 box, inspection of. 6 box, replacement of. 121 horse. 132 horse, replacement of. 178 horse, use of. 173 how used by artillery. 151 inspection of . 76 issue of . 1 position in gas alert. 181 removal after enemy gas attack. 184 removal of during action after an enemy gas attack. 10 INDEX. 178 Respiratory: Paragraph. and blood, gases which act on. 208 tract. 214 Responsibility: of artillery during gas attack. 160 of officers in gas appliance. 51 Rest stations . . 223 Restless cases: gassed persons . 221 gassed persons . 222 Retiring before a gas attack. 16 Rifle: and hand grenades, protection of. 70 effect of gas on. 18 Rubber sponge goggles. 61 S. S.O.S.: barrage. 94 when used. 183 Samples, specimens, and reports to be made after gas attacks 193 Sampling, gas apparatus. 146 Scale: Beaufort. 188 Beaufort. 18 Schedule, six-day course in anti-gas measures. 15 Second: lecture. 6 lecture . 18 Sentries. 79 to give gas alarm. 86 during gas alert. 181 posts of . 6 Serious cases, gassed persons. 222 Shell holes, treatment of. . . 115 INDEX. 179 Shells: Paragraph. and bombs, gas in offensive. 210 gas, kind used by enemy. 45 marks on. 19 Shelters: and dug-outs, clearing. 106 clearing after an enemy gas attack. 184 clearing of . 10 clearing with, fan. 142 protected, measures taken on sounding of gas alarm. 182 protection of . 13 which should be protected. 13 which should be protected. 67 with two openings, clearing. 143 Signal: equipment, protection of. 73 service and telephone operators, protection against gas. . . 162 Six-day course in anti-gas measures. 15 Sleeping. 80 during gas alert. 181 when attack is probable. 6 Small arms and small arms ammunition, protection of. 69 Small Box Respirator, inspection of. 1 Smoke . . .. 48 barrage . 198 and gas used together. 95 bombs, use of. 198 Sodium : lactate for, gassed persons. 224 Sounding : of the gas alarm. 21 of strombos horn. 136 Sparteine : for gassed persons. 224 Special: arms, gas defense. 147 duties of gas non-commissioned officers. 55 INDEX. 180 Special (Continued): Paragraph. orders for using helmet. 78 stimulants and drugs, in treating gassed persons. 219 Specimens : collection of after gas shell bombardment. 192 samples and reports, after gas attack. 193 Speed : : T * of gas cloud. 43 Spraying : shelters . 64 Sprayers : vermorel. vermorel, company . vermorel, when used. Standing : orders for company gas N.C.Os Stations : dressing, treatment at. rest . Steps : to be taken when wind is dangerous. 2 Stimulants : for gassed persons. 219 Stomach : in gas poisoning. 218 Storing : of gas bombs and grenades. 103 Strombos : horns . 133 horn, description . 134 horn, how to sound. 136 horn, mechanism of. 16 horn, method of use. 135 horns, replacement and repair of. 137 Strychnine : for gassed persons. 224 111 145 144 12 221 223 INDEX. 181 Subsequent : Paragraph, attack, preparation for after an enemy gas attack. 184 Summary : of protective measures. 52 Supports : bringing up . 98 Symptoms : as gas poisoning progresses. 217 at onset of gas poisoning. 217 of carbon monoxide poisoning. 228 of hydrocyanic acid poisoning. 227 of nitrous poisoning. .. 225 on development of gas poisoning. 217 T. Tactical : employment of gas in defense. 199 measures . 92 measures, during action of an enemy gas attack. 9 measures, during enemy gas attack. 183 measures, during gas attacks. 158 Taking: gas samples, instructions for. 191 Tear : or lachrymatory shells. 46 Telephone : instruments, cleaning after gas attack. 164 instruments, protection against gas. 163 operators, training and method of protection against gas 162 Third : lecture .'.. 11 lecture, first aid to gassed men. 19 Time : for gas to move given distance, calculation of. 190 Toxic : effect when person is gassed. 214 Training : careful, need for. 16 necessary . 56 INDEX. 182 Training (Continued) : Paragraph, of telephone operators and linemen for protection against gas. 162 seven weeks’ course. 1 with gas appliances. 168 Traverse : method of clearing with fan. 141 Treatment : at field hospitals and casualty clearing stations. 222 in dressing stations. 221 of gas poisoning. 203 of hydrocyanic acid poisoning. 227 of monoxide poisoning. 228 of nitrous poisoning. 225 of shell holes... 115 for gas poisoning.. 219 for gassed persons. 220 Trench : methods of getting gas out of. 17 clearing with fan. 140 motors and their ammunition. 71 mortars, cleaning bright parts. 114 Troops: in support, where to remain during gas attack. 90 protecting against gas. 38 Tube helmet drill.166A Tubes, gas testing. 191 Tunnelling companies, protection against gas and explosions. . 161 Type: of wind report. 6 of gases . 205 U. Use of: gas for offensive purposes. 210 smoke bombs . 198 strombos horn, method of. 135 Using gas-proof dug-outs. 65 INDEX. 183 V. Paragraph. Vacuum bulbs, for gas samples. 191 Vane, wind, construction and placing of. 187 Vascular obstruction in gas poisoning. 218 Venesection: for gassed persons. 219 for gassed persons. 222 Ventilation: by fanning . 110 by fire . 108 fire, material used. 109 natural. 107 Vermorel sprayers . Ill company. 145 when used. 144 Visit to chlorine chamber. 1 W. Warning of billets. 211 Warmth, in treating gassed persons. 219 Warning, of old cylinders. 3 Weapons and equipment, protection of. 68 * Weather for gas cloud attack. 199 Wind: direction of, how observed and stated. 188 is dangerous, when and what steps to be taken. 2 observation. 74 observation. 16 reports. 6 report, form for. 18 report, type of. 6 report, type of. 189 vane, construction and placing of. 187 THE ARGUS COMPANY ALBANY, N. Y. EDWIN N. 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