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1766 (Garner, Phila.): Eng., writ., accts. 
 (McCain, Phila.) '• surv., nav. 
 (Oliphant, Phila.): writ., arith. math. 
 
 (Academy, Phila.): "the languages," math., mer. accts., writ., 
 
 arith. 
 (Thorne, Phila.): writ., arith., mer. accts., mens., surv., gaug., 
 
 nav. 
 (Alex. Power, Phila.): Eng., writ., arith., bk-kp., geom., mens., 
 
 trig., surv., nav., geog., astr., alg., conic sections, Auctions. 
 (Ehrenzeller, Phila.): Ger. 
 (Webster, Phila.): geog., logic, Eng. 
 (Carroll, N. Y.): writ., arith., bk-kp., geom., alg., conic sections. 
 
 1767 (Griffith, Boston): writ., arith. 
 (Hughes, N. Y.): writ., arith. 
 
 1768 (Dayton, Newport): read., writ., arith. 
 (Lamb, N. Y.): read., writ., arith., nav. 
 (Griffith, Boston): writ., arith. 
 
 1769 (Dayton, Newport): read., writ., arith. 
 
 1770 (Pine, Phila.): writ., arith. 
 
 (Maguire, Phila.): read., writ., arith., accts. 
 
 (Stiles, Phila.): writ., arith., "&:c." 
 
 (Oliphant, Phila.): writ., arith., math., mer. accts. 
 
 (Ellison, Phila.): writ., arith., nav., math. 
 
 (Fentham, Phila.): Fr. 
 
 (Thorne, Phila.): writ., arith., mer. accts., mens., gaug., surv., 
 
 nav. 
 (Daymon, Phila.): Fr. 
 (Ehrenzeller, Phila.): Ger. 
 (Robinson, N. Y.) : bk-kp. 
 (Girault, N. Y.):Fr. 
 
 [68] 
 
BULLETIN NO. 25 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 REPORTING EDUCATIONAL 
 RESEARCH 
 
 By 
 
 Walter S. Monroe 
 Director, Bureau of Educational Research 
 
 and 
 
 Nell Bomar Johnston 
 
 Assistant, College of Education 
 
 PRICE 50 CENTS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA 
 
 1925 
 
 L.; 
 
TABLE OF CONTEXTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface 5 
 
 Chapter I. Introduction 7 
 
 Chapter II. Criteria for Judging "Educational Writings".. 12 
 Chapter III. Illustrations of Certain Details of Form. ... 32 
 
 Chapter IV^ Process of Writing a Report 48 
 
 Chapter V, Preparation of Manuscript for Printer 56 
 
 Appendix 61 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/reportingeducati25monr 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Treatises on statistical methods, memoirs, articles, and 
 monographs have dealt with various phases of the technique 
 to be employed in collecting and summarizing data for the 
 study of educational problems. Practically nothing, how- 
 ever, has been written on the reporting of educational re- 
 search which is an important phase of an investigator's task. 
 Although realizing that the writing of a report cannot be 
 made a technical procedure, the Bureau of Educational Re- 
 search publishes this bulletin, which may be considered a 
 by-product of its activities, in the hope that it may render 
 assistance to those engaging in educational research. Im- 
 provement in the reporting of educational research will in 
 turn improve the quality of the work done. 
 
 Walter S. Monroe, Director. 
 March 4, 1925. 
 
REPORTING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The nature of educational research/ "Reflective thinking" is 
 the name given to the mental process of discovering rules and prin- 
 ciples. Since men began to be concerned about the preparation of 
 children for the activities of adult life, "thinkers" have been discov- 
 ering from their experience and observation rules and principles 
 relating to the learning process, the teaching process, the curriculum, 
 the organization of a school, the preparation of teachers, and so forth. 
 Many of these "discoveries" we now know have been faulty due to 
 incorrect or incomplete data or to failure to think with sufficient 
 accuracy. Recently under the name of "educational research," 
 specific attention has been given to improving the technique of dis- 
 covering knowledge about education. Particular emphasis has been 
 placed upon collecting objective data and summarizing them by 
 employing statistical procedures with the result that some persons 
 appear to consider these two phases of educational research as consti- 
 tuting the whole of it. This is an unfortunate conception. Reflective 
 thinking is required in the discovery of new procedures, rules and 
 principles. 
 
 Although the authors of this bulletin are not attempting to define 
 educational research, there is one other point which should be noted 
 here. The process of producing knowledge is one of growth. Dis- 
 covered principles become data which may be used in making other 
 discoveries. In the course of our racial experience, particularly 
 during modern times, a considerable store of knowledge relative to 
 education has been accumulated. Most of this knowledge is recorded 
 in treatises on educational theory, educational psychology, philosophy 
 of education, and school administration. Unfortunately, not all that 
 one finds in books relating to education is true but much valid 
 knowledge is contained which a "discoverer" of educational pro- 
 cedures, rules and principles will find helpful to use. 
 
 ^For a more extended discussion of educational research, see: 
 Monroe, Walter S. "Service of educational research to school administrators, 
 The American School Board Journal, 70:37-39, 122, 125, April, 1925. 
 
 [7] 
 
The somewhat dogmatic observations of the preceding para- 
 graphs may be epitomized as follows: The ultimate purpose of all 
 educational research is the discovery of procedures, rules and prin- 
 ciples relating to the various aspects of education. Critical reflect- 
 ive thinking is required in which discovered facts and principles may 
 be utilized, as well as original data. Thus the answering of any 
 question about education by means of critical reflective thinking, 
 based upon the "best" data obtainable, may properly be called 
 educational research. - 
 
 Reporting an important phase of educational research. The 
 
 report of an investigation serves to record and communicate the pro- 
 cedure and the results but it also fulfills an important function in the 
 process of research. In the act of writing, if it is well done, the 
 research worker refines his thinking and the detailed record facilitates 
 the critical testing of the work done. Thus an investigator should 
 not consider that he has completed his task until a complete report 
 has been prepared. If he is interested in communicating his work 
 to others, the report must be well written in order to fulfill that 
 purpose effectively. 
 
 The communicatory function of a report of educational re- 
 search. L'sually in preparing a report of a study, a research worker 
 should not confine his purposes to "telling"' the reader the answer 
 which he has obtained to the problem studied.^ Instead, he should 
 try to guide the reader to think about the problem in such a way 
 that at the conclusion of his reading a dependable answer will have 
 been attained. Thus an effective discussion of a problem and its 
 solution should guide the reader (1) to define the problem clearly 
 so that he will understand just what questions are to be answered 
 and in some cases their relation to other questions, (2) to under- 
 stand the data introduced, especially to be aware of their limitations, 
 and (3) to test critically the hypothesis which is to be accepted as 
 
 ^\ research worker at times may be concerned with the construction of an 
 educational test or the derivation of some formula or other procedure. Such work 
 may be called auxiliary research to indicate the fact that it does not directly produce 
 new knowledge. However, it is a means to this end. 
 
 ^There may be occasions when an abbreviated report should be made. For 
 example, in an oral presentation it is undesirable to give a large number of details 
 and one may appropriately ask his audience to assume that the technical procedure 
 was satisfactory or at least to take his word for it. On such occasions, it is also 
 undesirable to present the details of one's data. 
 
 [8] 
 
the answer and as a result to qualify or limit It if the data indicate 
 that this should be done. In case other hypotheses are likely to 
 occur to the reader, the discussion should guide him to an under- 
 standing of the reasons for their rejection. 
 
 Purpose of this bulletin. It Is the purpose of this bulletin to 
 suggest answers to the following questions: (1) What are the criteria 
 by which reports of educational research should be judged?* (2) 
 How should one proceed in his writing so as to meet these standards.'' 
 (3) What should one do in preparing a manuscript for the printer.'' 
 
 The first of these questions forms the topic of Chapters II and 
 III. The second is dealt with In Chapter IV, and Chapter \^ gives 
 suggestions for preparing the manuscript for the printer. 
 
 A good report based upon clear and critical thinking. It Is 
 obvious from the comments on the nature of educational research 
 and the communicatory function of a report that a necessary pre- 
 requisite is clear and critical thinking about the problem by the 
 writer. He cannot be successful in guiding a reader to think clearly 
 and critically unless he himself has first thought clearly and critlcalh'. 
 Hence, In considering the procedure of preparing a report of educa- 
 tional research, and In the formulation of criteria by which the com- 
 pleted product should be judged, we shall be concerned largely with 
 the process of clear and critical thinking. 
 
 Good "educational writing" Is not secured by following a 
 mechanical procedure. Although many good writers are accustomed to 
 follow a somewhat fixed procedure in the production of manuscripts, 
 writing, including the prerequisite thinking. Is not accomplished by 
 going through a series of mechanical steps. In discussing the' pro- 
 cess of reflective thinking we are accustomed to recognize four steps 
 or phases: (1) Defining the problem; (2) Collecting necessary Infor- 
 mation or data; (3) Forming hypotheses; and (4) Verifying pro- 
 posed hypotheses until a satisfactory solution Is found. Although 
 these steps describe a general pattern, thinking Is not In any sense a 
 mechanical procedure. It Is characterized by variation rather than 
 
 *The phrase "report of educational research" is used here to inchide any edu- 
 cational writing in which a problem is defined and the reasoning leading to the 
 answer presented. It does not include inspirational articles or addresses nor material 
 which should be classified as propaganda. By confining this bulletin to the reporting 
 of educational research the authors do not intend to imply that the criteria pre- 
 sented are not applicable to the reporting of research in other fields. However, 
 they have not canvased the needs outside of the field of education. 
 
 [9] 
 
by uniformity. For the same reason we cannot prescribe a fixed 
 procedure for writing, and the discussion in the following chapters, 
 particularly Chapter I\', is therefore necessarily confined to indi- 
 cating a general pattern of writing. 
 
 Good thinkers not necessarily good writers. Although clear and 
 concise thinking is a necessary prerequisite for good writing, ability 
 to think out correct answers to questions does not necessarily make 
 one a good writer. This observation follows from the communi- 
 catory function of a report of educational research which we pre- 
 sented in an earlier paragraph. Good writing, that is, writing which 
 is successful in guiding a reader to think clearly, comprehensively, 
 and concisely about the problem and eventually to arrive at a 
 conclusion which he feels is dependable, requires more from the 
 writer than ability to arrive at the correct answer to the problem 
 being considered. Some excellent "problem solvers" find it difficult 
 or impossible to produce good manuscripts and some thinkers who 
 are classed as mediocre, or at least not as brilliant, have become 
 successful writers. 
 
 Good writing the result of training. The ability to write well 
 cannot be acquired oflthand, nor can any treatise such as this bulletin 
 eliminate the necessity for long and perhaps laborious training. Most 
 of us need extended practice in putting our ideas into words and 
 in sorting and organizing our phrases, sentences and paragraphs 
 so that our writing may be effective as an instrument of communi- 
 cation. As is the case in many lines of human endeavor, proficiency, 
 particularly high proficiency, is attained only as a result of a long 
 period of study and training. Some persons possess greater talent 
 for writing than others, but an\one of average ability who has the 
 patience to undergo the necessary training and practice can become 
 reasonably proficient in the craft of writing. 
 
 Audience to whom this bulletin is addressed. This bulletin is 
 addressed to all who are engaged or who desire to engage in educa- 
 tional research. As we have pointed out, the reporting of the results 
 of an investigation should be considered an integral and necessary 
 phase of one's work. Superintendents, principals and teachers who 
 desire to report concerning their work, either at meetings of teachers 
 or in the educational press, should find many helpful suggestions in 
 the following pages. The authors, however, have particularly in 
 
 [ 10 ] 
 
mind students in teacher-training institutions, especially graduate 
 students who are engaged in the preparation of theses. 
 
 The source of the following suggestions and directions. The 
 following discussion is necessarih' subjective in that it represents the 
 judgment of the authors. However, it is the outgrowth of several 
 years of experience in the production and publication of reports of 
 educational research and has been formulated after an extended 
 consideration of the questions stated in an earlier paragraph. Fur- 
 thermore, books and manuals dealing with questions relative to ef- 
 fective writing have been consulted. 
 
 [11] 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 CRITERIA FOR JUDGING "EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS" 
 
 The criteria or standards to be used in judging a report of edu- 
 cational research have been grouped under three heads: 
 
 A. General structure. 
 
 B. Development, evaluation, and organization of ideas. 
 
 C. Details of structure and form. 
 
 In Section I of this chapter the criteria have been expressed in terms 
 of questions which are to be answered in passing judgment upon a 
 report. In Section II the criteria are explained and in some cases 
 illustrated. Additional illustrations of the details of structure and 
 form are given in Chapter III. 
 
 The reader will note that some of the criteria are not inde- 
 pendent. In a few cases one criterion implies others, and in some 
 there is a rather obvious overlapping but it is thought that this 
 feature is not altogether undesirable. 
 
 Relative importance of criteria. Of the several criteria listed, 
 those grouped under "development, evaluation, and organization of 
 ideas" are the most important. Although good structure and form 
 are highly desirable and in some respects necessary, a report cannot 
 be classed as "good" unless the right ideas have been developed and 
 an effective organization secured. 
 
 Application of the criteria. Preliminary to an attempt to apply 
 these criteria a writer should seek a clear understanding of them by 
 reading the second section of this chapter. Those listed under "de- 
 velopment, evaluation, and organization of ideas" are somewhat in- 
 tangible and are probably the most difficult to apply effectively; 
 but as stated in the preceding paragraph, they are the most important 
 and therefore should be given especial attention. 
 
 The criteria are intended to serve as guides in actual writing and 
 to provide bases for criticising one's work when revising a manu- 
 script. As preliminary training it will be helpful to apply the criteria 
 in judging reports of research published in educational periodicals 
 and as bulletins and monographs. In doing this one should not 
 merely answer the questions categorically but cite in addition definite 
 evidence in support of the answers given. In the beginning it will 
 be helpful to write out a statement of the evidence. 
 
 [12] 
 
I. SUMMARY OF CRITERIA 
 
 A. General Structure. 
 
 1. Major divisions and their sequence. 
 
 a. Are the following divisions reasonably explicit: 
 definition of problem, source of data, plan of treatment, 
 the discussion of each question to be answered, and the 
 conclusion: 
 
 b. Is the order of the divisions named above an effect- 
 ive one for the particular report under discussion: 
 
 2. Introduction. 
 
 a. Is the problem introduced in such a way that a com- 
 petent reader will appreciate and understand the purpose 
 of the report? 
 
 b. Has superfluous material been eliminated from the 
 introduction ? 
 
 3. Definition of problem. 
 
 a. Is the reader given a precise statement of the prob- 
 lem or problems which are to be considered? 
 
 b. In case the problem is related to other problems, 
 are the relations made clear to the reader: 
 
 4. Conclusion and summary. 
 
 a. Is the reader given in convenient form an explicit 
 answer to each question included in the "definition of the 
 problem": 
 
 b. In case the discussion leading to the answer to a 
 question or to a group of related questions is lengthy, is 
 the reader given a brief summary: 
 
 B. Development, evaluation, and organization of ideas. 
 
 5. Trend of thought. 
 
 a. As the reader "traces" the writer's thinking, will he 
 be led from a clearly defined problem to a critical and 
 scholarly answer by a route which is satisfying to him: 
 
 b. Is an encyclopaedic enumeration of ideas or facts 
 avoided .' 
 
 c. Are there sufficiently explicit connections between 
 chapters or other major divisions? 
 
 d. Have cross references been made where they 
 would be helpful to the reader? 
 
 [13] 
 
6. Development of ideas. 
 
 a. Has the writer avoided leaving "gaps" in his "trend 
 of thought" for the reader to fill in? 
 
 b. Have the important ideas been "developed" so that 
 the average reader will fully comprehend themr 
 
 c. Is the discussion connected with fundamental con- 
 cepts and principles; that is, does it avoid implications of 
 superficiality? 
 
 d. Has the writer developed his ideas so completeh' 
 that no points have been overlooked which might leave the 
 reader with unanswered questions? 
 
 7. Evaluation of ideas. 
 
 a. Have all irrelevant ideas been eliminated? 
 
 b. Have the ideas been grouped properly with refer- 
 ence to their relative importance? 
 
 c. Is it easy for the reader to pick out the important 
 points in the discussion? 
 
 8. Accuracy of interpretation. 
 
 a. Have the data been accurately interpreted? 
 
 b. Do the statements agree with generally accepted 
 opinion and "common sense"? If not, is attention called 
 to such disagreements? 
 
 c. Are the v^Titer's statements justified by his data? 
 
 9. Precision of statement. 
 
 a. Are the statements made so that they will convey 
 to the reader exactly the meaning intended? 
 
 b. Are all statements worded so that ambiguity or 
 indefiniteness is avoided? 
 
 c. Have the statements been expressed so that a com- 
 petent reader will not be in doubt regarding the exact ideas 
 in the mind of the writer? 
 
 C. Details of structure and for:m. 
 10. Diction. 
 
 a. Have appropriate words and phrases been used at 
 all times? 
 
 b. Have particular words and phrases been used with 
 a consistent meaning? 
 
 c. Have words and phrases to which common practice 
 has assigned technical meanings been used correctly? 
 
 [U] 
 
d. Has attention been called explicitly to words and 
 phrases with an unusual or restricted meaning: 
 
 e. Has the "over-working" of certain words been 
 avoided? 
 
 11. Clearness. 
 
 a. Is the vocabulary suitable for the intended audi- 
 ence r 
 
 b. Are the ideas expressed in simple yet definite lan- 
 guage? 
 
 12. Rhetoric, grammar, spelling, and punctuation. 
 
 a. Have the rhetorical rules relative to unity, coher- 
 ence, and emphasis in sentence and paragraph construction 
 been properly observed.' 
 
 b. Have rules of grammar been observed? 
 
 c. Are all words correctly spelled? 
 
 d. Has consistency in the plan of punctuation been 
 observed? 
 
 13. Form of tables and graphs. 
 
 a. Are the captions of tables at the top and those of 
 graphs at the bottom? 
 
 b. Are the captions, box headings, and other labels 
 sufficiently complete so that a competent reader will be able 
 to understand the table or graph without referring to the 
 accompanying text? 
 
 14. Explanation and interpretation of tables and graphs. 
 
 a. Has the enumeration of the facts summarized in a 
 table or diagram been minimized in the accompanying text? 
 
 b. Is the accompanying text sufficiently complete so 
 that it is unnecessary for the reader to refer to the table 
 or diagram in order to follow the trend of thought? 
 
 c. Are references to tables and graphs sufficiently ex- 
 plicit so that the reader will have no difficulty in locating 
 the correct table or graph? 
 
 d. In interpreting a table or graph, is the introduction 
 of irrelevant facts or comments avoided, so that the trend 
 of thought IS not broken? 
 
 15. References to sources of information. 
 
 a. Are bibliographical references given for statements 
 of facts taken from the works of other persons? 
 
 [15] 
 
16. Bibliographical form. 
 
 a. Are all references both in footnotes and in biblio- 
 graphies given in an approved bibliographical form: 
 
 17. Chapter titles, table of contents, preface, title page, order of 
 
 paging, spacing, kind of paper, and so forth. 
 
 a. Have conventional rules with reference to chapter 
 titles, table of contents, and so forth been observed? 
 
 18. Footnotes. 
 
 a. Have footnotes been used to give needed explana- 
 tions or other comments which will make more certain 
 a correct and complete understanding by the reader: 
 
 b. Has material which would tend to break the trend 
 of thought but which is desirable to include been placed 
 in a footnote or in an appendix? 
 
 19. Miscellaneous. 
 
 a. Have conventional rules with reference to abbrevi- 
 ations, division of words, spelling out numbers, and so forth 
 been complied with? 
 
 II. DISCUSSION OF CRITERIA 
 
 1. Major divisions and their sequence. No general rule can be 
 stated with reference to dividing a report into chapters or other 
 sections. Usually there is an introductory section or chapter in which 
 the problem and its discussion are introduced to the reader. Either 
 as a part of the "introduction" or as divisions coordinate with it, 
 there should be a "definition of a problem" and a statement of the 
 "sources of data" and "plan of treatment." Sometimes a general 
 statement is made in regard to the "limitations of the data." 
 
 The plan of the "discussion of the problem" will be determined 
 largely by the way in which the problem is defined. Usually there 
 should be a distinct division for each major subordinate problem or 
 question. For each problem or question there should be an explicit 
 conclusion. Sometimes these may be placed at the end of the re- 
 spective chapters or sections, but in lengthy reports it is desirable 
 to set apart a final chapter for this purpose. In case the discussion 
 of a problem is lengthy there should be a summary of the argument. 
 A few writers have placed a summary of the conclusions at the be- 
 ginning of the report. 
 
 [161 
 
In short manuscripts (twenty-five pages or less) it is not cus- 
 tomary to label the sections except by a paragraph or center heading, 
 but a critical reader should always be able to identify them without 
 difficulty. When a manuscript includes as many as fifty typewritten 
 pages double-spaced, it is customary to form chapters or sections 
 and to label each with an appropriate title. However, it is not pos- 
 sible to state a definite rule in regard to the mechanical form of the 
 divisions. In fact the mechanical form is not highly important. 
 
 When there is an explicit division into chapters or sections there 
 should be a "table of contents." It is also customary to list the 
 tables and diagrams by quoting their numbers and captions. These 
 should follow the "table of contents" on separate pages. 
 
 2. Introduction. The purpose of the "introduction" is to acquaint 
 the reader with the problem under consideration so that he will both 
 understand and appreciate the purpose of the following discussion. 
 In introducing a problem the writer may tell how It arose and dis- 
 cuss briefly Its Importance, but if it Is already familiar and of immedi- 
 ate Interest to the audience addressed this phase of the introduction 
 should be omitted or at least made very brief. The Introduction 
 should contain such explanatory statements as are judged necessary 
 to put the reader In the proper frame of mind for the understanding 
 of the material that follows. In the Introduction to this bulletin we 
 have called attention to the "nature of educational research," "report- 
 ing an important phase of educational research," and so forth. 
 
 The introduction should never be longer than necessary, as a 
 long Introduction tends to bore most readers. It Is, however, not 
 possible to specify even the portion of a report which may properly 
 be devoted to an "Introduction." In case the section so labeled in- 
 cludes, in addition to a statement of the writer's purpose, a descrip- 
 tion of the sources of data and of the plan of treatment and some 
 comment upon the limitations of the data, it may extend over sev- 
 eral pages. On the other hand it may be relatively short. A good 
 rule to bear in mind Is that as soon as the reader understands the 
 problem, he probably will be interested In what the writer has to 
 say about It and will be inclined to resent an unnecessary delay. 
 
 3. Definition of problem. An effective way to define a problem 
 Is to state in precise terms the specific questions to be answered. If 
 it is thought desirable, explanation and comment may be added. 
 If there are closely related questions which are not to be considered. 
 It is sometimes helpful to point these out. 
 
 [17] 
 
4. Conclusion and summary. A reader should always be able I 
 to find at the end of the manuscript or at the end of the major divi- ~ 
 sions a brief statement of the answers to the questions given in the 
 definition of the problem. If answers are to be stated for a large 
 number of questions, they should be organized by grouping and sub- 
 ordination so that the reader will not be bewildered by an encyclo- 
 paedic enumeration of statements. Furthermore, the conclusion 
 should be confined to a statement of the answers to the questions 
 being considered. It frequently happens that data presented in con- 
 nection with one problem may relate also to other problems. If 
 deemed desirable, a writer may use a footnote to call attention to the 
 implications of the data with reference to these other problems but 
 such comments should not be included in the body of the discussion 
 nor mentioned in the conclusion. 
 
 When the discussion of a particular question is lengthy, the 
 arguments should be summarized briefly. When a number of re- 
 lated questions have been considered, it is desirable to add a sum- 
 mary showing the relation which exists between the conclusions 
 reached for the separate questions. 
 
 5. Trend of thought. The phrase "trend of thought" is used as a 
 name for a somewhat subtle and indefinite concept. It is, however, 
 implied in a writer's purpose with reference to his readers. The 
 sentences and paragraphs which the writer sets down are for the 
 purpose of rendering maximum guidance and assistance to a reader 
 in thinking from the problem defined to its solution. The writer 
 has thought through the problem and he is writing for the purpose 
 of guiding the reader also in thinking out the same answer. This 
 does not mean that the writer should describe his actual mental 
 processes in thinking out his solution. Frequently his thinking in- 
 volves much "scrapped thought," and he should endeavor to guide 
 the reader so that such waste will be eliminated. Therefore, the 
 writer should rearrange his thinking about the question so that the 
 reader's thinking will be as efficient as possible. 
 
 The organization of one's writing should be such that the reader 
 will progress through the several phases or steps of reflective think- 
 ing; defining the problem, gathering data or information, forming 
 hypotheses and verifying them. The reader should at all times have 
 a well-defined problem In mind which he is trying to answer by 
 means of his reading. Ideas should be presented to him at the time 
 
 [18] 
 
he needs them. When he has been guided to the solution which the 
 writer wishes him to reach, he should be led to examine it critically. 
 
 Many qualities enter into a trend of thought. There must first 
 be a good general organization, then the rules of unity and coherence 
 must be observed in each paragraph and sentence. All irrelevant 
 material must be excluded. Good writing is not a series of isolated 
 or unconnected statements even though each one itself may express 
 an important idea or principle. 
 
 6. Development of ideas. Words and phrases are used as sym- 
 bols for ideas. Such phrases as "supervised study," "divided period," 
 "individual instruction," "motivation," "curriculum," and "intelli- 
 gence" occur frequently in educational writings and are intended to 
 stimulate in the mind of the reader certain ideas. One person's con- 
 cept of "supervised study," for example, is likely to differ from an- 
 other's in wealth of associations and in richness of meaning, even 
 when there is no actual disagreement. Because a writer has spent 
 some time in formulating, enriching and organizing his concepts, he 
 is very likely to attach to the symbols used a richness of association 
 and meaning much greater than that stimulated in the mind of his 
 reader, unless he "develops" hie concepts by explicit references to 
 associated ideas and by appropriate illustrations. Hence, if a 
 writer is to be efficient in fulfilling his function with reference to the 
 reader he must, at least in the case of an important idea, keep it with 
 its associated ideas within the focus of the reader's attention until 
 it has been fully comprehended. 
 
 Many writers tend to abbreviate. Important ideas are men- 
 tioned incidentally or merely alluded to, and in some cases, omitted 
 altogether. It thus becomes necessary for the critical reader to fill 
 in the "gaps" in the thinking if he is to avoid a feeling of incom- 
 pleteness. In such a case the writer has failed to fulfill his function 
 in guiding his reader to thinking fully and clearly about the prob- 
 lem under consideration. 
 
 The writer who is familiar with the ideas relating to the prob- 
 lem which he has studied may tend to under-rate the necessity of 
 developing these ideas in writing. However, undesirable abbrevia- 
 tion frequently is due to the failure on the part of the writer to think 
 sufficiently clearly and comprehensively about his problem. This 
 characteristic usually applies to writing which we call superficial. 
 When reading such a report a thoughtful person is left with many 
 
 [19] 
 
unanswered questions and with a feeling of insecurity about the 
 conclusion because its basis is not clear or is perhaps unknown to 
 him. 
 
 7. Evaluation of ideas. In thinking about a problem^ many 
 ideas may come into the mind of the writer. Some are pertinent to 
 the problem; others are not. If extraneous ideas are introduced into 
 the discussion, the reader's attention is likely to be distracted from 
 the main issue. Hence, the good writer carefully evaluates his ideas 
 and includes only those which in his judgment will be helpful to the 
 reader in connection with the particular problem being considered. 
 The good writer furthermore evaluates those ideas which he judges 
 pertinent to his problem and assigns those of minor importance to 
 subordinate positions. 
 
 It is not sufficient to reject only those ideas which are erroneous 
 or unimportant in general. An idea may be very useful in connec- 
 tion with one problem but have little or no value in the treatment 
 of another. Good writing is not merely recording good ideas. It 
 is rather the recording of ideas which are good for a particular pur- 
 pose. One of the difficult tasks of a writer is to stick to his text. 
 His prejudices in favor of certain Ideas constantly tempt him to intro- 
 duce topics which have little or no connection with the problem. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to try out an idea or group of ideas in 
 order to determine their appropriateness for the purpose at hand. 
 Most good writing is a result of many revisions. Sentences or even 
 whole paragraphs which have been written at the expense of much 
 effort are eliminated and others added. Sometimes a slight modifi- 
 cation of an idea or the way in which it is presented will greatly in- 
 crease its effectiveness. 
 
 The proper subordination of ideas is also important. As has 
 been pointed out, the writer should seek to build up a "trend of 
 thought." The effectiveness of the ideas included in this "trend of 
 thought" depends upon the organization in somewhat the same way 
 that the convenience of a house depends upon the arrangement of 
 the several rooms. There should be a few principal ideas and all 
 others should be subordinated to these. The reader will then be 
 given a few major points which will serve as organizing centers for 
 the related ideas. 
 
 'This includes any reading on the problem which the writer may do. 
 
 [20] 
 
8. Accuracy of interpretation. The writer is responsible for 
 knowing his data. If they are not representative or if they are sub- 
 ject to errors or other Hmitations he must quahfy his statements ac- 
 cordingly. He should make certain that his data justify a statement 
 before he makes it. He should also check it against generally accepted 
 beliefs and common sense. Even when he is satisfied in regard to 
 its accuracy, he, in many cases, should call the reader's attention to 
 any disagreement with beliefs or statements by other writers and 
 should indicate the basis of his judgment. In the absence of such 
 explanation the critical reader may judge the statement to be inac- 
 curate and conclude that the writer has been careless in his thinking. 
 
 9. Precision of statement. A precise statement conveys exactly 
 the meaning intended by the writer. When read carefully by a com- 
 petent person there is no uncertainty in his mind. He is not left in 
 doubt on any point. He is not confused. He has no questions to ask 
 about what the writer intended to say. It is obvious to him that 
 the writer has very clear, definite and precise ideas to express. A 
 precise statement usually includes limitations and restrictions which 
 should be kept in mind. The words used have been selected with a 
 view to the precise shades of meaning which they convey. 
 
 Lack of precision may be due to (1) poor choice of words, (2) 
 faulty usage of technical terms, and (3) omission of restrictive words 
 and phrases. 
 
 The following brief quotations from "educational writings" have 
 been carefully selected to illustrate the lack of precision of state- 
 ment. However, the reader should realize that these excerpts may 
 lose much of their effectiveness as illustrations by being abstracted 
 from the setting given them by their authors. The first quotation 
 illustrates the effect of the choice of words upon the precision of 
 statement: 
 
 In selecting drill material in reading, methods can be determined by a wise 
 manipulation of reading tests.^ 
 
 The words, "method," "wise," and "manipulation" are poor 
 words to use in this sentence. The following sentence expresses 
 more clearly and precisely what the author appears to have had in 
 mind: 
 
 The use of reading tests designed to reveal the specific deficiencies of children 
 is helpful in selecting drill material in reading. 
 
 ^Paulu, E. M. Diagnostic Testing and Remedial Teaching. New York: 
 D. C. Heath and Company, 1924, p. 22. 
 
 [21] 
 
A second illustration is: 
 
 To overcome In a single grade the heterogeneous grouping of children from 
 the standpoint of mentality, various administrative devices have been employed 
 with varied degrees of success. Two of these devices, teacher's estimates of pupil's 
 work, and mentality tests stand out prominently.^ 
 
 In this statement one is confused because "teacher's estimates 
 of pupil's work," and "mentality tests" are called administrative 
 devices which overcome the heterogeneous grouping of children. They 
 are not devices of this sort. They are rather instruments for secur- 
 ing information, which in turn may be used as a basis for grouping 
 the children belonging to a single grade. 
 
 A considerable technical vocabulary has gradually been built 
 up in the field of education. Many words which were already in 
 use have been assigned very definite meanings. Failure to use such 
 words in accordance with the technical meanings assigned to them 
 greatly reduces the effectiveness of one's writing. The word "stand- 
 ard" is very frequently used incorrectly. For example: 
 
 In measuring certain educational products there too must be a standard cor- 
 responding to the many commercial standards. It is not for us here to question 
 how educational standards are obtained.* 
 
 It appears from what follows that in the second sentence this 
 writer is using "standard" in the sense of "norm." In the first 
 sentence it obviously has the meaning of "standard unit" such as a 
 standard yard, or a standard pound. Hence, the meaning of the 
 quotation is not clear, and the reader is likely to be confused or 
 misled. It is probable that the writer failed to think clearly. 
 
 The quotation below illustrates the securing of precision through 
 
 the use of restrictive terms: 
 
 In this chapter we shall not rehearse the facts concerning the boys and girls 
 of fourteen or fifteen which are available In books on the psychology of childhood 
 and adolescence, but shall report three studies which add new information con- 
 cerning the select group of boys and girls who enter American high schools.^ 
 
 The words printed in italics add greatly to the precision of this 
 
 statement. Their value becomes apparent when the statement is 
 
 rewritten as follows: 
 
 In this chapter we shall not rehearse the facts concerning- boys and girls 
 which are available in books on psychology, but shall report three studies which 
 add new Informatbn. 
 
 'Paulu, E. AI. Diagnostic Testing and Remedial Teaching. New York: 
 D. C. Heath and Companv. 1924. p. 58. 
 
 *Ibid., p. 28-29. 
 
 ^Thorxdyke, E. L. The Psychology of Algebra. New York: The Macmillan 
 Company, 1923, p. 1. The italics have been inserted by the authors of this bulletin. 
 
 [22] 
 
The following is an illustration of a paragraph which adds to 
 the precision of the chapter in which it appears: 
 
 Care must be taken, however, not to leave the impression that the increased 
 expenditure per child of school age means merely an increased cost of an identical 
 service. During this period the public school system of the state has not only 
 attracted and held in school a larger part of the children of school age, but it has 
 expanded its '"program" by establishing a more varied and elaborate curriculum, and 
 additional service such as transportation of children, health service, kindergartens, 
 vocational and continuation schools." 
 
 This paragraph serves to direct the attention of the reader to 
 the avoidance of a conclusion which otherwise might be inferred from 
 the figures just cited. It is also an illustration of precise writing. 
 The words have been chosen carefully in order to convey exactly 
 the meaning intended. Evidently the writer thought that the word 
 "program" might not convey a sufficiently definite meaning and for 
 this reason he has defined it. 
 
 It is obvious that precision in thinking is a prerequisite for pre- 
 cision in expression. It would be only accidental if one wrote pre- 
 cise sentences and paragraphs when he did not have precise ideas 
 to express. On the other hand it is not generally realized that faulty 
 usage of technical terms, omission of restrictive expressions, and 
 even a poor choice of words and phrases constitute evidence that the 
 writer has failed to think clearly and precisely. There may be ex- 
 ceptions but in general this may be accepted as an empirical rule. 
 
 10. Diction. Although "general structure," "trend of thought," 
 "development of ideas," and so forth are potent in determining the 
 quality of a report, a writer cannot communicate his ideas effectively 
 unless he uses appropriate words and phrases. We have already 
 referred to the development of a technical vocabulary in the field of 
 education. Some words that are used with only a general meaning in 
 conversation and in non-technical fields have been assigned precise 
 meanings in the field of education. Examples of such words are; 
 standards (in educational measurements), intelligence, objectives, 
 content, correlation, project, diagnosis, supervision and motivation. 
 Other words and phrases have been coined to represent ideas; junior 
 high school, project method, achievement test, power test, supervised 
 study, divided period, Dalton plan, and so forth. 
 
 We have Illustrated (pages 21-22) how the use of technical terms 
 affects precision of statements. A writer's skill in choosing verbs. 
 
 "Strayer, George D. and Haig, Robert XI. Financing of Education in the 
 State of New York. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1922, p. 138. 
 
 [23] 
 
adjectives and adverbs also is very potent In determining this qual- 
 ity of his writing. Fine shades of meaning cannot be expressed un- 
 less appropriate words are used. 
 
 As a rule a writer should use a word or a phrase only as a sym- 
 bol for the meaning usually given to it. If he finds it necessary or 
 desirable to modify this meaning, he should call the reader's atten- 
 tion to the restricted or changed meaning. Usually such explanatory 
 comments should be given in a footnote and the reader may be re- 
 minded of the modified meaning by enclosing the word or phrase 
 in quotation marks whenever it appears. 
 
 It is highly important that a writer be consistent in his use of 
 terms. Any inconsistency will be annoying to the reader and may 
 make it impossible for him to understand what has been written. 
 Furthermore, lack of consistency in the use of terms and phrases 
 is usually evidence of careless or superficial thinking about the prob- 
 lem being discussed. 
 
 Frequent recurrence of a word or phrase should be avoided. 
 No term should be over-worked. No definite rule can be stated, but 
 in general a writer should endeavor to avoid the repetition of the 
 same word or phrase in a short sentence or In successive short 
 sentences.'^ This rule Is especially important in the case of an em- 
 phatic noun or verb. 
 
 11. Clearness. The function of a report Is to stimulate In the 
 mind of a reader certain definite Ideas. If these ideas are not im- 
 pressed upon him, If he misinterprets what is said or is left in doubt, 
 the writer has failed either In his own thinking or in his medium of 
 expression. This vital principle of clearness is the starting point for 
 any sound treatment of a subject. Every good style Is essentially a 
 clear style. Good writers vary In their forms of expression. They 
 may have, and usually do have, certain peculiarities, but they have in 
 common the one aim of presenting their material in such a way that 
 a reader is not troubled by the slightest obscurity or Irrelevance. 
 
 Clearness in relation to force and beauty. Rhetoricians, in gen- 
 eral, agree upon three fundamental laws of composition. Clearness, 
 force, and beauty are considered essential to really good writing. Both 
 force and beauty are difficult of attainment because of their elusive- 
 
 'This general rule does not apply to the more common prepositions, con- 
 junctions, etc. 
 
 [24] 
 
ness and are largely the result of experience in writing.^ Force 
 is dependent upon the selection and arrangement of the words 
 and phrases used and upon the proportional development of 
 the ideas introduced into the discussion. Beauty is related to the 
 structural organization, to the choice of words, and to the method 
 of expression. Of these three attributes, clearness, force and beauty, 
 it is obvious that for the type of "educational writing'' discussed 
 in this bulletin, clearness is the one requiring most emphasis. Per- 
 sistent effort and practice should enable one to write clearly and 
 forcefully, provided he is able to think clearly. Beauty in the sense 
 of artistic expression may never be attained, but if constant attention 
 is given to the details of structure, if the vocabulary is enriched, and 
 if the form of expression is varied, a style, at least, will be developed 
 which is neither laborious nor irritating to a sensitive reader. 
 
 Clearness in relation to interest. Often it is necessary, in addi- 
 tion to making the exposition clear, to make it interesting. Initial 
 interest is secured by the way in which the problem is introduced. 
 Holding the reader's attention is dependent upon the manner in 
 which the discussion of the problem Is handled. Irrelevant statements 
 tend to hinder the reader in getting the meaning. The presence of 
 too many ideas is likely to be distracting and confusing. \ erbosity 
 on the part of the writer makes the reading laborious. On the other 
 hand, if the statements are too bare, if the writer assumes too great 
 knowledge on the part of the reader, the Ideas will not be fully 
 grasped nor appreciated. Unfamiliar material or abstract state- 
 ments should be clarified by the use of Illustrations or examples. 
 Statistical data often are confusing unless skillfully presented in 
 tables or diagrams. Xo rule, of course, can be laid down. Each 
 writer must decide whether, considered from the standpoint of the 
 average reader, the particular statement which he makes needs eluci- 
 dation or will be made more effective by Illustration. 
 
 A writer should remember that the average reader does not 
 have the patience of the specialist in "wading through" details unless 
 they add directly to an understanding of the discussion. Anything 
 
 *Many successful writers have testified that they secure a great deal of help 
 from reading aloud from some good writer. In this way they are able to get the 
 "feel" of the style of the author. One successful young writer made it a practice 
 before beginning the writing of an article to read aloud from the works of William 
 James. He did this not for the purpose of understanding James but rather for 
 stimulating in his own thinking a flow of words which would have the quality of 
 force and beauty as well as of clearness. . 
 
 [25] 
 
which is of use in increasing the interest of the reader is justified, 
 but anything which is mere ornamentation is to be condemned. It 
 may be said in general that flights of the imagination, elaborate 
 figures of speech, and the use of poetical quotations are to be avoided 
 in reporting educational research. Instead of assisting the reader 
 in understanding the "trend of thought," they usually distract him. 
 Furthermore, quotations, especially of a poetical nature, often serve 
 to camouflage a lack of thinking on the part of the writer and tend 
 to create in his readers a feeling of distrust. 
 
 12. Rhetoric, grammar, spelling, and punctuation. The authors 
 of this bulletin have not attempted a systematic or a complete treat- 
 ment of rhetoric, grammar, spelling, and punctuation. The following 
 discussion is limited to a few rules which, judging from our experi- 
 ence, are frequently violated in the kinds of educational writing re- 
 ferred to in this bulletin. For complete and authoritative treat- 
 ments of rhetoric and grammar the reader Is referred to the following 
 manuals: 
 
 Greever, Garland, and Jones, Easley S. The Century Handbook of Writing. 
 
 New York: The Century Company, 1919. 228 p. 
 Leonard, Arthur W., and Fuess, Claude M. Good Writing. New York: 
 
 Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1922. 314 p. 
 Manly, John M., and Powell, John A. A Manual for Waiters. Chicago: 
 
 University of Chicago Press, 1913. 225 p. 
 Manly, John M., and Richert, Edith. The Writer's Index. New York: 
 
 Henr>' Holt and Company, 1923. 261 p. 
 
 Paragraph construction. A paragraph should be restricted to 
 the presentation of a single central idea and very closely related 
 subordinate ideas. It should represent a unit of a writer's discussion, 
 and should embody unity, coherence, clearness, and emphasis. Its 
 central Idea in all cases should be apparent to the reader, and some- 
 times should be expressed In the first sentence. A paragraph should 
 never close with a weak ending. 
 
 No rule can be stated in regard to the length of a paragraph, 
 but In general long paragraphs should be avoided. It Is seldom that 
 paragraphs which exceed 200 to 250 words in length are really 
 good. The poor structure is not due to the length of the paragraph 
 but rather to the fact that many writers, particularly amateurs, 
 begin a new unit of thought by the time they have written in ex- 
 cess of 200 words. 
 
 Sentence construction. The essentials of a sentence are good 
 connection, good organization, and correct grammar. The untrained 
 
 [26] 
 
writer frequently finds it difficult to attain good sentenc2 structure. 
 Faults of grammar usually can be corrected with comparatively 
 little effort, but practice is necessary in order to secure good organi- 
 zation. Frequently it is necessary to divide sentences, to twist them 
 about, to join or to condense them, and in some stubborn cases to 
 make a complete reconstruction.'^ 
 
 Punctuation. The main rules of punctuation regarding the more 
 important uses of the period, comma, and so forth are well-fixed and 
 acceptedby all authorities and should be carefully observed in sentence 
 structure. However, a variety of usage exists concerning minor 
 points. Certain persons and publishers tend to punctuate freely, 
 others sparingly. Each writer should decide regarding the method 
 of punctuation he wishes to adopt and should be consistent through- 
 out his manuscript in the use of that method. He should keep in 
 mind that punctuation depends upon meaning; some marks are 
 essential to clearness; others, though not essential, are helpful; 
 and all which do not aid in making the meaning clear should be 
 avoided. 
 
 13. Form of tables and graphs, (a) Tables. Statistical data 
 usually should be presented in tabular form with a specific heading 
 and a table number in Roman numerals. Occasionally when the 
 data are simple and do not occupy more than three or four lines, 
 they are presented informally without a heading; but this practice 
 is to be discouraged. 
 
 The construction of good tables is difficult and few general rules 
 can be given which will apply in all cases. ^° Frequently, it will be 
 necessary for the writer to exercise his ingenuity in order to set up 
 good tables. As a guiding principle he should bear in mind that a 
 table should be easily read and should present the data effectively. 
 Also he should consider the available space on the page, and unless 
 the presentation of the data is weakened, he should confine the table 
 to a single page of the manuscript. Extremely large tables often can 
 be avoided by breaking them up into two or more separate ones. 
 Each table should have its title or caption and both the general head- 
 ing and the subordinate headings should be sufficiently explicit that 
 the table can be understood without reference to the accompanying 
 text. 
 
 *See Chapter III, pages 41-47, for illustrations of the improvement of sentence 
 structure. 
 
 ^"See Chapter III, pages 33-34, for illustrations of the form of tables. 
 
 [27] 
 
(b) Graphs. Frequently the effectiveness of one's writing may 
 be increased by presenting certain types of facts in graphical form. 
 Simple diagrams and figures are easily understood by most readers 
 and are especially helpful to those who have difficulty in getting the 
 meaning from the printed page. 
 
 When employing graphical methods of expression, accuracy and 
 precision should be observed just as when writing a verbal report. 
 Since excellent treatises on graphical methods are easily accessible/^ 
 we shall not discuss them in this bulletin but we recommend that a 
 writer become familiar with the rules governing graphic representa- 
 tion before he attempts to apply such methods. Violation of any of 
 the standard rules may result in conveying misleading if not actually 
 erroneous ideas to the reader. 
 
 In addition to the rules relating to the form of graphs, there 
 are others which define conventional practices relative to arrange- 
 ment and to the labeling of a figure. The caption should always be 
 placed below the graphs and the number should be in Arabic numer- 
 als, not Roman. If possible all the labels of the diagram should 
 be arranged so that they can be read when the page is held in one 
 position. A "confused mass" of lines and labels should be avoided, 
 but sufficient identifying and explanatory marks should be included 
 that a competent person will be able to understand the graph without 
 referring to the accompanying text. 
 
 In making graphs, or In preparing illustrations such as draw- 
 ings or photographs for which any process of photogravure is 
 necessary for printing, the fact that it is impossible to obtain a good 
 print unless the original is sharp and clear should always be borne 
 in mind. India ink rather than ordinary ink or pencil should be 
 used in making graphs. Captions and other labels may be type- 
 written. As a rule, all illustrations should be made somewhat larger 
 
 "For a brief account see: 
 
 RuGG, Harold. A Primer of Graphics and Statistics for Teachers. Boston: 
 Houghton Mifflin Company, 1925. 142 p. 
 
 Alexander, Carter. School Statistics and Pubhcity. Xew York: Silver, 
 Burdett and Company, 1919. 332 p. 
 
 For a more elaborate treatment see: 
 
 Karsten, Karl G. Charts and Graphs. New York: Prentice Hall. Inc.. 
 1923. 724 p. 
 
 Brinton, W. C. Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts. New York: Engineer- 
 ing Magazine Company, 1914. 371 p. 
 
 WiLLL\MS, J. Harold. Graphic Methods in Education. Boston: Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, 1924. 319 p. 
 
 [28] 
 
than desired in the printed report as reduction in photographing 
 tends to sharpen the details while enlargment magnifies the imper- 
 fections. 
 
 14. Explanation and interpretation of tables and graphs. Un- 
 less it is certain that a table or graph will be understood easily, 
 the reading of it should be explained in the text of the manuscript, 
 but no extended enumeration of the facts which have been sum- 
 marized in the table or graph should be given. The interpretation 
 should be confined to those facts which are essential to the discussion 
 of the problem. The reader's "trend of thought" will be broken if 
 his attention is called to items or inferences not related to the par- 
 ticular problem under consideration. Tables and graphs should 
 be considered supplementary to the text and not intimate parts of 
 it. They supply details in a convenient summary form, they also 
 add emphasis, but they do not express a "trend of thought." 
 
 15. References to sources of information. When specific facts 
 are used or sentences or paragraphs from another's writings are 
 quoted, it is customary to give in a footnote the source from which 
 such material is taken. This is done for two reasons: custom demands 
 that a writer acknowledge his indebtedness in such cases; and the ref- 
 erence enables the reader to consult the original material if he so de- 
 sires. Furthermore, the information regarding the source of a state- 
 ment frequently furnishes the reader with an index of its probable 
 validity and accuracy. Naturally more confidence is placed in data 
 taken from the writings of a person of reputation or from a source 
 carefully edited than from unknown authors or questionable 
 publishers. 
 
 16. Bibliographical forms. Whenever a reference is made to 
 the work of another author, sufficient information should be given 
 to enable one not only to locate the material but also to purchase it. 
 Sometimes full information is not given on the publication and In 
 such case the reference cannot, of course, be complete.^- 
 
 17. Chapter titles, table of contents, preface, title page, spacing, 
 order of paging, paper, and so forth.^^ The chapter title should be 
 concisely expressed and should indicate the purpose of the chapter. 
 
 "See Chapter III, pages 35-37, for illustrations of bibliographical forms. 
 
 "See Chapter III, pages 37-39, for specific directions regarding items listed. In 
 term papers, minor theses, small pamphlets, in which there are no explicit divisions, 
 there would probably be no table of contents, nor preface. Lists of tables, etc. are 
 also omitted. 
 
 [29] 
 
The table of contents may be very simple, consisting of only 
 the titles of the chapters, or may be elaborate with subordinate head- 
 ings and second sub-headings. In many publications the chapter 
 title itself is followed by an outline or brief synopsis of the contents 
 of the chapter. No definite rules regarding the comprehensiveness 
 of the table of contents can be given. Especially in such material as 
 a thesis or a bulletin in which there is no index, it is probably desir- 
 able to list in some detail the divisions and subdivisions of the 
 different parts or chapters. 
 
 The preface usually contains acknowledgments of assistance to 
 persons who have given actual aid in the preparation of the manu- 
 script, or whose books and other writings are used as references. In 
 the case of a thesis the term "acknowledgment" is often used instead 
 of "preface." A preface should be simple and dignified, should give 
 some indication of the audience to whom it is addressed, and should 
 contain some statements of the reasons for the writing of the 
 manuscript. 
 
 18. Footnotes. Footnotes fulfill three principal functions: (1) to 
 give a bibliographical reference for quoted material or for facts and 
 statements; (2) to qualify or elaborate statements of the text when 
 it is undesirable to include such comments in the body of the manu- 
 script; (3) to suggest further treatment of the subject. Footnotes 
 are apt to be treated more carelessly and inconsistently than any 
 other part of the manuscript. They should, however, receive a 
 writer's careful attention in regard to sentence structure, punctuation, 
 and so forth, and especially in regard to the form of bibliographical 
 references.^* 
 
 19. Miscellaneous, (a) Abbreviations. Abbreviations of words 
 or phrases are not generally considered good form in the body of the 
 report. An exception is often made in regard to titles of persons as 
 "Mr.," "Dr.," or "Prof." No one rule can be given in this case but 
 consistency is urged both in the use and in the selection of the title. 
 For example, "Dr." should not be used in referring to one person, and 
 "Mr." or "Prof." to another of the same rank or position; or the title 
 should not be given in one case, and omitted in another. Further- 
 more when titles are used, extreme care regarding their correctness 
 should be taken. It may be said that "Professor" is usually written. 
 
 "A detailed description of the form of footnotes is given in Chapter III» 
 page 39. 
 
 [301 
 
in full, "Doctor" frequently, and "Mister" seldom, if at all. A safe 
 and widely used method is to omit titles altogether, especially if the 
 person has attained prominence. In scholastic circles, however, it 
 is customary to refer to the President of an institution by his title 
 written in full. 
 
 (b) Division of words. The unnecessary division of a word 
 at the end of a line should be avoided if possible. Unless objection- 
 able spacing results, it is better to carry the whole word over to 
 the next line. When divisions are necessary, the following suggestions 
 may prove helpful. 
 
 Words in general are divided according to the natural divisions 
 in correct pronunciation as knowl-edge, not knozv-ledge. Acceptable 
 divisions may be made before such terminations as ing, er, est; 
 immediately following a vowel as intri-cate, mascu-Iine; or between 
 the consonants when two consonants occur between two vowels as 
 inej-jective, mflam-mable. In language other than English the most 
 important rule is to divide on the vowel as far as possible. If at all 
 avoidable, two consecutive lines should not terminate in a hyphen. 
 
 In the following cases, divisions should never be made: mono- 
 syllables, as zveight, stopped; two vowels sounded as one, as mea-dozu, 
 peo-ple; proper names; initials of a person's name; abbreviations as, 
 Ph.D., A.B.; or numbers expressed either in Arabic or Roman 
 numerals. 
 
 (c) Spelling out numbers. In general, all numbers under one 
 hundred, and all round numbers, as two thousand, five hundred, 
 and so forth should be spelled out. Decimals as money and percents, 
 numbers over one hundred and those used statistically in enumera- 
 tions are usually written in figures. Any number, however, used to 
 begin a sentence should be spelled out. 
 
 [31] 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF CERTAIN DETAILS OF FORM 
 
 For several of the criteria noted under "Details of structure and 
 form" in Chapter II, the authors of this bulletin feel that a supple- 
 mentary discussion, largely in terms of illustrations, will be helpful 
 to a writer in making his report conform to conventional require- 
 ments. Custom has given somewhat definite sanction to certain 
 forms of tabular construction, bibliographical references, footnotes, 
 and so forth; conventional rules have been fairly well established with 
 reference to the placement of a chapter title, the arrangement of a 
 table of contents, the order of paging a manuscript or a printed bulle- 
 tin, the spacing, and the size and kind of paper used. Details of this 
 type are discussed in the first part of this chapter. Following this 
 discussion, consideration is given to certain aspects of sentence 
 structure which, judging from the experience of the authors in editing 
 manuscripts submitted to them for publication, appear to give the 
 greatest difhculty to the average writer. 
 
 Form of tables. The caption of a table is usually written in all 
 capitals with no punctuation mark at its close. (See Table I.) If 
 there is a sub-title, it is placed on the line below the main title and 
 written in capitals and small letters. (See Table IV.) When a second 
 sub-title is considered necessary, it should appear, usually in paren- 
 theses, below the sub-title. 
 
 Tables should be numbered with Roman figures consecutively 
 throughout the manuscript. The number followed by a period pre- 
 cedes the caption and appears on the same line. 
 
 Careful attention should be given to the various box heads 
 (headings and sub-headings) of the different divisions of the table. 
 Rules, horizontal and vertical, should be drawn setting off the main 
 and sub-divisions, and each box-head should be centered in its own 
 division. 
 
 The following directions regarding the ruling of a table should 
 prove helpful. Horizontal double lines are placed at the top of the 
 table, a horizontal single line at the bottom, and no vertical lines 
 at the sides. Within the table, vertical lines are placed between the 
 columns of data, horizontal lines are seldom used except to mark 
 
 [32] 
 
off important divisions as in the box headings or to set off totals. 
 Perpendicular double lines should be used only when the table is 
 doubled upon itself, that is, when exactly the same kind of data 
 appears on both sides of the double rules. This is done in order 
 to break long narrow columns of data. (See Table II.) An open 
 table, that is, a table with no perpendicular lines should not be used 
 for more than three columns of data. (See Table III.) If such a 
 table is long, it is often better to double it upon itself as in Table II. 
 Illustrations of tables. The following specimen tables are given 
 as illustrations of the forms most commonly used in tabular con- 
 struction. The first column division is known as "the stub" and 
 consists usually of reading material. The other columns as a rule 
 contain figures. 
 
 Table I. Example of a Simple Table 
 
 Test 
 
 Form 
 
 Grade 
 
 Scores 
 
 Scorers 
 
 DiflFerence 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table II. Example of a Table Doubled Upon Itself 
 
 Series C 
 
 Series C 
 
 City 
 
 Number of 
 cases 
 
 Percent of 
 cases 
 
 City 
 
 Number of 
 cases 
 
 Percent of 
 cases 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table III. Example of an Open Table 
 
 Name of City 
 
 Boston 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Number of Tests 
 Given 
 
 Time of Testing 
 
 . . . . October 3 
 
 , . . . February 6 
 
 [33] 
 
Table IV. Example of Table With Subdivisions 
 This is the Most Common Form for Subdivisions and Second Subdivisions. 
 
 
 Achievement Quotients 
 
 Intelligence 
 Quotients 
 
 Experimental 
 
 Control 
 
 • 
 
 
 Beginning 
 
 End 
 
 Beginning 
 
 End 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table V. Example of Table With Varied Divisions 
 
 States 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Factories 
 
 Number of Employees 
 
 Men 
 
 Women 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Form of bibliographical references. All references in either a 
 footnote or a -formal bibliography should be given in an approved 
 form. Although slight variations in the order of the items of a ref- 
 erence and in punctuation are found in different authoritative publi- 
 cations, it is highly important that a writer adopt a definite form 
 and follow it consistently. The forms adopted by the Bureau of 
 Educational Research in its own publications are given on the follow- 
 ing pages. 
 
 It should be emphasized that the author's name should be copied 
 exactly as it appears, no change of any kind being made in it. If 
 two or more references by the same author occur in the bibliography, 
 his name should appear in the same form in each even though in the 
 actual references initials may have been used in one case and 
 the given names spelled out in another. In a bibliography the ref- 
 erences usually should be arranged in alphabetical order according 
 to the names of the authors regardless of the nature of the publi- 
 cations. 
 
 The forms listed here as illustrations have been labeled "book 
 reference," "periodical reference," and so forth, so that they could be 
 easily referred to, but the reader should understand that it is not 
 
 [34] 
 
necessary to label a reference as a book, a periodical, or a report, for 
 when a correct bibliographical form is used, this fact becomes evident. 
 Book references. In a book reference there arc usually six items 
 to be included. They should be arranged in the following order: 
 author or authors, title, place of publisher, publisher, date and pages. 
 If one or more of these items is not given in the publication, the 
 arrangement of those remaining should follow the order stated above. 
 The book references given below show the capitalization and 
 punctuation which should be used. 
 
 Potter, Milton C, Jeschke, H., and Billet, Harry O. Oral and Written 
 English, Intermediate Book. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1921. 270 p. 
 
 Terman, Louis M. The Hygiene of the School Child. Boston: Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, 1914, p. 3+5-56. 
 
 Please note that the first reference gives the correct form for 
 indicating the entire number of pages contained in a book while the 
 second reference gives the form when a few specific pages are referred 
 to. A reference to a specific section of a book or bulletin has a 
 comma after the date, and for this reason is indicated by p. — rather 
 than — p. ~ 
 
 Periodical references. In a periodical reference, the title of the 
 article is inclosed in quotation marks. This at once sets it off from 
 a book reference. The items necessary for complete information 
 should be given in the following order: author, title, name in full of 
 periodical, number of volume in Arabic figures, number of pages 
 inclusive on zvhich article appears^ month and year of publication. 
 
 The publisher of the periodical is not included in the reference; 
 for if desired for purchasing purposes it may easily be found. The 
 references below show the capitalization and punctuation which 
 should be used, and also give the forms for continued articles, and 
 for editorials. 
 
 A single article: 
 
 FoRDYCE, Charles. "IntelHgence tests in classifying children in the elementary 
 school." Journal of Educational Research, 4:40-43, June, 1921. 
 
 An article continued in separate volumes of a periodical: 
 
 Mead, Cyrus*D. "Silent versus oral reading with one hundred sixth-grade 
 children." Journal of Educational Psychology, 6:345-48, June. 1915; 8:367-68, 
 June. 1917. 
 
 ^If the writer wishes to refer to certain pages or a page instead of the entire 
 article, these should be given rather than the total inclusive pages. 
 
 [35] 
 
An article continued in the same volume of a periodical: 
 
 Henderson, Archibald. '"Number, and the fundamental laws of algebra," The 
 High School Journal, 4:51-53, 77-80, 171-73; March, April, December, 1921. 
 
 An editorial from a periodical: 
 
 Courtis, S. A. "Scientific supervision," Journal of Educational Research, 
 1:67-68, January, 1920. (An editorial.) 
 
 Monograph and bulletin references. In addition to the material 
 appearing in books and periodicals, there is a large quantity usually 
 published by a university, a board of education, or some other 
 organized body. This is called "bulletin material." Usually there 
 are seven items to be given in a reference for a bulletin. These items 
 are the same as those included in a reference to a book with the addi- 
 tion of certain information called description, which includes name, 
 volume and number of the series of which the bulletin is a part, and 
 immediately follows the title. The items should be arranged in the 
 following order: author or authors, title, description, place, publisher, 
 date, and pages. In case one or more of the items is not given in 
 the publication, the others should be arranged in the order stated 
 above. The references of bulletins given here show the proper 
 capitalization and punctuation. All necessary information concerning 
 the publication should be included. It will be necessary to watch 
 closely that no series, names and numbers, volume numbers, and so 
 forth are omitted. 
 
 United States Bureau of Education Bulletin: 
 
 Capen, Samuel Paul. "Facilities for foreign students in American colleges and 
 universities." U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1920, No. 39. Washington. 
 1920. 267 p. 
 
 Teachers College Contributions to Education: 
 
 Berkson, I. B. "Theories of Americanization." Teachers College Contributions 
 to Education, No. 109. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1920. 
 . 226 p. 
 
 A school survey: 
 
 "An educational survey of Janesville, Wisconsin." Madison. Wisconsin: State 
 Department of Public Instruction, 1918. 226 p. 
 
 A school report: • 
 
 "Annual report, 1918-19, Alton Public Schools." Alton. Illinois: Board of 
 Education, 1919. 156 p. 
 
 A course of study: 
 
 "Synopsis of courses of study, 1920-21. In public schools." Davenport, Iowa: 
 Board of Education, 1920. 133 p. 
 
 [36] 
 
Bulletins published by universities and other organized bodies: 
 
 Meyer, Harold D. '"The rural playground." University of North Carolina 
 Extension Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 6. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 
 1921. 78 p. 
 
 Monroe, Walter S. (Edited by)^ "Studies in arithmetic 1916-17." University 
 of Indiana Studies, Vol. 5, Bureau of Cooperative Research Study No. 38. Bloom- 
 ington: University of Indiana, 1918. 40 p. 
 
 Holly, Chas. E. "Mental tests for school use." University of Illinois Bulletin, 
 Vol. 17, No. 28, Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin No. 4. Urbana: Univer- 
 sity of Illinois. 1920. 91 p. 
 
 Shultis, Frank W., and Hellman, J. D. "A study in addition." Colorado 
 State Teachers College Bulletin, Series 16, No. 3, Research Bulletin No. 1. Greeley: 
 Colorado State Teachers College, 1916. 16 p. 
 
 An article within a yearbook or any bound volume: 
 
 Baldwin, B. T. "A measuring scale for physical growth and physiological age." 
 
 Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. 
 
 Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1916, p. 20-21. 
 
 Miscellaneous material published by boards of education: 
 
 Deamer, Arthur. "An experiment in acceleration." Fargo, North Dakota: 
 Board of Education, 1918. 32 p. 
 
 "The arithmetical abilities of school children as shown by Courtis tests." 
 Board of Education, Division of Reference and Research Bulletin No. 1. Cleveland, 
 Ohio: Board of Education, 1917. 
 
 Sexton, Elmer K. "Arithmetic survey in the public schools of Newark, N. J." 
 Board of Education Monograph. Newark, N. J.: Board of Education, 1919. 30 p. 
 
 Sprain, Charles L., Moehlman, Arthur B., and Harrington, H. L. "The 
 intermediate school in Detroit." The Detroit Educational Bulletin, Research Bulletin 
 No. 6. Detroit: Board of Education, 1921. 39 p. 
 
 General directions regarding final form of a manuscript.^ The 
 
 paper should be of ordinary weight, of uniform size, S^/o by 11 inches, 
 and only one side should be used for writing. 
 
 Title page.* The title of the manuscript should be written in all 
 capitals and should be placed two inches or more below the top of 
 the page. The author's name should appear in full, placed below 
 the title, and usually preceded by the word "By" written just above. 
 On the line below the author's name, his institutional connection 
 and rank are often given. In a thesis, previous degrees, institutions. 
 
 'If a reference is edited, compiled or prepared by someone in such a way that 
 he cannot strictly be said to be the author, this fact should be indicated by placing 
 a notation in parentheses immediately following his name. 
 
 ^In the final typing of a thesis or of a report any rules prescribed by the col- 
 lege or by the department should be carefully followed. The directions listed here 
 are representative of good form and should be observed except in those cases where 
 they conflict with institutional requirements. 
 
 ^Sample title pages for a course of study, a superintendent's report, and a 
 bulletin are given in the appendix, p. 61. 
 
 [37] 
 
] 
 
 and dates should be listed. In a term paper, the title and the author's 
 name should be given as in the description above; the names of the 
 course and instructor in charge may be added, preferably on lines 
 near the bottom of the page. 
 
 Table of contents. \Mien a report is divided into chapters with 
 titles, there should be a table of contents which gives the chapter 
 titles preceded by the Roman numerals I, II, III, and so forth. When 
 subordinate headings are given they should be indented and may be 
 numbered by Arabic figures or by capital letters. In case there 
 are second sub-headings, further indentation should be used and the 
 numbering may be done by means of letters, a, b, c, and so forth, or 
 by Arabic figures enclosed in parentheses. The plan of numbering in 
 the table of contents should be the same as that observed in the 
 manuscript. When a report is not formally divided into chapters, it 
 is frequently desirable to give a brief description of the contents. 
 In all cases the table of contents should appear alone upon the 
 page or even upon successive pages. If brief, it should be so placed 
 as to give approximately equal spacing above and below the written 
 material. 
 
 List of illustrations, figures or tables. The list of illustrations 
 or figures should give the titles of the illustrations preceded by the 
 numbers in Arabic as 1, 2, 3; the list of tables should give the 
 captions of the tables preceded by the Roman numerals as I, II. In 
 case a manuscript includes illustrations, figures and tables, separate 
 lists should be given for each. 
 
 Spacing. The text proper should be double-spaced. Quoted 
 material appearing In a separate paragraph may be single-spaced. 
 The left-hand margin should be from an Inch to an inch and one- 
 half.' The right-hand margin may be somewhat narrower.^ The first 
 line of a new paragraph should be Indented at least one inch. 
 
 First page of text. The first page of the text may or may not 
 contain the title of the manuscript. If the title is given It should be 
 in capitals, and should be dropped about two inches from the top 
 of the page. The word "Chapter," all capitals, followed by the 
 Roman numeral, should appear on the line about three spaces below 
 
 °In preliminary drafts of a manuscript it is well to have both margins some- 
 what wider. Some writers have found it desirable to triple-space the text in order 
 
 to provide space for insertions and corrections. 
 
 [38] 
 
the title of the manuscript. The chapter-title, usually in all capitals 
 also, is placed on the line below the chapter number. The text of 
 the chapter should begin an inch or more below the title. Each 
 new chapter should begin a new page with the number and title 
 written as described for the first. 
 
 Order of paging. The pages of the manuscript should be num- 
 bered consecutively, and assembled in the following order: (1) title 
 page, (2) preface, (3) table of contents, (4) list of illustrations, 
 figures, or tables, (5) introduction, (6) first page of text, and so forth. 
 If it is necessary to add extra pages to the original, they may bear the 
 number of the preceding page with letters added as 10a, 10b, 10c. 
 If only a short passage is to be inserted, it may be pasted on 
 the margin and folded In. In attaching inserts, pins or paper clips 
 should not be used as they are apt to work loose. In case the inser- 
 tion consists of a few words or of a short sentence, it is probably 
 advisable to use a caret and write In the space above or In the 
 margin. If certain pages are withheld or dropped for any reason, an 
 indication of this should be given on a sheet bearing the omitted 
 numbers. 
 
 Form of footnotes. In general the rules for complete sentence 
 structure, punctuation, and so forth, apply to footnotes as to other 
 portions of the manuscript. x\bbreviations, however, such as "art." 
 (article), "chap."' (chapter), "fig." (figure), and "vol." (volume), 
 not acceptable in the text, may be used. 
 
 Bibliographical references should be given in the regular form. 
 (See page 34). When references to the same work follow each other 
 closely and uninterruptedly on the same page, "ibid." (an abbrevia- 
 tion of Ibidem, same) may be used. If, however, the page has been 
 turned. It Is necessar}- to repeat the entire reference or to use simply 
 the author's name followed by "loc. cit." (loco citato, in the place 
 cited) or "op. cit." (opere citato. In the work cited). For example: 
 
 Bloomfield, Meyer. Youth, School and Vocation. Boston: Houghton Mif- 
 flin Company, 1915. On the same page, "ibid.;" on the following page '"Bloomfield, 
 loc. cit."' or "Bloomfield, op. cit." 
 
 No one rule can be given for the numbering of footnotes. The 
 best plan, probably, is to give consecutive numbers throughout a 
 chapter, or throughout the entire report If no Important divisions are 
 made. Footnotes to tables or to figures should be placed at the fool 
 of the table both in the typewritten manuscript and on the printed 
 
 [39] 
 
page. Asterisks, daggers, and so forth are usually used to indicate 
 footnotes in such cases where figures might cause confusion. 
 
 Improvement of sentence structure. The authors of this bulletin 
 have iound that, in the manuscripts submitted to them during the 
 past four years, certain principles of sentence structure*' are violated 
 repeatedly and certain writers tend to make the same mistakes 
 again and again. These manuscripts in most cases had been care- 
 fully prepared and revised and were considered by their writers as 
 practically ready for publication. It is hoped, therefore, that a brief 
 discussion of the principles violated, followed by illustrative sentences 
 selected from the manuscripts referred to, may prove helpful to the 
 average writer in detecting his errors and in making his own cor- 
 rections. The violations have been classified somewhat loosely under 
 the four general headings: Completeness of thought. Unity of 
 thought, Clearness of thought, and Emphasis. There is some over- 
 lapping, of course, between these four governing principles of sen- 
 tence construction and many of the sentences selected contain more 
 than one violation. 
 
 Completeness of thought. Each sentence when read alone should 
 convey a definite meaning. The writer because of his familiarity 
 with the discussion frequently omits words and phrases which are 
 necessary for the complete understanding of the sentence. Transi- 
 tions often are so vaguely expressed that the Insertion of a word, 
 a phrase or even a clause may be found necessary. 
 
 Unity of thought. Each sentence should contain but one main 
 thought. Violations such as unrelated ideas, confusing details, ex- 
 cessive coordination, and faulty subordination of the main thought 
 especially should be guarded against. 
 
 Clearness of thought. "Clearness of thought is fundamental." 
 The writer must make sure that his sentences cannot be misunder- 
 stood. Pronouns, participles, and other dependent words should 
 refer without confusion to their antecedents. Indefinite use of "it" 
 and "they" often causes ambiguity. Care should be taken that 
 
 'For a complete discussion of sentence structure the following books may be 
 consulted. The exercises for revision in these books especially are helpful to the 
 writer who wishes to make a careful study of sentence construction. 
 
 Greever, Garland, and Jones, Easley S. The Century Handbook of Writing. 
 New York: The Century Company, 1919. 228p. 
 
 Manly, John M., and Rickert, Edith. The Writer's Index. New York: 
 Henry Holt and Company, 1923. 261 p. 
 
 [40] 
 
related ideas are kept together and unrelated ideas apart, and that 
 the idea which comes first in thought or in order of time is expressed 
 first in the sentence. Misplaced adverbs such as "only," "even," 
 "especially;" split constructions such as the awkward separation of 
 subject and verb, the parts of a compound verb or the parts of an 
 infinitive should be guarded against. Correlative conjunctions such 
 as "not only, but also;" "both, and;" "either, or;" should be fol- 
 lowed by the same grammatical construction. Those parts of a 
 sentence which are parallel in thought should be given a similar 
 grammatical form, as in this way the equal importance of the words, 
 phrases or clauses is emphasized. Unnecessary changes in number, 
 person or tense throughout the manuscript, and needless shifting of 
 the subject, the voice, or the mode within a sentence should be 
 avoided. 
 
 Emphasis. Emphasis in sentence structure is closely related to 
 force in the manuscript as a whole. As stated before, it depends 
 largely upon the arrangement of words and is difficult of attainment 
 by the inexperienced writer. The emphatic positions in the sentence 
 are the beginning and the end and these places should be reserved 
 for important words and phrases. Sometimes a very important idea 
 may be emphasized by being placed in a brief sentence by itself. In 
 a series of words, phrases or clauses of different degrees of import- 
 ance, the order of climax often is effective. The simplest and most 
 natural way of emphasizing words or ideas is to repeat them. How- 
 ever, too much repetition is tiresome and tends to weaken rather 
 than strengthen the written discussion. 
 
 Illustrations of the improvement of structure. The following 
 sentences, together with a suggested reconstructed form. Illustrate 
 violations of the principles of sentence structure. 
 Completeness of thought 
 
 In the following two sentences the words included in parentheses 
 had been omitted so that it was necessary for the reader to look 
 back through preceding paragraphs In order to find out the types 
 and the drill referred to. 
 
 As regards the other types (developmental and informational) the same rule 
 probably should apply, etc. 
 
 Although drill (in the recognition of words) is necessary, it could be relieved 
 of some of its monotonous features by the introduction of various games. 
 
 [41] 
 
Loose rambling sentence; main thought not emphasized. 
 In using all these methods the teacher should have the same aim in view as 
 in all of her direction of pupil activity, that is, that most, if not all, that she does 
 
 should stimulate the pupil's thinking. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 In the use of all these methods, as in the direction of all pupil activity, the 
 teacher's aim should be to stimulate the pupil's thinking. ' 
 
 Sentences broken and generally not good because of awkward 
 phrases and clauses, over-worked expressions, and so forth. 
 
 As a learner, the pupil may encounter difficulties. In assisting the pupil to 
 overcome his particular difficulty the teacher may or may not encounter a difficulty. 
 In any case the teacher's difficulty, although related to the pupil's difficulty, is not 
 identical with it. 
 
 Reconstructed form. Two sentences combined and overworked 
 words omitted in several cases; main thought emphasized. 
 
 In assisting a pupil to overcome a particular difficulty which, as a learner, he 
 may have encountered, the teacher herself may or may not meet with difficulties 
 also. Her difficulty, however, although related to the pupil's, is not identical with it. 
 
 Main thought subordinated. 
 
 In the measurement of handwriting and of silent reading it is extremely im- 
 portant that the rate of work be considered. It is also important in measuring 
 abilities in a number of other fields. 
 
 Reconstructed form. Main thought emphasized by being 
 placed in independent clause at end of sentence; all other ideas 
 subordinated. 
 
 In the measurement of handwriting and of silent reading, as well as of abilities 
 in a number of other fields, the rate of work should be considered. 
 
 Thought split by being placed in two sentences. 
 
 It is desirable that most answers be evaluated and criticised by the other 
 pupils. This is one of the most useful plans that a teacher can follow to stimulate 
 a critical attitude on the part of the class to lead its members to thinking. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 One of the most useful plans for stimulating a critical attitude on the part 
 of the class and for leading its members to think is to have the answers evaluated 
 and criticised by the other pupils. 
 
 Unnecessary details, awkward use of participles. 
 
 So doing encourages the duller pupils by giving them a good number of 
 questions that they can answer satisfactorily or approximately so and by not over- 
 whelming them with a large number of questions that are too difficult. Likewise it 
 stimulates the brighter pupils by requiring them, to use their superior ability. 
 
 [42] 
 
Reconstructed form. Two sentences tied together and parallel 
 construction used. 
 
 Thus the duller pupils by being able to give some satisfactory answers are 
 encouraged, and the brighter ones by being required to use their superior ability 
 are stimulated. 
 
 Awkward short sentences. 
 
 They are reproduced as contributed by the various teachers, except for minor 
 editorial changes. Most of these were made in order to economize space. 
 
 Reconstructed form. Two short sentences combined to make 
 one sentence by subordination of less important thought. 
 
 Except for minor editorial changes made usually in order to economize space, 
 the plans are reproduced as contributed by the various teachers. 
 
 Clearness of thought 
 
 Awkward separation of pronoun zvhich and antecedent. 
 Usually there will be certain major divisions in pretentious reports such as a 
 thesis, which will appear as separate chapters. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 Usually, in pretentious reports such as a thesis, there will be certain major divi- 
 sions which will appear as separate chapters. 
 
 Qualifying clause tacked on at end of sentence. 
 
 The principal may act as director, provided he has had appropriate training. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 The principal, provided he has had appropriate training, may act as director. 
 
 Participial phrase separated from antecedent. 
 
 Monotonous reading is the zero of expression involving absolute uniform 
 pauses. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 Monotonous reading, involving absolute uniform pauses, is the zero of 
 expression. 
 
 Misplaced qualifying clause, relative pronoun omitted. 
 
 The criticism is frequently made that teachers tend to ask for unimportant 
 details and to neglect the minimum essentials of a subject in formulating examina- 
 tion questions and therefore a pupil's performance on an examination is not a 
 truthful index of the extent to which he has achieved the educational objectives 
 set for him. 
 
 Reconstructed form. Qualifying clauses shifted and that re- 
 peated in order to bring out the force of parallel construction. 
 
 The criticism is frequently made that teachers, in formulating examination 
 questions, tend to ask for unimportant details and to neglect the minimum essentials 
 of a subject and that a pupil's performance on an examination, therefore, is not a 
 truthful index, etc. 
 
 [43] 
 
Faulty use of that; which should be used in those cases when 
 
 the antecedent is a phrase or clause; also awkward repetition of that. 
 
 For example, when levers are studied in physics many of the pupils can un- 
 doubtedly call to mind applications of the principles of the lever that they have 
 seen outside of school that are not exactly like those described in the textbook and 
 which therefore naturally lead to questioning. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 For example, when levers are studied in physics many pupils can undoubtedly 
 call to mind applications of the principles of levers which are unlike those described 
 in the textbook and which therefore naturally lead to questioning. 
 
 Faulty use of zvhich; when two clauses parallel in thought are 
 
 introduced the construction should be parallel. 
 
 Occasionally it is permissible for the teacher to repeat a pupil's answer in 
 part, at the same time elaborating it by adding details that she alone can give or 
 which are not worth the time that would be required to elicit them from the class. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 Occasionally the teacher may repeat a pupil's answer in part, elaborating it by 
 adding details that she alone can give or that are not worth the time required to 
 be elicited from the class. 
 
 Split compound verb. 
 
 Around these central questions should be arranged the minor and more detailed 
 questions which may, and sometimes must, to some ex.tent, be thought out while 
 the recitation is in progress. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 Around these central questions should be arranged the minor and more detailed 
 questions which to some extent may be thought out while the recitation is in 
 progress. 
 
 Split infinitive. 
 
 If a selection is so difficult as to greatly retard progress, etc. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 If a selection is so difficult as greatly to retard progress, etc. 
 
 Misplaced only. 
 
 In either case the cards should only be exposed for a brief period of time. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 In either case the cards should be exposed only for a brief period of time. 
 
 Failure to follow ?iot only, but also, by the same grammatical 
 
 construction. 
 
 Not only is it important that the teacher stimulate the pupils to ask questions 
 but also that she direct them in the kinds of questions to be asked. 
 
 [44] 
 
Reconstructed form. 
 
 It is important not only that the teacher stimulate the pupils to ask questions 
 but also that she guide them to formulate suitable questions. 
 
 Faulty shifting from parallel construction in the case of phrases 
 that are similar in importance. 
 
 Lack, of comprehension may be due to several causes such as a lack of a good 
 method of silent reading, lack of practice in reading silently with care and not 
 being sufficiently acquainted with the necessary vocabulary. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 Failure to comprehend may be due to several causes such as lack of a good 
 method of silent reading, lack of practice in reading silently with care and lack of 
 sufficient acquaintance with the necessary vocabulary. 
 
 Awkward sentence because of shifting in form of questions. 
 
 Such questions as how many years has the pupil been in school; what grade 
 or grades did he skip; did he ever fail to be promoted, why; has attendance been 
 regular or irregular, causes of irregularity; what is the attitude of the pupil toward 
 the teacher and toward the school, etc. 
 
 Reconstructed form. Parallel construction emphasized by use of 
 nouns throughout instead of hozv many, why, zvhat. 
 
 Information such as: number of years the pupil has been in school; grade or 
 grades skipped; failure of promotion and reason; attendance regular or irregular, 
 and the cause of irregularity; attitude of the pupil toward the teacher and toward 
 the school, etc. 
 
 Awkward sentence because of varied construction. 
 
 The publishers now generally meet the approved standards in the matter of 
 print, putting out books for very young children in large-sized type and for those 
 who have been able to adjust their eyes to a more limited space smaller print 
 is used. 
 
 Reconstructed form. Parallel construction used for the two 
 clauses similar in thought. 
 
 The publishers now generally meet the approved standards in the matter of 
 print; large-sized type is used in books for very young children and smaller type 
 for those who are able to adjust their eyes to a more limited space. 
 
 Needless shifting of subject causing indefinite use of them and 
 their. 
 
 The complaint frequently is made that when the children in the first grade 
 take their readers home the parents in endeavoring to help their children often retard 
 their progress. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 The complaint frequently is made that when children in the first grade take 
 their readers home they are often retarded in their progress because of help given by 
 their parents. 
 
 [45] 
 
Needless shifting of subject. 
 
 Similarity between the word in question and other words should be pointed 
 out and the pupil should be required to sound them out not once but many times. 
 Wrong accents should receive attention in requiring the pupil to use the trouble- 
 some word as often as possible in his speech so that the correct form will become 
 established. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 The attention of the pupil should be called to the similarity between the un- 
 known word and other words of which he knows the correct pronunciation. He 
 should then be required to sound out the unfamiliar word not once but many 
 times, and in order to establish the correct pronunciation he should be encouraged 
 to use the troublesome word as often as possible in his speech. 
 
 Awkward sentence, because of lack of consistency In construction. 
 
 An exception to this may be made in the case of timid pupils who would be 
 dismayed by having their names called after a question had been asked and then 
 being expected to answer at once. If such pupils are named first they are given a 
 brief opportunity of collecting their thoughts and they are encouraged. 
 
 Reconstructed form. Two sentences combined and parallel con- 
 struction used. 
 
 An exception may be made in the case of timid pupils who would be dismayed 
 by having their names called after a question had been asked but who by being 
 named first are given a brief opportunity to collect their thoughts and are thus 
 encouraged to prepare their answers. 
 
 Emphasis 
 
 Sentence weakened because subordinate clause is given emphatic 
 position at end. 
 
 Frequently an abbreviated plan will be satisfactory, particularly after the 
 teacher has had a year or two of experience. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 After the teacher has had a year or two of experience, an abbreviated plan 
 frequently will be satisfactory-. 
 
 Sentence weakened by indefinite use o/ it. 
 
 It, therefore, seems wise to use as the basis for comparison a mental age norm 
 which takes into account the general intelligence of the pupil rather than a grade 
 norm. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 A mental age norm, which takes into account the general intelligence of the 
 pupil, seems a better basis for comparison than a grade norm. 
 
 Sentence weakened by tacked-on prepositional phrase. 
 
 Scientific investigation of the marking of examination papers, as usually done, 
 has been sufficiently extensive to prove that the process is subjective, except in a 
 very few instances. 
 
 [46] 
 
Reconstructed form. 
 
 Scientific investigation of the marking of examination papers has been suffi- 
 ciently extensive to prove that, except in a very few instances, the process is 
 subjective. 
 
 Main idea not emphasized because of its position in middle of 
 sentence. 
 
 Inferior performances during the earlier part of the term will tend to be o\"er- 
 shadowed and the teachers estimates will be based largely upon their work during 
 the last few weeks of the term unless the final estimate is based upon estimates 
 made at intervals during the term. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 Unless careful records have been kept throughout the term, inferior per- 
 formances at the beginning tend to be overshadowed and the teacher's final estimate 
 is based upon the work of the last few weeks. 
 
 Emphasis thwarted because main idea is expressed in a de- 
 pendent clause. 
 
 There are reasons why a student of high achie\'ements might make a low 
 grade on a single examination. 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 For certain reasons students whose achievements are ordinarily high may 
 make low grades on a single examination. 
 
 Sentence not incorrect, but in reconstructed form is made more 
 emphatic by use of precise terms and by lack of repetition of 
 ''diagnosis." 
 
 There are of course no dividing lines between the three types of "complete 
 diagnosis, partial diagnosis, and general diagnosis." 
 
 Reconstructed form. 
 
 There are of course no sharply defined lines of demarcation between the three 
 degrees of diagnosis, complete, partial and general. 
 
 [47] 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 PROCESS OF WRITING A REPORT 
 
 In the Introduction it was asserted that a writer's purpose 
 should be to guide a reader first to define the problem clearly and 
 then to think about it in such a way that he will arrive at a solution 
 which he will accept as dependable. A prerequisite for the realization 
 of this purpose is clear and critical thinking about the problem by the 
 writer. 
 
 These two principles should guide a writer in all stages of his 
 work. He can accomplish little until he has clearly defined his prob- 
 lem and has thought out a solution which he himself is prepared to 
 defend. Hence, in the early stages of his work his attention should be 
 focused upon the prerequisite thinking. In Improving the manuscript 
 after a complete draft has been prepared, he should criticize it with 
 reference to its service to a reader and should make such alterations 
 as in his judgment will make the report more effective in fulfilling its 
 purpose. In the revision of a manuscript, he should also criticize his 
 thinking and endeavor to refine it. 
 
 Definition of problem a preliminary step. Preliminary to the 
 writing of a report the writer should define his problem in his own 
 mind. He should seek a clear understanding of the questions which 
 he will attempt to answer. Usually he will find it helpful to set down 
 these questions in writing, indicating the ones that are subordinate. 
 The following questions are some which would be formulated in de- 
 fining the problem: "What is the status of supervised study in 
 secondary schools.'" 
 
 What is the learning process.'' 
 
 What is supervised study? 
 
 What is Its relation to the learning process? 
 
 What is the relation of supervised study to the recitation and to other phases 
 of the teacher's work? 
 
 How is provision made for supervised study in the organization of the school? 
 
 W'hat procedures do teachers employ in the supervision of study? 
 
 Are these procedures the same for all subjects? How do they differ? 
 
 What do we know about the merits of various administrative provisions for 
 supervised study? 
 
 What do we know about the merits of procedures that teachers employ? 
 
 [48] 
 
IMany educational problems are related to other problems so 
 that a comprehensive study of one leads naturally to a consideration 
 of others. For practical reasons it is usually necessary, or at least 
 desirable, for a writer to restrict his endeavors. In defining his 
 problem he should indicate any restrictions that he intends to make. 
 In the case of the problem above relating to the status of supervised 
 study, he might limit his report to certain school subjects or to 
 certain types of learning. Again he might limit it either to the admin- 
 istrative provisions for supervised study or to the procedures em- 
 ployed by teachers. Another type of limitation may be made with 
 reference to the data upon which the report will be based. For 
 example, a writer might specify that his answers will be based only 
 upon data obtainable in published reports. 
 
 A writer has considerable freedom in setting the limits for his 
 investigation, but he should bear in mind that the reader's evaluation 
 of his work will depend in part upon the scope of the problem 
 treated. If too much restricted, the reader will not place a high value 
 upon the report. On the other hand, if restrictions are not mentioned 
 he may feel that certain aspects, which he considers important but 
 which the writer intentionally omitted, have been neglected. 
 
 General plan of report formulated in an outline and brief. A 
 writer needs an outline for much the same reason that a contractor 
 needs blue-prints and specifications for a building. The outline serves 
 as a guide as he works upon the various details and enables him to 
 stick to his problem. 
 
 After having clearly defined his problem the writer should pre- 
 pare an outline indicating the major divisions of the report and their 
 sequence. Under each of the major divisions he should formulate 
 the more important sub-divisions until he has a reasonably complete 
 plan of the entire report. 
 
 Although it is usually desirable for a writer to prepare a some- 
 what detailed outline in written form, this should be followed by a 
 brief. An outline usually consists of separate words or short phrases 
 which announce the topics or points that will be taken up in the re- 
 port. A brief does more than this; it expresses In abbreviated form 
 the principal statements to be made on each sub-topic or point. 
 Illustrations showing the difference between an outline and the cor- 
 responding brief on the topic, "Written Expression as a Type of 
 Learning," are given below, 
 
 [49] 
 
THE OUTLINE 
 
 I. Relation of Organization of Ideas to Textbook Reading. 
 
 II. Relation of Expression of Ideas to Learning. 
 
 III. Clear Thinking and Expression of Ideas. 
 
 IV. The Brief Compared with an Outline. 
 V. Making a Brief. 
 
 (a) Principal points. 
 
 (b) Subordinate points. 
 
 (c) Revision. 
 
 THE BRIEF 
 
 I. Organization of ideas supplements the learning resulting from the reading of 
 a textbook. 
 II. Expression of ideas is an important learning exercise. 
 
 III. Clear thinking is a prerequisite for effective expression. When one has clear 
 ideas it is usually easy to express them. 
 
 IV. A brief differs from an outline in that it consists of phrases or sentences 
 which express ideas instead of merely words or phrases which announce topics 
 about which something will be said. 
 
 V. The steps in making a brief are: 
 
 (a) Clearly define your purpose. 
 
 (b) Formulate the principal and subordinate points of the discussion in com- 
 plete sentences. 
 
 (c) Organize these so that they will present a satisfactory "trend of thought." 
 
 (d) Test each statement for precision and for its relation to the problem 
 being considered. 
 
 A carefully prepared brief an aid to writing. A brief is even 
 more helpful to a writer than an outline. It epitomizes his "trend 
 of thought." In the making of a brief little writing is required, and 
 he has an opportunity to concentrate upon thinking about the prob- 
 lem. Details may be neglected for the time being. A distinct ser- 
 vice which the brief renders is due to the fact that it represents a 
 more advanced stage of thinking about the problem than the outline. 
 
 Final form of a report the product of revision. A well-written 
 report is seldom attained in the first draft, even though a detailed 
 brief has been previously prepared. Most successful writers, even 
 after years of experience, are accustomed to refine their reports 
 through a series of revisions. Occasionally there is a writer who 
 possesses unusual ability in organizing and expressing his ideas and 
 who for that reason is able to produce a creditable report at the 
 first writing. However, such persons are rare and they probably 
 could produce better reports if they carefully revised their manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 In the following discussion, the two steps in the preparation of 
 a report, writing the first draft and revision of the manuscript, will 
 be treated separately. 
 
 [50] 
 
A. PREPARING A PRELIMINARY WORKING DRAFT 
 OF A REPORT 
 
 Criteria for good writing should be observed. In preparing the 
 first or working draft of a report all of the criteria for good writing 
 should be observed so far as possible, but the writer's attention 
 should be focused upon "trend of thought" and "evaluation of ideas;' 
 If a brief has been prepared, the general pattern of this "trend of 
 thought" will have been formulated but the details are filled in during 
 the writing of the first draft. As this is done, the writer may find it 
 necessary to make changes in the organization of the report in order 
 to secure an effective "trend of thought." 
 
 The evaluation of ideas is one of the most difficult tasks which 
 a writer encounters. It is essential to eliminate all irrelevant state- 
 ments from the report as well as to include everything that should 
 be said. The inclusion of too many details will bewilder most read- 
 ers and the omission of pertinent material will leave them in doubt. 
 In preparing the first draft a writer should include material when he 
 is not certain that it should be eliminated. Frequently the value of 
 a sentence, a paragraph or even a series of paragraphs cannot be 
 estimated until tried out in the manuscript. If later such material 
 is found to contribute little or nothing to the discussion of the prob- 
 lem, it should be stricken out during the process of revision. 
 
 Paragraph headings. Carefully formulated paragraph headings 
 are now generally used in textbooks, monographs, and bulletins to 
 assist the reader in getting the general "trend of thought." They 
 also assist the writer in that they provide a series of specific ideas 
 for him to think and write about with the result that much greater 
 unity and coherence are likely to be attained. Some writers have 
 found it very helpful to formulate the paragraph headings for a 
 report or for a major division of it before beginning the actual writ- 
 ing. If a somewhat detailed brief has been prepared, many of the 
 paragraph headings can be taken directly from it. A good test in 
 fact for paragraph headings is that when assembled they form a 
 reasonably satisfactory brief. 
 
 It is unnecessary and frequently undesirable to have a separate 
 heading for each paragraph. However, whenever a new unit of the 
 discussion is taken up, there should be a paragraph heading which 
 indicates to the reader the nature of the "trend of thought" immedi- 
 ately following and its relation to the problem being considered. 
 
 [51] 
 
Formation of new paragraphs. In writing, a new paragraph 
 should be formed whenever a new point is taken up or the "trend 
 of thought" changed. If in doubt when writing the first draft it is 
 well to form a new paragraph, as combinations can easily be made 
 in the revision. 
 
 Order of writing chapters. In the case of a report consisting of 
 several chapters it is sometimes desirable to revise the preliminary 
 drafts of some of the earlier chapters before writing the later ones. 
 Some chapters even may be left incomplete while other sections of 
 the report are taken up. Some writers have found it undesirable to 
 spend much time over tedious details in the first draft, because when 
 working on details one tends to lose sight of the general "trend of 
 thought." However, there usually comes a time when it is advisable 
 to prepare a complete preliminary draft of the report in order that 
 each part may be judged in its relation to all others. 
 
 Physical form of working drafts. In preliminary drafts margins 
 of at least an inch and a half should be left at the top and on the 
 left-hand side. The margins on the right and at the bottom may be 
 somewhat narrower. Some writers find it desirable to have even 
 wider margins. If the draft is typewritten, it should be double- 
 spaced. 
 
 All tables except very short ones should be placed on separate 
 sheets which contain no text so that they can be inserted easily in 
 a revised manuscript. Failure to observe this rule will result in 
 considerable waste of time in copying tables. In order to facilitate 
 insertions and other changes, it is wise to begin each major division 
 and many of the subordinate divisions on a new page. Even in the 
 case of paragraphs it is usually desirable to begin a new page w^hen 
 the preceding paragraph ends in the last third of a page. An excep- 
 tion to this suggestion may be made in the case of a short paragraph 
 which can be completed in the remaining space on the page. Some- 
 times it is helpful to leave spaces between paragraphs for insertions. 
 
 Only one side of the paper should be written on. If the writer 
 feels that he should economize in the use of paper, he may use the 
 reverse side of the sheets of a discarded manuscript, as the incon- 
 venience due to writing on both sides of the paper in the same draft 
 is almost certain to cause losses in time which much more than off- 
 set the small saving of paper. Incidentally, it may be remarked that 
 a writer can save more paper by giving attention to the necessary 
 
 [52] 
 
prerequisite thinking than by crowding margins or by writing on 
 both sides of the sheet. 
 
 Correct bibHographical forms should be observed in the foot- 
 notes of prehminary drafts of a manuscript. Care also should be 
 exercised to spell all words correctly and attention should be given 
 to capitalization, punctuation, and other technical details of form. 
 If this is not done, some of the errors appearing in the preliminary 
 drafts are almost certain to persist in the final form of the manu- 
 script. 
 
 The position of footnotes. In a manuscript, footnotes should 
 appear on the line immediately following that in which the reference 
 is made and should be separated from the text by triple-spacing or 
 by horizontal lines drawn immediately above and below the footnote.* 
 
 *For example, a footnote given at this point should be placed in this position 
 and set off as indicated. 
 
 An exception to this rule is made in those manuscripts when the 
 typewritten copy is the only record preserved as in an unpublished 
 thesis. In such cases the footnotes should be shifted to the bottom 
 of the page in the final typing. 
 
 In the working drafts of a manuscript the footnotes should be 
 indicated by an asterisk (*). In the final drafts they are sometimes 
 numbered consecutively throughout a chapter, as this practice simpli- 
 fies the work of the printer. However, some publishers prefer to 
 number the footnotes consecutively on each page. 
 
 B. REVISING THE MANUSCRIPT 
 
 Application of criteria for judging a report, the basis for re- 
 vision. The process of revising a manuscript involves applying the 
 criteria given on pages 13 to 16 and then making the changes neces- 
 sary to remove the deficiencies and errors revealed. Thus as a pre- 
 liminary to the actual work of revision, a writer should become 
 thoroughly acquainted with these criteria. However, he should not 
 seek to apply all of them at once. Those given under "general 
 structure," and "development, evaluation and organization of ideas" 
 should receive attention first, as the time devoted to correcting details 
 of structure and form will be wasted if later it is necessary to make 
 major changes. 
 
 Re-thinking required. A revision of a manuscript is not accom- 
 plished by merely correcting rhetorical and grammatical errors and 
 
 I S3} 
 
misspelled words. The definition of the problem and its solution 
 should be carefully retraced for the purpose of improving the "trend 
 of thought," the development and evaluation of ideas, and the pre- 
 cision of statement. A writer should try to approach the task of 
 revising his manuscript with the attitude of a critical reader. He 
 should constantly ask: "Will the sentences and paragraphs which 
 have been set down guide a reader to define the problem and to 
 think about it in a satisfying way?" "Has anything been left unsaid 
 which would be helpful:" "Has anything been said which is not 
 useful?" "Is there any statement which a critical reader will be 
 likely to criticize?" 
 
 Criticizing one's own writing is difficult because one is handi- 
 capped in adopting the impersonal and detached attitude which is 
 necessary, but such criticism is essential in the production of good 
 writing. One should therefore cultivate the art of criticism, particu- 
 larly with reference to the development, evaluation and organization 
 of ideas. 
 
 Major reorganizations. Frequently a writer will find it neces- 
 sary to make certain major changes. The order of certain chapters 
 may need to be interchanged. The position of a paragraph or of a 
 series of paragraphs may need to be shifted. Some paragraphs 
 which were written only after much effort may prove of so little 
 value that they should be eliminated. 
 
 Improvement of sentence structure. Frequently sentences and 
 even paragraphs need to be rewritten in order to secure more effect- 
 ive expression. Sometimes the desired result can be accomplished by 
 varying one's diction. Qualifying phrases and clauses may be shifted, 
 short sentences may be combined and in other cases long ones broken 
 up. Unnecessary shifting of voice, tense or person should be elimi- 
 nated. A writer should never hesitate to rewrite a paragraph if he 
 feels that he can improve it. (See Chapter HI for detailed sugges- 
 tions and illustrations.) 
 
 Correction of errors. The final step in revising a manuscript is 
 to correct all remaining errors of grammar, spelling and punctuation. 
 Much of this work will have been done in the preceding stages of the 
 revision, but there should be a final going over of the entire manu- 
 script for the purpose of eliminating errors of any kind. 
 
 Economy of time in revision. The several phases of the work 
 of revising the manuscript should be taken up in the order in which 
 
 [54] 
 
they have been presented In the preceding discussion. As we have 
 already indicated, time is hkely to be wasted if some of the later 
 phases are undertaken before the major changes have been made. 
 
 A writer should not consume time in unnecessary copying. 
 Frequently scissors and paste can be used to advantage in making 
 changes in the order of a report. Corrections can be written between 
 the lines and on the margins. Insertions can be placed on separate 
 pages with appropriate indications of their positions. It is a waste 
 of time to copy a manuscript before a fresh draft is needed. How- 
 ever, when a critical reading of the manuscript is made difficult or 
 impossible because the changes in it are distracting or confusing, 
 the entire manuscript, except whole pages which are unmutllated, 
 should be copied in typewritten form If possible. A fresh manuscript 
 often will stimulate a writer to higher levels of effectiveness in his 
 writing:. 
 
 [55] 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPT FOR PRINTER 
 
 In addition to the general directions regarding the Final Form 
 of the Manuscript given in Chapter IV, the following suggestions^ 
 are offered in the hope that they will be of use to the writer in pre- 
 paring his manuscript for the printer and in handling the proofs 
 received. 
 
 Necessity for care and consistency in manuscript submitted to 
 printer. Although all first-class publishing houses have their own 
 rules of style and edit manuscripts accepted for publication, it is well 
 for each writer to prepare his manuscript with due care and to keep 
 in mind that all corrections and alterations made after the material 
 has been set in type cause both expense and delay in publication. 
 If a linotype machine is used, as is generally the case, the insertion 
 or change of a single letter or punctuation mark causes the resetting 
 of an entire line, and a change in a word or phrase may involve the 
 resetting of the paragraph from that point. 
 
 It is especially important that the author be consistent through- 
 out his manuscrip't, in the use of capitals, hyphenated words, punctu- 
 ation marks, spelling of proper names, and so forth. He should remem- 
 ber that his copy probably will be distributed among several compos- 
 itors, all working on it at once, and no one of them may know the 
 particular rules of style which are being observed by the others. The 
 proofreader may catch and point out inconsistencies, but in many 
 cases they are overlooked and remain to trouble both the writer and 
 his readers ever after. A good exhortation to keep in mind is, "Do 
 not let your manuscript go to the printer until you have written 
 every word just as you wish it in type, and until all matters of 
 
 'These suggestions refer only to the simple directions that should be known to 
 every writer who submits his manuscript for publication. For more detailed in- 
 structions the following publications may be consulted: 
 
 Manly, John Matthews, and Powell, John Arthur. A Manual for Writ- 
 ers. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1922. 225 p. 
 
 Manual of Style. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1911. 118 p. 
 
 The Manuscript. 440 Fourth Avenue, New York City, New York: John 
 Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1924. 52 p. 
 
 [56] 
 
capitalization, punctuation, paragraphing, and so forth have been 
 brought into consistency and uniformity throughout, and set your 
 face steadfastly against changes in the proof which are not essential 
 to correctness of statement or to consistency of style." 
 
 Marking of manuscript for printer. Although it is not necessary 
 for the individual writer to give much attention to printers' details, 
 he should understand enough of the technical side of printing to 
 know those things which he can do in order to bring about closer 
 cooperation between himself and the publisher. In the majority of 
 cases the writer will not have to decide regarding the size of type 
 to be used for the body of the manuscript, especially if the report 
 is to appear in a periodical or in a bulletin series. He should, how- 
 ever, indicate his preferences regarding the use of large or small 
 capitals, italics, or bold-face type. For this purpose the following 
 technical marks, preferabh' made in colored ink, should be used: 
 
 To indicate that large capital letters are desired, draw three lines 
 ( — )j and to indicate small capitals, draw two lines ( —) 
 
 under the letter or word to be capitalized. 
 
 To indicate italic type, underscore with a straight line ( — — ■ ) . 
 
 To indicate black or bold-face tvpe, underscore with a wavy 
 line ( ). 
 
 If the author wishes certain headings or selections to appear in 
 larger or in smaller type than the text proper, he should draw a line 
 indicating that portion and mark "larger type" or "smaller type" 
 in the margin. Usually a difference of two points- is made in the size 
 of type selected for such purposes. Thus, if the text proper is in ten 
 or eleven point type the quoted matter, footnotes, and so forth 
 would appear in eight or nine point; the headings, chapter titles, and 
 so forth, in twelve or even in fourteen point. 
 
 If the author desires certain sections to be placed on a page 
 alone, or to begin a new page, he should direct the printer accord- 
 ingly by marking the exact place in his manuscript and writing "new 
 page" in the margin. 
 
 The approximate positions of the tables, graphs, and illustrations 
 should be indicated on the manuscript. It is best to have such 
 
 "The term '"point" is the standard of measurement for type, the unit being I 
 point or ^2 of an inch. For example, the text of this bulletin is printed in 10 pt. 
 type, 16 words to a square inch; the footnotes and quoted passages are in 8 pt., 
 23 words to a square inch. 
 
 [57] 
 
material follow, as soon as possible, the first reference made to it 
 in the text. The printer may have to make slight shifts in fitting 
 the material into the page, but the writer should mark in the margin 
 "Table I about here," or "Table I as soon as possible after this 
 point." 
 
 If for any reason a word or a section of the manuscript has 
 been marked out which the author wishes to be replaced, he should 
 draw a line around the deleted portions and mark "stet" in the 
 margin. 
 
 Illustrations, such as drawings, photographs or graphs, for 
 which zinc etchings, half-tone plates or other processes of photo- 
 gravure are necessary for printing, should be placed on a separate 
 sheet and the caption or title written on the back. Any general 
 directions regarding the printing should be written on the back of 
 the sheet also. 
 
 The table of contents should be sent with the manuscript to 
 the printer, as it furnishes him with information regarding the main 
 and the subdivisions and enables him to arrange to better advantage 
 the type in the body of the manuscript. 
 
 Extra care should be taken to let the printer know exactly what 
 is desired when anything is irregular. Specific directions, in such 
 a case, should be written in the margin. 
 
 When the author has completed the marking of his manuscript, 
 he should wrap it carefully, or enclose it in a large envelope, never 
 roll it, and send it by insured mail. 
 
 Correcting of galley-proof. Usually the first proof sent by the 
 publisher is in galley form, a sheet about three and a half times as 
 long as the page to be used. This should be read carefully for errors 
 and necessary changes. The practice of having the original copy 
 read aloud to the writer as he corrects the proof is strongly recom- 
 mended for he is then able to give his entire attention to the printed 
 page and can be more alert for any omissions or mistakes which the 
 printer may have made, or for any alterations which he may feel 
 necessary. 
 
 All changes and corrections should be made on the margin of 
 the proof, using standard proofreader's marks, ^ and the point at 
 which the correction is to be made indicated in the text. 
 
 'See the books referred to on page 56 for such marks. 
 
 [58] 
 
When it is necessary to change a word or phrase, if possible 
 the new material selected should be approximately the length of 
 that taken out so that it may be fitted into the same space. The 
 addition or deletion of a word may necessitate the resetting of an 
 entire paragraph from that point. If the corrections are too numer- 
 ous it is better to rewrite the passage, as the printer often can set 
 new material in less time than he can reset that involving a great 
 number of alterations. 
 
 Questions which the proofreader has indicated on the margin 
 should not be disregarded. They are to call attention to some point 
 which in his judgment should be answered, an obscurity, an incon- 
 sistency, or perhaps only a doubt as to the desirability of the material 
 specified. The question may be answered by either "yes" or "no," 
 . or the correction made. It should not be ignored, however, as in 
 that case the proofreader may assume the responsibility of making 
 changes as he sees fit. 
 
 The proof bearing the author's changes and corrections should 
 be returned to the publisher with the original manuscript. If for 
 any reason the author thinks it is wise to see another galley-proof 
 he should mark on the returned copy, "See Revise." All proof 
 should be returned as quickly as possible so as to avoid delay in 
 publication. 
 
 Correcting of page-proofs. Assuming that all the alterations 
 desired in the original manuscript have been made on the galley- 
 proofs, the author should keep in mind especially the following 
 items as he carefully reads his page-proofs. 
 
 JMake sure that all changes indicated on the galley have been 
 properly made. 
 
 See that no lines, especially at the top and at the bottom of 
 each page, have been dropped from the galley. 
 
 See that chapter titles, running heads, (headings that appear 
 at the top of every page) are correct in every detail. 
 
 Check the page numbers throughout the manuscript. 
 
 Be sure that footnotes are properly placed and correctly num- 
 bered. 
 
 Make sure that tables, graphs and illustrations, especially those 
 requiring a separate page, are properly placed and numbered. 
 
 Read carefully the title page, which usually is sent for the first 
 time with the page-proof, to see that all information regarding de- 
 grees, profession and rank has been accurately given. 
 
 [59] 
 
Check the page numbers in the table of contents, hsts of tables 
 or illustrations, and so forth. 
 
 If no revised page-proofs are desired, mark the copy '"O.K." or 
 "O.K. with alterations," and return it, together with the galley- 
 proofs, to the printer. The author's work is then finished, and he 
 can await, with what patience he possesses, the publication of his 
 manuscript. 
 
 [60] 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Note: — Because of the fact that very often title pages of various 
 kinds of reports and of bulletins published privately omit certain 
 important items, several acceptable title pages of courses of study, 
 superintendents' reports, surveys and bulletins in a private series 
 are given. If at all possible, a title page should contain all of the 
 items of information listed on page 36 so that it will be possible for 
 the reader not only to identify the publication but also to purchase a 
 copy. 
 
 THE BOARD OF 
 EDUCATION 
 
 OF THE City of Chicago 
 THE EDUCATION DIVISION 
 
 The Office of the Superintendent of 
 
 Schools, Department of Educational 
 
 Standards and Statistics 
 
 Ambrose B. Wight 
 
 Assistant Superintendent, in Charge 
 
 ENGLISH IN THE ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 21 
 
 SEPTEMBER 
 1921 
 
 Peter A. Mortenson 
 
 Superintendent 
 
 REPORT OF THE SUR\EY 
 
 of 
 
 THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 of 
 
 Lawrence Township, Mercer County, 
 New Jersey 
 
 School Year, 1921-1922 
 
 Directed by 
 
 N. L. Englehardt 
 
 Professor of Education 
 
 Teachers College, Columbia University 
 
 New York City 
 
 E. S. Evenden 
 
 .Associate Professor of Education 
 
 Teachers College, Columbia University 
 
 New York City 
 
 Made by 
 
 Division of Field Studies 
 Institute of Educational Research 
 
 Teachers College, Columbia 
 
 University 
 
 New York City 
 
 [61] 
 
COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 QUINCY PUBLIC 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 QUINCY, ILLINOIS 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 AND HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 September 1, 1913 
 
 AUTHORIZED AND ORDERED PRINTED 
 
 BY THE 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 ANNUAL REPORT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 OF 
 
 SCHUYLER COUNTY 
 
 1921-1922 
 
 COLVIN L. CAIN 
 
 County Superintendent of Schools 
 Rushville, Illinois 
 
 Herald Print, Rushville, Illinois 
 
 ANNUAL REPORT 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 AND OF THE 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 CITY OF ALBANY, N. Y. 
 
 For the Year Ending 
 
 July 31st, 1920 
 
 THE ARGUS COMPANY 
 1921 
 
 FIFTY-FIFTH 
 ANNUAL REPORT 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 QUINCY, ILLINOIS 
 
 For the School Year Ending 
 
 June Thirtieth 
 
 Nineteen Hundred Sixteen 
 
 Published by Order of the 
 Board of Education 
 
 [62] 
 
THE NIAGARA FALLS 
 SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 REPORT OF THE SURVEY BY 
 
 THE STATE DEPARTMENT 
 
 OF EDUCATION 
 
 ALBANY 
 The University of the State of 
 New York Press 
 1921 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRADES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 OF 
 
 Chicago Heights, III. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE BOARD 
 OF EDUCATION 
 
 1920 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF THE 
 
 GENERAL EDUCATION 
 
 BOARD 
 
 Occasional Papers 
 
 No. 1 
 
 THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 
 OF TO-MORROW 
 
 By 
 Frederick T. Gates 
 
 General Education Board 
 
 17 Battery Place New York City 
 
 1917 
 
 THE CHICAGO 
 
 PRINCIPALS' CLUB 
 
 Rose A. Pesta, President 
 
 Bulletin No. 1, 1923 
 
 SUPERVISION 
 
 A Platform and A Policy 
 REPORT 
 
 By The Education Committee 
 The Chicago Principals' Club 
 Sub-committee on Supervision 
 Margaret Madden, Chairman 
 Daniel J. Beeby 
 Clyde A. Brown 
 Wm, B. Owen 
 Katherine S. Rueff 
 Sophie A. Theilgaard 
 
 Printed by 
 
 The D. S. Wentworth School Press 
 
 Chicago, Illinois 
 
 [63] 
 
i 
 
,>3 
 
 m! 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN 
 
 Issued Weekly 
 Vol. XXII May 18, 1925 No. 38 
 
 [Entered as second-class matter E>ecember 11, 1912, at the post ofiBce at Urbana, Illinois, under the 
 Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at the special rate of postage provided for in 
 section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 31, 1918.] 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 25 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 REPORTING EDUCATIONAL 
 RESEARCH 
 
 By 
 
 Walter S. Monroe 
 
 Director, Bureau of Educational Research 
 
 and 
 
 Nell Bomar Johnston 
 Assistant, College of Education 
 
 PRICE 50 CENTS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA 
 
 1925 
 
The Bureau of Educational Research was established by act 
 of the Board of Trustees June 1, 1918. It is the purpose of the 
 Bureau to conduct original investigations in the field of education, 
 to summarize and bring to the attention of school people the results 
 of research elsewhere, and to be of service to the schools of the 
 state in other ways. 
 
 The results of original investigations carried on by the Bureau 
 of Educational Research are published in the form of bulletins. A 
 complete list of these publications is given on the back cover of 
 this bulletin. At the present time five or six original investigations 
 are reported each year. The accounts of research conducted else- 
 where and other communications to the school men of the state 
 are pubHshed in the form of educational research circulars. From 
 ten to fifteen of these are issued each year. 
 
 The Bureau is a department of the College of Education. Its 
 immediate direction is vested in a Director, who is also an instructor 
 in the College of Education. Under his supervision research is 
 carried on by other members of the Bureau staff and also by grad- 
 uates who are working on theses. From this point of view the 
 Bureau of Educational Research is a research laboratory for the 
 College of Education. 
 
 Bureau of Educational Research 
 
 College of Education 
 
 University of Illinois, Urbana 
 
THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 THE STATE UNIVERSITY 
 URBANA 
 
 DAVID KINLEY, Ph.D., LL.D., President 
 
 The University Includes the Following Departments 
 
 The Graduate School 
 
 The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences (Ancient and -Modern Languages 
 and Literatures; History, Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Philosophy, 
 Psychology, Education; Mathematics; Astronomy; Geology; Physics; Chemistry; 
 Botany, Bacteriology, Zoology, Entomology; Physiology; Art and Design; Home 
 Economics) 
 
 The College of Commerce and Business Administration (General Business, 
 Banking, Insurance, Accountancy, Railway Administration, Railway Transpor- 
 tation, Industrial Administration, Foreign Commerce; Courses for Commercial 
 Teachers and Commercial and Civic Secretaries; Commerce and Law) 
 
 The College of Engineering (Architecture; Architectural, Ceramic, Civil, Elec- 
 trical, Gas, General, Mechanical, Mining, Municipal and Sanitary, Railway En- 
 gineering, and Engineering Physics) 
 
 The College of Agriculture (Agronomy; Animal Husbandry; Dairy Husbandry; 
 Farm Mechanics, Farm Organization and Management; Horticulture, Landscape 
 Gardening, and Floriculture; Agricultural Extension; Home Economics) 
 
 The College of Law (Three-year and four-year curriculums based on two years of 
 college work) 
 
 The College of Education (General Education; Bureau of Educational Research; 
 Athletic Coaching; Agricultural Education; Home Economics Education; Indus- 
 trial Education; Music Education; University High School) 
 
 The Curriculum in Journalism 
 
 The Curriculums in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering 
 
 The School of Railway Engineering and Administration 
 
 The School of Music (four-year curriculum) 
 
 The Library School (two-year curriculum for college graduates) 
 
 The College of Medicine (In Chicago) 
 
 The College of Dentistry (In Chicago) 
 
 The School of Pharmacy (In Chicago; Ph.G. and Ph.C. curriculums) 
 
 The Summer Session (eight weeks) 
 
 Experiment Stations and Scientific Bureaus: U. S. Agricultural Experiment 
 Station; Engineering Experiment Station; State Natural History Survey; Bio- 
 logical Experiment Station on Illinois River; State Water Survey; State Geolog- 
 ical Survey; U. S. Bureau of Mines Experiment Station. 
 
 The library collections contain March 1, 1925, 659,296 volumes and 127,788 
 pamphlets. For catalogs and information address 
 
 THE REGISTRAR 
 
 Urbana, Illinois 
 
BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, 
 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 
 
 URBi\NA. ILLINOIS 
 
 Price 
 No. I. Buckingham, B. R. Bureau of Educational Research, Announcement, 
 
 1918-19 IS 
 
 No. 2. First Annual Report 25 
 
 No. 3^ Bamesberger, V'elda C. Standard Requirements for Memorizing Lit- 
 erary Material 50 
 
 No. 4. HoUey, Charles E. Mental Tests for School Use. (Out of print) SO 
 
 No. 5. Monroe, Walter S. Report of Division of Educational Tests for 1919-20 .25 
 
 No. 6. Monroe, Walter S. The Illinois Examination SO 
 
 No. 7. Monroe, Walter S. Types of Learning Required of Pupils in the Sev- 
 enth and Eighth Grades and in the High School IS 
 
 No. 8. Monroe, Walter S. A Critical Study of Certain Silent Reading Tests. . .50 
 
 No. 9. Monroe, Walter S. Written Examinations and Their Improvement SO 
 
 No. 10. Bureau of Educational Research. Relation of Size of Class to School 
 
 Efficiency SO 
 
 No. 11. Monroe, Walter S. Relation of Sectioning a Qass to the Effectiveness 
 
 of instruction 15 
 
 No. 12. Odell, Charles W. The Use of Intelligence Tests as a Basis of School 
 
 Organization and Instruction SO 
 
 No. 13. Monroe, Walter S., and Foster, I. 0. The Status of the Social Sciences 
 
 in the High Schools of the North Central Association SO 
 
 No. 14. Monroe, Walter S., and Carter, Ralph E. The Use of Different Types 
 of Thought Questions in Secondary Schools and Their Relative Dif- 
 ficulty for Students % 30 
 
 No. 15. Monroe, Walter S. The Constant and Variable Errors of Educational 
 
 Measurements 25 
 
 No. 16. Odell, Charles W. An Annotated Bibliography Dealing With the 
 Classification and Instruction of Pupils to Provide for Individual 
 Differences 50 
 
 No. 17. Monroe, Walter S., and Souders, Lloyd B. Present Status of Writ- 
 ten Examinations and Suggestions for Their Improvement SO 
 
 No. 18. Streitz, Ruth. Teachers' Difficulties in Arithmetic and Their 
 
 Correctives 30 
 
 No. 19. Odell, Charles W. The Progress and Elimination of School Children 
 
 in Illinois 50 
 
 No. 20. Monroe, Walter S., and Mohlman, Dora Keen. Training in the 
 
 Technique of Study SO 
 
 No. 21. Monroe, Walter S. A Survey of the City Schools of Marion, Illinois. . .50 
 
 No. 22. Odell, Charles W. Conservation of Intelligence in Illinois High Schools .30 
 
 No. 23. Streitz, Ruth. Teachers' Difficulties In Reading and Their Correctives .30 
 
 No. 24. Seybolt, Robert Francis. The Evening School in Colonial America 50 
 
 No. 25. Monroe, Walter S., and Johnston, Nell Bomar. Reporting Educational 
 
 Research 50 
 
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